citation dissertation romanesque

Dissertation sur Manon Lescaut !

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Voici un exemple de dissertation sur Manon Lescaut de l’Abbé Prévost. (Parcours au bac de français : personnages en marge, plaisir du romanesque ).

Important : Pour faciliter ta lecture, le plan de cette dissertation est apparent et le développement est présenté sous forme de liste à puces. N’oublie pas que le jour J, ton plan et ton développement doivent être intégralement rédigés.

D’après vous, est-ce l’immoralité du personnage de Manon Lescaut qui fait le plaisir de la lecture du roman ?

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Introduction

L’Histoire du chevalier des Grieux et de Manon Lescaut de l’Abbé Prévost, occupe le septième et dernier tome des Mémoires d’un homme de qualité publiées entre 1728 et 1731. Ce récit enchâssé dans l’histoire du marquis de Renoncour narre l’aventure amoureuse et tumultueuse du chevalier des Grieux et Manon Lescaut.

Le plaisir de la lecture de ce roman repose-t-il sur l’immoralité du personnage éponyme de Manon Lescaut ?

Dans une certaine mesure, le lecteur peut trouver dans l’immoralité de l’héroïne une source de plaisir . L’immoralité de Manon Lescaut relève aussi d’une soif de liberté qui peut ravir le lecteur . Mais lier le plaisir de la lecture uniquement à l’immoralité de Manon Lescaut est réducteur : ce plaisir repose également sur d’autres ressorts.

I – L’immoralité de Manon Lescaut : une source de plaisir pour le lecteur

A – manon lescaut transgresse la morale et la religion, ce qui suscite la curiosité et le plaisir du lecteur.

• C’est une femme entretenue par des hommes
• Elle n’hésite pas à transgresser les règles sociales  : travestissement en homme lorsqu’elle veut s’enfuir sans être vue de la Salpêtrière par exemple.
• Son goût immodéré pour le luxe et les plaisirs conduisent Manon Lescaut à placer l’argent au-dessus de tout autre valeur : «  Manon était passionnée par le plaisir; je l’étais par elle  » dit le chevalier Des Grieux.
• On peut faire un parallèle avec La Dame aux Camélias  d’Alexandre Dumas fils (1848), qui a puisé son inspiration dans le roman de l’abbé Prévost. Marguerite Gauthier, courtisane, qui se fait entretenir par plusieurs hommes, va vivre une histoire d’amour avec un jeune bourgeois Armand Duval.

B – La conduite immorale de Manon Lescaut est source de rebondissements

• Manon Lescaut joue avec la faiblesse des hommes : son inconstance , ses infidélités multiples sont autant de rebondissements qui maintiennent le lecteur en haleine.
• Le frère de Manon fait preuve d’une conduite peu recommandable : il pousse le couple au vice. C’est un personnage qui nous entraîne vers un univers social marginal.
• Le vol et l’escroquerie  : Manon Lescaut et Des Grieux commettent vol et escroquerie auprès d’hommes libidineux au point où ils sont placés en détention, s’enfuient et sont recherchés par la police.

II – Mais Manon Lescaut ne peut être réduite à un personnage immoral 

A – des grieux : un personnage subversif et plaisant.

L’immoralité du Chevalier est aussi patente. Il transgresse la morale :

• par son choix du libertinage
• par sa vie en marge de la religion
• par ses actions  : Des Grieux a commis des crimes graves en tirant sur le gardien de la prison de Saint-Lazare, en faisant séquestrer le jeune GM…  Il fait le choix de l’amour, quel qu’en soit le prix , contrairement à son ami Tiberge qui incarne la raison et le sauve à de multiples reprises.

B – L’immoralité de Manon Lescaut, signe de sa liberté

• Manon Lescaut peut être considérée comme une femme libre qui s’affranchit des codes sociaux, religieux et moraux : elle choisit de séduire des hommes plus âgés et riches pour sauver son couple avec le Chevalier
• Le plaisir du lecteur provient de ce dilemme entre immoralité et liberté
• Un parallèle peut être établi avec Carmen de Prosper Mérimée : Manon et Carmen sont deux femmes similaires par leur quête de l’indépendance et de la liberté. Mais les deux fins diffèrent : Don José tue Carmen, alors que le Chevalier Des Grieux erre aux côtés de Manon dans le désert américain avant qu’elle ne meure d’épuisement.

III – Le plaisir de la lecture repose également sur d’autres ressorts

A – la construction et le rythme du roman.

• Le récit enchâssé : le narrateur Renoncour rencontre Des Grieux qui lui fait le récit de ses aventures. Cette construction complexe est source de plaisir et déploie une esthétique baroque .
• La dimension picaresque  : autobiographie fictive, multiples péripéties et voyage initiatique (flagrant délit de vol et d’escroquerie, emprisonnement, meurtre d’un garde, déportation en Louisiane, duel avec le fils du Gouverneur…) multiplie le plaisir du lecteur.
• Points communs avec l’héroïne du roman de Moll Flanders de Daniel Defoe : fuite de la misère, déportation en Amérique, vols. C’est une dimension picaresque qui plaît au 18ème siècle.

B – L’instruction des mœurs

• L’auteur affiche une double ambition dès l’Avis de l’auteur , au début du roman : plaire et instruire . Selon lui, dépeindre l’immoralité permet de mieux la prévenir : «  L’ouvrage entier est un traité de morale, réduit agréablement en exercice. « 
• Manon Lescaut est ainsi présenté comme un contre-exemple de la vertu .
• La fin est donc tragique (mort de Manon Lescaut) mais pédagogue  : elle signifie que la passion amoureuse, sans respect de la morale et de la religion, est fatale .

En définitive, les condamnations du roman témoignent d’un contexte de réception complexe.

Le tiraillement entre le respect des normes morales, sociales et religieuses et la passion amoureuse est au cœur du roman de l’abbé Prévost et explique la fascination de ce roman sur le lecteur.

Le personnage de Manon Lescaut incarne ce tiraillement par sa nature et sa conduite en marge de la société. Mais son attitude signe également sa liberté de femme pour échapper à la misère sociale. En cela, elle apparaît comme un personnage complexe, mémorable, qui suscite le plaisir du lecteur.

Mais ce n’est pas seulement son immoralité qui procure le plaisir de la lecture. D’autres ressorts romanesques sont tout aussi puissants  : la dimension picaresque du récit ou encore l’instruction des mœurs. Manon Lescaut partage l’art de la manipulation des hommes avec Mme de T… dans Point de Lendemain de Vincent Denon (1777).

Pour aller plus loin sur Manon Lescaut :

• Manon Lescaut, la rencontre amoureuse
• Manon Lescaut : le souper interrompu après la première trahison de Manon
• Manon Lescaut, les retrouvailles à Saint-Sulpice
• Manon Lescaut : la lettre de Manon
• Manon lescaut, le dîner de dupe avec G…M…
• Manon Lescaut : l’évasion de Saint-Lazare
• Manon Lescaut, la rupture entre père et fils
• La mort de Manon Lescaut
• Manon Lescaut, excipit

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Manon Lescaut

Pour abbé prévost, manon lescaut citations et analyse.

Fatale passion ! Hélas ! N’en connaissez-vous pas la force ; et se peut-il que votre sang qui est la source du mien, n’ait jamais ressenti les mêmes ardeurs ! L’amour m’a rendu trop tendre, trop passionné, trop fidèle, et peut-être trop complaisant pour les désirs d’une maîtresse toute charmante ; voilà mes crimes ! En voyez-vous là quelqu’un qui vous déshonore ?

Cette citation pleine de lyrisme prononcée par Des Grieux intervient lorsque ce dernier, après avoir été libéré de prison suite à une escroquerie, reçoit la visite de son père. Le jeune homme tente de convaincre son père de faire libérer Manon à son tour et lui éviter ainsi d’être exilée en Amérique.

Presque construite à la manière d’une tirade, cet extrait permet d’illustrer l’ardeur des sentiments de Des Grieux. Ici, le héros tente d’exprimer, en vain, la puissance de la passion qui l’anime afin de convaincre son père. Elle montre la fatalité de cet amour et du destin des deux amants dont Des Grieux est parfaitement conscient. L’usage d’un champ lexical emprunté à la tragédie ainsi que d’une ponctuation expressive permettent d’illustrer la puissance des sentiments du héros, entrant alors en conflit avec les valeurs morales prônées par son père. Cette citation met en lumière le sentiment d’incompréhension et de marginalisation de Des Grieux vis-à-vis des attentes de la société de son temps. C’est un évènement clé du roman, à l’origine du déclenchement de l’issue fatale du récit.

Manon était passionnée pour le plaisir. Je l’étais pour elle.

Cette citation, attribuée à Des Grieux, est prononcée après l’épisode de Saint Sulpice. Alors que les amants étaient séparés et que Des Grieux avait repris le chemin du séminaire, une visite de Manon au parloir ravive ses sentiments et le couple part alors s’installer ensemble à Chaillot. Cette phrase est alors prononcée par le jeune homme à l’issue d’une conversation portant sur les dépenses du couple.

Cette citation permet parfaitement d’illustrer la dissymétrie des deux personnages. Le goût de Manon pour les plaisirs et le luxe est mis en comparaison avec la passion absolue de Des Grieux pour la jeune femme. Elle permet donc d’illustrer l’inégalité des sentiments au sein du couple dont Des Grieux est conscient. Sa dimension tragique réside dans le fait qu'elle annonce les multiples tromperies et trahisons de Manon dans la suite du récit.

Ils sont bien aimables en effet l’un et l’autre ; mais ils sont un peu fripons.

Voici une citation prononcée par le vieux G.M pour désigner le couple de Manon et Des Grieux. Au-delà de nous renseigner sur la personnalité des deux personnages principaux, elle permet surtout de caractériser l’ensemble du roman écrit par l’Abbé Prévost, à la fois plaisant et immoral. Le plaisir du lecteur tient au caractère ambivalent des deux héros qui, malgré leurs vices et mœurs dissolues, restent touchant par leur humanité et la sincérité de leur amour. Elle fait d’ailleurs écho à la citation de Flaubert à propos de Manon et Des Grieux, que l’auteur désigne comme « deux héros si vrais, si sympathiques, si honorables, quoiqu’ils soient fripons ».

Je veux vous apprendre non seulement mes malheurs et mes peines, mais encore mes désordres et mes plus honteuses faiblesses.

Cette phrase, que Des Grieux prononce à destination du marquis de Renoncour au début du roman, s’adresse de manière indirecte au lecteur qui s’apprête à lire le récit de ses aventures. Ayant une valeur introductive, elle annonce la suite du récit et permet de créer un effet de d’attente pour le lecteur. Elle illustre l’état d’esprit de Des Grieux à la suite de son histoire avec Manon et anticipe les péripéties du roman tout en exprimant la souffrance et les regrets du héros.

Nous nous imaginâmes, comme des enfants sans expérience, que cette somme ne finirait jamais.

Cette citation, issue des premières pages du roman, illustre à la fois l’innocence et l’extrême jeunesse des personnages âgés respectivement de dix-sept et seize ans lors de leur première rencontre. Elle préfigure les mauvaises décisions prises par les deux héros et tente de les justifier par leur immaturité et leur manque d’expérience. Cette citation permet également de mettre en lumière un thème majeur du récit : l’argent. En effet, l’amour de Manon pour le luxe et les plaisirs contraint le couple à commettre différents vols et escroqueries les conduisant vers une issue tragique. L’argent joue donc un rôle clé dans le récit et est à l’origine des malheurs du couple.

Elle pèche sans malice, disais-je en moi même; elle est légère et imprudente, mais elle est droite et sincère. Ajoutez que l'amour suffisait seul pour me fermer les yeux sur toutes ses fautes.

Ces mots prononcés par Des Grieux à propos de Manon permettent de dresser au lecteur un portrait de la jeune femme. L’opposition des termes « légère et imprudente » et « droite et sincère » illustre le caractère ambivalent de la jeune femme. La dernière phrase, quand à elle, en dit plus sur le héros que l’amour aveugle. Ainsi, ce dernier est prêt à tout pardonner à sa maitresse par amour. C’est cette passion irraisonnée qui conduira Des Grieux sur le chemin de la débauche.

Il est sûr que, du naturel tendre et constant dont je suis, j'étais heureux pour toute ma vie, si Manon m'eût été fidèle.

Cette phrase concentre la souffrance profonde de Des Grieux, amoureux inconditionnel d’une femme légère et infidèle. Elle illustre le caractère destructeur de la passion amoureuse. La construction de la phrase, reportant à la fin la subordonnée de condition introduite par la conjonction « si », donne un caractère tragique à la réflexion de Des Grieux, condamné à souffrir de son amour pour Manon.

C'est à la Nouvelle-Orléans qu'il faut venir, disais-je souvent à Manon, quand on veut goûter les vraies douceurs de l'amour. C'est ici qu'on s'aime sans intérêt, sans jalousie, sans inconstance.

Cette phrase attribuée à Des Grieux intervient à la fin du roman, alors que le héros a suivi Manon dans son exil en Amérique. Elle illustre un moment clé du récit, précédant l’enchainement tragique des événements. À ce moment là, l’espoir renait chez les deux amants. La Nouvelle-Orléans est perçue comme un espace incarnant la liberté et annonce un nouveau départ pour le couple. Cette promesse faite par Des Grieux est d’autant plus tragique que c’est suite à leur arrivée dans cette nouvelle ville que Manon trouve la mort.

Dans l’état où nous sommes réduits, c’est une sotte vertu que la fidélité. Crois-tu que l’on puisse être bien tendre lorsqu’on manque de pain ?

Ces mots sont ceux que Manon écrit dans sa lettre adressée à Des Grieux avant de le quitter. C’est une des rares fois où l’héroïne s’exprime par elle-même et non pas par le biais d’un autre personnage. La jeune femme assume ici son goût du luxe et justifie son infidélité par sa peur de la pauvreté. L’amour est, pour Manon, conditionné par le confort et l’argent à l’inverse de Des Grieux pour qui l’amour est inconditionnel.

J'avais perdu, à la vérité, tout ce que le reste des hommes estime; mais j'étais le maître du cœur de Manon, le seul bien que j'estimais.

Cette phrase prononcée par Des Grieux illustre la marginalisation du jeune homme dès sa rencontre avec Manon. Bien qu'issu d’une bonne famille et incarnant un certain nombre de vertus morales, la passion que Des Grieux éprouve pour sa maitresse le pousse à transgresser un grand nombre de ces valeurs. C'est sa passion amoureuse qui domine et détermine désormais l'ensemble de ses décisions.

Questions et Réponses par Manon Lescaut

La section Question et Réponse par Manon Lescaut Recours pour faire des réponses, trouver des réponses et discuter l'œuvre

Guide d'étude pour Manon Lescaut

Manon Lascaut study guide contains a biography of L'Abbé Prévost, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

• A propos de Manon Lescaut
• Manon Lescaut Résumé
• Liste des Personnages

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Article search, problematic returns: on the romanesque in contemporary french literature.

• This dissertation examines the discourse that emerged in the late 1980s positing a “retour du romanesque” in French literature. Through a survey of the scholarly work on the subject of contemporary literature and the romanesque, as well as a close analysis of three major authors associated with the “retour du romanesque”—Jean Echenoz, Jean Rouaud, and Antoine Volodine—this dissertation aims to provide a fuller account of the modalities, stakes and goals of the contemporary novel. In particular, it seeks to address the question of how the contemporary return to the romanesque contributes to defining the aesthetic postulates that underpin the last thirty years of French literary production. The broader aim of this study is to interrogate the theoretical positions that might justify alternative readings of a development that could otherwise be considered purely in terms of regression to conservative standards of literary quality. The three authors considered in this study are exemplary of the diverse understandings of the developments of 20th-century literature, and the ways in which these understandings influence decisions pertaining to literary kinship and filiation. Jean Echenoz riffs on the standards of conventional genre fiction, at once sabotaging and renewing its clichés. Jean Rouaud polemically refuses what he sees as a tradition of experimental fiction, and returns to the romanesque as a literature of slow contemplation and strong axiological positions. Antoine Volodine constructs violent alternate realities, as well as an entire fictional community, in an attempt to sever his literary works from any relation to literary past, present, or future. This dissertation finally argues that these writing projects all point to the need for a theoretical paradigm which would reconcile critical and naive, reflective and immersive reading practices.
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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

• Romanesque Art

Panel with Byzantine Ivory Carving of the Crucifixion

Apse from San Martín at Fuentidueña

The Virgin and Child in Majesty and the Adoration of the Magi

Attributed to the Master of Pedret

Plaque with the Journey to Emmaus and Noli Me Tangere

The Temptation of Christ by the Devil

Baptismal Font

Manuscript Illumination with Initial V, from a Bible

Saint-Guilhem Cloister

Julien Chapuis Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2002

The expansion of monasticism was the main force behind the unprecedented artistic and cultural activity of the eleventh and twelfth century. New orders were founded, such as the Cistercian, Cluniac, and Carthusian, and monasteries were established throughout Europe. Writing in the early eleventh century, the Burgundian historian Radulfus Glaber described a “white mantle of churches” rising over “all the earth.” Stimulated by economic prosperity, relative political stability , and an increase in population, this building boom continued over the next two centuries. Stone churches of hitherto unknown proportions were erected to accommodate ever-larger numbers of priests and monks, and the growing crowds of pilgrims who came to worship the relics of the saints ( Sainte-Foy at Conques ). Adapting the plan of the Roman basilica with a nave, lateral aisles, and apse, these churches typically have a transept crossing the nave, and churches on the pilgrimage road included an ambulatory (a gallery allowing the faithful to walk around the sanctuary) and a series of radiating chapels for several priests to say Mass concurrently. For the first time since the fall of the Roman empire , monumental sculpture covered church facades, doorways, and capitals ( Last Judgment , Tympanum, Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne ; Standing Prophet, Moissac ). Monumental doors, baptismal fonts, and candleholders, frequently decorated with scenes from biblical history, were cast in bronze, attesting to the prowess of metalworkers. Frescoes were applied to the vaults and walls of churches (Temptation of Christ, San Baudelio de Berlanga, 61.248 ). Rich textiles and precious objects in gold and silver, such as chalices and reliquaries, were produced in increasing numbers to meet the needs of the liturgy and the cult of the saints . The new monasteries became repositories of knowledge: in addition to the Bible, the liturgical texts, and the writings of the Latin and Greek Church Fathers, their scriptoria copied the works of classical philosophers and theoreticians, as well as Latin translations of Arabic treatises on mathematics and medicine . Glowing illuminations often decorated the pages of these books and the most eminent among them were adorned with sumptuous bindings (Book Cover with Byzantine Icon of the Crucifixion, 17.190.134 ).

The study of medieval art began in earnest in the decades following the iconoclasm of the French Revolution. Art historians in the early nineteenth century, following the natural sciences in an effort to classify their field of inquiry, coined the term “Romanesque” to encompass the western European artistic production, especially architecture, of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The term is both useful and misleading. Clearly, medieval sculptors and architects of southern France and Spain had firsthand knowledge of the many Roman monuments in the region. The twelfth-century capitals from the cloister of Saint-Guilhem-le-Désert ( 25.120.1–.134 ), for example, adopt the acanthus-leaf motif and decorative use of the drill holes found on Roman monuments (Section of a pilaster with acanthus scrolls, 10.210.28 ). Likewise, the contemporary apse ( L.58.86 ;  50.180a–l ) from Fuentidueña uses the barrel vault familiar from Roman architecture .

While emphasizing the dependence on Roman art, the label ignores the two other formative influences on Romanesque art, the Insular style of Northern Europe and the art of Byzantium , nor does it do justice to the inventiveness of Romanesque art. Comparison of the Initial V from a Bible ( 1999.364.2 ), illuminated at the end of the twelfth century in the Cistercian monastery of Pontigny in eastern France, with the sixth-century Anglo-Saxon Square-Headed Brooch ( 1985.209 ), illustrates how long impulses from Insular art lingered in the Romanesque vernacular. Like the Anglo-Saxon goldsmith, the French illuminator created a lavish surface decoration combining interlaced ribbons with animal motifs , and yet the miniature conveys a greater sense of energy. Instead of merely filling the space, the interlace has a rhythm of its own, reinforced by the bold palette and vibrant juxtaposition of colors. The robust striding lions echo the vitality of the abstract decoration, further embellished by foliate ornament.

Byzantine influences, by way of Italy, found echoes in Romanesque art from the late eleventh century onward. The tenth-century plaque with the Crucifixion and the Defeat of Hades ( 17.190.44 ) reveals that Byzantium had preserved certain features of Hellenistic art that had disappeared in the West, such as a coherent modeling of the human body under drapery and a repertoire of gestures expressing emotions. These elements are present in the ivory plaque with the Journey to Emmaus and the Noli Me Tangere ( 17.190.47 ) carved in northern Spain in the early twelfth century. Compared to the Byzantine sculptor, however, the Romanesque artist has imbued his composition with a heightened sense of drama, through a more emphatic play of gestures and swirling draperies with pearled borders.

More important than its synthesis of various influences, Romanesque art formulated a visual idiom capable of spelling out the tenets of the Christian faith. Romanesque architects invented the tympanum, on which the Last Judgment or other prophetic scenes could unfold, as a stern preparation for the mystical experience of entering the church. Inside, as they meandered around the building, the faithful encountered other scenes from biblical history, on doors, capitals, and walls ( The Temptation of Christ , 61.248 ), and were drawn into the narrative by their dynamic, direct language.

Chapuis, Julien. “Romanesque Art.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rmsq/hd_rmsq.htm (October 2002)

Further Reading

Petzold, Andreas. Romanesque Art . New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1995.

Additional Essays by Julien Chapuis

• Chapuis, Julien. “ Gothic Art .” (October 2002)
• Chapuis, Julien. “ Late Medieval German Sculpture .” (October 2002)
• Chapuis, Julien. “ Late Medieval German Sculpture: Materials and Techniques .” (October 2002)
• Chapuis, Julien. “ Patronage at the Early Valois Courts (1328–1461) .” (October 2002)
• Chapuis, Julien. “ Patronage at the Later Valois Courts (1461–1589) .” (October 2002)
• Chapuis, Julien. “ Late Medieval German Sculpture: Images for the Cult and for Private Devotion .” (October 2002)
• Chapuis, Julien. “ Late Medieval German Sculpture: Polychromy and Monochromy .” (October 2002)

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14.3: Introduction to Romanesque Art

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The name gives it away–Romanesque architecture is based on Roman architectural elements. It is the rounded Roman arch that is the literal basis for structures built in this style.

All through the regions that were part of the ancient Roman Empire are ruins of Roman aqueducts and buildings, most of them exhibiting arches as part of the architecture. (You may make the etymological leap that the two words are related, but the Oxford English Dictionary shows arch as coming from Latin arcus , which defines the shape, while arch -as in architect, archbishop and archenemy-comes from Greek arkhos, meaning chief. Tekton means builder.)

When Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE, Europe began to take its first steps out of the “Dark Ages” since the fall of Rome in the fifth century. The remains of Roman civilization were seen all over the continent, and legends of the great empire would have been passed down through generations. So when Charlemagne wanted to unite his empire and validate his reign, he began building churches in the Roman style–particularly the style of Christian Rome in the days of Constantine, the first Christian Roman emperor.

After a gap of around two hundred years with no large building projects, the architects of Charlemagne’s day looked to the arched, or arcaded, system seen in Christian Roman edifices as a model. It is a logical system of stresses and buttressing, which was fairly easily engineered for large structures, and it began to be used in gatehouses, chapels, and churches in Europe. These early examples may be referred to as pre-Romanesque because, after a brief spurt of growth, the development of architecture again lapsed. As a body of knowledge was eventually re-developed, buildings became larger and more imposing. Examples of Romanesque cathedrals from the early Middle Ages (roughly 1000–1200) are solid, massive, impressive churches that are often still the largest structure in many towns.

In Britain, the Romanesque style became known as “Norman” because the major building scheme in the eleventh and twelfth centuries was instigated by William the Conqueror, who invaded Britain in 1066 from Normandy in northern France. (The Normans were the descendants of Vikings—Norse, or north men—who had invaded this area over a century earlier.) Durham and Gloucester Cathedrals and Southwell Minster are excellent examples of churches in the Norman, or Romanesque style.

The arches that define the naves of these churches are well modulated and geometrically logical–with one look you can see the repeating shapes, and proportions that make sense for an immense and weighty structure. There is a large arcade on the ground level made up of bulky piers or columns. The piers may have been filled with rubble rather than being solid, carved stone. Above this arcade is a second level of smaller arches, often in pairs with a column between the two. The next higher level was again proportionately smaller, creating a rational diminution of structural elements as the mass of the building is reduced.

The decoration is often quite simple, using geometric shapes rather than floral or curvilinear patterns. Common shapes used include diapers—squares or lozenges—and chevrons, which were zigzag patterns and shapes. Plain circles were also used, which echoed the half-circle shape of the ubiquitous arches.

Early Romanesque ceilings and roofs were often made of wood, as if the architects had not quite understood how to span the two sides of the building using stone, which created outward thrust and stresses on the side walls. This development, of course, didn’t take long to manifest, and led from barrel vaulting (simple, semicircular roof vaults) to cross vaulting, which became ever more adventurous and ornate in the Gothic.

Pictures taken from video footage by Richard Spanswick

Contributors and Attributions

• Romanesque. Authored by : Valerie Spanswick. Provided by : Khan Academy. Located at : https://web.archive.org/web/20140215031324/http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/Romanesque.html . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Cathedral schematic plan. Authored by : Lusitania, with alterations by TTaylor. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cathedral_schematic_plan.PNG . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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Proske, Beatrice Irene Gilman

• April 11, 2024

Full Name: Proske, Beatrice Irene Gilman

Gender: female

Date Born: 31 October 1899

Date Died: 02 February 2002

Place Born: Thornton, Grafton, NH, USA

Place Died: Ardsley, West Chester, NY, USA

Home Country/ies: United States

Subject Area(s): Romanesque, sculpture (visual works), and Spanish (culture or style)

Career(s): curators and researchers

Institution(s): Hispanic Society of America

Curator of sculpture at the Hispanic Society of America. Proske was born on October 31st, 1899. She was raised by Milan Jeremiah Gilman, a farmer, and Alice May Hazeltine (Gilman). Though initially raised in southern New Hampshire, Proske’s father sought better schooling for his children, and moved the family to Connecticut in 1912. At Gilbert High School, Proske studied German, French, Spanish, and Latin. Subsequently, Proske pursued a B.S. in Library Sciences at Simmons College in Boston, which was conferred in spring of 1920.

Following her studies, Proske worked in various roles at The Hispanic Society of America in New York City over the course of 53 years. Proske was a Research Cataloger for two years before her promotion to Assistant Curator of Sculpture in 1922. Between 1922 and 1929, Proske often traveled with colleagues to England, Spain, Italy, and France to study, catalog, and purchase Hispanic art on behalf of her post. These travels informed much of her work, including her 525-page book, Castilian Sculpture: Gothic to Renaissance , published by the Hispanic Society of America in 1951. For her persistent effort, the Hispanic Society of America awarded her a Sculpture Medal in 1953. In addition to her time there, Proske devoted herself to Brookgreen Gardens, a botanical garden in Georgetown County, South Carolina. Proske’s 1936 publication, a catalog of the Brookgreen Gardens outdoor sculpture collection, titled Brookgreen Gardens Sculpture , first published in 1936 and revised in 1968.

Between November 1968 and November 1969, Proske held the role of Curator of the Museum for the Hispanic Society of America. Proske worked throughout her retirement, advising the Hispanic Society of America, Brookgreen Gardens, and National Sculpture Review . Proske traced the development of the Spanish architecture style in an article she wrote titled SCULPTURE: From the Romanesque to the Twentieth Century , published in 1972 in Apollo . In 1975, Proske wrote on several American women sculptures for the National Sculpture Review.

Brookgreen Gardens named Proske an Honorary Trustee in 1978, and later bestowed her an Inaugural Membership Medal in 1987. On December 4th, 1993, The National Academy of Design in New York, NY, dedicated their American Sculpture Symposium to Proske. Following Proske’s death, Louis Torres, founder of art journal Aristos , and Michelle Marder Kamhi, a co-editor, wrote that Proske “brings to her personal life the same rare mix of qualities she brings to her writing—forthrightness, wit, simplicity, warmth, a respect for tradition and scholarship, and just the right touch of elegance.”

Selected Bibliography

• “American Women Sculptors.” National Sculpture Review 24 (2–3): 8. 1972.
• Brookgreen Gardens Sculpture . 1936. Reprint, Brookgreen Gardens, 1968.
• Castilian Sculpture, Gothic to Renaissance . New York: Hispanic Society of America, 1951.
• Juan Martínez Montañés, Sevillian Sculptor . New York: Hispanic Society of America, 1967.
• “SCULPTURE: From the Romanesque to the Twentieth Century.” Apollo: The International Magazine of Art & Antiques 95 (April): 283–91. 1972.
• Candida Smith, Richard. The Early Years of the Hispanic Society of America. The J. Paul Getty Trust, 1995.
• Kamhi, Michelle Marder, and Louis Torres. “Beatrice Gilman Proske (1899-2002).” Accessed February 29, 2024. https://www.aristos.org/proske.htm.
• [transcript] “Beatrice G. Proske.” Interviews with Art Historians, 1991-2002 . Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA.

Contributors: Zahra Hassan

Zahra Hassan. "Proske, Beatrice Irene Gilman." Dictionary of Art Historians (website). https://arthistorians.info/proske-beatrice-irene-gilman/.

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Curator of sculpture at the Hispanic Society of America.

Mendell, Elizabeth

• November 8, 2023 March 29, 2024

Full Name: Mendell, Elizabeth Lawrence

• Elizabeth Lawrence

Date Born: 1741

Date Died: 1791

Place Born: PA, USA

Subject Area(s): architecture (object genre), Medieval (European), Romanesque, and sculpture (visual works)

Institution(s): Yale University

Scholar of English romanesque sculpture and architecture. Mendell studied medieval art at Yale University under Henri Focillon and Jean Bony . She completed her disseration in 1939 writing on the romanesque church at Saintonge, France. The following year it was published as part of the Yale Historical Publications the following year. She was married Clarena W. Mendell (b. 1885).

[dissertaton:] Romanesque Sculpture in Saintonge . Yale University, 1939, Published, Yale Historical Publications, 1940, New Haven: Yale University Press. 1940.

Contributors: Kerry Rork

Kerry Rork. "Mendell, Elizabeth." Dictionary of Art Historians (website). https://arthistorians.info/mendelle/.

Scholar of English romanesque sculpture and architecture. Mendell studied medieval art at Yale University under Henri Focillon and Jean Bony. She completed her disseration in 1939 writing on the romane

Zarnecki, George

Full Name: Zarnecki, George

• George Zarnecki

Gender: male

Date Born: 1915

Date Died: 2008

Place Born: Stara Osota, Warsaw, Poland

Place Died: London, Greater London, England, UK

Home Country/ies: Poland

Subject Area(s): British Isles Medieval styles, English (culture or style), Medieval (European), and Romanesque

Career(s): educators

Courtauld Institute of Art medievalist, particularly English Romanesque. Zarnecki’s father, Zygmunt Zarnecki, was a Polish Jew converted to Catholicism working as a civil engineer in Russia at the time of Zarnecki’s birth; his mother was Russian, Julia Wolszczan (Zarnecki). He was born in Stara Osota, Russia, which is present-day Stara Ochata, Warsaw, Poland. The younger Zarnecki attended Cracow University, Poland, where he worked as a junior assistant in the Art History Institute, 1936-1939, earning an M.A. in 1938. Zarnecki taught at the University of Cracow until 1939. With the invasion of Poland by Germany, his family fled to Bucharest and he to Itlay and then France where he joined the Polish Army in 1939, serving in France. He was awarded the Polish Cross of Valor and Croix de Guerre in 1940, but was taken as a prisoner of war by the Germans the same year and narrowly escaped the concentration camp for his Jewish heritage. In 1942 he heroically escaped, using forged papers, but was interned in Spain until allowed to emigrate to England in 1943. He was commissioned by the United Kingdom in 1943 advancing to the rank of lance-corporal, though still a Polish soldier. He met Anne Leslie Frith at Regents Park tube station [air raid shelter] in 1944, marrying her in 1945. In 1944, too, he met Anthony Blunt who gave him a job translating texts at the Courtauld Institute of Art. By 1945, Zarnecki was assistant in the Conway library, the photographic archive of medieval art and architecture at the Courtauld Institute. He entered the Institute for his Ph.D. where Warburg Institute scholar Fritz Saxl suggested he research English Romanesque sculpture. The result was his 1950 dissertation at the Courtauld Institute, Regional Schools in English Sculpture in the 12th century. In 1949 he became the librarian of the Conway Library. While librarian, he published rewritten versions of his dissertation as English Romanesque Sculpture 1066-1140 in 1951 and Later English Romanesque Sculpture 1140-1210 in 1953. This was followed by English Romanesque Lead Sculpture in 1957 and Early Sculpture at Ely Cathedral , 1958. He resigned as librarian in 1959 when he was made a Reader of Courtauld (now part of the University of London), his first teaching position. For the academic year 1960-1961 he was Slade Professor of Fine Arts, Oxford University. About this tiime, he and the French medievalist Jean Bony resolved to create a corpus of Romanesque sculpture in the British isles while touring Herefordshire. Zarnecki was appointed deputy director of the Courtuald in 1961. His one book on Continental art, Gislebertus: Sculptor of Autun appeared the same year. His elevation to professor of history of art came in 1963. That year he issued his Romanesque Sculpture at Lincoln Cathedral . He served as member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey in 1966. Under the directionship of Blunt the Courtauld expanded with Zarnecki doing the main administrative work. He was elected Fellow of the British Academy in 1968, made CBE in 1970. His skills as a manager implied his succession to Blunt when his director retired in 1974, but he never applied, wanting to return to teaching and research.Commissioned by Abrams publishers to write Art of the Medieval World , a survey-style text akin to others in that publisher’s series, Zarnecki produced a solid volume of a particularly hard topic–art from the 4th to the 13th century–in 1975. He retired professor Emeritus in 1982. In retirement, Zarnecki mounted an important exhibition, “English Romanesque Art” at the Hayward Gallery in 1984. An expanded version of his Lincoln Romanesque sculpture book appeared in 1988. Together with Peter Erik Lasko , he devoted his last years to compiling the index of his earlier years, the Corpus of Romanesque Sculpture in Britain and Ireland , now as a publicly available digital project, (www.crsbi.ac.uk). He was revered by generations of students as deputy director of the Courtauld Institute of Art at the University of London. His books on the English Romanesque established the dating structure and sequence of the monuments which remain accepted today, especially difficult since the English Reformation destroyed many monuments compared to Continental Europe. Since much of the extant Romanesque sculpture was incorporated in churches, Zarnecki’s first books exmanined the history of the architectural and then a closer analysis of the sculpture itself. Though largely stylistic in his analysis, he considered material, patronage and iconography as well. Compared to the other expatriate art historians working in England during the time, Zarnecki was a centrist. He avoided the approach of Nikolaus Bernard Leon Pevsner that art expressed the spirit of the people; there was no Englishness in English art. He was never drawn to an intellectual approach to culture promulgated by his mentor, Saxl, and giants like E. H. Gombrich at the Warburg Institute. His discovery that the Coronation of the Virgin image, best known from 13th-century French sculpture and Roman church mosaics, had its earliest development in England, for example, in a capital of ca.1130 at Reading Abbey.

[complete bibliography:] “Publications of George Zarnecki.” Romanesque and Gothic: Essays for George Zarnecki . Neil Stratford, ed. Wolfeboro, NH: Boydell Press, 1987, unpaginated; [dissertation:] Regional Schools of English Sculpture in the Twelfth Century . Ph.D., Courtauld Institute of Art, University of London, 1950, published in an altered for as, English Romanesque Sculpture, 1066-1140 . London: A. Tiranti, 1951, and Later English Romanesque Sculpture, 1140-1210 . London: A. Tiranti, 1953; English Romanesque Lead Sculpture: Lead Fonts of the Twelfth Century . New York: Philosophical Library, 1957; The Early Sculpture of Ely Cathedral . London: A. Tiranti. 1958; and Grivot, Denis. Gislebertus: Sculptor of Autun . New York: Orion Press, 1961; The Monastic Achievement . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972; Romanesque Art . New York: Universe Books, 1971; Art of the Medieval World: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, the Sacred Arts . New York: H. N. Abrams, 1975.

“Forward.” Romanesque and Gothic: essays for George Zarnecki . Neil Stratford, ed. Wolfeboro, NH: Boydell Press, 1987, vol. 1, unpaginated; [obituaries:] Quaife, Patricia. “Professor George Zarnecki.” Times (London), September 27, 2008 p..75; “George Zarnecki Authority on Romanesque art who proved an influential administrator as deputy director of the Courtauld.” Daily Telegraph (London), September 18, 2008 p. 31; Kauffmann, Michael. “George Zarnecki, Former deputy director of the Courtauld Institute of Art and leading scholar of Romanesque sculpture.” Independent (London), September 16, 2008 p. 32; “Professor George Zarnecki.” Times (London), September 13, 2008 p. 71; Mullaly, Terence. “George Zarnecki: Eminent art historian who helped the Courtauld survive the Blunt scandal.” Guardian (London) September 11, 2008

"Zarnecki, George." Dictionary of Art Historians (website). https://arthistorians.info/zarneckig/.

Courtauld Institute of Art medievalist, particularly English Romanesque. Zarnecki’s father, Zygmunt Zarnecki, was a Polish Jew converted to Catholicism working as a civil engineer in Russia at the time of Zarnecki’s birth; his mother was Russian,

Wettstein, Janine

Full Name: Wettstein, Janine

Date Born: unknown

Date Died: unknown

Subject Area(s): European, Medieval (European), painting (visual works), and Romanesque

Medievalist; comparative study of European Romanesque painting.

La fresque romane: Italie, France, Espagne; études comparatives . Geneva: Droz, 1971.

"Wettstein, Janine." Dictionary of Art Historians (website). https://arthistorians.info/wettsteinj/.

Seidel, Linda

Full Name: Seidel, Linda

• Linda Seidel

Date Born: 1939

Subject Area(s): Romanesque

University of Chicago Romanesque scholar. Seidel attended Barnard College where she received her B.A. in French literature. She continued at Radcliffe College for her Master’s degree. A 1962-1963 Sachs Research fellowship assisted her in completing her Ph. D. in art history from Harvard University in 1965, written under Frederick B. Deknatel . While working on her Ph.D. she came into contact with Columbia University medievalist Meyer Schapiro . She married a research and medical school faculty Michael R. Field (b. 1933). Seidel taught at Harvard in the department of art, the school of architecture, and the Fogg Art Museum. During this time, she produced an important article, a chapter from her dissertation, “A Romantic Forgery: The Romanesque ‘Portal’ of Saint-Étienne in Toulouse,” in 1968. The article overturned much accepted French scholarship, proving that one of the traditional monuments in Romanesque architecture was, in fact, a nineteenth-century composite. In 1977 she and her husband joined the faculty at the University of Chicago. Seidel and Yale art historian Walter B. Cahn edited the scholarly inventory of Romanesque sculpture in American Collections, beginning in 1979. Her book Songs of Glory: the Romanesque Façades of Aquitaine appeared in 1981. In 1984 she published the second of her “pioneering” articles (Caviness), “Salome and the Canons” in Women’s Studies , approaching the medieval reception theory from the point of view of one empowered group. She participated in a symposium organized to celebrate the 75th anniversary of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Robie House which is located on the University of Chicago campus. She was named the first Hanna Holborn Gray Professor in Art History at Chicago and awarded a Burlington Northern Distinguished Graduate Teaching Award in 1990. Seidel broke with her medieval-area to write an historiographical monograph on the history Jan van Eyck’s most famous work, Jan Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait: Stories of an Icon in 1993. She received the Harry Pratt Judson Distinguished Service Professor Emerita award in History. In 1996 She won the Quantrell Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching. Continuing her interest in pedogy and historiography, she issued Looking to Learn: Visual Pedagogy at the University of Chicago together with Katherine Taylor in 1998. She retired from the University in 2004. A symposium in her honor was held in New York in 2011. Her students included Madeline Harrison Caviness.

[dissertation:] Romanesque Sculpture from the Cathedral of Saint-Etienne, Toulouse . 2 vols. Harvard University, 1965, published under the same title, New York: Garland, 1977; “A Romantic Forgery: The Romanesque “Portal” of Saint-Étienne in Toulouse.” Art Bulletin 50, no. 1 (March 1968): 33-42; and Cahn, Walter. Romanesque Sculpture in American Collections . New York : B. Franklin, 1979ff.; Songs of Glory: the Romanesque Façades of Aquitaine . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981; “Salome and the Canons.” Women’s Studies 11 (1984): 29-66; edited, and Bolon, Carol, and Nelson, Robert S. The Nature of Frank Lloyd Wright . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988; Jan Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait: Stories of an Icon . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993; and Taylor, Katherine. Looking to Learn: Visual Pedagogy at the University of Chicago . Chicago: David and Alfred Smart Museum of Art, University of Chicago, 1998; Legends in Limestone: Lazarus, Gislebertus, and the Cathedral of Autun . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999; edited, Schapiro, Meyer. Romanesque Architectural Sculpture . Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 2006.

“Linda Seidel.” University of Chicago Department of Art History (website) http://humanities.uchicago.edu/depts/art/faculty_staff/seidel.shtml ; Seidel, Linda. “A Romantic Forgery: The Romanesque ‘Portal’ of Saint-Étienne in Toulouse.” Art Bulletin 50, no. 1 (March 1968): 33, asterisked note; Caviness, Madeline Harrison.”Reception of Images by Medieval Viewers.” in, Rudolf, Conrad, ed. A Companion to Medieval Art : Romanesque and Gothic in Northern Europe . Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006, p 72.

"Seidel, Linda." Dictionary of Art Historians (website). https://arthistorians.info/seidell/.

University of Chicago Romanesque scholar. Seidel attended Barnard College where she received her B.A. in French literature. She continued at Radcliffe College for her Master’s degree. A 1962-1963 Sachs Research fellowship assisted her in completin

Salvini, Roberto

Full Name: Salvini, Roberto

Date Born: 1912

Date Died: 1985

Place Born: Florence, Tuscany, Italy

Place Died: Florence, Tuscany, Italy

Home Country/ies: Italy

Subject Area(s): Italian (culture or style) and Romanesque

Director of the Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, 1950 to 1956; contributed to wave of post-WWII scholarship on the Romanesque. Salvini studied under Mario Salmi at the University of Florence in 1929. He continued study in the early 1930s in Berlin and Munich. In Berlin, his work under Albert Brinckmann gave him an appreciation for original texts and an analytical approach to source material. During this time he developed his theory of “pure visibility” in which he sought to give an abstract coherence to figurative values. His studies focused on the writings of the formalist art historians Bernard Berenson and Heinrich Wölfflin as well as the theories of the sculptor Adolf von Hildebrand. He joined the University of Florence where he taught for almost 30 years, over 20 of which being a museum administrator, rising to the directorship of the Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, in 1950 (to 1956). Salvini’s research area was Romanesque sculpture, building on the work of Pietro Toesca . He published his survey of Romanesque sculpture, La scultura romanica in Europa in 1956. He edited a methodological work, La critica d’arte moderna (la pura visibiltà) , which analyzed the formalist from theorists such as Konrad Fiedler to art historians such as Adrian Stokes . His monograph on Wiligelmo appeared in 1956. In 1962 Salvini authored a volume on the capitals in the cloisters of the Duomo of Monreale, Il chiostro di Monreale e la scultura romanica in Sicilia , one in a series of volumes whose authors also included Ernst Kitzinger on the mosaics in the Cathedral and one on Norman architecture and the cathedral by Wolfgang Krönig . Salvini’s work merged historical and aesthetic aspects of art through his concept of “lingua figurativa” (figurative language).

[complete bibliography:] Scritti di storia dell’arte in onore di Roberto Salvini . C. De Benedictis, editor. Florence: Sansoni,1984; La critica d’arte moderna (la pura visibiltà) . Florence: L’Arco, 1949; La scultura romanica in Europa . Milan: Garzanti, 1956; Wilgelmo e le origini della scultura romanica . Milan, 1956; Il chiostro di Monreale e la scultura romanica in Sicilia . Palermo: S.F. Flaccovio, 1962, English, The Cloister of Monreale and Romanesque Sculpture in Sicily . Palmero: S.F. Flaccovio 1964.

Bazin, Germain. Histoire de l’histoire de l’art: de Vasari à nos jours . Paris: Albin Michel, 1986, p. 263; Dictionary of Art 27: 657.

"Salvini, Roberto." Dictionary of Art Historians (website). https://arthistorians.info/salvinir/.

Director of the Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, 1950 to 1956; contributed to wave of post-WWII scholarship on the Romanesque. Salvini studied under Mario Salmi at the University of Florence in 1929. He continued study in the

Salmi, Mario

Full Name: Salmi, Mario

• Mario Salmi

Date Born: 1889

Date Died: 1980

Place Born: San Giovanni Valdarno, Arezzo, Tuscany, Italy

Place Died: Rome, Lazio, Italy

Subject Area(s): architecture (object genre), Italian (culture or style), Italian Renaissance-Baroque styles, Renaissance, Romanesque, sculpture (visual works), and Tuscan (culture or style)

Historian of Romanesque architecture, Tuscan sculpture and the early Italian Renaissance. Salmi received a law degree in 1910, but was won over to art history while attending the art history school of Adolfo Venturi at Rome University. The following year, 1911, Salmi published his first article in the journal L’Arte followed by numerous other pieces on Romanesque architecture and sculpture. Salmi was apppointed professor of medieval and modern art history at the university in Pisa, establishing the Instituto di Storia dell’Arte in 1927 and its study library (with Matteo Marangoni ), Biblioteca del Gabinetto di Storia dell’Arte, in 1930. In 1929, Salmi moved to the University of Florence. There he founded the Instituto Nazionale di Studi sul Rinascimento in 1937. His students included Alessandro Marabottini . After World War II, Salmi established the art review journal Commentari in 1949. He was called to the University of Rome in 1950, which had been reorganized after World War II, assuming (Adolfo) Venturi’s position as chair of the Renaissance and modern art history. Salmi brought the Commentari with him, co-edited now with Venturi’s son, Lionello Venturi . He oversaw the creation of the multicultural 15-volume scholarly encyclopedia for art, Enciclopedia universale dell’arte , which appeared in 1958 and in English a year later as the Encyclopedia of World Art . As president of the Consiglio Superiore dele Antichità e Belle Arti until 1971, Salmi worked in the field of patronage and the evaluation of works of art. He wrote about many aspects of Florentine art, including manuscript illuminations, and a monograph on Piero della Francesca. Notes about Salmi’s opinions on Giotto appear in Richard Offner ‘s annotated catalog of the 1937 Mostra Giottesca . His papers and photographs collection are held at the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA. In 1989 a conference sponsored by the Accademia Petrarca di Lettere, Arti e Scienze of Arezzo was held in commemoration of the centenary of Salmi’s birth. His students in Pisa included Enzo Carli and, in Florence, Roberto Salvini .

and de Tolnay, Charles. Michelangelo: artista, pensatore, scrittore . 2 vols. Novara: Comitato nazionale per le onotanze a Michelangelo/Istituto geografico de Agostini,1965; and Khvoshinsky, Basile. I pittori toscani dal XIII al XVI secolo . 2 vols. Rome: E. Loescher, 1912-1914; and De Ruggieri, Raffaello. Le chiese rupestri di Matera . Rome: De Luca,1966; The Complete Work of Michelangelo . 2 vols. London: Macdonald, 1966; L’architettura romanica in Toscana . Milan: Bestetti e Tumminelli, 1928; La Basilica di San Salvatore di Spoleto . Florence: Olschki, 1951, [series editor] Enciclopedia universale dell’arte . 15 vols. Venice/Rome: Istituto per la Collaborazione Culturale, 1958-1967, English, Encyclopedia of World Art . 15 vols. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959-1968.

d’Onofrio, Mario. “Salmi, Mario.” The Dictionary of Art 27: 635; Ladis, Andrew. “The Unmaking of a Connoisseur.” in, Offner, Richard. A Discerning Eye: Essays on Early Italian Painting . University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998, p.19, note 1; “Premessa.” Scritti di storia dell’arte in onore di Mario Salmi . vol. 1. Rome: De Luca, 1961, pp. vii-xi; [essays on Salmi’s scholarship:] Studi di storia dell’arte sul Medioevo e il Rinascimento nel centenario della nascita di Mario Salmi: atti del convegno internazionale Arezzo-Firenze, 16-19 novembre 1989 . vol. 1. Florence: Polistampa, 1992, specifically, Russo, Eugenio. “Il contributo di Mario Salmi agli studi sull’arte dell’età paleocritiana e altomedievale.” pp. 37-101, Gatti Perrer, Maria Luisa. “Il contributo di Mario Salmi agli studi sull’arte Lombarda.” pp. 137-149, Ciardi Duprè Dal Poggetto, Maria Grazia. “Il contributo di Mario Salmi agli studi sulla miniatrua italiana: un primo rescoconto generale.” pp. 151-162, Paolini, Maria Grazia. “Mario Salmi e l’arte nell’aretino: riflessioni e spunti di ricerca.” pp. 163-194; Salvini, Roberto. “Ricordo di Mario Salmi.” in, “Popoli e paesi nella cultura altomedievale” Settimane di Studi del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’Alto Medioevo 29 (1983): 47; Mario Salmi: storico dell’arte e umanista . Spoleto: Centro italiano di studi sull’alto Medioevo, 1991; [obituaries:] Angelis d’Ossat, Guglielmo. [untitled]. Palladio n.s. 3 [30] fascicule part 1/4 (1980): 6; Baldini, Umberto. “Commemorazione di Mario Salmi, Presidente Onorario dell’Accademia Petrarca.” Atti e memorie della Accademia Petrarca di lettere arti e scienze 44 (1981): 1-12; Scapecchi, Angelo. “Omelia nella Messa di trigesima del prof. Mario Salmi.” Atti e memorie della Accademia Petrarca di lettere arti e scienze 44 (1981): 13-16.

"Salmi, Mario." Dictionary of Art Historians (website). https://arthistorians.info/salmim/.

Historian of Romanesque architecture, Tuscan sculpture and the early Italian Renaissance. Salmi received a law degree in 1910, but was won over to art history while attending the art history school of Adolfo Venturi at Rome

Rickman, Thomas

Full Name: Rickman, Thomas

• Thomas Rickman

Date Born: 08 June 1776

Date Died: 04 January 1841

Place Born: Maidenhead, Windsor and Maidenhead, England, UK

Place Died: Birmingham, West Midlands, England, UK

Home Country/ies: United Kingdom

Subject Area(s): architecture (object genre), British Isles Medieval styles, English (culture or style), Romanesque, and sculpture (visual works)

Architectural historian and architect; coiner of the term “Norman” for English Romanesque architecture. Rickman hailed from a large Quaker family. His father, Joseph Rickman (1749-1810) a surgeon and apothecary, and mother Sarah Neave Rickman (1747-1809), ardent Quakers, disallowed a university education or an interest in the arts, which they considered frivolous. Instead, his father trained him also to be an apothecary and surgeon. By 1800 his studies were completed in London and briefly practiced in Lewes, Sussex. Uninterested in medicine, however, he tried business as a partner in a corn (wheat) firm in 1803, marrying his first cousin Lucy Rickman (c.1773-1807) following year. By 1807 the business had failed and Rickman moved to Liverpool as an accountant. His wife’s death (before they could be reunited) distressed him so he found respite only by long walks in the countryside. These walks included making drawings which he annotated and expanded over the years. He wrote an essay on Chester Cathedral (published only posthumously in 1864). By 1812 Rickman was lecturing locally and to learned societies. An invitation by James Smith (1759-1828?) to write an entry in his forthcoming Panorama of Science & Art (1812-1815) led to his assisting on local building projects and designs for Gothic ironwork. These projects included renovations to Scarisbrick Hall (1813-1816) in a Gothic style, a project continued by another architect and historian of the Gothic, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin in 1836. In 1813 he married Christiana Hornor (c.1780-1814) a Quaker day school teacher, who died after the birth of their first child. With the budding Government patronage adopting the Gothic Revival style, Rickman expanded his article for Smith’s book into a book his own, An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England in 1817 which came to be known as Rickman’s Gothic Architecture . The book quickly became popular and influential particularly with scholars and architects wishing to design in antique idioms. The 1818 Church Building Act, which proscribed the building of new churches in largely industrial areas gave impetus to the book’s use. Rickman himself presented over 50 copies to influential leaders and received a commissioned to design St. George’s in Birmingham the same year (built 1820-1822). Rickman eventually designed 49 churches; his most notable public work may have been New Court, St. John’s College, Cambridge University, constructed 1825-1831. Rickman married a third time Elizabeth Miller (b. ca.1800) of Edinburgh in 1825. In 1830 Rickman was elected to the Society of Antiquaries of London, his architectural practice increased to partners and assistants. The same year he visited France with Henry Hutchinson, his partner. A second visit in 1832 to Picardy and Normandy with William Whewell resulted in his meeting the two other important leaders in medieval scholarship, the French antiquaries Auguste Le Prévost (1787-1859), and Arcisse de Caumont . Subsequent editions of his book Attempt , revised by Rickman, appeared in 1819, 1825 and 1835, the fourth and last to be worked on by himself personally. He contributed to the 1838 Specimens of Architectural Remains by John Sell Cotman (1782-1842). Rickman was confined to bed in the last years of his life, dying of liver disease in 1841. He is buried on the grounds of St. George’s Church, Birmingham. His architectural handbook was taken over in 1848 by John Henry Parker , ending with a 7th edition in 1881. His papers are held in the British Library and diaries at the library of the Royal Institute of British Architects, London. His son (by his third marriage) was the architect Thomas Miller Rickman (1827-1912), later president of the Architectural Association in London. Rickman was the first to use the term Norman to refer to the English Romanesque style of medieval architecture in his 1819 An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation . The book was one of the first to establish a chronology of medieval styles (Summerson) and set down the accepted terminology of Norman, Perpendicular Gothic and Decorated Gothic. The book avoided romanticism laying down a rational approach using comparative methods. His education and sensibilities outside the Church of England and British formal education (he could not read Latin) may have allowed a more objective view of the Gothic than his contemporaries (Aldrich, DNB ). When Rickman’s architectural style fell out of favor with subsequent generations, his importance as an early scholar also declined (Bailey). Except for the years of his first marriage, he remained a devout Quaker in dress, language and beliefs.

“Gothic Architecture.” in Smith, James. A Panorama of Arts and Sciences . vol.1. Liverpool: Printed for Nuttall, Fisher, and Co., 1815; An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture, from the Conquest to the Reformation; Preceded by a Sketch of the Grecian and Roman Orders, with notices of Nearly Five Hundred English Buildings . London: Longman, Hurst, etc., 1817; and Cotman, John Sell, and Turner, Dawson. Specimens of Architectural Remains in Various Counties in England, but Principally in Norfolk . London: H.G. Bohn, 1838; [Chester Cathedral] Journal of the Archaeological, Architectural, and Historic Society for the County of Chester 2, 1864.

Rickman, Thomas Miller. Notes on the Llife and on the Several Imprints of the Work of Thomas Rickman, F. S. A., Architect . London: G. J. W. Pitman, 1901; Summerson, John. “Viollet-le-Duc and the Rational Point of View.” Heavenly Mansions and Other Essays on Architecture . New York: Norton, 1963, p 138; Aldrich, Megan Brewster. Thomas Rickman (1776-1841) and Architectural Illustration of the Gothic Revival . Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1983; Baily, John. “Rickman, Thomas.” Dictionary of Art 26: 361-362; Colvin, Howard. A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects, 1600-1840 . New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008; Megan Aldrich. “Rickman, Thomas (1776-1841).” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography .

Contributors: Lee Sorensen

Lee Sorensen. "Rickman, Thomas." Dictionary of Art Historians (website). https://arthistorians.info/rickmant/.

Architectural historian and architect; coiner of the term “Norman” for English Romanesque architecture. Rickman hailed from a large Quaker family. His father, Joseph Rickman (1749-1810) a surgeon and apothecary, and mother Sarah Neave Rickman (174

Puig i Cadafalch, Josep

Full Name: Puig i Cadafalch, Josep

Date Born: 17 October 1867

Date Died: 23 December 1957

Place Born: Mataró, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain

Place Died: Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain

Home Country/ies: Spain

Subject Area(s): architecture (object genre), Romanesque, sculpture (visual works), and Spanish (culture or style)

Institution(s): Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Barcelona

Catalonian architect, architectural historian of the Catalonian romanesque, archeologist, and politician. Puig i Cadafalch was the son of wealthy textile industrialists, Joan Puig i Bruguera and Teresa Cadafalch i Bogunyà. He obtained his bachelors from the Escoles Pies de Santa Anna in 1883. From there, he studied physical sciences and mathematics at the University of Barcelona and earned his doctorate at the University of Madrid in 1888 under mentorship of Lluis Domenech i Montaner (1849-1923). He later joined the Centre Escolar Catalanista where he first met Enric Prat de la Riba i Sarrà (1870-1917). Between 1892 to 1896, Puig i Cadafalch was the municipal architect of Mataró. During his term, he worked on projects including the city’s sewer system and Casa Francesc Martí i Puig, which would eventually house Els Quatre Gats––a popular meeting place for Spanish Modernisme artists. He was later elected to serve as councilor of the Barcelona Town Hall between 1901-1903 where he successfully contributed to a new appraisal of Barcelona’s gothic history. He also lectured at L’Escola d’Arquitectura de Barcelona (School of Architecture in Barcelona). In 1908, he began archaeological excavations in Empúries, which he continued for 15 years. Meanwhile, he served in the parliament for Barcelona in Madrid between 1907-1909 and in the provincial government for Barcelona between 1913-1924. In 1917, he replaced Prat de la Riba as President of the Mancomunitat de Catalunya (Commonwealth of Catalonia). He was re-elected and served three terms in office until 1924. His main efforts were focused on developing industrial infrastructure, establishing medial and social welfare institutions, and fighting for Catalonia’s autonomy. He was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Freiburg in 1923 Between 1925 and 1926, he lectured at the University at Sorbonne, Harvard, and Cornell. Later, in 1930, he taught at d the Institute d’Art et Archeologie in Paris and was also bestowed with an honorary degree from the University of Paris. Between 1930-1936, he primarily focused on his works as an architectural historian publishing La geografia i els origen del primer romànic (1930), La place de la Catalogne dans la géographie et la chronologie du premier art roman (1932), and L’architecture gothique civil en catalogne (1935). However, he was forced into exile in France during the Spanish Civil War between 1936 until 1942. In 1949, he was given another honorary degree from the University of Toulouse, and also published his most important work, L’escultura romànica a Catalunya . In the work, he explored the relationship between the aesthetic language of an architectural style and its geography and culture.

While his work as an architect is often overshadowed by his contemporary Antoni Gaudí (1852-1926), it was pivotal in facilitating a stylistic transition in Catalonia from Modernist to Noucentisme architecture during the turn of the 20th century (Permanyer). On the other hand, his works as an art historian shed light on the importance of architectural historiography. Specifically, he argued that an aesthetic style is both a product and reflection of the identity of the people from which it emerges, and that it is ultimately inseparable from its institutions, customs, and history. As a model, he showed that Romanesque architecture in Catalonia was not introduced as a foreign style, but rather evolved from its own classical architecture. His studies of Romanesque architecture in medieval Catalonia ultimately helped to derive and define a Catalonian cultural identity.

• La geografia i els origens del primer romanic , 1930;
• La place de la Catalogne dans la géographie et la chronologie du premier art roman , 1932;
• L’architecture gothique civil en Catalogne , 1935;
• L’arquitectura romànica a Catalunya , 1949.
• Frank, Grace, Urban T. Holmes, Charles R. D. Miller, Bartlett Jere Whiting, Francis P. Magoun, Kemp Malone, H. M. Smyser, et al. “Memoirs of Fellows and Corresponding Fellows of the Mediaeval Academy of America.” Speculum   34, no. 3 (1959): 530–36;
• Alexandre, Cirici. “La arquitectura de Puig i Cadafalch.” Cuadernos de arquitectura , 1966, 49–52;
• Adolf, Florensa i Ferrer. “Puig y Cadafalch, arquitecto, historiador de arte y arqueólogo.” Cuadernos de arquitectura , 1967, 75–78;
• Guix, Xavier Güell i. “Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Modernist Architect.” Catalònia , 1989, 8–11;
• Permanyer, Lluís; photographs by Lluis Casals. Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Barcelona: Ediciones Poligrafa,  2001. https://doi.org/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T070036 .

Contributors: Denise Shkurovich

Denise Shkurovich. "Puig i Cadafalch, Josep." Dictionary of Art Historians (website). https://arthistorians.info/puigicadafalchj/.

Catalonian architect, architectural historian of the Catalonian romanesque, archeologist, and politician. Puig i Cadafalch was the son of wealthy textile industrialists, Joan Puig i Bruguera and Teresa Cadafalch i Bogunyà. He obtained his bachelor

Porter, A. Kingsley

Full Name: Porter, A. Kingsley

• Arthur Kingsley Porter

Date Born: 1883

Date Died: c. 1933

Place Born: Stamford, Fairfield, CT, USA

Place Died: Inishbofin, County Galway, Ireland

Harvard medievalist architectural historian; first American scholar of the Romaneque to achieve international recognition. Porter was the third son of banker Timothy Hopkins Porter and mother Maria Louisa Hoyt, herself from a patrician Connecticut family. His mother died when he was eight. Porter attended the Browning School in New York and then entered Yale University. His father died during his freshman year. The following year, 1902, Porter’s remaining brother (the middle brother had died during college) underwent a serious operation and long recovery. Burdened, perhaps, with these unusual family misfortunes and the prospects of his own frail health, Porter reputedly had a mystical conversion in Coutances Cathedral, France, after his graduation from Yale in 1904. Giving up the law career he had initially studied for, he entered Columbia University School of Architecture. He soon altered his plans from a career in beaux-arts (practicing) architecture to the study of architectural history. Porter spent the following years traveling in Europe, researching and photographing medieval buildings. The result was a general book on the development of architecture of the middle ages, Medieval Architecture (1909) and The Construction of Lombard and Gothic Vaults (1911). He married Lucy Bryant Wallace, a prominent New Yorker who subsequently managed most of his life and his photographic material. Shortly before World War I, Porter published his four-volume Lombard Architecture , arguing for the primacy of Rome as the source of medieval architecture, a thesis originally developed by Giovanni Teresio Rivoira . The book rocketed Porter to international acclaim. He accepted a lectureship at Yale in 1915, working toward a BFA at the same time. An outspoken exponent for the undergraduate study of art history, he offered the university a half million dollars to establish a faculty of art history for the college, which the university declined. He received the degree in 1917 and was promoted to assistant professor. In 1918 he left Yale to lead architectural preservation efforts by the French government caused by war damage. In France he met Harvard art historian Bernard Berenson ; the two traveled together and became fast friends. In 1920 Porter returned to the United States and joined Harvard’s faculty in the Fine Arts Department. However, in 1923 took a leave to teach at the Sorbonne in Paris. The same year as his Sorbonne lectures, his most famous and controversial work, Romanesque Sculpture of the Pilgrimage Roads was published. The ten-volume work (nine volumes are plates) argued, 1) a new chronology of Romanesque sculpture in Burgundy and, more revolutionary, 2) that medieval sculptural influences, like medieval poetry, knew no nationality borders but were fluid like the pilgrims who travelled to Santiago de Compostela. The latter theory directly challenged the views of Émile Mâle and the primacy of the Languedoc region as the center of twelfth century style. The appearance of Romanesque Sculpture of the Pilgrimage Roads and Porter’s conclusion based upon his multidisciplinary method attracted much criticism. Porter spent the next years, 1924-1925, as Hyde lecturer at various French universities and a visiting professor in Spain. He returned to Harvard in 1925 to hold the newly created William Dorr Boardman chair [of art history]. Porter and his wife lived in poet James Russell Lowell’s former Cambridge home, Eood, where they entertained frequently. There he struck a friendship with a young Columbia University medieval art history student, Meyer Schapiro , offering Schapiro to study under him. In 1927 he received an honorary doctor of letters degree from the University of Marburg. His earlier lectures at the Sorbonne appeared as Spanish Romanesque Sculpture in 1928. Porter began an intense interest in Celtic cultures, spending summers of the 1930s in Ireland, often with the statesman and poet George William Russell (1867-1935). Porter owned a small castle there known as Glenveagh, County Donegal, where he stayed, as well as a fisherman’s house on the small island of Bofin off the northern coast. His last work, The Crosses and Culture of Ireland (1931) was based upon lectures delivered at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Porter acknowledged in the preface the help of the next generation of scholars, among them Schapiro. A politically conservative Boston Brahmin, he resigned from Harvard and left the United States, largely because of New Deal policies of Franklin Roosevelt. While at his Bofin Island retreat, Porter disappeared on July 8th, 1933, and was presumed drowned, although his body was never found. Glenveagh, his mansion in Ireland, was purchased in 1937 by the Philadelphia art collector, curator, and former student Henry P. McIlhenny . Porter’s Cambridge home was willed to the University and after his wife’s death became the President’s home. His illustrious students included Cluny scholar Kenneth John Conant , whose archeological work substantiated Porter’s earlier Burgundian dating, Walter Muir Whitehill , who developed Porter’s ideas of the importance of Spanish sculpture over a predominantly French model, and McIlhenny, a collector and curator at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Though modestly educated in comparison to other art and architectural historians of his day, Porter remains an important scholar. He early on focused on patronage in medieval architecture. He discounted the then prevalent notion of an English contribution to Gothic architecture by tracing the transmission of Italian influences through Germany and France. Always fascinated with the Lombard region, he hypothesized (after Auguste Choisy ) that the early adoption of the Gothic vault there was because of a scarcity of wood needed to build the more common Romanesque groin and barrel vault. An outspoken proponent of the discipline of art history, his Beyond Architecture (1918) argued for early instruction, even to the middle-school level. His Romanesque Sculpture of the Pilgrimage Roads (1923) examined Romanesque art in its entirety in Europe, a novel idea for the time (Cahn). Among other findings in the book, Porter conclusively redated the Cluny choir capitals from the accepted French dating of the twelfth century to the eleventh. His theory that sculptural traditions traveled like medieval epics and that they were not limited to regional and church authorities brought a storm of contemporary criticism to Porter. His theories were ultimately embraced by later French scholars such as Marcel Aubert . Porter’s championing Spanish art as a key component in the development of the Romanesque, and his arguing against the primacy of archaeology for dating, resulted in a view of eleventh- and twelfth-century art largely adopted today (Seidel, 2000). Kathryn Brush cites Porter as the first American art historian to “pioneer long-term exchanges with German Kunstwissenschaft following the [World War I] armistice.” Walter B. Cahn noted, however, that Porter’s effort to provide a methodology free of national or parochial passions produced only very mixed results. His view of Lombardy as the source of the Gothic is today largely discredited (Ehresmann). Porter’s emphasis on Spanish studies led to what could be considered a school of interest in the topic. His admirers and colleagues included, in addition to students Whitehill and Conant, Georgiana Goddard King and her studies in pre-Romanesque Spanish churches and Mudéjar art, Walter W. S. Cook , and Porter’s colleague Chandler R. Post . Disappears in 1933.

The Crosses and Culture of Ireland . London: Oxford University Press, 1931; Lombard Architecture . 4 vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1915-17; Romanesque Sculpture of Pilgrimage Roads . 10 vols. Boston, 1923; Spanish Romanesque Sculpture . Firenze Pantheon casa editrice, 1928; “The Rise of Romanesque Sculpture.” American Journal of Archaeology 22(1918): 399-427; “Les débuts de la sculpture romane.” Gazette des Beaux-Arts 15 (1919): 47-60; “Spain or Toulouse? and Other Questions.” Art Bulletin 7 (1924): 4.

Jahn, Johannes, ed. Die Kunstwissenschaft der Gegenwart in Selbstdarstellungen . Leipzig: F. Meiner, 1924, vol.1. pp. 77-93; Porter, Lucy K. ‘A. Kingsley Porter.’ in Medieval Studies in Memory of A. Kingsley Porter . vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1939, pp. xi-xv; Kleinbauer, W. Eugene. Modern Perspectives in Western Art History: An Anthology of 20th-Century Writings on the Visual Arts . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971, mentioned pp. 39, 49, 85; Kleinbauer, W. Eugene. Research Guide to the History of Western Art . Sources of Information in the Humanities, no. 2. Chicago: American Library Association, 1982, p. 125 mentioned; Nercessian, Nora. “In Desperate Defiance: A Modern Predicametn for Medieval Art.” Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics 7-8 (Spring/Autumn 1984): 137-146; Ehresmann, Donald L. Architecture: A Bibliographic Guide to Basic Reference Works, Histories and Handbooks . Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1984, nos. 533, 535; Bazin, Germain. Histoire de l’histoire de l’art; de Vasari à nos jours . Paris: Albin Michel, 1986, pp. 258-260, 544-545; The Dictionary of Art ; Seidel, Linda. “The Scholar and the Studio: A. Kingsley Porter and the Study of Medieval Architecture in the Decade Before the War.” in The Architectural Historian in America: A Symposium in Celebration of the 50th Anniversary of the Founding of the Society of Architectural Historians . Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1990, pp. 145-58; Mann, Janice. “Romantic Identity, Nationalism, and the Understanding of the Advent of Romanesque Art in Christian Spain.” Gesta 36 no. 2 (1997): 156-64; Brush, Kathryn. “The Unshaken Tree: Walter W. S. Cook on German Kunstwissenschaft in 1924.” Zeitschrift des deutschen Vereins für Kunstwissenschaft 52/53 (1998/99): 28; Crow, Thomas E. “The Intelligence of Art.” The Intelligence of Art . Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999, pp. 6-10; Seidel, Linda. “Arthur Kingsley Porter (1883-1933)” in Medieval Scholarship: Biographical Studies on the Formation of a Discipline . Volume 3. New York: Garland, 2000, pp. 273-86; Petro, Pamela. The Slow Breath of Stone: a Romanesque Love Story . New York: Fourth Estate, 2005; Cahn, Walter. “Romanesque Art, Then and Now: A Personal Reminiscence.” in Hourihane, Colum, ed. Romanesque Art and Thought in the Twelfth Century: Essays in Honor of Walter Cahn . University Park, PA: Penn State Press, 2008, pp. 32-33.

Contributors: LaNitra Michele Walker

LaNitra Michele Walker. "Porter, A. Kingsley." Dictionary of Art Historians (website). https://arthistorians.info/portera/.

Harvard medievalist architectural historian; first American scholar of the Romaneque to achieve international recognition. Porter was the third son of banker Timothy Hopkins Porter and mother Maria Louisa Hoyt, herself from a patrician Connecticut

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How to Cite a Thesis or Dissertation in APA

In this citation guide, you will learn how to reference and cite an undergraduate thesis, master’s thesis, or doctoral dissertation. This guide will also review the differences between a thesis or dissertation that is published and one that has remained unpublished. The guidelines below come from the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2020a), pages 333 and 334. Please note that the association is not affiliated with this guide.

Alternatively, you can visit EasyBib.com for helpful citation tools to cite your thesis or dissertation .

Guide Overview

Citing an unpublished thesis or dissertation, citing a published dissertation or thesis from a database, citing a thesis or dissertation published online but not from a database, citing a thesis or dissertation: reference overview, what you need.

Since unpublished theses can usually only be sourced in print form from a university library, the correct citation structure includes the university name where the publisher element usually goes.

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year published). Title in sentence case [Unpublished degree type thesis or dissertation]. Name of institution.

Ames, J. H., & Doughty, L. H. (1911). The proposed plans for the Iowa State College athletic field including the design of a reinforced concrete grandstand and wall [Unpublished bachelor’s thesis]. Iowa State University.

In-text citation example:

• Parenthetical :  (Ames & Doughty, 1911)
• Narrative :  Ames & Doughty (1911)

If a thesis or dissertation has been published and is found on a database, then follow the structure below. It’s similar to the format for an unpublished dissertation/thesis, but with a few differences:

• The institution is presented in brackets after the title
• The archive or database name is included

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year published). Title in sentence case (Publication or Document No.) [Degree type thesis or dissertation, Name of institution]. Database name.

Examples 1:

Knight, K. A. (2011). Media epidemics: Viral structures in literature and new media (Accession No. 2013420395) [Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Trotman, J.B. (2018). New insights into the biochemistry and cell biology of RNA recapping (Document No. osu1523896565730483) [Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University]. OhioLINK Electronic Theses & Dissertations Center.

In the example given above, the dissertation is presented with a Document Number (Document No.). Sometimes called a database number or publication number, this is the identifier that is used by the database’s indexing system. If the database you are using provides you with such a number, then include it directly after the work’s title in parentheses.

If you are interested in learning more about how to handle works that were accessed via academic research databases, see Section 9.3 of the Publication Manual.

In-text citation examples :

• Parenthetical citation : (Trotman, 2018)
• Narrative citation : Trotman (2018)

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year Published). Title in sentence case [Degree type thesis or dissertation, Name of institution]. Name of archive or collection. URL

Kim, O. (2019). Soviet tableau: cinema and history under late socialism [Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh]. Institutional Repository at the University of Pittsburgh. https://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/37669/7/Olga%20Kim%20Final%20ETD.pdf

Stiles, T. W. (2001). Doing science: Teachers’ authentic experiences at the Lone Star Dinosaur Field Institute [Master’s thesis, Texas A&M University]. OAKTrust. https://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2001-THESIS-S745

It is important to note that not every thesis or dissertation published online will be associated with a specific archive or collection. If the work is published on a private website, provide only the URL as the source element.

In-text citation examples:

• Parenthetical citation : (Kim, 2019)
• Narrative citation : Kim (2019)
• Parenthetical citation : (Stiles, 2001)
• Narrative citation : Stiles (2001)

We hope that the information provided here will serve as an effective guide for your research. If you’re looking for even more citation info, visit EasyBib.com for a comprehensive collection of educational materials covering multiple source types.

If you’re citing a variety of different sources, consider taking the EasyBib citation generator for a spin. It can help you cite easily and offers citation forms for several different kinds of sources.

To start things off, let’s take a look at the different types of literature that are classified under Chapter 10.6 of the Publication Manual :

• Undergraduate thesis
• Master’s thesis
• Doctoral dissertation

You will need to know which type you are citing. You’ll also need to know if it is published or unpublished .

When you decide to cite a dissertation or thesis, you’ll need to look for the following information to use in your citation:

• Author’s last name, and first and middle initials
• Year published
• Title of thesis or dissertation
• If it is unpublished
• Publication or document number (if applicable; for published work)
• Degree type (bachelor’s, master’s, doctoral)
• Thesis or dissertation
• Name of institution awarding degree
• DOI (https://doi.org/xxxxx) or URL (if applicable)

Since theses and dissertations are directly linked to educational degrees, it is necessary to list the name of the associated institution; i.e., the college, university, or school that is awarding the associated degree.

To get an idea of the proper form, take a look at the examples below. There are three outlined scenarios:

• Unpublished thesis or dissertation
• Published thesis or dissertation from a database
• Thesis or dissertation published online but not from a database

American Psychological Association. (2020a). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

American Psychological Association. (2020b). Style-Grammar-Guidelines. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles/parenthetical-versus-narrative

Published August 10, 2012. Updated March 24, 2020.

Written and edited by Michele Kirschenbaum and Elise Barbeau. Michele Kirschenbaum is a school library media specialist and the in-house librarian at EasyBib.com. Elise Barbeau is the Citation Specialist at Chegg. She has worked in digital marketing, libraries, and publishing.

APA Formatting Guide

APA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Multiple Authors
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Parenthetical Citations
• Reference Page
• Sample Paper
• APA 7 Updates
• View APA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all APA Examples

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To cite a published thesis in APA style, it is important that you know some basic information such as the author, publication year, title of the thesis, institute name, archive name, and URL (uniform resource locator). The templates for an in-text citation and reference list entry of a thesis, along with examples, are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

Use the author surname and the publication year in the in-text citation.

Author Surname (Publication Year)

Cartmel (2007)

Parenthetical:

(Author Surname, Publication Year)

(Cartmel, 2007)

Reference list entry template and example:

The title of the thesis is set in sentence case and italicized. Enclose the thesis and the institute awarding the degree inside brackets following the publication year. Then add the name of the database followed by the URL.

Author Surname, F. M. (Publication Year). Title of the thesis [Master’s thesis, Institute Name]. Name of the Database. URL

Cartmel, J. (2007). Outside school hours care and schools [Master’s thesis, Queensland University of Technology]. EPrints. http://eprints.qut.edu.au/17810/1/Jennifer_Cartmel_Thesis.pdf

To cite an unpublished dissertation in APA style, it is important that you know some basic information such as the author, year, title of the dissertation, and institute name. The templates for in-text citation and reference list entry of an online thesis, along with examples, are given below:

Author Surname (Year)

Averill (2009)

(Author Surname, Year)

(Averill, 2009)

The title of the dissertation is set in sentence case and italicized. Enclose “Unpublished doctoral dissertation” inside brackets following the year. Then add the name of the institution awarding the degree.

Author Surname, F. M. (Publication Year). Title of the dissertation [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Name of the Institute.

Averill, R. (2009). Teacher–student relationships in diverse New Zealand year 10 mathematics classrooms: Teacher care [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Victoria University of Wellington.

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Architecture Research @ Yale: How to Cite Your Sources

• How to Research Architecture
• Primary Sources
• Newspaper Articles
• Biographical Info
• Dissertations & Theses
• GIS Resources Training & Support
• Images, Plans, Drawings, Maps, AV
• Building Materials, Codes, Standards
• How to Cite Your Sources
• Copyright and Fair Use

WHAT EXPERT RESEARCHERS KNOW

Citation management tools (examples include Zotero, EndNote, and RefWorks, among others) help you organize and track sources you are using in your research so that you can easily cite them. They save you time in formatting footnotes, endnotes, bibliographies, etc. Which one you use is up to you! Check out this comparison guide .

Citing Images

Consult citation style guides (typically Chicago Manual of Style or MLA Handbook ) and note the components below while you are collecting and managing your images—this will save time later when you cite your images. Citation style guides will detail specific formatting, but these are the major parts:

• Creator’s name
• Title of work
• Date of composition
• Name and location of institution housing the work  

Image Management

Keeping track of image citation information can be daunting as you acquire more and more images. Consider using an image management system such as Tropy to help keep them organized, and citation management systems to keep track of other sources.

Citation Styles Basics

Chicago Manual of Style

Researchers in arts fields often use the Chicago Manual of Style. The notes in this system are typically footnotes or endnotes that correspond to superscript numerals within a paper.

Resources for Chicago Manual of Style citations: The Chicago Manual of Style Online CiteSource Guide to the Chicago Manual of Style (Trinity University)

• Appear within the actual text at the foot of the page.
• Preferred by many for easier reference by readers.
• Appear at the end of an article or chapter (but before the bibliography).
• Are preferred over lengthy and unwieldy footnotes.
• Good places to quote or discuss supplementary material.

MLA: Modern Language Association Style 

MLA Style consists of in-text parenthetical citations and a Works Cited or bibliography section at the end of the paper. Sources are cited in parentheses immediately following the sentence or idea cited within the paper. A Works Cited or bibliography should be at the end of the paper referencing each source used, following these parameters:

• Only sources that are directly referenced in the paper should appear in the Works Cited list (not supplemental or background reading).
• The list should be organized in alphabetical order according to the authors' last names. If no author name is given, use the first main word in the title.

Resources for MLA citations: MLA Handbook (eighth edition) MLA Formatting and Style Guide (Purdue Online Writing Lab)

Giving Credit and Avoiding Plagiarism

You must give credit whenever you use:

• another person’s idea, opinion, or theory   
• any facts, statistics, graphs, images—anything—that is not common knowledge
• quotations of another person’s actual spoken or written words 
• paraphrase of another person’s spoken or written words

Check out these sources to understand more about avoiding plagiarism:  

• What Is Plagiarism? Yale Center for Teaching and Learning
• Online Writing Lab: Avoiding Plagiarism (Purdue OWL)
• Plagiarism Tutorial: Test Your Knowledge (University of Southern Mississippi)
• You Quote It, You Note It! (Acadia University)
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• Last Updated: Jan 22, 2024 3:26 PM
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APA Style 7th Edition: Citing Your Sources

• Basics of APA Formatting
• In Text Quick View
• Block Quotes
• Books & eBooks
• Thesis/Dissertation

Standard Format

Formatting rules, various examples.

• Audiovisual
• Conference Presentations
• Social Media
• Legal References
• Reports and Gray Literature
• Academic Integrity and Plagiarism
• Additional Resources
• Reference Page

Adapted from American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed).  https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Formatting:

• Italicize the title
• Identify whether source is doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis in parentheses after the title

See Ch. 10 pp. 313-352 of APA Manual for more examples and formatting rules

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• Next: Websites >>
• Last Updated: Apr 22, 2024 9:37 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/APA7th

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Définition(s) et évolution du genre romanesque du xvii e  siècle à nos jours

1. aux sources du genre : de l'auditeur au lecteur.

• créer un genre narratif, enchaînant des épisodes suivis mais aussi entrelaçant différentes « histoires » ;
• célébrer les exploits d'hommes valeureux et exceptionnels dans un temps légendaire ;
• mettre en relief les éléments culturels et religieux qui parcourent toute cette période du xiii e  siècle ;
• à la façon dont chaque auteur module les spécificités du genre romanesque ;
• au « héros », motif central du roman ;
• et enfin à la vision du monde qui transparaît à travers l'œuvre.

2.  xvii e  siècle : des directions variées, le roman pastoral et le roman d'analyse

Le roman pastoral, critique du roman pastoral et roman d'analyse.

• Le récit s'ancre, non plus dans une Antiquité lointaine ou une histoire de légende, mais dans l'histoire réelle. Mme de La Fayette situe en effet ses personnages dans le contexte du xvi e  siècle, sous le règne d'Henri II, environ cent vingt ans avant le moment où elle écrit.
• Les personnages sont inspirés de personnalités réelles de la Cour d'alors, et l'auteur mêle donc réalité historique et fiction (ce qui offre aux lecteurs le plaisir du « décryptage »).
• La langue employée dans ce roman est extrêmement classique – pas d'oralité, de la mesure dans l'expression – pour mieux révéler les troubles et les secousses engendrés par la passion amoureuse. La psychologie des personnages est donc un élément essentiel de ce roman comme des romans d'analyse qui lui succèderont.

3.  xviii e  siècle : roman épistolaire

• Tout d'abord, la forme épistolaire permet à l'auteur de jouer sur les frontières entre réalité et fiction . Plusieurs de ces romans se présentent ainsi (grâce à une préface ou un avertissement) comme un échange réel de lettres, et l'auteur affirme alors n'être que le découvreur et l'éditeur de ces textes. Cela permet bien sûr de contourner la censure ou la condamnation (pour immoralité, ou irréligion), mais cela offre aussi la possibilité de faire entrer plus facilement le lecteur dans un univers dont il pense qu'il est « vrai ».
• En outre, le fait que le récit soit formé de lettres engendre une conséquence importante : le changement de narrateur. En effet, le roman a autant de narrateurs qu'il y a de personnages écrivant les lettres. De ce fait, des points de vue divergents sur un même épisode se confrontent, et le lecteur a le plaisir de saisir les incompréhensions, de comparer les perceptions de chacun, comme s'il observait les faits selon une multiplicité d'angles.

4.  xix e  siècle : le triomphe du roman

5. vers le contemporain.

• Certains romanciers creusent la veine du xix e  siècle et s'attachent à la description du réel – tout en apportant des innovations de style ou de construction. Parmi eux, de nombreux auteurs, marqués par la violence de la première moitié du xx e  siècle, prennent position par rapport à l'insupportable (la guerre, le nazisme, toutes les formes de totalitarisme) dans des romans engagés  : ainsi Céline, avec Voyage au bout de la nuit , Malraux, dans L'Espoir , Camus avec La Peste , etc.
• Le roman d'analyse est toujours présent, ainsi que le roman historique , ou le roman d'aventures  ; le roman policier (apparu au xix e  siècle) connaît un essor important, ainsi que le récit de science-fiction  ;
• Dans les années 1950, le « nouveau roman » refuse la psychologie et toute subjectivité ; les auteurs de ce courant (Robbe-Grillet, Duras, Sarraute) ne livrent que l'extérieur des choses et des êtres, laissant au lecteur le soin de « construire » un personnage et un univers ;
• Enfin, les frontières entre fiction et réalité se brouillent , avec des genres comme l'auto-fiction , mêlant autobiographie et fiction.
• Le Père Goriot  : ce titre est centré sur un personnage. Le « père » signale un personnage appartenant à une catégorie sociale pauvre ou médiocre, en tout cas un roturier ; il indique aussi, de façon plus subtile, le thème principal du roman : en effet, ce personnage n'existe que par ses filles, et ce sont elles qui le perdront. Roman réaliste donc, proposant une analyse à la fois sociale et psychologique.
• De la Terre à la Lune  : Jules Verne montre d'emblée, en prenant pour titre un trajet à l'époque inimaginable, que nous nous situons ici dans un roman de « science-fiction », d'anticipation.
• Les Lettres persanes  : le titre même évoque un roman épistolaire. Il s'agit en effet d'un roman épistolaire de Montesquieu, dans lequel des étrangers, venus découvrir l'Europe, racontent leurs étonnements à des compatriotes restés en Perse. Réflexions philosophiques ou morales, descriptions amusantes, critiques acerbes se succèdent.
• La Condition humaine  : ce titre philosophique montre bien l'ambition et l'engagement de ce roman d'André Malraux décrivant une période troublée de l'histoire chinoise.
• L'Étranger  : ce titre est avant tout paradoxal. En effet, il est centré sur un personnage — mais affirme en même temps que ce personnage est un inconnu. Pas de nom propre, pas de caractérisation : il s'agit donc d'un titre qui intrigue le lecteur.
• Les Misérables  : Hugo annonce par ce titre que ceux dont il va décrire le parcours sont des gens humbles, miséreux, mais aussi des gens méritant la pitié. Les personnages ne sont pas seulement vus pour leur individualité, mais aussi parce qu'ils représentent une catégorie sociale.
• les toponymes (noms propres de lieux) ;
• les connecteurs temporels (dates précises) ;
• la description ;
• un mode de narration neutre, objectif.

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Thesis and Dissertation Formatting Hybrid Workshop: Regular Session

June 8, 2024 1:30 pm to 3:00 pm, about this event.

This combined workshop (registrants can attend in person or online) covers the submission process for format review and demonstrates how to use the automated templates to format MSU theses and dissertations to the requirements set forth in the Standards for Preparing Theses and Dissertations: 8th edition. These templates were designed to help an author organize and format their document with minimal effort so that their focus can be on the content of their document. Those who have already started writing or have already defended are welcome to bring their current documents (either on flash drive or email attachment) to start the process of placing their content into the template

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