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Understanding the US Congress: Structure, Functions, and Impact

The us congress: an in-depth analysis of its structure, functions, and impact on american democracy, introduction.

The United States Congress, often referred to simply as “Congress,” is a cornerstone of American democracy. As one of the three branches of the federal government, Congress plays a vital role in shaping the nation’s laws, policies, and governance. This essay provides a comprehensive examination of the US Congress, delving into its historical evolution, intricate structure, legislative processes, and the significant impact it has on American democracy.

Congress is more than just a legislative body; it serves as a representation of the diverse interests and opinions of the American people. Through this analysis, we will explore how Congress operates, the challenges it faces, and its essential functions in safeguarding the principles of democracy that our nation was founded upon.

Throughout the following sections, we will journey through the annals of American history to understand the roots of Congress, explore its structure and functions, dissect the legislative process, examine the powers vested in Congress, and discuss the critical role it plays in the democratic system. Furthermore, we will delve into the complexities of congressional elections, the challenges and controversies that Congress encounters, and the lasting impact it leaves on American society and governance.

Join us on this exploration of the United States Congress, a key player in the intricate web of American politics, as we unravel its significance in the nation’s past, present, and future.

Historical Evolution of the US Congress

The origins of the United States Congress can be traced back to the founding principles and the drafting of the U.S. Constitution in the late 18th century. The framers of the Constitution envisioned a central legislative body that would represent the interests of the states and serve as a check on the powers of the executive and judicial branches.

As the Constitutional Convention of 1787 convened in Philadelphia, delegates from the thirteen states grappled with the complexities of creating a federal government that would balance the need for a strong central authority with the preservation of individual state sovereignty. The result of their deliberations was the United States Constitution, which established the framework for the federal government and included provisions for the creation of a bicameral legislature.

The bicameral nature of Congress, consisting of two chambers, the House of Representatives and the Senate, was a deliberate choice made by the framers. The House of Representatives was designed to be the “People’s House,” with representation based on the population of each state. On the other hand, the Senate provided equal representation for each state, regardless of size, ensuring that both small and large states had a voice in the legislative process.

Early Congresses faced significant challenges in establishing their authority and defining their roles. The First Congress, which convened in 1789, had the monumental task of not only passing laws but also interpreting and implementing the newly ratified Constitution. This Congress set important precedents, including the establishment of key executive departments and the Bill of Rights, which protected individual liberties.

Over time, the powers and responsibilities of Congress evolved, often in response to historical events and societal changes. The expansion of Congress’s authority was influenced by constitutional amendments, such as the Reconstruction Amendments following the Civil War, which granted Congress the power to enforce civil rights and protect voting rights.

Throughout the 20th century, Congress continued to adapt and address the needs of a changing nation. Major legislative initiatives, such as the New Deal and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, reshaped the role of the federal government in American society and highlighted Congress’s capacity for addressing pressing national issues.

As we delve deeper into the historical evolution of the US Congress, we will explore the milestones, challenges, and amendments that have shaped this vital institution. Understanding its historical context is crucial to appreciating the complexities of Congress’s structure and functions in the modern era.

The Structure of the US Congress

The United States Congress is a complex institution with a carefully designed structure that reflects the principles of federalism and representation. It is composed of two distinct chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate, each with its unique characteristics and roles.

Bicameral Nature

Congress’s bicameral nature, consisting of two houses, was a deliberate choice by the framers of the Constitution. This design aimed to strike a balance between the interests of the states and the needs of the national government.

The House of Representatives is often referred to as the “People’s House” because its members are directly elected by the people of each state. The number of representatives for each state is determined by its population, ensuring that larger states have more representatives than smaller ones. This proportional representation aligns with the democratic principle of one person, one vote.

On the other hand, the Senate provides equal representation for each state, with two senators representing each state regardless of its size or population. This equal representation was a compromise to ensure that smaller states had a voice in the legislative process and to prevent larger states from dominating the Senate.

Representation and Constituencies

The House of Representatives, with its larger membership, represents a broader cross-section of the American population. Members of the House, commonly referred to as “Congressmen” or “Congresswomen,” serve two-year terms, which allows for more frequent turnover and responsiveness to the changing needs and sentiments of their constituencies.

In contrast, the Senate, with its six-year terms, provides stability and continuity. Senators are often seen as statesmen or women who deliberate on long-term national interests. This structural difference between the House and Senate contributes to the diversity of perspectives within Congress.

Leadership Roles

Leadership within Congress plays a pivotal role in shaping legislative agendas and guiding the legislative process. In the House of Representatives, the Speaker of the House is the presiding officer and the most powerful figure. The Speaker is usually a member of the majority party and wields considerable influence in committee assignments and floor proceedings.

In the Senate, the Senate Majority Leader is a key figure responsible for setting the agenda and managing legislative priorities. Additionally, the Vice President of the United States serves as the President of the Senate, with the authority to cast tie-breaking votes when needed.

Committee System

The heart of legislative work in Congress is its committee system. Committees are where bills are thoroughly examined, debated, and shaped before they reach the full chambers for a vote. There are various committees, each specializing in specific policy areas, such as finance, foreign affairs, or judiciary.

The committee system allows Congress to function efficiently by dividing the workload and expertise across members. It also provides opportunities for members to develop expertise in their areas of interest and to influence the legislative process significantly.

Understanding the intricate structure of the US Congress, with its bicameral design, representation methods, leadership roles, and committee system, is essential for comprehending how laws are crafted and how the institution operates in the American political landscape.

The Legislative Process in Congress

The legislative process in the United States Congress is a complex journey that transforms ideas into laws. Understanding this process is fundamental to comprehending how Congress operates and how it shapes the laws that govern the nation. Let’s explore the key stages of the legislative process:

Bill Introduction and Committee Referral

The legislative process begins when a member of Congress introduces a bill. Bills can originate in either the House of Representatives or the Senate. They address a wide range of issues, from healthcare reform to taxation and national defense.

Once introduced, bills are referred to specific committees based on their subject matter. Committees serve as the engines of legislative work, where bills are scrutinized, amended, and debated. The committee to which a bill is referred plays a crucial role in shaping its content and determining its fate.

Committee Hearings and Markups

Committee hearings provide a platform for lawmakers to gather information, solicit expert testimony, and engage in public debate about the bill. During these hearings, members of the committee can question witnesses, express their views, and propose amendments to the bill.

Following hearings, committees convene markups to deliberate on proposed changes to the bill. This stage allows committee members to fine-tune the legislation and make revisions before it advances to the full chamber.

Floor Debate and Voting

Once a bill receives committee approval, it moves to the floor of the respective chamber for debate and voting. Here, all members have the opportunity to express their views, argue for or against the bill, and propose further amendments.

The legislative process in both the House and Senate involves rigorous debate, often characterized by impassioned speeches and negotiations. Ultimately, the bill is put to a vote, and it must garner a majority of votes to pass. If it passes one chamber, it proceeds to the other for a similar process.

Conference Committees and Presidential Approval

Occasionally, the House and Senate pass different versions of the same bill. In such cases, a conference committee, composed of members from both chambers, is formed to reconcile the differences and produce a single, unified bill. This compromise version is then presented for final approval in both chambers.

If the bill successfully navigates through both the House and Senate, it is sent to the President of the United States for approval. The President can either sign the bill into law or veto it. A veto can be overridden by a two-thirds majority vote in both chambers, demonstrating the system of checks and balances between Congress and the executive branch.

The legislative process in Congress is a dynamic and often contentious journey. It requires collaboration, negotiation, and compromise among lawmakers, as well as responsiveness to the ever-changing needs of the American people. Understanding this process is essential for assessing how Congress translates policy ideas into actionable laws that impact the lives of citizens across the nation.

The Powers and Functions of Congress

Congress is endowed with a wide range of powers and functions that are essential to the functioning of the United States government. These powers are enumerated in the Constitution and provide Congress with the authority to enact laws, oversee the executive branch, manage the nation’s finances, and more. Let’s delve into the key powers and functions of Congress:

Lawmaking Authority

Perhaps the most fundamental role of Congress is its lawmaking authority. Article I of the Constitution grants Congress the power to make laws on various subjects, including commerce, taxation, defense, and more. Bills passed by Congress become federal laws when signed by the President or overridden by a congressional supermajority.

This legislative authority allows Congress to address pressing national issues, from healthcare reform to environmental protection, and to adapt to the evolving needs of the American people.

Oversight of the Executive Branch

Congress serves as a critical check on the powers of the executive branch, including the President. It exercises oversight by conducting hearings, investigations, and inquiries to ensure that federal agencies and officials are adhering to the law and serving the best interests of the nation.

Oversight can lead to the discovery of executive misconduct, as witnessed in cases such as the Watergate scandal and the Iran-Contra affair. Through its investigative powers, Congress plays a vital role in holding the executive branch accountable.

Budget and Financial Control

Another essential function of Congress is its control over the federal budget. Congress has the power to appropriate funds, allocate resources, and set spending priorities through the annual budgetary process. This power allows Congress to influence government spending and ensure that taxpayer dollars are used efficiently and effectively.

The power of the purse also gives Congress leverage in shaping national policy, as it can use budgetary decisions to advance or hinder various initiatives.

Foreign Policy and Treaties

Congress plays a pivotal role in shaping the nation’s foreign policy. While the President is the chief architect of foreign policy, Congress can influence it through its authority to declare war, ratify international treaties, and fund diplomatic efforts. This shared responsibility ensures that major foreign policy decisions have broad support and oversight.

Congress’s role in foreign affairs has been exemplified in decisions regarding major conflicts, international agreements, and funding for diplomatic missions.

Impeachment and Removal of Officials

One of Congress’s gravest powers is the authority to impeach and remove federal officials, including the President and judges. Impeachment is a constitutional mechanism to hold officials accountable for high crimes and misdemeanors.

The impeachment process involves the House of Representatives drafting and passing articles of impeachment, followed by a trial in the Senate. A two-thirds majority vote in the Senate is required for removal from office.

The history of impeachment proceedings, including those against Presidents Andrew Johnson, Richard Nixon (resigned before impeachment), and Bill Clinton, underscores Congress’s power to check and balance the executive and judicial branches.

These powers and functions underscore the crucial role that Congress plays in the American system of government. As a co-equal branch of government, Congress ensures that no single branch becomes too powerful, safeguards individual rights, and translates the will of the people into meaningful legislation.

Congressional Elections

Congressional elections are a fundamental aspect of American democracy, serving as the mechanism through which citizens choose their representatives in the House of Representatives and the Senate. These elections play a critical role in shaping the composition and dynamics of Congress, and they are governed by specific rules and processes.

Congressional Districts and Redistricting

The United States is divided into congressional districts, each represented by a member of the House of Representatives. The number of districts in each state is determined by its population, as measured by the decennial census. The process of redrawing congressional district boundaries, known as redistricting, occurs after each census to ensure that districts have roughly equal populations.

Redistricting can be a contentious process, as it often involves political gerrymandering, where district boundaries are manipulated to favor one political party over another. This practice has raised concerns about the fairness of congressional elections and the representation of diverse voices.

Campaign Finance and Elections

Campaigning for Congress requires significant financial resources. Candidates must raise funds for advertising, staff, and other campaign expenses. Campaign finance regulations, set by federal and state laws, govern the sources and limits of campaign contributions.

The influence of money in politics has led to debates about the role of special interest groups , Super PACs, and dark money in congressional elections. Critics argue that excessive campaign spending can distort the democratic process and give disproportionate power to wealthy individuals and organizations.

Incumbency Advantage and Term Limits

Incumbent members of Congress often have a substantial advantage in elections. Incumbents benefit from name recognition, a record of past accomplishments, and established campaign networks. As a result, they tend to be reelected at higher rates than challengers.

Debates surrounding term limits for members of Congress have emerged periodically. Some argue that term limits can promote fresh perspectives and reduce the power of entrenched incumbents, while others believe that they undermine the will of the voters by limiting their choices.

Congressional elections are an essential component of the democratic process in the United States. They provide citizens with the opportunity to express their preferences and hold their representatives accountable. The outcomes of these elections have a direct impact on the composition of Congress and, by extension, the direction of national policy and governance.

Challenges and Controversies in Congress

Congress, like any complex institution, faces a multitude of challenges and controversies that impact its functioning and effectiveness in American governance. These issues range from partisan polarization to ethics scandals, and they shape the way Congress operates. In this section, we’ll explore some of the most pressing challenges and controversies:

Partisan Polarization and Gridlock

One of the most prominent challenges facing Congress is the increasing level of partisan polarization. Over the years, political parties have become more ideologically distinct, leading to greater political polarization. This polarization has resulted in legislative gridlock, making it difficult for Congress to pass meaningful legislation.

Divided government, where one party controls the White House and the other controls one or both chambers of Congress, often exacerbates gridlock. This political climate has made it challenging for Congress to address critical issues, such as healthcare reform and immigration reform.

Lobbying and Special Interest Influence

The influence of lobbying and special interest groups is a perennial controversy in Congress. Lobbyists represent a wide range of interests, from corporations to advocacy organizations, and they engage in efforts to shape legislation and influence lawmakers. Critics argue that this influence can lead to policies that favor the wealthy and powerful at the expense of the broader public interest.

Efforts to reform lobbying practices and campaign finance laws have been met with mixed success, highlighting the enduring challenge of balancing the right to petition the government with the need for transparency and accountability.

Ethics and Corruption Scandals

Congress has not been immune to ethics and corruption scandals. Instances of bribery, embezzlement, and other unethical behavior among lawmakers have garnered significant public attention. Such scandals erode public trust in Congress and raise questions about the integrity of elected officials.

The House and Senate have established ethics committees to investigate and address allegations of misconduct. These committees play a crucial role in upholding ethical standards and ensuring that lawmakers are held accountable for their actions.

Congressional Reform Proposals

Amid the challenges and controversies, various proposals for congressional reform have emerged over the years. These proposals seek to address issues such as campaign finance reform, gerrymandering, and congressional term limits. While some reforms have been implemented at the state level, achieving comprehensive reform at the federal level remains a complex and contentious endeavor.

Challenges and controversies are inherent in any democratic system, and Congress continually grapples with these issues as it seeks to fulfill its role in representing the American people and legislating on their behalf.

The Impact of Congress on American Democracy

Congress is often regarded as the cornerstone of American democracy, playing a pivotal role in shaping the nation’s governance and ensuring that the principles of democracy are upheld. Its impact on American democracy can be observed through various lenses:

Representation of Diverse Interests

Congress serves as a reflection of the diverse interests and opinions of the American people. With members elected from all corners of the country, Congress embodies the rich tapestry of American society. Representatives and senators bring their constituents’ concerns to the national stage, advocating for policies that align with their constituents’ needs and beliefs.

Through its diverse membership, Congress ensures that the interests of different states, regions, and demographics are considered in the legislative process. This representation is fundamental to the democratic principle of government by and for the people.

Checks and Balances in the US Government

Congress plays a crucial role in the system of checks and balances that underpins the U.S. government. It serves as a check on the powers of the executive and judicial branches, ensuring that no single branch becomes too powerful. Congress’s oversight authority allows it to hold the executive branch accountable for its actions, investigate potential abuses of power, and maintain the rule of law.

The power of Congress to approve or reject presidential nominations, ratify treaties, and control the budget exemplifies its role in balancing the distribution of power in the federal government.

Role in Policy-Making and National Priorities

Congress is responsible for crafting and passing legislation that addresses the most pressing national issues. It has the power to shape the nation’s policies on healthcare, education, immigration, national security, and more. Congress’s deliberative process allows for thorough examination and debate, ensuring that policies are carefully considered before becoming law.

Moreover, Congress reflects changing societal priorities and values. For example, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, landmark environmental legislation, and healthcare reform bills are all indicative of Congress’s role in responding to the evolving needs and aspirations of the American people.

In conclusion, the United States Congress stands as a linchpin of American democracy. Its role in representing diverse interests, maintaining checks and balances, and shaping national policy is essential to the functioning of the U.S. government. Congress’s impact on American democracy extends far beyond legislative chambers; it shapes the very essence of the nation’s democratic ideals.

Case Studies and Examples

To gain a deeper understanding of the United States Congress’s historical significance and its impact on American governance, let’s explore a selection of case studies and examples that highlight pivotal moments and legislation:

Case Study 1: The New Deal

The New Deal, initiated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in response to the Great Depression of the 1930s, involved a series of legislative measures aimed at addressing economic hardships. Congress played a central role in passing laws such as the Social Security Act, the Banking Act of 1933 (Glass-Steagall Act), and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Act.

These measures transformed the role of the federal government in providing economic security, regulating financial institutions, and creating jobs during a time of crisis. The New Deal exemplifies Congress’s capacity to respond to extraordinary challenges and shape the nation’s social and economic landscape.

Case Study 2: The Civil Rights Act of 1964

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 stands as a landmark piece of legislation that aimed to dismantle racial segregation and discrimination in the United States. Congress played a pivotal role in its passage, with extensive debate and negotiations in both the House and Senate.

Through the efforts of lawmakers like Senator Everett Dirksen and civil rights leaders, Congress passed the bill, which was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a testament to Congress’s ability to address issues of social justice and equality and to transform American society.

Case Study 3: The Affordable Care Act (ACA)

The Affordable Care Act, often referred to as Obamacare, represents a significant legislative achievement in the realm of healthcare reform. Congress passed the ACA in 2010, after a contentious and protracted legislative process.

The law aimed to increase access to healthcare coverage, regulate insurance practices, and implement healthcare exchanges. The ACA showcases the complexities of legislating on issues as critical as healthcare and highlights the role of Congress in shaping the nation’s healthcare system.

These case studies and examples underscore the diverse and far-reaching impact of Congress on American governance. From addressing economic crises and advancing civil rights to reforming healthcare, Congress’s legislative actions have shaped the nation’s history and continue to influence its trajectory.

In this comprehensive exploration of the United States Congress, we have delved into its historical evolution, intricate structure, legislative processes, powers, and functions. We have examined its role in representing diverse interests, maintaining checks and balances, and shaping national policy. Furthermore, we’ve addressed the challenges and controversies that Congress faces and explored case studies that highlight its impact on American governance.

Congress stands as a vital pillar of American democracy, reflecting the principles of representative government, accountability, and the separation of powers. Its complex yet essential functions ensure that the interests of the American people are addressed and that the nation’s laws align with its evolving needs and values.

While Congress has faced challenges, including partisan polarization and ethical dilemmas, it remains a dynamic and adaptive institution. The ability of Congress to respond to crises, enact major reforms, and uphold democratic values is a testament to the resilience of American governance.

As we conclude this exploration, we are reminded that the United States Congress, with its historical legacy and ongoing impact, remains at the heart of American democracy, shaping the nation’s past, present, and future.

Frequently Asked Questions about the US Congress

The United States Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government, consisting of two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. Its primary function is to make and pass laws for the United States. Congress is a central pillar of the American system of government, as outlined in the Constitution.

The House of Representatives, often referred to as the “People’s House,” represents the population of each state, with the number of representatives from each state based on its population. The Senate, on the other hand, provides equal representation for all states, with two senators per state.

Congress also plays a crucial role in the system of checks and balances, serving as a check on the powers of the executive and judicial branches. It exercises oversight over the executive branch, controls the federal budget, and has the authority to declare war and ratify treaties.

In essence, Congress is the central legislative body in the United States, responsible for crafting and passing laws that govern the nation, representing the interests of the people, and ensuring that the government operates within the framework of the Constitution.

Members of Congress are elected through a system of representative democracy. Members of the House of Representatives are elected by the citizens of individual congressional districts within each state. The number of districts in a state is determined by its population, and representatives serve two-year terms. This frequent turnover allows for more responsive representation in response to changing needs and sentiments.

Senators, on the other hand, are elected to represent their entire state. Each state has two senators, and they serve six-year terms. Senate elections are staggered, with approximately one-third of the Senate seats up for election every two years. This system provides stability and continuity in the Senate.

To be eligible to run for the House of Representatives, a candidate must be at least 25 years old, a U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and a resident of the state they wish to represent. Senators must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. citizen for at least nine years, and a resident of the state they seek to represent.

These election and eligibility requirements are specified in the United States Constitution to ensure that members of Congress are accountable to the people they serve.

The United States Congress is bicameral, consisting of two separate chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. These two chambers have distinct characteristics and roles within the legislative process:

House of Representatives:

• Often called the “People’s House.”
• Members are elected to represent specific congressional districts within their state.
• The number of representatives per state is determined by its population.
• Each representative serves a two-year term, with elections held every even-numbered year.
• The House has the power to initiate revenue bills (tax-related legislation).
• The Speaker of the House is the presiding officer and a prominent leadership figure.
• Provides equal representation for all states, with each state having two senators.
• Senators are elected to represent the entire state, not specific districts.
• Each senator serves a six-year term, with staggered elections (approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election every two years).
• The Senate has the authority to approve or reject treaties and presidential nominations.
• The Vice President of the United States serves as the President of the Senate but can only vote to break ties.

The distinct representation methods, term lengths, and constitutional powers of the two chambers are designed to ensure a balance between the interests of states and the population while providing stability and continuity in legislative processes.

The legislative process in Congress is a multi-step journey through which bills (proposed laws) become federal law. Here’s an overview of the key stages in the process:

Bill Introduction: Any member of Congress can introduce a bill in either the House of Representatives or the Senate. Bills can address a wide range of issues, from healthcare reform to environmental regulations.

Committee Review: Bills are referred to specific committees based on their subject matter. Committees are where bills are thoroughly examined, debated, and amended. They provide expertise and allow for in-depth consideration of legislation.

Floor Debate and Vote: If a bill passes through committee, it moves to the floor of the respective chamber for debate and voting. Here, all members can express their views, propose amendments, and ultimately vote on the bill. A majority vote is required for the bill to pass.

Conference Committee: If the House and Senate pass different versions of the same bill, a conference committee may be formed to reconcile the differences and produce a unified version.

Presidential Approval: Once a bill is approved by both chambers, it is sent to the President for approval. The President can either sign the bill into law or veto it. Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both the House and the Senate.

Throughout this process, bills may be amended, debated, and undergo significant changes before becoming law. The legislative process is designed to allow for careful consideration and input from elected representatives before a bill is enacted.

Congressional committees are essential components of the legislative process. They are specialized groups of members from both the House of Representatives and the Senate responsible for reviewing, amending, and fine-tuning bills. Committees focus on specific policy areas, such as finance, foreign affairs, or healthcare, allowing them to develop expertise in those areas.

The importance of committees lies in their ability to perform in-depth examinations of bills, hold hearings to gather expert testimony, and deliberate on potential changes. Committees play a crucial role in shaping legislation before it reaches the full chambers for a vote. They help ensure that bills are well-crafted and thoroughly vetted, contributing to the efficiency and effectiveness of Congress.

Congress exercises oversight over the executive branch to ensure that it operates within the bounds of the law and in the best interests of the nation. Oversight takes several forms, including hearings, investigations, and inquiries conducted by congressional committees.

Committees may call executive branch officials to testify, request documents, and conduct investigations into matters of public concern. Oversight activities aim to shed light on potential abuses of power, misconduct, or inefficiencies within the executive branch.

Oversight plays a crucial role in maintaining the system of checks and balances, as it holds the President and executive agencies accountable for their actions. It helps ensure that government agencies operate transparently, efficiently, and in accordance with the law.

The United States Constitution enumerates several significant powers granted to Congress, including:

• The power to make laws, which is its primary function (Article I, Section 8).
• The power to tax and spend (Article I, Section 8).
• The power to declare war (Article I, Section 8).
• The power to regulate commerce (Article I, Section 8).
• The power to establish federal courts (Article I, Section 8).
• The power to impeach and remove federal officials (Article I, Section 2 and Article II, Section 4).

These enumerated powers are central to Congress’s role in the federal government. They empower Congress to shape national policy, maintain checks and balances, and ensure that the government operates in accordance with the Constitution.

Citizens can actively participate in the democratic process and influence Congress in several ways:

• Voting in congressional elections to choose representatives and senators who align with their values.
• Contacting their elected officials to express opinions, concerns, and support for specific legislation.
• Attending town hall meetings, public forums, and legislative hearings to voice their views.
• Joining advocacy groups and organizations that work to influence policy and legislation.
• Writing letters, sending emails, or making phone calls to congressional offices to make their voices heard.
• Staying informed about legislative developments through reputable news sources and government websites.

Engagement with Congress allows citizens to play an active role in shaping the laws and policies that affect their lives and communities. It is a fundamental aspect of a participatory democracy and ensures that Congress represents the interests and concerns of the American people.

Party leadership in Congress plays a pivotal role in guiding legislative priorities, promoting party unity, and managing the legislative agenda. Each major political party in Congress, both in the House of Representatives and the Senate, has its own set of leaders. These leaders include the Speaker of the House, the House Majority and Minority Leaders, and the Senate Majority and Minority Leaders.

Party leadership is responsible for:

• Setting the legislative agenda: Leaders decide which bills and issues the party will prioritize for consideration.
• Promoting party unity: They work to ensure that members of their party vote in line with the party’s platform and goals.
• Facilitating communication: Leaders serve as spokespeople for their party, conveying party positions to the media and the public.
• Managing committees: They have influence over committee assignments, which helps shape the direction of legislation.

Party leaders are essential in the coordination and functioning of Congress, as they help navigate the complexities of lawmaking in a politically diverse environment.

A congressional caucus is a group of members of Congress who share a common interest, ideology, or policy goal. Caucuses can be bipartisan or partisan and focus on a wide range of issues, from civil rights and healthcare to foreign relations and veterans’ affairs.

Caucuses influence Congress in several ways:

• They provide a forum for like-minded members to collaborate and advocate for specific policy objectives.
• Caucuses can raise awareness about important issues and build support for legislation through collective action.
• They can also influence the legislative agenda by pushing for hearings, bills, or amendments related to their priorities.
• Caucuses may engage in outreach to constituents and other stakeholders to build grassroots support for their causes.

Caucuses contribute to the diversity of perspectives in Congress and often play a crucial role in advancing legislation on specific issues.

The filibuster is a Senate procedural tactic used by senators to delay or block the passage of legislation. Traditionally, a senator could filibuster by speaking for an extended period, effectively preventing a vote on a bill unless a supermajority of 60 senators agreed to end the filibuster through a process known as cloture.

The filibuster has the potential to impact legislation significantly by requiring a higher threshold for passage. It can promote debate and deliberation but can also lead to legislative gridlock and the inability to pass certain bills with a simple majority.

In recent years, there have been debates about reforming or eliminating the filibuster, as it has been used to block or delay many pieces of legislation. Changes to Senate rules and filibuster procedures can affect the legislative process and the ability of senators to pass bills.

Congressional staff members play essential roles in supporting lawmakers in their legislative, constituent, and administrative responsibilities. These roles include legislative assistants who specialize in policy areas, caseworkers who assist constituents with issues related to federal agencies, and administrative staff who manage office operations.

The roles of congressional staff include:

• Researching and drafting legislation.
• Analyzing policy issues and providing recommendations.
• Assisting constituents with federal agencies and navigating bureaucracy .
• Managing office logistics and communication with constituents and stakeholders.
• Coordinating schedules and managing outreach efforts.

Congressional staff members are vital to the efficient functioning of Congress, as they help lawmakers address complex policy issues, serve their constituents, and fulfill their duties as public servants.

Congressional caucuses are informal groups of members of Congress who share common interests, goals, or ideologies. These caucuses can be bipartisan or partisan and are typically organized around specific policy areas, demographics, or regional interests. Their impact on policy and legislation is significant:

Influence on Legislation: Caucuses can influence the legislative agenda by advocating for bills and policies aligned with their priorities. They often work together to build support for specific proposals and can play a crucial role in advancing or blocking legislation.

Policy Expertise: Caucuses serve as hubs for members with expertise in particular areas. They provide opportunities for members to collaborate, share knowledge, and develop comprehensive policy solutions.

Constituent Engagement: Many caucuses engage with constituents and advocacy groups who share their interests. This outreach helps build grassroots support for their policy goals and keeps members informed about the needs and concerns of their constituents.

Awareness and Education: Caucuses raise awareness about important issues by hosting events, hearings, and briefings. They contribute to public discourse and educate both lawmakers and the public about key topics.

Bipartisanship: Some caucuses bridge political divides by bringing together members from different parties to work on common goals. These bipartisan efforts can lead to consensus-driven legislation.

In summary, congressional caucuses are influential bodies within Congress, shaping policy debates, promoting legislation, and connecting lawmakers with constituents and stakeholders who share their interests.

Who Gets to Congress? An Essay

Members of the House and Senate are predominantly middle-aged, white, Protestant, male lawyers. If people with these characteristics all held similar opinions, Congress would be radically unrepresentative on policy matters, but they do not. Of late, the number of blacks and women in the House has been slowly increasing. More important is the proportions of representatives serving several terms and occupying safe rather than marginal districts.

In 1869 the average representative had served only one term in Congress; by the 1950s over half the representatives had served four or more terms. In the nineteenth century the federal government was not very important, Washington was not a pleasant place in which to live, and being a member of Congress did not pay well. Because the job is more attractive today, one would expect more serious challenges; by 1970, however, over three-fourths of running incumbents won with 60 percent or more of the vote. A degree of competition re-emerged in House elections during the 1990s. This development has been attributed to re-districting changes and to voters’ anti-incumbency attitudes. Still, the vast majority of House incumbents seeking reelection are successful. Senators are somewhat less secure; in fewer than half of their races does the winner get 60 percent or more of the vote.

Why this is the case is a subject of controversy among scholars. One theory stresses that voters are voting their party identification less and less and may therefore be voting for the candidate whose name they recognize. Incumbents have extensive means of getting their names known. Also, incumbents can use their powers to get (or may simply take credit for) federal grants, projects, and protection for local interest groups.

Representatives are more likely to be not merely white, male, and senior in terms of years of service, but also Democrats. This is because more voters consider themselves Democrats than Republicans (though this is changing) and because the advantages of incumbency (whatever they are) began to take effect after the Democrats gained control of Congress. In only seven Congresses since the New Deal have the Democrats failed to control both houses (1947-1948, 1953-1954, 1981-1982, 1983-1984, 1985-1986, 1995-1996, and 1997-1998). Whether the Republicans will sustain their control of Congress is uncertain. The 1998 election is a midterm election, and so one would ordinarily expect the president’s party to lose seats, further helping the Republicans. However, Speaker Gingrich’s 1997 ethics charges and his controversial leadership may have alienated voters. If 1998 is unpredictable, though, 2000 is impossible to forecast.

Why Congressional Incumbents Win

Congressional incumbents do have certain advantages over their challengers. In Marjorie Randon Hershey’s Running for Office (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1984, pp. 103-107, 166), these advantages are explored in some depth. First, the experience of winning elections gives an incumbent a set of developed “strategies that seemed to work at least once, in the sense of having ended in victory. They may not know exactly why; indeed, they may have won in spite of the choices they made. But they do know that the whole package of strategies apparently brought voter approval” (p. 104). In short, in future electoral contests, “tradition” serves as an important guide for the incumbent. Alas, for the challenger, that reservoir of experience is simply not there.

Second, incumbents “also have the great advantage of more time to learn, since they receive campaign-related stimuli between elections as well as during campaigns” (p. 104). In other words, incumbents are constantly contacting their constituents and powerful groups, whereas the challenger has only limited contact prior to the campaign. (Casework also builds good relationships for the incumbent.) Hershey summarizes these advantages as follows: [incumbency] is a resource for learning-for gaining information, for developing more finely tuned expectations about the links between actions and their consequences. Thus it is not only the lack of money or name recognition that puts so many challengers at a disadvantage in campaigns; it is their relative inexperience with the difficult learning situation that campaigns provide. Without an already successful strategy, and with fewer opportunities to learn from experience and assess the usefulness of possible models, challengers start out with a learning deficit compared with most incumbents. It is a deficit from which most challengers never recover. (p. 105)

Does this mean that the challenger’s quest is hopeless? Far from it. Incumbent members of Congress can be defeated. Hershey asserts that incumbency can lead to stagnation; existing strategies may become so fixed that the incumbent fails to adapt in time to a changing political environment. In short, “incumbents can become victims of victory” (p. 105). An innovative challenger who senses shifts in the district’s mood, population, and policy preferences before the ossified incumbent does can emerge victorious.

Regarding the patterns of incumbency and victory in the House versus the Senate, Hershey specifies that senators “have been more electorally vulnerable than House members. . .” (P. 166). The reason rests with the greater media exposure given to Senate races. just as U.S. senators gain a great deal of media attention, “so do their challengers-and that gives challengers a boost in gaining name recognition among voters.” By contrast, reporters “frequently treat House challengers like surprise packages at rummage sales: potentially interesting, but not worth the effort or the cost to investigate” (p. 166).

Congressional Organization

Congress is not a single organization but a vast collection of organizations.

Party Organization

In the Senate, real leadership is in the hands of a majority leader, chosen from among the majority party, and a minority leader, chosen from the other party. The whip takes a nose count of how votes are lining up on controversial issues, keeps the party leader informed, and rounds up members for important votes. The Democratic Steering Committee and the Republican Committee on Committees assign senators to standing committees. Such assignments are extremely important to a senator’s career prospects.

The party structure is essentially the same in the House as in the Senate, with two important exceptions. The leadership in general has more power in the House, because the House is a very large body that must restrict debate and schedule its business with great care. In the House, the position of Speaker carries considerable power. The Speaker may decide whom to recognize in debate, whether a motion is relevant and germane, and (within certain guidelines) to which committees new bills are assigned. The Speaker also influences which bills are brought up for a vote, appoints members of special and select committees, and nominates majority-party members of the Rules Committee.

The effect of this party machinery can be seen in the party vote in Congress. Party is a very important determinant of a member’s vote-more important than any other single thing. However, party voting in Congress does not approach the levels that prevail in a parliamentary system. As parties in Congress have weakened over the last century, party voting has generally been declining, although it has resurged under Speaker Newt Gingrich. And much party voting is probably actually ideological voting: Republicans in both houses are predominantly conservative and Democrats liberal.

Congressional Caucuses

These associations of congressional members advocate an ideology or act on behalf of constituency concerns. As of January 1996, there were 129 caucuses in the Congress. They are of six types. Two types of caucuses are ideologically or interest based: (a) intraparty caucuses have members which share a common ideology (e.g., the Democratic Study Group); and (b) personal interest caucuses form around a shared interest in a particular issue (e.g., Congressional Family Caucus). The four remaining types of caucuses are constituency based: (c) national constituency concerns (e.g., Congressional Black Caucus), (d) regional constituency concerns (e.g., Western Caucus), (e) state or district constituency concerns (e.g., Rural Caucus), and (f) industrial constituency concerns (e.g., Steel Caucus).

Congressional Committees

Here is where the real work of Congress is done and where most of the power is found. Standing committees are the most important, because they are (with a few exceptions) the only ones that can propose legislation by reporting a bill out to the full House or Senate. Select committees last for only a few Congresses and have a specific purpose. Joint committees are those on which both senators and representatives serve. A conference committee, which tries to resolve differences between House and Senate versions of the same legislation, is a special kind of joint committee.

Traditionally, committees have been dominated by their chairs, who (throughout most of this century) were chosen by seniority. In the early 1970s a series of reforms, voted by the Democratic Caucus, decentralized and democratized committee operations. The election of committee chairs by secret ballot allowed the seniority system to be breached, meetings were opened to the public, and the prerogatives of subcommittees and individual members were enhanced at the expense of committee chairs. Many of these reforms have been reversed by the 104th and 105th Congresses.

Different committees attract different kinds of Congress members. Some, such as the House Ways and Means Committee and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, attract policy-oriented members; others, such as the House Post Office and Civil Service Committees, provide means of servicing a constituency and bolstering reelection prospects.

Congressional Staff

Congress has produced the most rapidly growing bureaucracy in Washington. In 1935 the typical representative had two aides; by 1979 the average had increased to sixteen but has held fairly steady since then, with the average standing at fifteen in 1996. Some staff members (increasingly located in district offices) service requests from constituents. Other staff members do legislative work, helping the Congress members keep abreast of a vast workload. The vast increase in staff has reduced contact among members of Congress, making the institution less collegial, more individualistic, and less of a deliberative body.

Congressional Staff Agencies

These provide specialized knowledge and expertise and are an important congressional counter to the resources the president can muster as chief of the executive branch. Examples include the CRS, GAO, and CBO.

How Bills Pass Through Congress

Crucial to the process of how a bill becomes a law is the number of points at which it may be blocked. A majority coalition must be assembled slowly and painstakingly.

Introduction of the Bill into Congress

In the House, a bill is introduced by dropping it into the hopper or handing it to a clerk; in the Senate, by announcing the bill’s introduction on the floor. Bills may be public (pertaining to affairs generally) or private (pertaining to a particular individual). It is often said that legislation is initiated by the president and enacted by Congress.

Actually Congress often initiates legislation; the consumer and environmental legislation of the 1960s and 1970s are good examples.

Study by Congressional Committee

The bill is referred to a committee by either the Speaker of the House or the presiding officer of the Senate. There are rules that govern which bills go to which committees, but sometimes a choice is possible and the bill can be sent to a receptive (or unreceptive) committee. Most bills die in committee. Important bills are generally referred to a subcommittee for hearings. Then the subcommittee (and/or committee) will mark up the bill-make revisions and additions. If a majority of the committee votes to report out the bill, it goes to the full House or Senate. Otherwise the bill dies, unless a discharge petition (a maneuver that is rarely successful) brings it to the full House. In the Senate any bill can be proposed on the floor as an amendment to another measure, so discharge petitions are not needed.

At this point the bill goes on a calendar, a fact that still does not guarantee consideration. In the Senate the majority leader, in consultation with the minority leader, schedules bills for consideration. In the House, the Rules Committee reviews major bills and may block action or send them to the floor under a closed rule, which limits debate and forbids amendments, or under a less favorable open rule, which permits amendments from the floor.

Floor Debate (Congress)

In the House, major bills are discussed by the Committee of the Whole under rather tight restrictions. The committee sponsoring the bill guides the debate, amendments (if they are allowed at all) must be germane, and the time allowed for debate is limited. The sponsoring committee usually gets its version passed by the House. Four voting procedures in the House are the voice, division, teller, and roll-call votes.

In the Senate, there is no limit on debate (except for cloture). Nongermane amendments may be offered, producing a Christmas tree bill (with goodies for lots of groups) or forcing the Senate to deal with an important policy issue in connection with a trivial bill. In general, the guidelines for Senate debate are negotiated by the majority leader and listed in an unanimous consent agreement.

Conference Committee (US House and Senate)

If a bill passes the House and Senate in different forms, the differences must be reconciled before the bill can become law. If the differences are minor, one house may simply accede to the changes made by the other. If differences are major, a conference committee must iron them out. In most cases, conference votes tend to favor, slightly, the Senate version of the bill.

The President’s Signature

If both houses accept the conference report, the bill goes to the president for signature or veto. If the president vetoes the bill, the veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of those present in each of the two houses.

Does Congress Represent Constituents’ Opinions?

There are at least three theories on why members of Congress vote the way they do:

1. Representational. This view holds that members want to get reelected and therefore vote to please their constituents. It seems to be true when the issue is highly visible and the constituency is fairly united in its stance, as was the case on civil-rights bills in the 1950s and 1960s.

2. Organizational. This view holds that members of Congress respond to cues provided by their fellow members. Party is the single most important of these cues, but ideological and intra-party caucuses, such as the Democratic Study Group, may also be important. Members also tend to go along with their party’s representatives on the sponsoring committee and with their state delegations.

3. Attitudinal. Members of Congress, like other political elites, are more ideological in their thinking than the public at large. Democratic members tend to be strongly liberal, and Republicans conservative. Moreover, because there are so many conflicting pressures, members are left free to vote their ideologies.

Congressional Ethics (or not)

The system of checks and balances is designed to fragment political power and thus prevent any single branch from becoming tyrannical. The problem is that this system also provides multiple points of access to influence government officials and in the process enhances the potential for corruption. Congress has been especially prone to instances of corruption and the abuse of power in recent years. This fact has contributed to the public’s low opinion of Congress, with only 17 percent approving of its performance in 1992. The series of scandals can be lumped into three categories: financial, sexual, and political.

The financial improprieties of members of Congress generally involve use of their political office to obtain some monetary benefit they would ordinarily not receive. Representative Tony Coehlo, for example, took a loan from a political fund-raiser and resigned over the apparent conflict of interest; Senator David Durenburger was “denounced” by the Senate for requiring groups to purchase numerous copies of his book as payment for speaking. In 1989, the powerful Speaker of the House, Jim Wright of Texas, was compelled to resign; and in 1997, Newt Gingrich became the first Speaker in House history to be reprimanded.

The sexual escapades of members of Congress have resulted in much media coverage. The problems have ranged from Representative Barney Frank’s homosexual relationship with a male prostitute to Representative Donald Luken’s 1989 conviction for a sexual encounter with a sixteen-year-old female. Recently attention has focused on sexual harassment on Capitol Hill; Senator Robert Packwood was forced to resign in 1995, after the Ethics Committee recommended that he be expelled for having sexually harassed several women and for refusing to be completely cooperative with the ethics investigation. The incidence of such harassment is probably more widespread than this isolated case. A 1993 poll by the Washington Post discovered that one of every nine female staffers reports having been a victim of sexual harassment by a member of Congress.

The political abuse of power is usually difficult to prove. The Keating Five illustrates the complexity of this issue. Charles Keating, head of Lincoln Savings and Loan (S&L), contributed an estimated $1.3 million to the campaigns of five senators. These senators in turn intervened on Keating’s behalf during a government investigation into the mismanagement of his S&L, an intervention that delayed government action and eventually cost taxpayers $2 billion to bail out the institution when it failed. The senators responded that they were acting only to represent a constituent, a key function of their job. Only one senator, Alan Cranston (who was about to retire), received a formal censure for his activities in this episode. In other words the line between “politics as usual” and the “abuse of political power” is sometimes blurred.

Both houses have enacted codes of ethics which suffer from the same defect they assume that corruption is mainly a monetary concern. But money is only one way in which an official can be improperly influenced. Even the monetary controls imposed by the codes are problematic because they inherently favor wealthy members of Congress who have no need to supplement their incomes. It is quite clear that political corruption in Congress has no easy resolution.

The Vote to Reprimand Speaker Newt Gingrich

Throughout the 104th Congress, House Democrats claimed that the new Speaker, Newt Gingrich (R, Georgia), had previously engaged in questionable activities. On December 6, 1995, the House Ethics Committee announced the results of its investigations of those charges. The committee found Gingrich guilty of violating House rules in publicizing his college course and a GOPAC seminar in his floor speeches, and in allowing one of his political consultants to interview candidates for congressional staff positions. The committee dismissed two other charges: It concluded that free cable broadcasting of the college course did not have to be reported as a financial donation from the cable company, and it only criticized the acceptance of a book advance from HarperCollins, saying that the action had created the impression of ,exploiting one’s office for personal gain.” (The deal had originally involved a $4.5 million advance, which Gingrich returned after a week of intense controversy in December 1994. Instead, he agreed to write one book and edit another, for a $1 advance and a share of sales royalties. HarperCollins was owned by Rupert Murdoch, whose media interests stood to be affected by pending legislation.) The committee then announced that it had decided to employ independent counsel to investigate whether fund-raising for the college course, which had been conducted through GOPAC and taxexempt foundations, had violated federal tax law. An investigator was duly appointed by the Department of justice.

Almost immediately after this ruling, House Democrats filed a new set of ethics complaints. Basing their allegations on a Federal Election Commission investigation of GOPAC, Gingrich’s leadership PAC, these charges alleged numerous improprieties in fund-raising and finances. Charges continued to be filed throughout 1996. In March 1996, the committee scolded Gingrich for violating House rules in allowing a telecommunications executive to volunteer in the Speaker’s office but recommended no punishment.

The special investigator submitted his report (over 100 pages long) to the Ethics Committee in August. On September 26, the Ethics Committee surprised observers by announcing that it was expanding its investigation to consider whether Gingrich gave “accurate, reliable and complete information” concerning his college course. At the same time, the committee gave the special counsel greater authority to investigate Gingrich’s finances, expanding the list of organizations and activities to be reviewed.

On December 21, with publicity and concern over the investigations having grown, the Speaker signed a formal admission that he had violated House rules. In an additional statement, Gingrich acknowledged that he had forwarded “inaccurate, incomplete, and unreliable statements” to the committee, but insisted that his actions had not been intentionally misleading. At the same time, a twenty-two page “Statement of Alleged Violations” was issued by the committee.

Following these admissions, House Republicans rallied behind the Speaker. Several pressed for a conclusion to the investigations before the January 7, 1997, vote for the Speaker. On December 31, however, the Ethics Committee announced that its disciplinary hearing would begin on January 8,1997.

Gingrich was returned to the Speaker’s office on January 7. Ten days later, the special counsel’s report was made public. Many House Republicans, whose leaders had insisted that the report would be comparatively mild, felt betrayed. On January 21, the House voted in favor of the disciplinary actions recommended by the Ethics Committee. Newt Gingrich became the first Speaker to be reprimanded by the House of Representatives.

The vote to reprimand was 395-28, with five members voting present. Additionally, the Speaker was fined $300,000 to reimburse costs associated with correcting his misleading information. Among Republicans, 196 voted in favor of the reprimand, 26 voted against; among Democrats, 198 voted in favor, 2 voted against. The Independent member voted for the reprimand. Even after this vote, there were pending investigations of the financial arrangements for the college course and for several televised town meetings. Gingrich was also awaiting investigations of his financial management of GOPAC and of several tax-exempt foundations.

As almost every political commentator observed, no one knew whether the Speaker would be able to recover his credibility and leadership strength following the reprimand. At the very least, the time consumed by the ethics investigation was time not devoted to setting the legislative agenda. And Senate majority leader Trent Lott (R, Mississippi) was well positioned to become the legislative leader of the Republican party.

A short time later, in the midst of the Clinton Lewinsky scandal, Gingrich was calling for the impeachment of the President. In barrage after barrage he assailed the character of the President. Then Larry Flynt’s “Hustler Magazine” offered money for those with information about the extramarital affairs of the Republican members of Congress. Evidence was obtained that Gingrich had also had an extramarital affair and he stepped down from the speakership and announced he would not run for reelection. After the Republican caucus chose Bob Livingston as speaker it was found out that he too had an affair. Finally the Republicans settled on Dennis Hastert as Speaker of the House.

US Congress Powers, Their Sources and History Essay

Introduction: built on the principles of democracy and equality, where it all starts from: the constitution, the declaration of independence: free to engage in international communication, the articles of the confederation: make peace, not war, questionable items and the means to address them, conclusion: empowered for providing people with their irrefutable rights, works cited.

Despite the fact that the powers of the Congress are relatively few, they still define the nature, the role and the significance of Congress in the structure of the U.S. government. The history of these powers, though, is quite complicated.

The Constitution of the United States and the Declaration of Independence provide the Congress with not only the power of affecting the processes of foreign trade, the taxation issue, the defense and welfare of the U.S. citizens, as well as the power of declaring war and maintaining navy, but also with the related powers, e.g., the support of the Navy, as well as a range of exclusive powers.

These responsibilities allow for creating a peaceful and democratic environment for the American nation to thrive in, as well as the well-being of the state and the safety of the citizens, though some of the powers, like the regulation of trade, may be viewed as binding for certain stakeholders in the realm of global trade.

Defining the key events in the U.S. history that predetermined the level, to which the government affects the U.S. citizens’ lives, as well as the powers vested into the Congress, the creation of the opposition to new taxes should be mentioned. Introduced into the U.S. economy under the slogan of “no taxation without representation” (Ginsberg et al. 31), the start of this movement did make a difference in the lives of present-day U.S. citizens.

By creating the movement that would soon get out of hand and, therefore, convince the U.S. citizens that the Congress must execute control over the process of international and home trade, entrepreneurs have defined the power of Congress in terms of the aforementioned domains. It should be born in mind, though, that the concern for the unlimited power that the Congress has over the international trading process may hinder the development of modern SMEs and enterprises due to a comparatively high amount of restrictions imposed onto the owners of entrepreneurships.

However, a shift from the traditional British values and especially the British reign over the economy and the trading process was yet to be dealt with. The economic independence and the principles of free trade, which later on would only be regulated by the American Congress and not the government of Great Britain, were the results of the event known as the Boston tea Party (Ginsberg et al. 31).

Finally, the Great Compromise must be named among the key historic events that shaped the influence of the Congress and defined the powers that were vested in it. Resulting in every state being represented equally in the Congress despite the amount of the state’s population, the U.S. government made a giant leap forward in establishing democratic principles in the system of state regulation (Ginsberg et al. 40).

It was obvious that the U.S. Congress had a long way to go before it could turn into the body representing the citizens of the United States properly and complying with the key principles of democracy, including the irrefutable rights of the American population. The issue of slavery and racial segregation was yet to be addressed (“The Roots of the American Revolution” 00:04:59); however, for the time being, the events described above served their purpose perfectly, defining the limit of powers that the Congress had to be entitled to.

The articles represented by the Confederation have also contributed to the evolution of the roles and functions of the Congress. It is quite remarkable that these are the Articles promoting freedom of speech and debate in the Congress, thus, allowing for the plurality of opinions to be represented among the members of the state government: “Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrest and imprisonments” (Ginsberg et al. A5).

However, the Articles had their problems, primarily, the amount of restrictions that they imposed onto the Congress (“From Articles of Confederation to the Constitution” 00:04:01), and Shays’s Rebellion exposed this weakness to the state government. Because of several economic failures and the relative weakness of the state government, the necessity for the Annapolis Convention to be called emerged.

As a result of the convention, the Articles of the Confederation were reconsidered and the strength of the Congress had to be reinforced. However, of all the events that stressed the weakness of the Congress, Shays’s Rebellion was by far the most significant.

Driven by a mob of farmers under the command of Daniel Shays, who used to be a captain in the U.S. army, the rebellion exposed the weaknesses of the Congress and, therefore, the needs to make the latter stronger by showing how inflexible the Congress was: “The Congress under the Confederation had been unable to act decisively in a time of crisis” (Ginsberg et al. 36).

As a result, it became obvious that more powers had to be vested into the Congress so that the latter could provide the U.S. citizens with the protection that they needed, particularly, with the right to make military choices in order to protect the rights and interests of the U.S. people.

Naturally, it would be wrong to claim that at present, there is a complete agreement on the powers that are currently vested in the Congress. Quite on the contrary, a range of powers, which the Congress is entitled to by the Constitution (“From Articles of Confederation to the Constitution” 00:09:34), are debated largely at present, the power to control foreign trade being the key hot topic for discussion. On the one hand, the right for managing trade and trade related transactions were handed to the congress since the day that the Constitution was founded.

On the other hand, with the modern globalization process and the expansion of a range of companies, the trading process has admittedly been shifted into the realm of private business. Therefore, it would be a logical choice to let the companies involved handle the trading process, whereas the Congress should remain a medium in the trading transactions.

Nevertheless, the Constitution and the Articles of Confederation guarantee that the state should execute its influence in trade in the course of interacting with international companies. Therefore, the current state of affairs complies with the principles introduced by the Founding Fathers perfectly (“Declaration of Independence” para. 5).

Though some of the areas, which the Congress is responsible for, might not seem to be the area of the specified body’s competency, the role and key functions of the Congress are clearly based on the key principles of the American democracy described in such historic documents as the declaration of Independence, the Constitution of the United states and the Articles of the Confederation.

While at some point, the powers of the Congress may seem to affect the state economy, particularly, trade, too intensely, the powers of the Congress are fully justified by the key postulates of democracy.

“Declaration of Independence.” National Archives . 1776. Web.

“From Articles of Confederation to the Constitution.” University of California Irwin . n. d. Web.

Ginsberg, Benjamin, Theodore J. Lowl, Margaret Weir, and Caroline J. Spitzer. We the People: An Introduction to American Politics Ninth Essentials Edition . New York, NY: Norton & Company. 2013. Web.

“Madisonian Democracy.” University of California Irwin . n. d. Web.

“The Roots of the American Revolution.” University of California Irwin . n. d. Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Bibliography

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Handout A: Background Essay – Congress in the Modern Era

Background Essay—Congress in the Modern Era

Directions: Read the essay and answer the critical thinking questions at the end.

In every election cycle, members of Congress return to their districts and home states and campaign to convince voters they deserve another term in Congress. Most members of Congress (hereafter referred to as “members”) will face a challenger who offers an opposing package of ideas, policy positions, and will make specific promises to vote for or against upcoming items of legislation. The House of Representatives is elected every two years in order to ensure that members reflect the sense of the voters. However, when the new congressional term begins, many members will vote in ways that contradict the promises they made before the election, and surprise the constituents who ushered them into office. The candidate for Congress sometimes behaves very differently from the person who becomes a member of Congress. Why, then, do representatives and senators make the voting and policy decisions that they do, especially in contravention of their public platforms and in violation of the promises they previously made to their constituents? Why do voters continue to reelect their individual representatives but disapprove of Congress as a whole? The answer lies in the structure of the legislative process and Congress itself, the dominating role of political parties, and the lure of campaign contributions from special interests.

Because Article I of the U.S. Constitution endows Congress with the sole power to raise revenue and appropriate these funds as it sees fit, members of Congress, particularly those in important legislative committees, are often able to directly affect how large sums of money are allocated. While all members vote on final spending bills, the bills are crafted and allocations are made in the committees before coming to a vote. Some committees, such as the House Appropriations Committee and the House Ways and Means Committee, are more important than others. Membership on lesser committees which have purview over specific budget areas are likewise significant positions, particularly in such committees as House and Senate Armed Services, and committees related to energy, and transportation.

Because Congress has the “power of the purse,” many members work to drive the allocation of funds to benefit constituents and industries in their home districts and states, and often push allocations for businesses and projects in which they have particular interests. These powers make members vulnerable to outside influences, often called special interest groups, who work to persuade members to allocate funds in ways that benefit their favored causes or businesses. Special interest groups can be, and often are, from outside the member’s district or home state. Some interest groups and industries employ professional lobbyists who work full time to persuade members and their staffs to attach specific language and funding to bills. Frequently, lobbyists are former congressional staffers and retired members of Congress who have specialized knowledge of backroom legislative processes and draw on an extensive network of contacts on Capitol Hill.

In return for working for special interests by introducing and amending favorable legislation, members of Congress can expect to receive support from these groups or industries, most often in the form of financial contributions to the candidate’s re-election campaign. The allure of financial reward has led many to call for campaign finance reform to further limit industrial and political action committee (PAC) contributions to members of Congress during reelection. While the interests of a particular lobby may benefit the nation as a whole, many lobbies seek legislation that would unfairly benefit their interests over others’. The more that these lobbies can help Congress members gain reelection, the more likely it is that members will continue to support legislation that aids these lobbies.

Members routinely spend millions of dollars to win elections and to keep their seats every two or six years. In one such recent high-stakes contest, in his 2014 bid for reelection Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell of Kentucky spent over $30 million to retain his seat. While a candidate’s funding can be drawn from their own constituents, and while they can expect generous contributions from friendly interest groups, industries, and PAC’s, the national political parties also play a role in the party finance of their own candidates. Therefore, the wishes of the national political party leadership also influence members’ voting behavior.

National party committees (such as the Democratic National Committee and Republican National Committee) formulate national platforms and electoral strategies in consultation with outside advisors, pollsters, and major donors. The party strategy is then implemented by backing candidates during the nomination process most likely to follow the party’s leadership, and the party attempts to influence the platforms of the individual candidates. Once elected, members are expected to follow their party’s particular legislative agendas. Within the House and Senate, each party maintains its own leadership structure. In the House, the Speaker of the House sets his or her party’s legislative agenda, and is assisted by House Majority Leader and the House Majority Whip. The minority party is headed by the Minority Leader who assisted by the Minority Whip. The two major parties also maintain junior leadership positions tasked with transmitting leadership policy.

Before a piece of legislation comes to a vote, members and their staffs normally have time to review and consider the contents of the bill. On important bills, party leaders adopt stances for or against, and transmit their voting expectations to caucus members. The whip keeps track of potential yes and no votes, and those who are undecided. Members who plan to vote against legislation favored by their own party’s leadership may expect to discuss their voting behavior with the whip. The whip’s role is that of an enforcer, and the whip must choose a carrot-or-stick approach to compel the member to vote with the leadership’s wishes. While the whip does possess a few methods of pushing members to vote in desired ways, leadership lacks a guaranteed way of enforcing loyalty. When individual members have the backing of powerful outside interests, are popular with their own constituents, or have prominent committee positions, there is little risk if they oppose the leadership’s agenda.

Among the most common punishments for failure to follow leadership demands include removal from memberships or chairmanships on committees. Bills the member has introduced may not be advanced through the legislative process, or leadership may publicly oppose their bill in retaliation. The member may lose important party financial contributions to their reelection campaign. Therefore, party leaders and their whip enforcers have several tools to coerce members to vote in ways that would seem at odds with their own political beliefs and past promises to constituents. If the leadership uses a coercive approach too often, it can cause discord within its caucus and spark calls for a change of leadership; leadership must choose its legislative priorities and carefully decide how it will persuade its caucus members to vote accordingly.

Thanks to the policy and budgetary decisions of Congress over the course of many decades, the federal government has grown enormously. The growth of the federal government in both its size and the scope of its activities has initiated a major increase in the size of congressional support staffs. These staffers assist members in wielding their influence to benefit favored groups and help members maintain their privileged positions and assignments.

Secondarily, they act as liaisons between the people and their elected representatives. While Congress is in session, a member is most often attending committee hearings or voting on the floor of the House or Senate. Because time is limited, they are unable to comprehensively read and review every bill up for consideration. This duty falls to the member’s staff.

A typical legislative staff on Capitol Hill consists of a chief of staff, legislative director, several legislative assistants, legislative correspondent, staff assistant, communications or press secretary, scheduler, and many unpaid interns. The chief of staff acts as the primary policy advisor to the member, who juggles the member’s relationships with other members, party leadership, constituent community leaders, and special interests. The legislative director helps write bills for the member and compiles a daily register of vote recommendations.

Legislative assistants are, in theory, policy experts who manage their own legislative portfolios on such topics as national defense, healthcare, energy, and education. They assist the legislative director to craft and analyze bills, and are liaisons between industries and interest groups and the member. Thus, the legislative assistant who handles the national defense portfolio, for example, is an important liaison between the congressperson and a company that does business with the military. The press or communications staffer is the media’s point of contact. It is this person’s role to shield their boss from criticism and to cultivate a positive public image that will attract voters. Additionally, press staffers often write many of the official statements that the media attributes to the member.

Legislative correspondents manage the task of daily written communication with constituents, either through the postal service or via email. Members receive hundreds of inquiries and messages from constituents and special interests each day. Though constituents receive responses ostensibly signed by their representative or senator, these responses are written most often by the legislative correspondent. Unless the constituent is of political, financial, or business significance, it is unlikely the member will ever see or hear the constituent’s specific message or inquiry. In addition to responding to questions and explaining the member’s policy positions and past votes, the legislative correspondent sends out mass mailings on legislative topics of the staff or member’s choice. The level of communication varies by the philosophy of the member or the member’s chief of staff. Some congressional offices sparingly respond to constituent enquiries, while others meticulously respond to every communication received.

Finally, a typical office employs a legion of unpaid interns. These individuals are normally the first and only person a constituent speaks to if they call the office. The intern is the first line of defense barring constituents from interacting directly with policy makers and their elected members of Congress. Additionally, interns contribute to many of the necessary clerical tasks that keep the office functioning, attend committee briefings, and escort constituents and VIPs who visit Washington, D.C. Non-intern staff are usually very young, meagerly paid, and work long hours. Because staff positions are constantly vacated in favor of more senior roles with other members or more lucrative positions in the private sector, the majority of legislative analysis, bill-creation, and decision-making is conducted by legislative assistants in their twenties.

Another side effect of the growth of the federal government, and the delegation of power to federal agencies, is the emergence of caseworkers. When constituents face intractable problems connected to federal agencies, caseworkers contact the agencies on the constituent’s behalf and attempt to resolve the problems they are experiencing. Often these problems come in the form of denied Veterans Administration or Social Security disability benefits. In rural congressional districts, constituents often find themselves at odds with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations concerning water and land use. In many cases, constituents receive no timely communications from the federal agency on the progress of their claims and simply want their congressperson to ensure the matter is still being investigated. In such common scenarios as these, caseworkers collect all pertinent background information regarding the constituent’s conflict or problem, and initiate a congressional inquiry in the name of the congressperson. These agencies, in turn, employ their own congressional casework liaisons who communicate with their caseworker counterparts on Capitol Hill.

Without passing new laws, it is difficult for Congress to change the regulatory or administrative decisions made by federal agencies. Because these agencies rely upon budgetary appropriations and authorizations made by Congress, they must remain responsive and cooperative with Congress members and their staffs. Still, Congress has delegated a great amount of power to these bureaucratic institutions. The caseworker merely has the power to inquire in the name of their congressperson on the constituent’s behalf. This affords constituents a second-look at their case and an opportunity to ensure that due diligence and due process have been followed. In the event that a constituent’s case is closed with a negative outcome, e.g. they have been denied a disability rating by the Social Security Administration or other entity, the caseworker is powerless to change the outcome, even with the Congress member’s authority on their side, and must just try to explain the situation to the disappointed constituent.

The growth of the administrative state, the allure of re-election, and the promise of rewards from special interests have all helped to greatly alter the nature of congressional decision-making and the relationship between members of Congress and their constituents. As this overview has shown, the evolution of Congress poses important questions for Americans struggling to find new ways of making Congress more collegial, deliberative, and responsive.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

• Why do members of Congress often find it difficult to keep campaign promises?
• How do special interest groups influence members of Congress?
• How does the member’s Capitol Hill staff facilitate the legislative work of Congress?
• Why do congressional members use a number of interns?
• Why is the Capitol Hill staff usually fairly young?

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Free United States Congress Essay Sample

The topic about the United States congress discussed here, strives to explain the organization of this legislative institution, its composition, the roles played by each house, the definition of the term bicameral and congress and finally a conclusion. Bicameral means two bodies. The United States congress is considered bicameral, because it constitutes the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives has representatives of every state based on population. The Senate contains of two senators from each state. Bills are keenly synchronized by these bodies before presentation to the President to be signed into law. If the President turns them down and does not sign, the bills do not become law.

The occupants of the two houses are chosen by being elected directly. Each single member of among the four hundred and thirty-five represents a district and the member who is eligible to serve a two-year term. Population divides the House`s seats among the states. Every state has two senators, regardless of the population. Since there are fifty states, one hundred senators serve for six-year terms. The terms are engineered in a way that after every two years, approximately a third of the Senate composition is up for election. Most representatives, who do not live up to the electorates’ expectation, seek re-election and stand a very better chance that exceeds 90% (United States 1900).

The House of Representatives and the Senate are equal as far as the legislative process is concerned. The two parties must come to an agreement for a legislation to be enacted. However, the constitution bestows each chamber with distinct powers. The Senate has the mandate of ratifying treaties and approving of the people appointed for top positions by the President. The House of Representatives is judged with the responsibility of starting or initiating bills that are aimed towards raising revenues (Revenue-raising bills).  The House initiates cases of impeachment, while the Senate gives decision on the impeachment cases.

If a person facing impeachment case is to be hounded out of office, charges against him must be enjoying the maintenance of a two-thirds majority of the Senate. The Congress may refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A legislator in any of the Houses is a member of the Congress. Therefore, he or she might be referred to as a congressman or congresswoman respectively. The members of the Congress are referred to using a general term that is a Congressperson.

The main aim of the Congress has been to maintain freedom and be a formidable driving force of the government. The Congress is the heart and the soul of the United States democracy. The Congress has been perceived by a certain analyst to be a vital institution in shaping government policy. All members of the Congress serve two unique roles that are representation of local interests and lawmaking in order to safeguard national interests.

This system allows the congresspersons to effectively champion interests of their people. The Senate, being the top most institution, is commissioned to pass or turn down the top presidential appointments.  These way national resources are entrusted to very selfless people, who might ensure an equal and fair distribution of resources. Additionally, the House of Representatives has the mandate to initiate bills that are meant to increase revenues. Since the members of representatives are in touch with the people at grassroots level, they are likely to make recommendations that are friendly to the poor (United States 1873).

The House of Representatives is more responsive to its constituents. This House represents a district unlike the other House that represents the state. Since the House of Representative represents a less geographical area, it is better placed as far as the electorate’s interests are concerned. Cognizant of the fact that both members are elected at regular intervals, the interests of the citizens are well represented, because the members will seek re-election.

The United States Congress that embraces the idea of bicameral Houses is fantastic. This is because the two Houses have their roles clearly stipulated in the constitution. This stipulation ensures that none of the Houses plays the roles of another (United States 1900). The decisions that are effected collectively by the two Houses, for example, impeachment, ensure that there is a coordination between the two Houses. The Congress form of legislation should be copied by other countries for better governance and the appointment of level headed officials.

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Is this the least productive congress ever? Yes, but it’s not just because they’re lazy

Assistant Professor of Political Science, Boise State University

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Charlie Hunt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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Congress has once again been making headlines for all the wrong reasons, with multiple news outlets in recent months touting the current 118th Congress as possibly the least productive in the institution’s history. In 2023, Congress only passed 34 bills into law, the lowest number in decades.

Congress was only recently able to pass a budget bill that will keep the government open until the fall of 2024 after months of delay and stopgap measures.

As a result, House Speaker Mike Johnson’s gavel seems to be hanging in the balance yet again, as conservative Republicans revolt over his support for the bill.

Even so, the dire warnings from the media, and even from members of Congress , about the legislative branch’s lack of productivity frequently lack context and are often misleading. Let’s drill down into the numbers and see what political science has to say about it.

What makes Congress productive?

Historically, there’s been significant variation in the amount of legislating Congress does from year to year. There are a few well-understood factors that influence this, and all help explain why 2023 wasn’t ever likely to be a banner year for congressional productivity.

One obvious factor is party control of Congress and the presidency. If the Senate, House and the presidency are controlled by the same party, then there is typically more policy agreement between them, smoothing the way for easier passage of bills. Both Democrats and Republicans enjoyed what political scientists like me call “unified government” control during the most productive initial years of the Biden, Trump and Obama administrations .

There’s also evidence that election years spur more , not less, legislative productivity. Members of Congress know each other better in the second year of their term; they have dispensed with many of the ceremonial duties that begin a congressional session; and members are eager to demonstrate their legislative action to constituents during their reelection campaigns.

It’s possible that Congress will pick up its pace in 2024. Last year, Congress passed a number of stopgap funding bills, along with smaller legislation on veterans and environmental issues . But crucial issues like foreign aid, social media regulation and immigration are still on the table.

Finally, and maybe most importantly, Congress is in the best position to succeed when it’s led by competent and experienced legislators with lots of political capital .

This hasn’t been the case so far in the current Congress. The House has had two brand-new speakers in the span of a year, and both lacked the political power, experience or acumen to command the chamber and produce passable legislation.

Speaker Kevin McCarthy, a Republican from California, was ousted in October 2023 due to lack of support within his own party. Johnson, a Louisiana Republican, has scant experience, having only served three complete terms in office.

Johnson’s job has been made even more difficult by the continually shrinking majority that Republicans have in the chamber. And rampant polarization between the two parties has made finding legislative agreement increasingly difficult .

How you measure productivity matters

Most of the media coverage of Congress’s historic lack of productivity tends to focus on the number of bills passed into law as a key measure. But this is a simplistic approach because it treats all bills as equally important regardless of substance.

Some bills that become law are purely ceremonial; for example, they rename Veterans Affairs facilities or mint commemorative coins .

Others take more substantive action, like regulating foreign trade . Others still are not just substantive, but are what policymakers dub “landmark” pieces of legislation, like the Affordable Care Act of 2010 – also known as Obamacare – or the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 .

Using the raw total of bills passed and enacted into law treats all of these as the same. More accurate counts might give less weight to, or remove, nonsubstantive legislation from the count, and give extra weight to landmark legislation.

A related issue is that the size and scope of the average piece of legislation has changed dramatically in recent decades. Congress increasingly engages in what’s called “ omnibus legislating ,” which combines multiple, sometimes unrelated, pieces of legislation into one megasized bill that receives one vote.

This process has led to fewer, and larger, substantive bills rather than a higher number of smaller pieces of legislation.

For example, the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act – price tag, US$800 billion – or the 2021 American Rescue Plan – price tag $1.9 trillion – only count as two bills. In prior decades, their substance would have been divided into dozens of bills.

There are other ways legislators can be productive. When today’s members introduce bills, hold committee hearings and advocate for their legislation, these actions can matter even if the bills don’t pass in the current Congress. Legislative effort undertaken today can lay the groundwork for legislative progress achieved in the future.

2023 was still a low point

All of this context is crucial for understanding whether Congress is doing an effective lawmaking job. Even so, it looks like the Congress of 2023 — particularly the House — was historically unproductive, no matter how you slice it.

Lawmakers introduced about as much legislation as usual, but due to 2023’s leadership chaos, along with the seemingly never-ending battles over the federal budget, very little of this legislation is getting any attention, much less votes on its final passage.

The 118th Congress lasts from January 2023 through the first few days of January 2025, so it still has time to make up this historic deficit. But at this point, it seems unlikely that Congress will be much more productive in the upcoming nine months than it has been for the last 15.

• Barack Obama
• Democratic Party
• Republican Party
• US Congress
• Mythbusting
• Donald Trump
• Legislation
• US House of Representatives
• Speaker of the House
• Kevin McCarthy
• divided government
• Mike Johnson
• 2024 US election

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• The President and Congress

The president's relationship with Congress is essential to American politics. Congress is the chief legislative body of the United States and as such, it is essential that it works constructively with the president to pass laws that benefit the country.

According to political commentators, the relationship between the president and Congress is the “essential link” in American politics.

Congress decides whether to pass potential presidential authorisations. There are more favourable outcomes when Congress has a politically positive relationship with the president. However, the makeup of Congress can be unrepresentative of the political standing of the president. For example, President Obama has been at odds with Congress ever since Republicans took control of the House in 2010.

It’s essential that presidents have a good relationship with Congress if they stand a chance of getting their policies passed. For example, President John F Kennedy had a poor relationship with Congress and because of his very narrow victory over Richard Nixon in the presidential election, he was totally dependent on Congress for enacting policies. In his own words, "A good many programs I care about may go down the drain as a result of this [his relationship with congress] - we may all go down." It also did not help that he was a liberal northern democrat, while the party majority was with southern democrats.

It is impossible for a president to avoid working with Congress - the two are incompatible without the other. In recent decades Congress has ratified some of the most important bills after plenty of backroom debate. For example, Lyndon Johnson’s Great Reform Bills were passed after a long debate among the Congressional chairmen.

If a bill is particularly controversial, Congress and the president can bargain with each other. The president will create a vague statement for the proposed legislation, which will be added to and developed by members of the Executive Office. They will then contact Congress who can privately identify potential issues with the bill. As a result of these prior amendments, when Congress considers the bill for ratification it is usually passed with ease as the potential sticking points are already resolved.

It is in the government’s interest to keep disagreements between the president and Congress out of the public eye. The have only been a few occasions when a dispute between the President and Congress has erupted. One of the most publicised disputes was during Bill Clinton’s presidency, when Congress attempted to oust him over his affair with Monica Lewinsky.  Neither group benefited from the scandal - the president was accused of being an adulterer, while the Republicans in Congress exploited the scandal to discredit the president. The scandal revealed the divide between the president and Congress.

What does the Constitution say about the President and Congress?

The Constitution does not envision a master-and-servant relationship between the President and Congress. The writers of the document took care to create a system of government in which there is a balance of powers and extensive checks and balances between them. In fact, the framers actually gave more specific powers to Congress, for they were wary that a too-powerful President would repeat the wrongs that the King of England had inflicted on the colonies.

Over time the president’s influence has grown, but during the 19th century, congressmen were the driving force in American government.

Right to Veto

Article I Section 7, states that the president has the right to veto legislation presented to him. If a president refuses to sign the legislation presented to him, then that legislation in its current form does not become law. In order to overturn this veto, Congress must muster a two thirds majority.

Presidential Recommendations

Article II Section 3, states that the president can recommend for Congress to consider measures that he judges as “necessary and expedient". This power to recommend enables the president to decide upon the order of priorities.

Though Congress has the right to reject presidential recommendations, it rarely does so. If there is disagreement over the recommendation, it may be diluted to make it more likely to pass through Congress. Both parts of government have to be seen working together for the people.

All presidents base their relationships on Congress on the power of recommendation, lobbying, agenda setting.

For a president to have a successful relationship with Congress, it is essential that he has powers of persuasion. A president has to rely on developing good relations with Congress, good tactics and bargaining skills in order to win support.

MLA Citation/Reference

"The President and Congress". HistoryLearning.com. 2024. Web.

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Understanding the functions of the Senate and Congress is integral in understanding American politics. The United States government is comprised of three different branches; the executive branch, the legislative branch, and the judicial branch. This essay will provide an overview of the U.S. Congress and addressed the differences between the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate. This essay will analyze the powers granted to the U.S. Congress and explain the roles and functions of the House of Representatives and the Senate. This essay will also explain the organization of political parties as well as leadership roles in the house. The legislative branch is comprised of the House of Representatives and the Senate, which together form the United States Congress. Bills are presented and laws are passed in Congress.The U.S Congress was been established in the late 1700s and it is …show more content…

The Legislative process is how a bill becomes law. The first step is introducing a bill to Congress. Though anyone can write the bill, only members of Congress can present and introduce it. The bill can go through many changes during its introduction. After introduction, the bill is referred to the appropriate committee for review. There are 17 Senate committees, with 70 subcommittees, and 23 House committees, with 104 subcommittees. The members of the subcommittee must agree to move forward with the bill and then it is sent off to the full committee; here, the process begins again and is repeated. The full committee must vote to approve the bill to send it on to the House or Senate. The House then debates the bill and if it is approved it will be sent to the President. The President makes the decision to either approve the bill and sign it into law or veto it. In the case that he vetoes it, Congress may override the veto with a two-thirds vote of each chamber. After this process, the bill would become

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It would be as foolish to assume that a committee can know and understand a full piece of legislation as it would be to assume that individual members of Congress would. For this purpose, subcommittees are formed. Subcommittees are a further delegation of tasking within the review of legislation. Valerie Heitshusen, an analyst on Congress wrote, “Most committees form subcommittees to share specific tasks within the jurisdiction of the full Committee” (Committee Types and Roles 3). Subcommittees are expected to present their finding on their assigned area of a bill. They, along with experts (witnesses) testify before the full committee on their findings. After the full committee considers the subcommittees’ findings, a vote is taken as to whether or not the bill goes to the chamber.

The Three Branches Of Government

In this process a bill is drafted, then it is introduced in the house. The Speaker of the House sends the bill to a committee, the committee decides to make changes to the bill or kill it. If the bill gets sent on, it gets sent to the Senate. In the senate it is sent to another committee and if majority vote for it, the bill will go to the whole Senate. The bill gets debated and amendments add, if needed, and then sent back to the House. Any changes made and House doesn’t agree it goes to a committee to find compromises. After the compromise it goes to the President. If the President vetoes the bill, ⅔ majority of the House can override the veto.

What Role Does Congress Play In Passing A Bill To Law

In order to fully comprehend how a bill comes into law we must first explore what a bill is, what party make up congress and what role the president play in passing a bill to a law. To begin, in legal terms, a bill is the form used for most legislation, whether permanent or temporary, general or special, public or private. It can be propose by citizens, the president or congress itself. Next, it moves to Congress. Congress is a legislative body comprising two inner bodies, the Senate and House of Representatives. The current Congressional house is composed of 535 members, 100 senators, 435 representatives and 6 non-voting members. It is also important to mention that the political view of the parties can play an effective of what bills become

The Legislative Branch Essay

The legislative branch is the most powerful branch in government. The legislative branch is in charge of making and passing laws. They have the power to override a president’s decision, stop laws from being passed, and basically control all decisions the governments makes. The legislative branch, also called the congress, consists of the House of Representatives and the senate. The reason for two houses of congress is to balance out the concerns of smaller but more populated states against states that are larger but with less population (www.Usgovinfo.com).

The Legislative Process And Healthcare Lobbying. The Healthcare

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How Do Political Parties Affect The Members Of Congress?

Firstly the members of congress, executive branch, or members of outside community draw up a bill. After that the members of the house only will have to introduce the bill on the floor of house of representative. Then the bill is sent to the committee. Only bills that are necessary and reasonably appropriate make it to the next step, which is the rules of a committee for debate. Then it goes back to the floor of the house for a debate and members of the house then will vote for the bill. If the bill is in favor by most of the members of the house, hence the bill is sent to the senate. The senator introduces the bill on the floor. If the majority of the committees agree then the bill goes to the entire senate to consider the bill. As it follows the same process of the house, there is a debate and if majority votes for the bill then the bill is returned back to the house of representative.

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Now that the bill has been passed through the House, it is ready to go through the proceedings of the Senate. First, the bill is again introduced but now by a senator who must be recognized by the presiding officer and announce the introduction of the bill. A bill that has passed either house of congress is sometimes called an act, but the term usually means legislation that has passed both houses and become a law. Secondly, the Vice President of the US, who is the presiding officer of the Senate, assigns the proposed law to a committee for further study ( the Senate has about 15 standing committees). The committees or one of its subcommittees studies the bill and may hold hearings. The committee may approve the bill as is, revise the bill, or table the bill. Now the bill goes to the Senate to await its turn on the Senate floor. Normally the bill is considered as introduced unless the bill is urgent in which case the leaders of the majority party might push it ahead. At this time the Senate considers the bill. Here senators can debate a bill indefinitely, unless voted otherwise. When there is no further discussion, the Senate votes. Most bills must have simple majority to pass. At this point of development, the process is especially exemplary because the bill in the Senate is now considered by debate to better illustrate its strengths and/or weaknesses. To summarize, the bill has now been passed by both houses of congress.

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After introduction of the bill, the referral or assignment to house or senate then takes place. In other words, the bill is assigned to standing committee. The Speaker and Lieutenant Governor appoint committee members and chairs. This gives the presiding officers great power and these vital decisions can

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But the bill can also be brought to the floor if a large amount of the Senate chooses it to. Then there is the debate, The Committee of the Whole debates and amends the bill, but they can not pass it. They will decide how much time each person will get to debate the bill. The bill will then go back to the house to be voted on; there must be two hundred and eighteen members present to have a final vote. If for some reason there is not enough members the House will be adjourned or the Sergeant at Arms will go get them.

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Firstly, there are standing committees. They are a permanent committee in house or senate that considers bills within a specific area. Each different committee is given a specific area of legislative policy jurisdiction. Members tend to seek committee seats that deal with matters of special interest to their constituents. There are select committees. It is a temporary legislative committee created for a limited time for a specific reason. They normally form to investigate public issues like aging. Another is joint committees. It is comprised of both Chambers of Congress. They can be permanent or temporary. They work with economy, tax, or Library of Congress. Conference Committees are formed to reach an agreement between the House and

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The Constitution gives Congress all of the legislative powers of the national government. The House and Senate share most of these powers. This includes the broad enumerated powers in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution—for example, coining money, regulating interstate and foreign commerce, raising and equipping a military, and declaring war. The House and the Senate share most lawmaking powers. Bills must clear both chambers in exactly the same form before they are sent to the president for approval or veto.

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The road a bill takes to becoming a law is a long and tedious process. First, the proposed bill goes through the House of representatives. Once the bill has been approved by the House, it is then begins its journey through the Senate. After the bill has been endorsed by the Senate, the houses of congress then meet in conference committees to prepare the bill to be sent to the White House. To summarize, the path the bill takes to become a law is a fairly complex impediment.

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Guest Essay

America Was Once the Country Begging Richer Allies for Help

By Stacy Schiff

Ms. Schiff is the author of “A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France and the Birth of America.”

Even before they declared their independence, it was clear to the American colonies that in their struggle against Great Britain they would need a wealthy benefactor. The colonies were desperately short of men, money and materiel. There was little by way of an American Navy, and barely an engineer on the continent. In 1776, the most gifted orator in Congress called for a declaration not by choice but by necessity, “as the only means by which foreign alliance can be obtained.” In that light, our founding document nearly qualifies as an SOS.

It was no secret to Congress that France secretly favored the American experiment. With General George Washington’s army down to a handful of rounds of powder per man, all eyes turned to Benjamin Franklin. No one had more experience with the world beyond American shores. Already Franklin had crossed the ocean six times. He was dimly understood to speak French. He sat on the secret committee that had dispatched an earlier envoy to Paris.

The unanimous choice on one side of the ocean, he was the ideal choice on the other. Celebrated across Europe as the tamer of lightning, Franklin met in Paris streets with cheering crowds and in theaters with thunderous ovations. His celebrity assisted little with his clandestine mission, however. The French government could not openly receive him without provoking their powerful rival, Great Britain.

Eager though he was to shrink the British sphere of influence, the French foreign minister, the Comte de Vergennes, was unimpressed by the Americans. He doubted their resolve for the task at hand, a fear on which the British ambassador in Paris played, advertising the colonists as a cowardly band of thieves and muggers. Vergennes was less impressed still by General Washington. He seemed to proceed from defeat to defeat.

In America, too, there remained varying degrees of discomfort with the idea of a foreign partner. John Jay hoped to win the war without French involvement of any kind. John Adams hoped to win the war without French funding. Washington hoped to win the war without French troops. Franklin hoped to win the war.

Though he knew the situation to be dire, he waged in Paris a war of disinformation. The farther the British penetrated the continent, Franklin crowed, the more resistance they would meet. He boasted that Washington would soon command a force of 80,000 expertly trained men.

The truth was closer to 14,000 amateurs, beset by desertions, discontent and disease. You would think we might have destroyed General Howe’s forces by now, the financier Robert Morris wrote to Franklin, “and we undoubtedly should had we an army to do it.” As France waited for an American army on which to bank and Washington waited for French aid with which he might deliver a victory, Franklin solicited secret arms, arranging for their covert dispatch to America.

With whispers of munitions sales swirling around Paris, the British ambassador raced to Versailles for an explanation. What was all that French military equipment doing in America? Could a shipment of 30,000 muskets, 5,000 tents, 60 cannons and 400 tons of gunpowder truly be said to represent a gift from a nation at peace? Britain would not tolerate such subterfuges. He made it his business to discredit the colonists in the drawing rooms of Paris. The French, he assured anyone who would listen, would soon tire of and abandon the ruffians on the other side of the ocean. Vergennes recognized the British strategy for what it was: They were leading the Americans to despair by crushing their hopes for French support.

The Continental Army’s victory at Saratoga changed everything. In February 1778, France and America entered into an official alliance; Franklin could at last deal openly with Versailles. At one point he submitted a 38-page shopping list. Along with a frigate and a ship of the line, Congress requested clarinets and trumpets, paint and thimbles. Vergennes was floored by the scale of the demand, reminding Franklin that it was equivalent to one-tenth of the French government’s annual budget.

Smitten though they were with Franklin, few Frenchmen could locate the American colonies on a map. It seemed equally likely that they bordered the Black Sea or were part of India. Nor did the two countries make for natural partners. “I cannot deny that the Americans are somewhat difficult to handle, especially for a Frenchman,” was the candid verdict of the Marquis de Lafayette. The partnership was held together by various illusions about the past and a general misunderstanding about the future. Even Lafayette at one point assumed that Washington would eventually be appointed dictator.

Vergennes engaged throughout in a familiar calculation: The only danger greater than not helping the Americans at all, he insisted in discussion after discussion at Versailles, was not helping them enough. He carried the day. The majority of the guns fired on the British at Saratoga had been French. The surrender four years later at Yorktown would be to troops that were equal parts French and American, supplied and clothed by France, all of them protected by a French fleet.

Few 18th-century Europeans expected America ever to play a role on the world stage. Versailles assumed that 13 disparate colonies strung over 1,000 miles of coastline would inevitably quarrel. History had proved republics to be fragile. This new one was unlikely, Vergennes contended, to develop any great appetite for expansion. Before it did, French vices would have infected America, stunting its growth and progress.

It would be well over a century, to cries of “Lafayette, nous voici,” before America acknowledged its French debt. A generation later, with the Lend-Lease Act of 1941, Franklin Roosevelt appointed America the “arsenal of democracy,” a role we have since reprised regularly. The rhetoric soared but the logic was as self-serving as had been that of the Comte de Vergennes. These outlays were investments in what Mitch McConnell recently called “cold, hard American interests.” The idea was “to help degrade the military of a major adversary.” The 1941 Act is known more fully as “An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States.”

Some 250 years after Franklin’s French errand, Congress is again debating the entanglement of a young republic — one that actually does border the Black Sea — with a wealthy benefactor. Political considerations aside, it pays to remember that the United States itself was, with its own bid for freedom, once the infant republic in dire need of munitions. No one at Versailles knew that the man waving about a 38-page shopping list would be remembered as one of the greatest diplomats in our history. Nor did anyone suspect that granting his requests would help to create an “arsenal of democracy,” a power that might one day, for the most high-minded and the most self-serving of reasons, assist another nation in its struggle for autonomy. Neither mattered when it came to the French calculus, based on something more fundamental. As one French gunrunner reminded Congress in September, 1776, “The enemies of our enemies are more than half our friends.”

Stacy Schiff is the author of six books, including “A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France and the Birth of America.” The Apple TV+ series “Franklin,” based on the book, is forthcoming in April.

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How To Write Your Congressman

An essay by representative jeannette rankin 1880-1973.

The first lesson I learned in Congress was that the members of Congress are more concerned with their re-election than any issue that could come up – even WAR.

Re-election depends on votes, so anyone who can influence voters is of great importance to a Congressman. If you let your Representatives and Senators know you can influence more votes that your own, it will make a difference in their attitude – and in the attitude of the people in their offices who read the mail!

When I was campaigning in Butte, Montana, a little boy jumped up on the running board of my car and said, “There are five votes in my family.” He was after some campaign posters and buttons, and I gave him all he wanted.

The first thing he had done was get my attention, and you’ve got to do the same thing. It’s not so easy when you’re writing a letter, but it can be done. Find out something good about your Congressman, and begin your letter with genuine thanks and a compliment.

The next thing to do is ask him a question: “How much of our military budget goes into Southeast Asia?” “Do you support the direct preferential election of the President?” “Would multiple-member Congressional districts give better representation?” Ask a general question, and be sure to give your own opinion – he’s either not interested, or he’s heard it before – but ask for his opinion.

Your reply will be a short form letter, written by someone in the Congressman’s office. It will read something like this: “I was glad to get your letter and am glad to take your suggestions into consideration. I hope to hear from you again.”

Take him at his word – and write again! Thank him for his reply and apologize for taking up his valuable time. Tell him you know he must be conscious of the serious conditions in the country. And then say, “But you did not answer my question.”

The secret is, you don’t ask the question again, you just refer to it. The aid or secretary will have to look it up by finding your first letter. You still won’t get a definite answer to your question, but this time the reply will be a longer form letter.

Be patient, keep your temper, and write again. Thank him for the reply, apologize for disturbing him, and add that he still has not answered your question.

Even at the point, your Congressman may not see your letter. But keep it up and eventually your persistence will be brought to his attention. After you’ve written five or six letters, you’ll get a personal, handwritten reply from him.

You have convinced him you’re a worker and cannot be ignored, and he’ll be interested in you, because he thinks you might work for him. But you should also convince him that you can influence or control more votes than your own. Remember that little boy in Butte, Montana? He told me there were five votes in his family, so I gave him all the buttons he wanted.

The way to do this with your Congressman is to write him on the stationery of some group or organization. If you don’t have a club, form one. It’s best to have the name of your community in the title and to make it non-partisan. In Watkinsville, Georgia, we organized a group and named ourselves “Oconee County Citizens for a Participatory Democracy”.

Get your neighbors involved, elect officers and heads of committees (such as the Membership Committee), and list these names on your letterhead. You can easily list six or eight names, including some prominent people in your area. In this way, your Congressman will know you’re not alone, and he will also know that a little effort and a single letter on his part may influence a number of votes.

Always write the most polite and honest letter you can. Your patience and persistence are necessary to “break the ice” and open the channels of communication. After this he will pay more attention to your letters. And perhaps he’ll even become interested in your opinions.

Another suggestion for getting action from your Congressman is to get your group together and divide the charges on a person-to-person telephone call. Tell him you’re at a party, discussing whether we should get out of the Vietnam War, and you decided to call and ask his opinion. Don’t tell him what you think, but use this opportunity to draw him put. And then write a letter, mentioning the call and occasion, and thanking him for his consideration.

Whenever you are planning a meeting of your organization, write and invite him to come and speak to the group or send someone to represent him. If you are having a dinner or luncheon or tea, list your Congressman as an invited guest – and keep your local newspapers informed of your activities and guest list!

You don’t have to worry too much about his coming, because he probably won’t make it. But write and tell him you missed him and that you hope he will be able to come next time. After a while, you may arrange a meeting when you know he’s going to be in town. And if he does come, be prepared for him!

Give the relationship time to grow. At first, your Representatives and Senators will not be at all interested in what you think. But your insistence on getting answers to your questions will get their attention, and your use of letterhead stationery, phone calls, and invitations will convince them that you must be reckoned with because you influence votes.

Keep your Congressmen informed of activities in the community without giving a clue to your own thinking on public issues. You will be doing them a service, and when they realize this, they may begin asking for your ideas and suggestions.

Always treat your Congressmen as members of your family, because they represent you, and you are responsible for them.

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