educational facilities essay

• The Importance of School Facilities in Improving Student Outcomes

Introduction

 A growing body of research has found that school facilities can have a profound impact on both teacher and student outcomes. With respect to teachers, school facilities affect teacher recruitment, retention, commitment, and effort. With respect to students, school facilities affect health, behavior, engagement, learning, and growth in achievement. Thus, researchers generally conclude that without adequate facilities and resources, it is extremely difficult to serve large numbers of children with complex needs.

According to the US General Accounting Office (GAO) almost three-fourths of existing US schools in 1996 was constructed before 1970. Of these schools, about one-third of schools had need of extensive repair or replacement and almost two-thirds had at least one inadequate building feature such as substandard plumbing, roofing, or electrical systems. Moreover, 58-percent had at least one unsatisfactory environmental condition such as inadequate ventilation, acoustics, or physical security.

Besides general maintenance and construction issues, researchers have found most schools lack 21st century facilities in the form of infrastructure, laboratories, and instructional space. More than half do not have sufficiently flexible instructional space for effective teaching to take place.

Thus, facility quality is an important predictor of teacher retention and student learning. The physical and emotional health of students and teachers depend on the quality of the physical location, which makes establishing safe, healthy buildings essential.

The Impact of Facilities

Improving the quality of school facilities is an expensive undertaking. However, when the positive impacts of facility improvement on teachers and students are translated into dollar figures, the rewards of such investments far outstrip the cost of the investments. There are five primary facets of school facilities: acoustics/noise, air quality, lighting, temperature, and space. These are addressed below.

Acoustics and Noise

Noise levels greatly affect teacher and student performance. In fact, excessive noise causes dis-satisfaction and stress in both teachers and students. Research has found that schools that have classrooms with less external noise are positively associated with greater student engagement and achievement compared to schools with classrooms that have noisier environments. Thus, building schools that buffer external noise from classrooms can improve student outcomes.

Air Quality

Indoor air quality is also a concern because poor air quality is a major contributor to absenteeism for students with asthma. Research also indicates that many schools suffer from “sick building syndrome” which affects the absenteeism and performance of all students. Moreover, bacteria, viruses, and allergens that contribute to childhood disease are commonly found in schools with poor ventilation systems.

Indoor pollutants are also emitted from office equipment, flooring materials, paints, adhesives, cleaning products, pesticides, and insects. All of these environmental hazards can negatively affect children, particularly in schools with poor ventilation systems.

Before the advent of cheap electricity, schools often relied on natural lighting. As electric power costs declined, the amount of artificial light used in schools increased. Research has shown that artificial lighting has negative impacts on those in schools while natural lighting has positive impacts. In fact, research has shown that not only does classroom lighting boost the morale of teachers and students, appropriate amounts of natural lighting also reduces off-task behavior and improves test scores. One study found that students with the most exposure to natural daylight progressed 20% faster in in math and 26% faster in reading than students who were taught in environments with the least amount of natural light.

Proper Temperature and Control of Temperature

One consistent research finding across individuals of all ages is that the temperature in which a person works affects engagement levels and overall productivity—including student achievement. Anyone that has worked in a classroom or office that is too hot or too cold knows how difficult it can be when trying to work when the temperature is uncomfortable. According to the best analyses, the ideal temperature range for effective learning in reading and mathematics is between 68º and 74º.

To maintain such a temperature in every classroom within a school, teachers typically need to be able to control the temperature in their own classroom. At the very least, teachers should be able to control the temperature of small blocks of classrooms that receive the same amount of sunlight and have similar exposures to outside temperatures.

Classroom Size and Space

Overcrowded classrooms—and schools—have consistently been linked to increased levels of aggression in students. Overcrowded classrooms are also associated with decreased levels of student engagement and, therefore, decreased levels of learning.

Alternatively, classrooms with ample space are more conducive to providing appropriate learning environments for students and associated with increased student engagement and learning. Classroom space is particularly relevant with the current emphasis on 21 st century learning such as ensuring students can work in teams, problem solve, and communicate effectively. Classrooms with adequate space to reconfigure seating arrangements facilitate the use of different teaching methods that are aligned to 21 st century skills. Creating private study areas as well as smaller learning centers reduces visual and auditory interruptions, and is positively related to student development and achievement.

Twenty-First Century Learning

Policymakers, educators, and business people are now focused on the need to ensure that students learn 21 st century skills such as teamwork, collaboration, effective communication, and other skills. As noted above, older buildings simply are not conducive to the teaching of 21 st century skills. This is particularly true with the respect to reconfiguring seating arrangements to facilitate various modes of teaching and learning and the use of technology in the classroom as a mode of teaching and learning.

Conclusions

A large body of research over the past century has consistently found that school facilities impact teaching and learning in profound ways. Yet state and local policymakers often overlook the impact facilities can play in improving outcomes for both teachers and students. While improving facilities comes at a financial cost, the benefits of such investments often surpass the initial fiscal costs. Policymakers, thus, should focus greater attention on the impacts of facilities and adopt a long-term cost-benefit perspective on efforts to improve school facilities.

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• Report: Racial Disparities in Pennsylvania’s New Funding Formula
• Access and Opportunity in Philly: Why PA Needs an Adequate and Equitable School Funding
• The Need for Increased and Equalized Funding in PA (part 1)
• School-Level Student and Teacher Surveys

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School Facilities: What Should a School Look Like?

The pandemic taught us new priorities.

Schools require facilities for learning, including classrooms, labs, performance spaces, practice spaces, parking spaces, storage spaces, and ventilation (HVAC) systems.

In This Lesson

What digital technologies do schools have, why is there a digital divide, how do school facilities affect learning, how do schools affect climate change, what was the williams case, how are school facilities funded, who pays for school facilities, how do you pass a school bond measure, why do schools use bonds, how are charter school facilities funded, what was california prop 39, are school facilities funded fairly, ★ discussion guide.

The Pandemic demonstrated that schools also need good digital facilities including networks, computers, screens, software, and the knowhow to use them. These virtual and physical spaces need to be safe, sufficiently spacious, and equipped with the right equipment, from heat pumps to firewalls. Nothing is free, and in California there have been many gaps.

This lesson explores the essential elements of education infrastructure: technology, buildings, and equipment. It also summarizes the policies and financial structures (especially bonds and property taxes) that make schools possible. Finally, this lesson examines the impacts of aging school facilities on inequality and the climate.

First, let there be technology

Until the COVID Pandemic closed schools in 2020, most people thought of the core infrastructure of a school as its buildings. Wood and concrete. Technology was seen as optional, or even distracting. It's hard to fully grasp the scale of the change. Back then, it was regarded as tolerable for the digital infrastructure of education to be flaky and cheap. The digital divide was something to be "narrowed," not eliminated — implicitly signaling that digital devices and connectivity were merely desirable.

Today, the essential core of an educational facility is its ability to ensure reliable connections between students and teachers, whether in person or remotely as necessary.

The core infrastructure of learning is digital.

When students and teachers returned to in-person learning in 2021, most school buildings were just as cramped and stuffy as they had been before the crisis began. To update them will cost many billions of dollars and take years. In comparison, fixing the unequal digital infrastructure of education ought to be the quick and cheap part. But the job is far from done.

Is the Digital Divide in education ending?

During the Pandemic, the government funded digital access for all students. Will it persist?

During the Pandemic, the federal government supported universal access to digital connectivity in each student's home through the Affordable Connectivity Program (ACP) . This enabled teachers to use digital teaching tools and assign digital homework with confidence that their students could access it. As of this writing in 2024, continued funding for ACP is at risk.

Reliable, trustworthy access to devices and connectivity is central to the US Department of Education's 2024 National Educational Technology Plan , which calls for closing the digital divides in "Access, Design and Use."

Digital data? No, just guesses.

It's important to acknowlege what we don't know about the real internet access conditions that students and teachers experience on a day to day basis. Certainly, some school sites have reliable bottom-up data about network uptime, performance, usage, and dead zones. Some of this data might flow to districts, but educations systems don't collect real data about it. When it comes to digital infrastructure, the Department of Education can only make educated guesses based on surveys.

One positive milestone for the shift to digital platforms in education is the College Board's 2024 decision to ditch the #2 pencil . This implies that each participating high school has reliable access — at least in the testing room on testing day.

The physical space of school facilities

There are about 10,000 public schools in California, including some truly enormous buildings. The campus of Granada Hills Charter School is so big the school website features an aerial tour .

Many of California's school buildings are old, and they were built quickly and cheaply to keep up with rapid population growth and sprawl. Some were built to obsolete standards. Much of California’s public dialogue about school facilities has focused on safety, like removing ">lead and asbestos, and ensuring that buildings don't collapse in an earthquake .

Design has consequences

When schools are renovated, the design choices affect how learning happens. For example, if the space is divided into classrooms that hold about 30 students, it’s likely that’s how instruction will be organized. Some programs, such as laboratory science and performing arts, require spaces for rehearsals and performance. PE programs are strongly influenced by facilities: a school with access only to paved spaces for recreation will emphasize basketball. A school with ready access to a grass field might offer soccer.

Heating and cooling facilities in schools

In the Ed100 blog How can schools battle climate change?

School buildings have to be comfortable for students to learn and educators to teach. Every few decades, schools need to replace their old HVAC systems. It's a significant capital expense, and a fateful one from the perspective of climate impact. If a school chooses a system that runs on gas, it might be stuck paying for fossil fuels for a long time. A system that runs on electricity, such as a heat pump, has the potential to be powered by sunshine or other renewable energy. UndauntedK12 , a nonprofit organization, helps districts consider their options, including ways to make replacing an HVAC system into a learning opportunity.

Some facilities are unacceptable

California schools must provide every child a reasonable opportunity to learn . This principle gained the force of law in California through the 2005 settlement of what's commonly known as the Williams case. The plaintiffs in this case documented major disparities in health and safety factors (such as vermin or broken toilets) and academic disadvantages (such as missing textbooks and inexperienced teachers). The settlement required these disadvantages to be addressed in order to increase the odds that children in every school can apply their energies to learning. The expression opportunity to learn came to be used as shorthand for the connection between facilities and learning.

In California, the learning conditions identified in the Williams settlement must be described in the annual School Accountability Report Card of each school and the Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP) of each district. Safe school facilities include things such as lighting, temperature, safe bathrooms and playgrounds, and accessibility for handicapped persons.

To build or renovate schools, districts raise money through property taxes, which are based on the assessed value of property like homes and commercial buildings.

Costs related to the purchase, construction or modernization of school facilities are known as capital expenses . Capital expenses are a significant aspect of the overall cost of education, but they are handled and reported separately from normal day-to-day operating expenses . Following standard accounting practices, capital assets in school systems — like buildings, equipment, and heat pumps — are accounted for in a way that spreads their cost over time. Whereas operating expenses pay for things that are gone once spent, like a day of teacher salary, capital expenses pay for assets — stuff that stays valuable for a while and depreciates in value over time as it wears out.

Like homeowners who borrow to buy or upgrade a home, school districts generally borrow to build, buy or upgrade facilities. Unlike homeowners, instead of borrowing from a bank, school districts borrow using bonds .

California has occasionally established state matching funds that contribute toward the costs of school construction, renovation and modernization. A statewide bond measure for school construction failed in 2020, in part because of awful timing: voters were in shock and fear about the freshly-declared pandemic .

How do school bonds work?

The language used to describe school bonds can be confusing: when school districts sell or issue bonds, what they are really doing is borrowing money. Just like a mortgage, money borrowed with a bond must be paid back over time, with interest.

You might be wondering: School facilities always wear out over time. It's inevitable, right? Why spend money on interest payments? Couldn't school districts just save up in anticipation of future facilities needs? By doing so they would earn interest on the money saved and have more to spend. It's possible for school districts to do this, and some do. But it doesn't often happen.

Imagine yourself as a school board member and consider the politics: Bond financing is fairly easy to get, especially if your district is well-run. It's standard practice. Saving for future facilities means saying "no" to real, current needs. Passing a bond increases taxes, which brings in new money. Your term on the board is short, your constituents are clamoring for action, and financing is available. Oh, and there's a chance that future board members would spend the money you save in ways you disagree with. It's too hard.

Investors buy school facility bonds as a business transaction . They make money on the deal. The specific rules for each bond (its structure ) can vary, including the amount borrowed, what the money may be used for, the interest rate, the timing of when money changes hands, and more. The price of the bond varies on the credit-worthiness of school district. The debt is paid using future taxes collected from property owners based on the assessed value of their property.

How is a bond measure passed?

School boards have the power to place a bond measure on the local ballot. If voters in the district pass it, property owners in the district pay for the principal and interest over time. Passage requires at least 55% of votes cast. In most cases, the measure also creates a citizen oversight committee to ensure that the funds are used for their intended purpose. Mistakes can be costly .

California voters established many of the rules that govern the financing of school facilities by passing Proposition 39 in 2000. The main priority of this measure was to dramatically lower the threshold to pass bonds for school construction and renovation, from 2/3 of votes to 55%. There's more to it, of course.

Why do school bonds in California require 55% to pass?

Some background is useful. California's constitution established rules and limits for raising funds locally for school construction in 1871 . There have been booms and busts in school facilities investment over time, with changing rules. The state began playing a role in the funding of school facilities 1933 with passage of the Field Act, which established building standards for schools. In the post-Sputnik 1950s and '60s, the state began issuing bonds to encourage and support the building of new public school facilities, especially in rapidly-growing districts. In the 1970s the state helped districts address the aging of their no-longer-new buildings with programs to support school modernization and earthquake readiness.

Funding for school facilities collapsed in 1978, when California voters passed Proposition 13 . This measure raised the threshold for passage of local school facility bonds from a majority to a 2/3 vote, making them very hard to pass. Investment in construction and maintenance of school facilities plunged, even as rapid population growth increased the number of students. By the 1990s, very few school bond measures were even attempted.

Schools filled to overflowing. To provide classroom space, inexpensive portables (trailers) were rolled onto former playgrounds and school parking lots. In 1996, legislation required schools to reduce class sizes, which further increased the pressure. Some communities (especially wealthier ones) mustered the votes to pass school construction bonds, but others failed to do so. To make more intensive use of space, some overcrowded schools shifted to year-round overlapping school calendars, which proved unpopular.

Required: 55% supermajority vote

In 2000, voters approved Proposition 39 , a complex ballot measure designed to help address the problem. Crucially, the measure gave school districts the ability to pass local school facility bond measures with a 55% supermajority of "yes" votes. The measure was a compromise that addressed many competing priorities. Local school bond measures boomed, as shown in the chart below.

Separately, voters approved a series of four statewide general obligation bonds for school construction between 1998 and 2006. The combination of local and state funding led to a boom in school construction and renovation.

Facilities for public charter schools

Public schools in California can be governed and financed in two ways: as traditional public district schools or as public charter schools . (For much more about charter schools, see Lesson 5.5.) In either case, students have a right to adequate facilities for learning.

Proposition 39 was a crucial policy for charter public schools in California. As part of the compromise that enabled the measure to pass, it established in law that property taxes paid by residents of a school district support all public schools, not just the traditional ones. The law explicitly requires school districts to make space for charter schools:

“Each school district shall make available, to each charter school operating in the school district, facilities sufficient for the charter school to accommodate all of the charter school’s in-district students in conditions reasonably equivalent to those in which the students would be accommodated if they were attending other public schools of the district. Facilities provided shall be contiguous, furnished, and equipped, and shall remain the property of the school district.”

In the decades following passage of Proposition 39, families gradually enrolled their children in charter schools in increasing numbers, partly in response to growing evidence that students tend to do a little better in these schools. To accommodate demand, some charter schools rented space in commercial buidings. Others, especially in areas with declining enrollment, took advantage of the provisions of Prop 39, demanding reasonably equivalent space from underenrolled school districts.

Some school districts, notably Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD), responded by co-locating charter public schools in underutilized facilities also used by traditional public schools. In 2024, the board of LAUSD directed its staff to avoid complying with Prop 39 in a way that involves such co-locations, especially for schools that disproportionately serve Black students . (The district has separately directed funds to such schools, but in a way that excluded charter schools.) The policy prompted a high-profile legal challenge from the California Charter Schools Association.

Traditional public schools and charter public schools compete for enrollment, so some level of tension isn't surprising. When possible, charter school leaders tend to look for alternative, separate locations that work for the communities they are trying to serve. The problem, of course, is money. Facilities are expensive, and charter schools strain to raise funds.

Bonds are an important financial tool for charter schools, and a sizable network of experts, banks, and lawyers has developed to advise them .

Are school facilities bonds fair?

When the market swoons, school funding crumbles, especially including funds for facilities. According to research conducted as part of the 2018 the Getting Down to Facts II set of studies, the Great Recession undermined state bond funding for school facilities, especially "in districts with larger shares of disadvantaged or nonwhite students."

The report concluded that bond financing policies for schools in California have routinely worked to the disadvantage of poorer communities. Bond measures are complex, and don't happen very often. Districts have a lot to figure out, which means they have to hire expert help. Someone needs to write the measure, review it, publicize it, and campaign for it — all of which costs money and takes time. The report suggests ways in which California lawmakers could address this inequitable variation. Another state bond fund measure is expected on the ballot in 2024 . A coalition of non-profit organizations threatened to sue the state unless it adopts a fairer system.

Updated April 2024

What vote is required to pass a school bond measure?

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Jeff Camp - Founder January 24, 2024 at 1:14 am

Carol kocivar may 23, 2022 at 11:48 pm, jeff camp - founder august 26, 2019 at 12:14 pm, carol kocivar september 2, 2018 at 4:14 pm, nkbird august 10, 2018 at 12:38 pm, jeff camp may 18, 2018 at 11:52 am, angelica manriquez february 29, 2016 at 5:11 pm, robert crowell may 4, 2018 at 9:10 am, susannah baxendale january 25, 2019 at 4:29 pm, brenda etterbeek june 29, 2019 at 1:44 pm, jamie kiffel-alcheh november 7, 2019 at 9:17 pm, carol kocivar - ed100 february 17, 2015 at 3:36 pm, carol kocivar - ed100 december 4, 2014 at 12:51 pm, places for learning.

• Places For Learning Overview of Chapter 5
• Where Do You Live? Zip Codes and School Quality
• School Choice Should You Have a Choice of Schools?
• Selectivity How Schools Sort Students
• At Risk When Regular School Doesn't Cut It
• Charter Schools Public schools, different rules
• Private Schools Tuition, Vouchers, and Religion
• Community Schools Services beyond classwork
• Principals and Superintendents The Pivotal Role of an Educational Leader
• School Facilities What Should a School Look Like?
• School Climate What Makes a School Good?
• Small Schools Oops, We Shrunk the Schools!
• Home Schools How Do They Work?
• Discipline and Safety Who Rules the School?
• Health and Learning What Can Schools Do?
• STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Math
• Technology in Education Tools for teaching and learning
• Civics, history and geography How do kids learn about their country and the world?
• Initiatives and Education California's Initiative Process and How It Affects Schools
• Categorical funds Special education and other exceptions
• School Funding How Money Reaches the Classroom
• Parcel Taxes Only in California...

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Why education infrastructure matters for learning

Janssen teixeira, jeremie amoroso, james gresham.

Buildings, classrooms, laboratories, and equipment- education infrastructure - are crucial elements of learning environments in schools and universities. There is strong evidence that high-quality infrastructure facilitates better instruction, improves student outcomes, and reduces dropout rates, among other benefits.   For example, a recent study from the U.K. found that environmental and design elements of school infrastructure together explained 16 percent of variation in primary students’ academic progress. This research shows that the design of education infrastructure affects learning through three interrelated factors: naturalness (e.g. light, air quality), stimulation (e.g. complexity, color), and individualization (e.g. flexibility of the learning space).   Although education policymakers are increasingly focusing on the quality of education and school learning environments, many countries use a fragmented or piecemeal approach to investing in their education infrastructure. In Romania, for example, decisions about education infrastructure investments have historically been made under an uncoordinated and decentralized model, driven by ad hoc needs and limited funding availability, rather than a strategic approach.

  An ad hoc approach to infrastructure investment is problematic   Schools in marginalized areas in Romania face the biggest investment needs in the country, meaning that students attending these schools are doubly disadvantaged. These students come mainly from low income and rural families to attend poorly equipped schools. For instance, 72 percent of rural secondary schools are missing a science laboratory, and nearly 40 percent do not have indoor toilets.  However, even though urban schools are better equipped than rural units, many are overcrowded.  One in four students in urban areas attends an overcrowded school, many of which operate in shifts. Overcrowded classrooms, such the one below, are suboptimal for teaching and learning.

• Europe and Central Asia

Janssen Teixeira, Senior Education Specialist, World Bank Group

Jeremie Amoroso, Education Consultant, World Bank Group

James Gresham, Education Specialist, World Bank Group

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School facilities and environments need to be more inclusive

2020 Gender Report

CREDIT: Christopher Herwig / UNICEF

In an inclusive school, all students are welcome, feel they belong, realize their potential and contribute to daily school life. Inclusive schools ensure that all students, regardless of background, ability or identity, are engaged and achieving by being present, participating and learning. However, many schools fall short, including in terms of gender inclusion, for reasons ranging from poor infrastructure to unsafe learning environments.

Globally, 78% of primary schools had single-sex basic sanitation facilities in 2018, although availability varies by education level; facilities are less common in primary than secondary schools, with a gap of over 10 percentage points at the global level. In Afghanistan, Jordan and Senegal, the percentage of upper secondary schools with single-sex toilets is about three times that of primary schools (Figure 16). Overall, some 335 million girls attend primary and secondary schools lacking facilities essential for menstrual hygiene (UNICVEF, 2019).

Figure 16: Fewer primary schools have single-sex toilets

The Philippines has had challenges in ensuring adequate menstrual hygiene management (Harver et al, 2013). According to the UIS database, just 39% of schools had basic sanitation and 46% had basic hygiene facilities in 2016. The Department of Education monitors implementation of its 2016, which committed schools to ensuring that menstrual hygiene management conditions were met. More than one-third of 35,000 schools did not have water during all school hours in 2018/19. Moreover, on average, there are 125 girls per functional toilet, much higher than the national standard of 50 students per toilet. However, improvements were reported relative to 2017/18 with respect to quality indicators such as lighting, ventilation, security and privacy, as well as availability of wrapping materials and disposal facilities (Philippines Department of Education, 2020).

Even where single-sex sanitation facilities exist, they may not be accessible to all students. The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme database, which provides information on accessibility for students with disabilities in 18 countries, reported that less than 1 in 10 schools with improved sanitation had accessible facilities in El Salvador, Fiji, Tajikistan, the United Republic of Tanzania and Yemen

The 1995 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action called upon governments to ‘take measures to eliminate incidents of sexual harassment of girls in educational and other institutions’

SCHOOL-RELATED GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE UNDERMINES INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Gender-based violence remains pervasive, even though less than 40% of women who experience it report it or seek help (UN Women, 2020c). School-related gender-based violence consists of acts or threats of sexual, physical or psychological violence occurring in and around schools, perpetrated as a result of gender norms and stereotypes and enforced by unequal power dynamics (UNESCO and UN Women, 2016). In strategic objective L.7, the 1995 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action called on governments not only to ‘take effective actions and measures to enact and enforce legislation to protect the safety and security of girls from all forms of violence at work, in training and support programmes’ but also to ‘take measures to eliminate incidents of sexual harassment of girls in educational and other institutions’.

In spite of this commitment, millions of female and male children and youth experience gender-based violence in and around schools and online. Girls are more likely to experience verbal and sexual harassment, abuse and violence, while boys are more often subject to physical violence, including corporal punishment.

In many surveys, physical appearance is the most common reason for bullying, with female students more at risk of being bullied for this reason (UNESCO, 2019a). In Argentina, obese 9- to 10-year-old children were at significantly higher risk of bullying, with boys more common victims of physical bullying than girls (Kovalskys et al., 2016). In the United States, 30% of overweight girls and 24% of overweight boys in the final year of primary school had daily experience of teasing, bullying or rejection due to their size, with the rates rising to 63% for girls and 58% for boys in secondary school (Stevelos, 2011). Self-perception as underweight or overweight and dissatisfaction with personal appearance are positively correlated with the experience of bullying. Adolescent girls are more likely than boys to perceive themselves as overweight (Lin et al., 2017).

Girls are the main victims of unwanted sexual touching and non-consensual sex attempts perpetrated by classmates and teachers, respectively. In sub-Saharan Africa, girls reported that male teachers demanded sexual favours in exchange for good grades, preferential treatment in class, money and gifts (VACS, 2020). In Ghana, Kenya and Mozambique, girls reported it was difficult to decline teachers’ proposals as they feared retaliation (Heslop et al., 2015).

Violence is often directed at lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students and other learners who exhibit non-binary gender identities. In the United Kingdom, 45% of lesbian, gay and bisexual students and 64% of transgender students were bullied in schools (Bradlow et al., 2017). In the United States, 17% of heterosexual students reported having been bullied, compared with 24% of those unsure about their gender identity and 33% of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex students (CDC, 2017).

Technology has opened up new spaces in which children and youth are threatened, intimidated and harassed. In EU countries, one in five 18- to 29-year-olds reported having experienced cyber-harassment (UN Women, 2020b). Data from the 2013/14 WHO Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (UNESCO, 2018) and the more recent Global Kids Online project (covering Bulgaria, Chile, Ghana, Italy, Montenegro, New Zealand, the Philippines, South Africa and Uruguay) (UNICEF, 2020) show that girls especially suffer from violence online. Global Kids Online found that 54% of girls experienced online harassment, compared with 48% of boys. Among victims, 36% reported that the incidents occurred on social networks such as Facebook and Twitter, 18% reported harmful text messages and 14% said they received bullying mobile phone calls. Girls were more likely to be treated in a hurtful or nasty way via social networks (38%), text messages (21%), mobile phone calls (16%) and chat rooms (5%) while boys reported more mistreatment in online games (10%) and on media-sharing platforms (5%) such as YouTube, Instagram and Flickr (Global Kids Online 2020; Ginestra, 2020b).

School-related gender-based violence damages well-being and learning

School-related gender-based violence undermines the achievement of inclusive and equitable education of good quality for all children and young people. Consequences may include severe health and psychological harm, pregnancy, HIV or other sexually transmitted infections. Violence can lead to loss of interest in school, disrupted studies or early school leaving. In Honduras, 55% of girls reported not attending school at some point due to physical violence perpetrated by teachers, while 22% of female students in Malawi reported missed school due to unwanted sexual experiences (VACS, 2017). For victims who continue their studies, low achievement is common, as they try to avoid attention from teachers and peers (Ginestra, 2020b). According to 2018 PISA data, bullied students in OECD countries scored 21 points lower in reading on average than their peers who had not been bullied (OECD, 2019c).

Countries have introduced laws, policies, programmes and initiatives to combat school-related gender-based violence. In Namibia, the Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture, with the support of UNICEF, introduced a National Safe Schools Framework in 2018 including seven safe learning and teaching space standards. One refers to prevention of and actions against violence and self-harm through maintaining safe schools and encouraging the school community to report violence. National frameworks of this kind need to be translated into local action. However, experience in Ghana, Kenya and Mozambique shows that this is often uneven, as lack of clarity in laws and programmes contributes to school staff not having access to necessary tools (UNESCO, UNGEI and UNICEF, 2019).

Right to Play, a school-based programme in Hyderabad, Pakistan, using sports and games to empower students to reduce violence in school and change gender norms, decreased peer victimisation by 33% among boys and 59% among girls

Changes in curricula can prevent and address school-related gender-based violence, challenging gender norms to help create a non-violent culture. These changes can encourage students to reflect on their own gender biases and roles in society and help them understand different gender identities. Connect with Respect, a programme in the Kingdom of Eswatini, Thailand, Timor-Leste, the United Republic of Tanzania, Viet Nam, Zambia and Zimbabwe, supports students in challenging harmful practices through practical learning activities involving critical thinking, reflections among small groups and role playing (UNESCO, UNGEI and UNICEF, 2019). The Lights4Violence project, developed in 2017 by a cluster of universities in Italy, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain and the United Kingdom, aims to prevent gender-based violence among adolescents by developing communication, anger management, and non-violent conflict resolution skills (Vives-Cases et al., 2019).

Measures can fit into existing curricula and be used in the classroom or in extracurricular activities. A Right to Play, a school-based programme in Hyderabad, Pakistan, uses sports and games to empower students to reduce violence in school and change gender norms. As of 2018, the programme had reached 8,000 children in 40 public schools and resulted in decreases in peer victimization by 33% among boys and 59% among girls. Symptoms of depression fell by 10% among girls and 7% among boys (Heslop et al., 2017).

Access to comprehensive sexuality education is key to preventing school-related gender-based violence. Comprehensive sexuality education promotes gender-equal attitudes among students, including understanding and respect of other gender identities; improves life skills, teaching students to negotiate the terms of sexual activity, understand the importance of consent and resist peer pressure to engage in or accept violence; transforms teachers’ and parents’ attitudes by engaging them in school interventions; and improves reporting of and response to incidents of violence by providing information and explaining the importance of coordinating with other organizations and services (Plan International UK and SDDirect, 2015). Program H, for example, is an intervention developed by Brazilian-based NGO Promundo, which engages young men in changing inequitable and violent norms related to masculinity through critical reflection and dialogue about gender equality in participatory meetings. Since 2002, the programme has been implemented in 9 countries, while 26 countries have carried out training, activities or partial adaptations. Evaluations in eight African, Asian, Latin American and south-eastern European countries indicate positive changes in attitudes on gender equality and in self-reported behaviour such as couples communication, violence, condom use and caregiving (Promundo et al., 2013).

Violence can become normalized and accepted as part of school life by students and authorities, which results in it being under-reported and unpunished. Students fear victimization, punishment or ridicule, and teachers may discourage complaints to protect colleagues (UNGEI et al., 2018). Confidential, independent and easily accessible reporting mechanisms can provide victims and witnesses with secure channels to report incidents of gender-based violence. These mechanisms can include school-based focal points, suggestion boxes, telephone helplines, confidential counselling and online reporting methods, linked to strong referral and support systems (UNESCO, UNGEI and UNICEF, 2019).

Students, parents, communities and teacher unions should be involved in training that helps them to reflect critically on their attitudes and values towards gender equality

The Zero Tolerance Programme in Nepal incorporated a suggestion box as a reporting mechanism to encourage students to inform authorities of any incident. Students felt more comfortable sharing their concerns and suggestions, and teachers changed their mindsets and attitudes towards students and teaching practices (USAID, 2018). In 2013, Peru implemented the programme Si se ve (Yes I can see), which included an online platform and a helpline to encourage reporting of violence in school. Thanks to this tool, schools can avoid hiring teachers who have been sanctioned for having perpetrated any type of violence. In 2013–2018, the programme responded to more than 26,000 cases of violence reported from the 53,000 participating schools (Peru Ministry of Education, 2019). An innovative approach in Pikine, Senegal facilitated reporting and connected child victims with protective services. More than 700 volunteers were trained and organized into a network connected to social welfare services. The programme increased the reported number of child protection cases and established a real-time monitoring system via an online dashboard (UNICEF, 2018b).

Programmes should also teach young people to intervene when violence occurs. Bystander approaches involve teaching life skills to enable people to identify, report or involve others in responding to incidents of violence. In Hong Kong, China, the project Positive Adolescent Training through Holistic Social Programmes focused on teaching secondary school students to become helpful social bystanders. It provided awareness-raising activities on bullying, space for self-reflection and opportunities to practice new behaviour. A gender perspective in the design was considered essential, as boys are more likely to drop out of such programmes in societies where masculine role models are prevalent (Tsang, Hui and Law, 2011).

School staff sometimes reproduce prevailing gender norms in classrooms. Therefore, it is important to train teachers to reflect critically on their attitudes and values related to gender equality and to develop empathy towards students. Students, parents, communities and teacher unions should be involved in this training. The Education Unions Take Action to End School-related Gender-based Violence programme, implemented in Ethiopia, the Gambia, Kenya, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Uganda and Zambia, aims to empower teachers to become active agents to end violence in schools. Between 2016 and 2018, over 30,000 participants were reached through awareness-raising workshops in schools and union meetings (UNGEI et al., 2018).

Codes of conduct are being developed. In Sierra Leone, the government and the teachers’ union developed a code of conduct by holding multi-stakeholder consultations in all regions, which legitimized the code as a tool to support teacher professionalism (UNESCO and UN Women, 2016). South Africa’s teacher code of conduct was revised to identify ways to deal with perpetrators of violence (UNGEI et al., 2018). In Zambia, the Ministry of General Education launched teacher standards of practice in 2019. Standard 1.5 expects teachers to promote a safe and inclusive school environment, free from school-related gender-based violence, and to be able to prevent, identify and respond to incidents of violence in schools (Zambia Ministry of General Education and UNESCO, 2019).

Modifying or adapting school settings could prevent school violence and improve student safety. Shifting Boundaries is a programme created in 2010 in response to high levels of teen dating violence in schools in the United States that increases staff presence in spots where violence is likely to occur, as previously identified by students and teachers. An evaluation in New York found that the programme helped reduce sexual violence victimisation in dating relations by 50%, sexual violence perpetration by peers by 47% and sexual harassment by 34% (Holditch Niolon et al., 2017).

Progress in recognizing and responding to school-related gender-based violence in recent years has helped in developing a broader understanding of violence in schools. It is important to pay closer attention to girl-on-girl and girl-on-boy violence and to reconsider the female-victim/male-villain dichotomy. Further research is also needed on school violence directed at lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex students and on interventions that address it. Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms need to be strengthened if understanding of programme effectiveness is to improve. When education systems and schools make a concerted effort to address gender-based violence, they contribute to broader societal efforts to eliminate such violence and promote equality and respect. Schools should be a place where students feel safe and welcome, which is not possible if they remain sites of violence and gender inequality (Ginestra, 2020b).

This is one of many stories of girls who are the first in their family to graduate. It was collected by the GEM Report as part of a campaign, #Iamthe1stgirl, aiming to demonstrate progress in gender equality in education since the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action 25 years ago.

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Unlocking Potential: The Crucial Link between School Infrastructure and Educational Quality.

• DR MRS NWAHAM CAROLINE OBIOMA
• Sep 29, 2023

Unlocking Potential: The Crucial Link between School Infrastructure and Educational Quality

Dr Mrs Nwaham Caroline Obioma

Faculty of Education, University of Delta, Agbor

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.70934

Received: 10 July 2023; Revised: 22 July 2023; Accepted: 26 July 2023; Published: 29 September 2023

Unlocking the potentials of students and improving educational quality depend significantly on the link between school infrastructure and educational outcomes  This paper examines what is meant by educational quality and how crucial school facilities are to its improvement. It names variables that affect educational quality, including infrastructural accessibility, resource distribution, technological integration, and teacher capacity. The effects of poor infrastructure on education are also covered, including constrained learning settings, a lack of resources, safety concerns, and inequity. The paper offers recommendations for approaches and solutions to address these problems, including improving infrastructure, incorporating technology, offering teacher professional development, implementing student-centered methodologies, promoting inclusive education, involving communities, and using data-driven decision making. It also discusses issues with funding and resource distribution and offers suggestions for removing obstacles such financial inequality, linguistic and cultural barriers, limited access to high-quality education, gender inequities, and a lack of parental involvement. These suggestions can help educational systems. Addressing the gap and understanding the crucial link between school infrastructure and educational quality is vital for fostering a conducive learning environment that empowers students to unlock their full potential. By acknowledging the impact of school infrastructure and prioritizing investments in this area, educational systems can take a significant step towards providing equitable, high-quality education for all students.

Keywords: Unlocking potentials, School infrastructure, Factors, Teaching and learning, educational quality

INTRODUCTION

Unlocking the full potential of students is a universal goal in education. It is widely recognized that the quality of education plays a pivotal role in shaping the future of individuals and societies. While various factors contribute to educational quality, one crucial aspect often overlooked is school infrastructure. The physical environment in which students learn and teachers work has a profound impact on educational outcomes. (Fisher, 2008). Adequate school infrastructure provides the foundation for creating optimal learning environments, fostering student engagement, and facilitating effective teaching practices. Unlocking potentials in education is of utmost importance as it holds the key to transforming individuals, communities, and entire nations. By recognizing and nurturing the unique abilities, talents, and capabilities of students, we can unleash their full potential and empower them to thrive in various aspects of life. Here are some reasons why unlocking potentials in education is crucial: Each student possesses a distinct set of strengths, interests, and skills. By unlocking their potentials, we tap into their inherent abilities and empower them to develop their talents to the fullest. This maximizes human capital and creates a diverse pool of individuals who can contribute to the social, economic, and cultural fabric of society.   Unlocking potentials encourages students to think critically, solve problems, and embrace creativity. When students are given the opportunity to explore and express their unique ideas, they become catalysts for innovation. By nurturing their creative thinking skills, education becomes a driving force for progress and development in various fields.   When students are supported and encouraged to explore their potentials, they develop a strong sense of self-confidence and self-belief. This belief in their abilities enables them to face challenges, overcome setbacks, and persevere in the pursuit of their goals. Unlocking potentials in education fosters resilience, empowering students to navigate the complexities of life with determination and optimism. ( Kerbage,  et  al  2021). Education is not solely about acquiring knowledge; it is also about personal and professional growth. When students’ potentials are unlocked, they embark on a journey of self-discovery, self-improvement, and self-actualization. By providing opportunities for students to explore different subjects, engage in extracurricular activities, and pursue their passions, education becomes a transformative experience that prepares them for future success.  Unlocking potentials in education is a powerful tool for reducing inequality and promoting social mobility. When all students, regardless of their background or circumstances, have equal access to high-quality education that fosters their potentials, it levels the playing field. This empowers individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds to overcome barriers and create better opportunities for themselves, (Kerr,1978).

School infrastructure and educational quality

School infrastructure plays a pivotal role in enhancing educational quality. It encompasses the physical facilities, resources, and environment in which teaching and learning take place. Here are several reasons why school infrastructure is crucial in improving educational quality:

• Well-designed and maintained school infrastructure creates a safe and conducive learning environment. Adequate classroom space, comfortable seating, proper lighting, ventilation, and temperature control contribute to students’ physical well-being and comfort, allowing them to focus on their studies.
• School infrastructure facilitates access to essential resources and technology. It includes libraries, laboratories, computer rooms, and specialized facilities for subjects such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM
• School infrastructure should cater to the diverse learning needs of students.
• School infrastructure directly impacts student well-being and health. Adequate sanitation facilities, clean drinking water, and proper hygiene facilities are essential for maintaining students’ health and preventing the spread of diseases.
• School infrastructure also influences teacher effectiveness and professional growth. Well-designed classrooms, staff rooms, and professional development spaces provide teachers with an environment conducive to planning, collaboration, and reflection.
• School infrastructure serves as a community hub and symbol of educational pride. Modern and well-maintained facilities instill a sense of pride in students, teachers, and the wider community.

  Meaning of educational quality

Educational quality refers to the overall effectiveness and excellence of an educational system or institution in achieving its intended outcomes and goals. (Hossain, & Hossain, 2019). It encompasses various dimensions that contribute to the overall value and impact of education. Educational quality goes beyond the mere transmission of knowledge and focuses on creating an environment that promotes holistic development, critical thinking, and lifelong learning.

The meaning of educational quality extends beyond standardized test scores or academic achievements. It includes factors such as the relevance of the curriculum, the quality of teaching and learning processes, the availability and accessibility of resources, the support for individual learning needs, the development of essential skills, and the overall impact on students’ personal growth and well-being. It emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that prepare individuals to participate actively in society, contribute to their communities, and adapt to an ever-changing world. Some aspects of educational quality include educational quality emphasizes the alignment of curriculum and instruction with real-world contexts and challenges. It aims to equip students with knowledge and skills that are relevant and applicable to their lives, future careers, and societal needs. High-quality education fosters critical thinking skills, enabling students to analyze information, evaluate arguments, and solve complex problems. It encourages independent and creative thinking, promoting the ability to make informed decisions and adapt to different situations.  Educational quality involves creating an engaging and participatory learning environment. It encourages students to actively participate in their learning, collaborate with peers, and develop skills such as communication, teamwork, and leadership.  Educational quality ensures that every student has equal access to opportunities, regardless of their background, gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. It aims to create an inclusive environment that celebrates diversity, respects individual differences, and provides tailored support to meet the needs of all learners. Educational quality encompasses the holistic development of students, nurturing their emotional, social, and ethical growth. (Huda, et al 2017).  It promotes values such as empathy, integrity, and respect for others, fostering responsible citizenship and positive contributions to society.  High-quality education instills a love for learning, curiosity, and a desire for continuous self-improvement. It equips students with the skills and attitudes needed to navigate a rapidly changing world, embrace new technologies, and adapt to evolving career paths.

Factors influencing educational quality.

Several factors influence educational quality, shaping the effectiveness and overall impact of an educational system or institution. These factors can vary across different contexts and educational settings, but some common elements include: (Al-Adwan, et al 2021).  The competence, expertise, and commitment of teachers significantly influence educational quality. Effective teaching practices, including clear instructional strategies, classroom management skills, and the ability to engage and motivate students, are vital. Teachers’ subject knowledge, pedagogical skills, ongoing professional development, and ability to provide constructive feedback also contribute to educational quality.    A well-designed curriculum that is aligned with educational goals and the needs of students is essential for educational quality. The curriculum should be comprehensive, balanced, and relevant, providing students with a broad range of knowledge, skills, and competencies. It should reflect current research, societal demands, and the aspirations of the community, while allowing flexibility for individual learning needs and interests.  Access to quality resources and learning materials is crucial for educational quality. This includes textbooks, digital resources, laboratory equipment, libraries, and educational technology. Sufficient availability and equitable distribution of resources ensure that students have the necessary tools to engage in meaningful learning experiences.  A positive and inclusive learning environment fosters educational quality. This includes factors such as a safe and well-maintained physical infrastructure, supportive school culture, respectful relationships among students and teachers, and proactive efforts to address bullying, discrimination, or other barriers to learning. Emotional support, guidance, and counseling services also contribute to a conducive learning environment.

Concept of school infrastructure

School infrastructure refers to the physical facilities, resources, and environment provided within an educational institution. (Farhan, et al, 2020).  It encompasses the buildings, classrooms, libraries, laboratories, playgrounds, equipment, technology, and other physical components that support teaching, learning, and school operations. School infrastructure is designed to create a safe, functional, and conducive environment for students, teachers, and staff.  Components of school infrastructure include: (Stroe, & Bauer, 2020).  School infrastructure includes the construction, design, and maintenance of buildings that house classrooms, administrative offices, libraries, laboratories, and other educational spaces. The layout, size, ventilation, lighting, and overall condition of the buildings contribute to a comfortable and conducive learning environment. School infrastructure encompasses various facilities and resources that support teaching and learning. This may include libraries stocked with books, digital resources, computers, internet access, science laboratories, sports facilities, art studios, music rooms, and vocational training workshops. These facilities provide students with the necessary resources and tools to explore and engage in different subject areas. The integration of technology in school infrastructure is crucial in modern education. This includes computers, interactive whiteboards, projectors, audiovisual equipment, educational software, and internet connectivity. Technology enhances instructional delivery, promotes digital literacy, and enables access to a wide range of educational resources.  School infrastructure should prioritize the safety and security of students and staff. This includes measures such as well-designed entrances, gates, fencing, security systems, fire safety equipment, and emergency response protocols.

Relevance of school infrastructure

School infrastructure plays a crucial role in education, and its importance cannot be overstated. Here are several key reasons why school infrastructure is important: (Spillane, et al 2019).

• School infrastructure provides a safe and conducive environment for teaching and learning. Well-designed buildings, classrooms, and facilities create spaces that promote focus, concentration, and engagement.
• High-quality school infrastructure has a positive impact on academic performance and achievement. Well-equipped classrooms, laboratories, libraries, and technology resources provide students with the tools and materials necessary to explore and understand various subjects.
• School infrastructure can influence student engagement and motivation. Engaging and visually appealing classrooms, well-equipped playgrounds, sports facilities, and recreational areas create a positive and stimulating learning environment.
• School infrastructure directly impacts the health and well-being of students and staff. Proper sanitation facilities, clean drinking water, and waste management systems promote hygiene and prevent the spread of diseases.
• School infrastructure should be designed to cater to the diverse needs of all students, including those with disabilities. Accessibility features such as ramps, elevators, adapted classrooms, and assistive technologies ensure that education is accessible to everyone.
• School infrastructure serves as a hub for community engagement and contributes to the overall pride and reputation of the educational institution.
• School infrastructure also influences teacher effectiveness and job satisfaction. Well-designed classrooms, staff rooms, and professional development spaces provide teachers with a conducive environment for planning, collaboration, and professional growth.

  Role of school infrastructure in educational quality

The role of school infrastructure in educational quality is significant and multifaceted. School infrastructure directly impacts the overall effectiveness and excellence of education by providing the necessary physical facilities, resources, and environment for teaching and learning. Here are some key roles that school infrastructure plays in enhancing educational quality: Well-designed and maintained school infrastructure contributes to a conducive learning environment. Adequate classroom space, proper lighting, ventilation, temperature control, and acoustics create a comfortable atmosphere that supports student engagement and concentration. A safe and well-maintained physical environment promotes a sense of security and encourages students to focus on their studies. School infrastructure ensures access to essential resources and technology.  (Putri, et al 2019).  It includes libraries, laboratories, computer rooms, and specialized facilities for subjects such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Access to a wide range of educational resources, including books, digital materials, and multimedia tools, equips students with the necessary tools to explore, research, and deepen their understanding of various subjects.  School infrastructure should cater to the diverse learning needs of students. It includes spaces for group work, individual study, and collaborative projects. Additionally, infrastructure should consider accessibility features to accommodate students with disabilities, ensuring an inclusive learning environment. Well-equipped classrooms and specialized facilities enable teachers to employ different instructional approaches, such as hands-on learning, project-based learning, and interactive teaching methods, to meet students’ diverse learning styles and needs. School infrastructure directly impacts student well-being and health. Adequate sanitation facilities, clean drinking water, and proper hygiene facilities are essential for maintaining students’ health and preventing the spread of diseases.

Impact of school infrastructure on teaching and learning

The impact of school infrastructure on teaching and learning is significant and wide-ranging. School infrastructure directly influences the effectiveness, engagement, and outcomes of teaching and learning processes. Here are some key impacts of school infrastructure on teaching and learning:

• Well-designed classrooms and specialized facilities provide teachers with an environment conducive to effective instruction. Classrooms with appropriate seating arrangements, proper lighting, and acoustics support effective communication and interaction between teachers and students
• School infrastructure plays a crucial role in promoting active learning approaches. Flexible learning spaces, such as collaborative workstations, breakout areas, and project corners, encourage student collaboration, discussion, and group work.
• School infrastructure should cater to the diverse learning needs of students. It includes providing spaces for individual study, group work, and hands-on activities. Specialized facilities, such as sensory rooms or quiet spaces, can support students with sensory sensitivities or special educational needs.
• School infrastructure plays a vital role in fostering student engagement and motivation. Inviting and well-designed learning spaces, colorful and stimulating classrooms, and interactive displays create a positive and inspiring learning environment.
• School infrastructure directly impacts student safety and well-being, which in turn affects teaching and learning. Safe and secure infrastructure, including well-maintained buildings, proper lighting, and security measures, creates a sense of physical security for students and teachers.
• School infrastructure also supports collaboration among teachers, promoting professional development and effective instructional practices

Impact of school infrastructure on student’s outcomes

School infrastructure has a significant impact on students’ outcomes, encompassing academic achievement, holistic development, well-being, and prospects. The quality and adequacy of school infrastructure directly influence various aspects of students’ outcomes. Here are some key impacts of school infrastructure on students’ outcomes: High-quality school infrastructure positively affects students’ academic achievement. Well-designed classrooms, equipped with appropriate furniture and technology tools, create a conducive learning environment that supports concentration and engagement. Specialized facilities, such as science laboratories, computer rooms, and libraries, provide students with the necessary resources to explore and deepen their understanding of different subjects. Access to modern technology and educational materials enhances research capabilities, critical thinking skills, and academic performance.  School infrastructure plays a vital role in fostering student engagement and motivation. Attractive and well-maintained classrooms, recreational areas, and sports facilities create a positive and stimulating learning environment. Adequate resources, including books, educational technology, and hands-on learning materials, encourage active participation and curiosity. Engaged and motivated students are more likely to be enthusiastic learners, actively participate in class activities, and achieve better outcomes.  School infrastructure supports the holistic development of students. Facilities such as sports fields, playgrounds, and art studios provide opportunities for physical activity, creative expression, and social interaction. Specialized facilities for music, drama, and other extracurricular activities nurture students’ talents and interests. Adequate spaces for group work, discussions, and collaboration promote communication, teamwork, and interpersonal skills. A well-rounded infrastructure enables students to develop not only academically but also socially, emotionally, and creatively.  School infrastructure significantly impacts students’ health and well-being, which, in turn, influences their overall outcomes. Adequate sanitation facilities, clean drinking water, and proper waste management contribute to students’ physical health and hygiene. Safe and secure infrastructure, including well-maintained buildings, playgrounds, and security measures, ensures the safety and well-being of students. A healthy and secure learning environment enables students to focus on their studies, enhances attendance rates, and reduces health-related barriers to learning. School infrastructure plays a critical role in promoting inclusivity and equity in education.

Challenges and disparities in school infrastructure

Challenges and disparities in school infrastructure exist in many regions and can significantly impact educational quality. Here are some common challenges and disparities in school infrastructure:

• Inadequate funding is a major challenge in many educational systems, leading to a lack of investment in school infrastructure challenge.
• Maintenance and upkeep of school infrastructure pose ongoing challenges. Lack of funds, inadequate maintenance systems, and limited technical expertise can lead to the deterioration of buildings and facilities over time.
• Disparities in school infrastructure exist both within and between regions. Schools in poor areas often face a lack of resources, dilapidated buildings, and inadequate facilities compared to schools in more affluent areas.
• Many schools lack infrastructure that accommodates students with disabilities or special needs. Limited ramps, elevators, accessible toilets, and assistive technologies create barriers for students with physical disabilities, impacting their ability to fully participate in educational activities.
• The digital divide poses a significant challenge in school infrastructure. Schools with limited access to technology and reliable internet connections are at a disadvantage in providing modern, technology-enabled education. (Jannah, et al   2020).
• School infrastructure should provide a safe and secure learning environment. However, many schools face challenges related to safety and security.

Global disparity in school infrastructure

Global disparities in school infrastructure are a significant issue that affects educational opportunities and outcomes for millions of students worldwide. Here are some key aspects of the global disparity in school infrastructure: In many developing countries, a lack of basic school infrastructure is prevalent. This includes a shortage of classrooms, insufficient furniture, inadequate sanitation facilities, and limited access to clean drinking water. Some schools operate in dilapidated buildings or makeshift structures, compromising the learning environment and student safety.  Disparities in access to educational resources and technology are common. Many schools in low-income regions lack libraries, science laboratories, computer rooms, and educational materials. Limited access to technology tools, such as computers, tablets, and the internet, hinders students’ ability to engage with digital learning resources and acquire essential digital skills. Disparities in school infrastructure are often more pronounced between rural and urban areas. Rural schools typically face greater challenges due to remoteness, limited resources, and inadequate transportation infrastructure. Urban schools may have better access to facilities, resources, and services, creating a divide in educational opportunities and quality between rural and urban students. Disparities in school infrastructure can be exacerbated by social, economic, and cultural factors, leading to inequality and discrimination.  (Vidyattama, & Miranti, 2019).  Marginalized groups, such as ethnic minorities, indigenous populations, and girls, may face even greater disparities in access to quality infrastructure, perpetuating educational inequity. Natural disasters, climate change, and environmental challenges can exacerbate disparities in school infrastructure. Schools in vulnerable regions are at higher risk of damage from floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, or other natural disasters. Insufficient infrastructure resilience and limited resources for rebuilding can further hinder educational opportunities in affected areas.

Funding and resource allocation challenges

Funding and resource allocation challenges are significant barriers to addressing disparities in school infrastructure. Here are some key challenges related to funding and resource allocation:

• In many countries, inadequate government investment in education leads to limited funds for school infrastructure.
• Even when funding is available, disparities in the allocation of resources can perpetuate inequalities. Some regions or schools receive more funding than others, exacerbating disparities in school infrastructure.
• Limited Access to External Financing: In many developing countries, accessing external financing for school infrastructure projects can be challenging their ability to invest in improving school infrastructure.
• Ineffective resource management can hinder the optimal allocation of available funds for school infrastructure. (Gaspar, et al 2022). Corruption, mismanagement, and lack of transparency in financial systems can divert funds away from infrastructure projects or result in subpar construction and maintenance practices.
• Within education budgets, competing priorities for funding can present challenges. Funds may be allocated to other areas such as teacher salaries, curriculum development, or student support services, leaving less for infrastructure.
• Developing and maintaining high-quality school infrastructure can be costly, especially for resource-constrained regions. sustainability is crucial to ensure that investments in school infrastructure are effective and provide lasting benefits.

Impact of inadequate infrastructure on education quality

The impact of inadequate infrastructure on education quality can be substantial and wide-ranging. Here are some keyways in which inadequate infrastructure negatively affects education quality: (Anekawati, et al, 2020).  Inadequate infrastructure, such as cramped classrooms, poorly ventilated spaces, or noisy environments, can hinder students’ ability to concentrate and engage in learning activities. A conducive learning environment is essential for effective teaching and learning, and when infrastructure falls short, it can impede students’ ability to fully absorb and retain information.  Inadequate infrastructure often translates to limited access to resources and materials necessary for quality education. This includes a lack of textbooks, libraries, science laboratories, computer rooms, and educational technology tools. In turn, students may not have the necessary resources to explore and deepen their understanding of various subjects, hindering their educational progress and academic achievement.  Inadequate infrastructure can compromise the safety and security of students and staff. Dilapidated buildings, faulty electrical wiring, inadequate sanitation facilities, or inadequate emergency response systems pose risks to physical well-being. When students and teachers feel unsafe in the school environment, it can create anxiety, affect attendance rates, and hinder the overall learning experience.  In the digital age, access to technology is crucial for education. Inadequate infrastructure may mean a lack of computers, internet connectivity, and other technological resources. This limits students’ exposure to digital tools and hinders their development of digital literacy skills, which are increasingly essential in the modern world. Students without access to technology are at a disadvantage in acquiring critical skills for their future careers.  Inadequate infrastructure often contributes to educational disparities and reinforces existing inequalities. Marginalized communities and disadvantaged students are more likely to face the consequences of inadequate infrastructure, further widening the achievement gap. Lack of quality infrastructure perpetuates educational inequity and limits opportunities for students from underprivileged backgrounds to excel academically.

Unlocking potentials: strategies and solutions  

Unlocking the potentials of students and improving educational outcomes requires implementing effective strategies and solutions. Here are some key approaches to unlocking potentials in education: Investing in quality school infrastructure is a fundamental step. This includes building well-designed classrooms, libraries, science laboratories, computer rooms, and recreational spaces. Upgrading infrastructure ensures a conducive learning environment that supports student engagement, exploration, and collaboration. Integrating technology into the learning process can enhance educational quality. Providing students with access to computers, tablets, educational software, and reliable internet connectivity enables them to access digital resources, engage in interactive learning experiences, and develop digital literacy skills. (Sudarsana, et al, 2019). Continuous professional development for teachers is vital to unlock their potential and enhance their teaching practices. Training programs can focus on innovative teaching methods, instructional strategies, assessment techniques, and the effective use of technology. Equipping teachers with the necessary skills and knowledge empower them to deliver high-quality instruction and facilitate student learning effectively.  Shifting towards student-centered learning approaches promotes active engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. Encouraging inquiry-based learning, project-based learning, and collaborative activities empowers students to take ownership of their learning, develop their interests and talents, and become independent learners.  Creating inclusive learning environments ensures that all students, regardless of their abilities or backgrounds, have equal opportunities to succeed. Implementing inclusive practices involves accommodating diverse learning needs, providing appropriate support services, and fostering a culture of respect and acceptance within schools.  Involving parents, families, and the wider community in education contributes to unlocking potentials. Engaging stakeholders in decision-making processes, fostering partnerships with community organizations, and involving parents in their children’s education creates a supportive ecosystem that promotes educational success.  Identifying and providing targeted support for at-risk students, such as those from disadvantaged backgrounds or with special needs, is essential.

Overcoming barriers to unlock potentials.

Unlocking potentials in education requires overcoming various barriers that can hinder students’ progress and achievement. Here are some key barriers and strategies to address them: (Regan, et al 2019).

• Students from poor backgrounds often face challenges that impede their educational success. To overcome this barrier, strategies such as providing financial support, scholarships, and reducing financial burdens can help create equal opportunities for all students.
• Students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds may encounter difficulties in understanding and engaging with the curriculum.
• Inadequate access to quality education is a significant barrier, especially in rural or remote areas.
• Gender disparities in education, particularly in certain regions or cultural contexts, can hinder girls’ access to education and limit their opportunities.
• Teachers play a crucial role in unlocking students’ potentials, but limited teacher capacity can be a significant barrier.
• Involving parents and communities in education can positively impact students’ academic success. Overcoming the barrier of limited parental involvement requires creating channels for effective communication, organizing parent-teacher meetings, and offering workshops or sessions that empower parents to support their children’s learning.
• Insufficient school infrastructure and lack of educational resources hinder students’ learning experiences.
• Overcoming barriers often requires a shift in mindset and attitudes within educational systems and communities.

In conclusion, unlocking the potentials of students and improving educational quality requires recognizing the crucial link between school infrastructure and educational outcomes. Adequate school infrastructure plays a vital role in creating a conducive learning environment, enhancing teaching and learning experiences, and ultimately, improving students’ educational outcomes.

We explored the meaning of educational quality and the significance of school infrastructure in enhancing it. Factors such as infrastructure availability, resource allocation, technology integration, and teacher capacity all contribute to educational quality. We also examined the impact of inadequate infrastructure on education, including limited learning environments, insufficient resources, safety concerns, and inequality.

To overcome the challenges and disparities in school infrastructure, various strategies and solutions were discussed. These include enhancing infrastructure, integrating technology, providing professional development for teachers, adopting student-centered approaches, fostering inclusive education, engaging communities, and utilizing data-driven decision making. Additionally, addressing funding and resource allocation challenges, as well as overcoming barriers such as socioeconomic disparities, language and cultural differences, limited access to quality education, gender disparities, and lack of parental involvement, are crucial.

Implementing strategies and addressing barriers in educational systems can unlock student potential, promote equitable access, and foster positive learning outcomes. Collaboration among educators, policymakers, communities, and stakeholders is crucial for enabling environments. Quality, we can pave the way for a brighter future, where every student has the opportunity to thrive and succeed.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the discourse, the following recommendations are made.

• Governments should allocate adequate funding to education, with a specific focus on infrastructure development and maintenance.
• Ensure equitable distribution of resources by prioritizing underserved areas and schools with limited infrastructure. Implement transparent and fair resource allocation mechanisms to bridge the gap between well-equipped schools and those lacking adequate infrastructure.
• Foster collaborations between the public and private sectors to mobilize additional resources for school infrastructure. Engage private companies, philanthropic organizations, and community members in financing infrastructure projects and providing necessary resources, expertise, and technology.
• Conduct comprehensive assessments of existing school infrastructure to identify gaps, prioritize needs, and develop long-term infrastructure plans. Regular monitoring and evaluation of infrastructure conditions will help identify maintenance requirements and ensure infrastructure remains conducive to learning.
• Invest in educational technology tools, including computers, internet connectivity, and digital resources, to enhance teaching and learning experiences. Provide training for teachers on integrating technology into their instructional practices and ensure equitable access to technology for all students.
• Offer ongoing professional development programs that focus on effective teaching strategies, utilization of infrastructure resources, and technology integration. Empower teachers with the necessary skills and knowledge to leverage infrastructure and create engaging learning environments.
• Involve parents, families, and community members in educational initiatives and decision-making processes. Establish strong partnerships with the community to support infrastructure development, volunteerism, and engage parents in their children’s education.
• Prioritize environmentally sustainable infrastructure solutions by incorporating energy-efficient practices, renewable energy sources, and eco-friendly construction materials. Promote sustainability education within schools to create environmentally conscious citizens.
• Seek support from international organizations, such as UNESCO or World Bank, to access funding, technical expertise, and best practices in school infrastructure development. Collaborate with global partners to learn from successful initiatives and adapt them to local contexts.
• Foster research and innovation in school infrastructure to identify emerging trends, innovative designs, and cost-effective solutions.
• Al-Adwan, et al  (2021). Developing a Holistic Success Model for Sustainable E-Learning: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach. Sustainability.  https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169453.
• Anekawati, A et al.(2020). Exploring the Related Factors in Education Quality through Spatial Autoregressive Modeling with Latent Variables: A Rural Case Study. Education Research International. https:// doi.org/10.1155 /2020/8823186.
• Farhan, et al, (2020). Learning Problem for the Special Education Students: Funds and Infrastructure. International Journal of Humanities, Management and Social Science. https://doi.org/ 10.36079 /lamintang.ij-humass-0301.106.
• Fisher, E. (2008). The effect of the physical classroom environment on literacy outcomes: how 3rd grade teachers use the physical classroom to implement a balanced literacy curriculum.  .  https://doi.org/10.32469/10355/5699.
• Gaspar, M., Gabriel, J., Manuel, M., Ladrillo, D., Gabriel, E., & Gabriel, A. (2022). Transparency and Accountability of Managing School Financial Resources.  Journal of Public Administration and Governance. https://doi.org/10.5296 /jpag.v12i2.20146.
• Hossain, M., & Hossain, M. (2019). Understanding the Quality Management of Private Universities in Bangladesh: A Hierarchical Model. Quality Management Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10686967.2019. 1647771.
• Huda, et al (2017). Traditional Wisdom on Sustainable Learning.  SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 215824 4017697160.
• Jannah, et al   (2020). Elementary School Teachers’ Perceptions of Digital Technology Based Learning in the 21st Century: Promoting Digital Technology as the Proponent Learning Tools.  . https://doi.org/10.24235/ al.ibtida. snj.v7i1 6088.
• Kerbage, et al  (2021). Undergraduate nursing students’ resilience, cha llenges, and supports during corona virus pandemic..  International journal of mental health nursing.  https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12896.
• Kerr, C. (1978). Higher education: Paradise lost?.  Higher Education.  https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00139526.
• Putri, et al (2019). Teacher Function in Class: A Literature Review.  Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Education and Technology (ICET 2019).  https://doi.org/10.2991/icet-19.2019.2.
• Regan, et al  (2019). Learning to learn: A qualitative study to uncover strategies used by Master Adaptive Learners in the planning of learning.  Medical Teacher.  https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2019.1630729.
• Spillane, et al (2019). Educational System Building in a Changing Educational Sector: Environment, Organization, and the Technical Core.  Educational  
• Stroe, C., & (Bauer), R. (2020). The Impact of School Infrastructure on the Performance of Pupils.  . https://doi.org/ 10.18662/lumproc/gidtp2018/40.
• Sudarsana, et al (2019). Integrating Technology and Media In Learning Process.  Journal of Physics: Conference Series.  https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1363/1/012060.
• Vidyattama, Y., Li, J., & Miranti, R. (2019). Measuring Spatial Distributions of Secondary Education Achievement in Australia.  Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy.  https://doi.org/10.1007/S12061-018-9252-Z.

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First Aid in Educational Facilities Essay

Introduction, research topic, research question, research problem, literature review, concept map.

First aid is a significant issue in educational facilities that should be addressed and considered. Often, many students encounter situations in which they may require first aid. This paper describes the selected topic and presents its key definitions. It explains the current state of the issue and highlights the significance of the problem. The report also features a research question and a research problem. To support the presented claims, a literature review is provided as well. Finally, the paper presents a concept map related to first aid in schools.

The topic presented in this paper is first aid in schools. Hirca (2018) reports that, unfortunately, many students receive significant injuries in educational facilities. Some of them occur during experimental activities, such as science, athletics, and outdoor classes (Wendy et al., 2018; Schneider, Meeteer, Nolan, & Campbell, 2017). It is vital to note that experiments and the implementation of innovative approaches to learning are vital for positive student outcomes, which means that injuries should not prevent teachers from using active learning techniques (Hirca, 2018). However, it is crucial to provide students with first aid; educators should have enough knowledge and skills to perform necessary urgent interventions. Sharma (2017) reports that first aid is the application of emergency treatment to an injured individual that does not involve complex medical equipment. Pellegrino et al. (2017) add that first aid should be grounded clinically and supported technically but, in reality, can often be considered a natural human response to an emergency. School staff should be able to address students’ injuries timely and have the necessary capacities to implement appropriate first aid measures.

Unfortunately, evidence reveals that many teachers, administrators, students, and parents cannot support students in case of an emergency. Various studies by Hirca (2018), De Buck et al. (2015), Pandey et al. (2017), Baginska, Rodakowska, Milewski,, Wilczynska-Borawska, and Kierklo (2016), and Keleş, Yildirim, and Aydin (2015) show that educators may be not competent to provide first aid. Thus, it is evident that several interventions are needed to eliminate the possibility for poor health outcomes among students due to inappropriate or untimely first aid measures. They should address ineffective school policies related to the issue.

The research question that can be outlined is: Is there a relationship between schools’ first aid policies and the welfare of learners and educators? An independent variable is schools’ first aid policies; a dependent one is the well-being of students and teachers. The type of research hypothesis is a complex one as it reflects the link between two variables, including school policies and individuals’ health states. The first sub-question is: Does the implementation of teachers’ certification affect their ability to provide first aid and manage incidents and crises that can affect individuals’ health? The second sub-question is: Does the implementation of well-developed guidelines for teachers affect their ability to manage emergencies?

Alternative hypotheses are 1. Schools’ first aid policies can lead to positive health outcomes among learners and educators. This hypothesis is directional because it is possible to suggest that school policies have a direct impact on students and staff’s safety, as well as teachers’ ability to respond to emergencies. 2. Teachers provide first aid based on their knowledge and not schools’ first aid policies; this hypothesis is also directional. 3. Students are responsible for their safety; their wellbeing is dependent on their own knowledge and skills and not schools’ environments. This hypothesis is non-directional because it involves unpredictable concepts, such as learners’ skills. The null hypothesis is that school policies are not related to the first aid strategies educators select.

To provide students and educators with a safe learning and working environment, it is vital to change existing approaches to schools’ policies related to first aid. More specifically, it is necessary to implement more appropriate strategies for teachers’ first-aid certification. Guidelines that provide information about managing emergencies are vital as they allow for eliminating adverse health outcomes among affected individuals (Vale, Smith, Said, Mullins, & Loh, 2015). Students should also have knowledge about possible first aid strategies (De Villiers & Louw, 2015; Wilks & Pendergast, 2017). However, school policies that ensure that teachers have the necessary capacities and skills to provide support for injured individuals are of the most significance.

The purpose of this study is to examine whether there is a relationship between schools’ first aid policies and students’ health outcomes in case of emergencies. This topic is significant because, as mentioned above, many children become injured in the educational environment; it is vital to eliminate this problem. This study will contribute to enhancing the safety of the learning environment for students because it will show how schools can manage minor and major incidents effectively. The main concepts associated with the topic are schools’ policies related to first aid, teachers’ certification, first aid guidelines, students’ well-being, and the safety of the learning environment.

Various studies in the field suggest that school policies related to first aid and teachers’ certification can enhance learners’ safety significantly. It is evident that schools should be able to manage both insignificant incidents and major crises that can affect learners’ health (Mutch, 2015). Besides the works featured above, there are several researchers that advocate for the benefits of well-developed first aid strategies within educational institutions. For instance, studies by Zayapragassarazan (2016), Jacob et al. (2018), and Joseph et al. (2015) show that teacher certification and clear guidelines that state the methods of managing emergencies are vital for ensuring positive health outcomes among affected individuals. In addition, some authors report that first aid training should be delivered to students as well. For example, the studies by Reveruzzi, Buckley, and Sheehan (2016), Mohammed (2018), and Elewa and Saad (2017) reveal that learners should be able to manage emergencies as well. In addition, some works reveal that a lack of competence and skills in first aid are among the most significant barriers to effective resuscitation (Zinckernagel et al., 2016; Lockey, Barton, & Yoxall, 2016). Thus, it is possible to conclude that school policies have a crucial impact on educators’ abilities to provide first aid and, consequently, on students’ health outcomes.

The paper shows that first aid is a significant topic and concern for educational facilities. Studies in the field show that many teachers encounter difficulties while providing first aid to students. It means that it is vital for schools to implement measures to address this problem. Possible strategies may include teacher certification, first aid guidelines, and educational training for educators and students. The paper provides the basis for future research and shows that the topic is significant and should be addressed.

1. Baginska, J., Rodakowska, E., Milewski, R., Wilczynska-Borawska, M., & Kierklo, A. (2016). Polish school nurses’ knowledge of the first-aid in tooth avulsion of permanent teeth. BMC Oral Health , 16 (30). Web.

2. De Buck, E., Van Remoortel, H., Dieltjens, T., Verstraeten, H., Clarysse, M., Moens, O., & Vandekerckhove, P. (2015). Evidence-based educational pathway for the integration of first aid training in school curricula. Resuscitation , 94 , 8-22.

3. De Villiers, A., & Louw, A. (2015). Teaching first aid in high schools: The impact on students in the health sciences extended degree programme. South African Journal of Higher Education , 29 (1), 198-210.

4. Elewa, A. A., & Saad, A. M. (2017). Effect of child to child approach educational method on knowledge and practices of selected first aid measures among primary school children. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice , 8 (1), 69-78.

5. Hirca, N. (2018). Does teachers’ knowledge meet first aid needs of Turkish schools? Review of Turkish literature. Journal of European Education , 2 (2), 16-23.

6. Jacob, O. M., Goswami, A., Ahamed, F., Dubey, M., Goswami, K., & Gupta, N. (2018). A training program on first aid and basic life support skills among teachers of a school in South Delhi: A feasibility assessment. International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health , 5 (10), 4345-4350.

7. Joseph, N., Narayanan, T., bin Zakaria, S., Nair, A. V., Belayutham, L., Subramanian, A. M., & Gopakumar, K. G. (2015). Awareness, attitudes and practices of first aid among school teachers in Mangalore, South India. Journal of Primary Health Care , 7 (4), 274-281.

8. Keleş, P. U., Yildirim, Z., & Aydin, S. (2015). Determining the basic first-aid knowledge levels of the class teachers working in the city center of Agri. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies, 6 (6), 404-410.

9. Lockey, A. S., Barton, K., & Yoxall, H. (2016). Opportunities and barriers to cardiopulmonary resuscitation training in English secondary schools. European Journal of Emergency Medicine , 23 (5), 381-385.

10. Mohammed, A. A. (2018). The influence of training program on knowledge and practices of preparatory schools’ children related to the selected first aid. American Journal of Nursing , 6 (4), 158-163.

11. Mutch, C. (2015). The role of schools in disaster settings: Learning from the 2010–2011 New Zealand earthquakes. International Journal of Educational Development , 41 , 283-291.

12. Pandey, R., Chauhan, R., Dobhal, S., Dabral, S., Nathani, S., Negi, S.,… Sorte, D. Y. (2017). First aid knowledge among health assigned teachers of primary schools. International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences , 5 (4), 1522-1527.

13. Pellegrino, J. L., Oliver, E., Orkin, A., Marentette, D., Snobelen, P., Muise, J.,… De Buck, E. (2017). A call for revolution in first aid education. International Journal of First Aid Education , 1 (1), 5-11.

14. Reveruzzi, B., Buckley, L., & Sheehan, M. (2016). School‐based first aid training programs: A systematic review. Journal of School Health , 86 (4), 266-272.

15. Schneider, K., Meeteer, W., Nolan, J. A., & Campbell, H. D. (2017). Health care in high school athletics in West Virginia. Rural & Remote Health , 17 . Web.

16. Sharma, M. (2017). A cross section of prospective teachers’ and practicing teachers’ about first aid. International Journal of Innovative Studies in Sociology and Humanities , 2 (1), 48-50.

17. Vale, S., Smith, J., Said, M., Mullins, R. J., & Loh, R. (2015). ASCIA guidelines for prevention of anaphylaxis in schools, pre‐schools and childcare: 2015 update. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health , 51 (10), 949-954.

18. Wendy, L., Hubley, D., Doyle, B., Doucette, J., Amiro, R., Himmelan, A. B.,… Hudson, S. (2018). The 7 Rights: An active reflection tool to develop risk awareness for outdoor first aid education. International Journal of First Aid Education , 2 (1), 5-15.

19. Wilks, J., & Pendergast, D. (2017). Skills for life: First aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation in schools. Health Education Journal , 76 (8), 1009-1023.

20. Zayapragassarazan, Z. (2016). Urgent need to train teachers and students in first aid and CPR. Education in Medicine Journal , 8 (2), 89-92.

21. Zinckernagel, L., Hansen, C. M., Rod, M. H., Folke, F., Torp-Pedersen, C., & Tjørnhøj-Thomsen, T. (2016). What are the barriers to implementation of cardiopulmonary resuscitation training in secondary schools? A qualitative study. BMJ Open , 6 (4). Web.

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4 Facilities Strategies to Improve Student Productivity

Institutions often resort to looking for statistics about completed credit hours and matriculation rates to determine their productivity and performance. Instead, imagine a productivity evaluation based on lessons learned and retained, emphasizing the quality of education rather than the quantity. What settings might best accomplish this?

1. Flipped classrooms. This is less a physical event than a way that institutions are rethinking learning and instruction. Students learn the lecture material independently so that class time is used for discussion, debate, group work, and problem-solving. This style creates a highly productive and engaging environment. 

2. TEAL (technology-enhanced active learning). These spaces are a dynamic way to facilitate small, group-based learning. Large tables with monitors located at one end provide space to gather and display information and ideas, working in tandem with the flipped classroom approach. Professors can circulate throughout the room and engage with different groups as they work through solutions. This setup also allows for a role reversal, where students present their findings, as they mirror screens and showcase work on a larger monitor, bringing the class together for discussion. While technology enhances the experience, collaboration and connection are still at the center. 

The first TEAL classroom was innovated and designed for the MIT TEAL/Studio Physics Project in the early 1990s and accommodated working groups of three with nine students at each of the eleven tables. An assessment of this model claims that it improved learning by a factor of two, over traditional methods. This model was incorporated into the University of Kentucky’s Academic Science Building projec t, which featured multiple TEAL rooms hosting 24, 36, and 42 students, as well as a larger TEAL room which can accommodate up to 132 students at tables for six. 

3. Tunable electric lighting. LED lighting has become a norm across many households and institutions. Tunable artificial lighting takes the benefits of LED to the next level through the customization of quality, color, and intensity as it relates to the natural lighting within a space. Lighting quality can be automated to match the time of day and time of year, which has been shown to reduce fatigue. 

With STEM in mind, there are scientific environments in which extremely specific lighting is required. In the case of Lehigh University’s Health, Science and Technology buildin g, there are plans to use tunable artificial lighting in the open office and communal and collaboration spaces. Laboratory environments will not employ tunable lighting, as certain research will require specific lighting criteria. 

4. Open environments. An open environment encourages connection and fluidity. Intentionally designing a variety of open space environments provides students access to spontaneous interaction, which can lead to increased communication, creativity, and collaboration.

David Feth ( [email protected] ), AIA, LEED AP, principal with  Wilson HGA  in Boston, has specialized in the design of teaching and research environments for higher education clients. He has led the design of numerous STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) spaces.

Facilities Management

UI receives Tree Campus Higher Education designation for the 15th year in a row

The University of Iowa was recently honored with the 2023 Tree Campus Higher Education Award at the Annual Community Forestry Awards Luncheon in Ankeny. The award was presented by the Arbor Day Foundation and the Iowa Department of Natural Resources April 4th at the FFA Enrichment Center in Ankeny.

 “The Tree Campus Higher Education award is a symbol for universities and colleges who continually strive to educate and engage their students and surrounding community about the benefits of trees and exhibit excellence in their tree management,” says State Forester Jeff Goerndt. “Your campus has provided an outstanding example for other Iowa colleges and universities, by enhancing our forest resources and demonstrating the great value of trees in providing multiple benefits for future generations."

 The University of Iowa is one of only eight Tree Campus Higher Education award winners in Iowa. To receive the award, a campus must, at a minimum, have a campus Tree Advisory Committee, a tree care plan, a tree program with dedicated annual expenditures, an annual Arbor Day observance, and a service learning project to engage the student body.

The Facilities Management Tree Crew contributors include:

• Mike Rhinehart, Supervisor, Landscape Construction, ISA-certified arborist and 2016 Outstanding Professional, Iowa Urban Tree Council
• Andy Dahl, Urban Forestry Supervisor and Campus Arborist, ISA-certified Arborist/Municipal Specialist and 2014 ISA National “True Professional of Arboriculture” Award Winner
• Alan Allgood, Tree Trimmer and ISA-certified Arborist
• Wayne Norman, Tree Trimmer
• Grant Raitt, Groundskeeper, Tree Trimmer

Meet Nick Rodricks

Americans produce about 4.5 pounds of trash per person per day. In 2017, that amounted to 267 million tons of municipal solid waste. Rough estimates indicate about 52 percent of that waste is sent to landfills, while just 13 percent is sent to waste-to-energy (WTE or incineration) facilities in the United States.

Nick Rodricks, a 2019 master’s graduate of Johns Hopkins University’s Bloomberg School of Public Health and Public/Environmental Health, studied public perception of WTE facilities as a participant in the  U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Scholars Program . 

Recent master’s graduate Nick Rodricks studied public perception of waste-to-energy facilities as a participant in the U.S. Department of Energy Scholars Program.

Open to undergraduate and graduate students as well as recent graduates, the DOE Scholars Program is designed to help prepare participants for a full range of entry and mid-level research, technical and professional positions within DOE and organizations that support the DOE mission. Participants are assigned to research, technical or policy-related projects.

Rodricks served his appointment at DOE’s Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) ’s Waste Into X (WIX) Program.

“The legacy of trash incineration in our country is not a particularly positive one,” Rodricks said. “As a result, the public often has a negative reaction despite vast improvements in the technology over the last few decades.”

Much of the negative perception stems from past issues with dioxin, mercury and lead pollution that resulted from earlier forms of waste incineration, as well as opposition to WTE by the growing environmental justice movement.

Improved regulations and the implementation and enforcement of standards for WTE have led to improvements in technology, which can help reduce the amount of waste going to landfills.

Rodricks was mentored by Douglas Wicks, Ph.D., director of the ARPA-E WIX Program. Wicks and his team wanted to better understand how the public feels about WTE, why they feel that way and what the primary concerns around the technology are.

“We really wanted to understand why (the perception of WTE is negative), which elements of the technology are the most problematic and to what extent the public actually feels that way,” Rodricks said. “It was sort of a foregone conclusion that the public hates WTE, but we didn’t have a lot of good data to prove or disprove that. Since Doug’s projects rely on the presence of Municipal Solid Waste Incineration (MSWI), he wanted to make sure he had a complete picture of how the public felt.”

Rodricks researched media coverage of seven WTE facilities across the country. Locations represented a diversity of location, characteristics and public perceptions. More than 200 stories mentioning WTE over a five-year period were analyzed. Ninety-nine stories from 20 news outlets in seven locations were included in Rodrick’s review.

Positive and negative references to facilities were tallied and categorized along 44 perception categories that were placed in broader categories, including community concerns, pollutants, environmental justice and public health, and odor and noise. Rodricks’ research found that odor and noise weren’t consistent concerns; rather, most concerns related to siting of facilities and emissions, especially stack emissions. In addition to the media review, Rodricks studied demographics around the seven facilities and conducted a literature review on WTE.

He found that support for WTE does exist, and industries and municipalities need to do a better job of communicating the advancements in technology and the benefits of WTE while taking into account and addressing the concerns related to environmental justice. Three of the facilities he studied have very robust community education and outreach programs that could be replicated by others.

Rodricks believes WTE has immense potential in the U.S.

“Most of our trash here in the U.S. goes to a landfill where there is little opportunity to extract any value from it. If we want to reduce waste in the future and extract value from our trash, we have to engineer solutions… we can’t just drop it in a hole in the ground,” he said. “By understanding the root causes of negative public perceptions around WTE, we can engineer solutions that are not only more economically viable and more environmentally friendly, but we can also do them in a way that is acceptable to the public.”

Ironically, Rodricks became interested in WTE as an opponent to it.

“We have a WTE facility in Baltimore and there has been community action to shut down the facility for quite some time,” he said. “That was my initial perspective and one I still certainly respect and sympathize with. But I have gained a comprehensive understanding of the trash problem in the United States and now know that simple opposition doesn’t create a solution.”

He gives Wicks a lot of credit for meeting him where he was and not trying to change his mind and letting him figure out the facts on his own.

“I’m still an environmentalist first and foremost, but Doug helped me understand the complexity of the problem and why it will take years of cooperation, development and technological breakthroughs to get the MSW problem under control,” Rodricks said. “There is plenty of reason to be in opposition to facilities that pollute … we know that. However, we also have to make sure we have solutions in place before we shut anything down. Otherwise we create an even bigger environmental and social justice issue.”

While the coronavirus pandemic limited opportunities to present his research, Rodricks was able to present to all of the ARPA-E team, to program partners at Penn State University and to groups in Maryland who are interested in the debate over WTE. He adds that the pandemic changed the nature of his appointment from being in the lab with Wicks and his team to researching from home and communicating via Zoom, but he was able to talk to experts and conduct his research without interruption.

Rodricks hopes to continue working in the field because “I feel like I can help steer decision making around energy and industry so that our solutions to the world’s most pressing issues are done justly and with the environment in mind.”

The DOE Scholars Program is administered by Oak Ridge Associated Universities (ORAU) through the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE) under an agreement with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).

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40 facts about elektrostal.

Written by Lanette Mayes

Modified & Updated: 02 Mar 2024

Reviewed by Jessica Corbett

Elektrostal is a vibrant city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia. With a rich history, stunning architecture, and a thriving community, Elektrostal is a city that has much to offer. Whether you are a history buff, nature enthusiast, or simply curious about different cultures, Elektrostal is sure to captivate you.

This article will provide you with 40 fascinating facts about Elektrostal, giving you a better understanding of why this city is worth exploring. From its origins as an industrial hub to its modern-day charm, we will delve into the various aspects that make Elektrostal a unique and must-visit destination.

So, join us as we uncover the hidden treasures of Elektrostal and discover what makes this city a true gem in the heart of Russia.

Key Takeaways:

• Elektrostal, known as the “Motor City of Russia,” is a vibrant and growing city with a rich industrial history, offering diverse cultural experiences and a strong commitment to environmental sustainability.
• With its convenient location near Moscow, Elektrostal provides a picturesque landscape, vibrant nightlife, and a range of recreational activities, making it an ideal destination for residents and visitors alike.

Known as the “Motor City of Russia.”

Elektrostal, a city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia, earned the nickname “Motor City” due to its significant involvement in the automotive industry.

Home to the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Elektrostal is renowned for its metallurgical plant, which has been producing high-quality steel and alloys since its establishment in 1916.

Boasts a rich industrial heritage.

Elektrostal has a long history of industrial development, contributing to the growth and progress of the region.

Founded in 1916.

The city of Elektrostal was founded in 1916 as a result of the construction of the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Located approximately 50 kilometers east of Moscow.

Elektrostal is situated in close proximity to the Russian capital, making it easily accessible for both residents and visitors.

Known for its vibrant cultural scene.

Elektrostal is home to several cultural institutions, including museums, theaters, and art galleries that showcase the city’s rich artistic heritage.

A popular destination for nature lovers.

Surrounded by picturesque landscapes and forests, Elektrostal offers ample opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, and birdwatching.

Hosts the annual Elektrostal City Day celebrations.

Every year, Elektrostal organizes festive events and activities to celebrate its founding, bringing together residents and visitors in a spirit of unity and joy.

Has a population of approximately 160,000 people.

Elektrostal is home to a diverse and vibrant community of around 160,000 residents, contributing to its dynamic atmosphere.

Boasts excellent education facilities.

The city is known for its well-established educational institutions, providing quality education to students of all ages.

A center for scientific research and innovation.

Elektrostal serves as an important hub for scientific research, particularly in the fields of metallurgy, materials science, and engineering.

Surrounded by picturesque lakes.

The city is blessed with numerous beautiful lakes, offering scenic views and recreational opportunities for locals and visitors alike.

Well-connected transportation system.

Elektrostal benefits from an efficient transportation network, including highways, railways, and public transportation options, ensuring convenient travel within and beyond the city.

Famous for its traditional Russian cuisine.

Food enthusiasts can indulge in authentic Russian dishes at numerous restaurants and cafes scattered throughout Elektrostal.

Home to notable architectural landmarks.

Elektrostal boasts impressive architecture, including the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord and the Elektrostal Palace of Culture.

Offers a wide range of recreational facilities.

Residents and visitors can enjoy various recreational activities, such as sports complexes, swimming pools, and fitness centers, enhancing the overall quality of life.

Provides a high standard of healthcare.

Elektrostal is equipped with modern medical facilities, ensuring residents have access to quality healthcare services.

Home to the Elektrostal History Museum.

The Elektrostal History Museum showcases the city’s fascinating past through exhibitions and displays.

A hub for sports enthusiasts.

Elektrostal is passionate about sports, with numerous stadiums, arenas, and sports clubs offering opportunities for athletes and spectators.

Celebrates diverse cultural festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal hosts a variety of cultural festivals, celebrating different ethnicities, traditions, and art forms.

Electric power played a significant role in its early development.

Elektrostal owes its name and initial growth to the establishment of electric power stations and the utilization of electricity in the industrial sector.

Boasts a thriving economy.

The city’s strong industrial base, coupled with its strategic location near Moscow, has contributed to Elektrostal’s prosperous economic status.

Houses the Elektrostal Drama Theater.

The Elektrostal Drama Theater is a cultural centerpiece, attracting theater enthusiasts from far and wide.

Popular destination for winter sports.

Elektrostal’s proximity to ski resorts and winter sport facilities makes it a favorite destination for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter activities.

Promotes environmental sustainability.

Elektrostal prioritizes environmental protection and sustainability, implementing initiatives to reduce pollution and preserve natural resources.

Home to renowned educational institutions.

Elektrostal is known for its prestigious schools and universities, offering a wide range of academic programs to students.

Committed to cultural preservation.

The city values its cultural heritage and takes active steps to preserve and promote traditional customs, crafts, and arts.

Hosts an annual International Film Festival.

The Elektrostal International Film Festival attracts filmmakers and cinema enthusiasts from around the world, showcasing a diverse range of films.

Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation.

Elektrostal supports aspiring entrepreneurs and fosters a culture of innovation, providing opportunities for startups and business development.

Offers a range of housing options.

Elektrostal provides diverse housing options, including apartments, houses, and residential complexes, catering to different lifestyles and budgets.

Home to notable sports teams.

Elektrostal is proud of its sports legacy, with several successful sports teams competing at regional and national levels.

Boasts a vibrant nightlife scene.

Residents and visitors can enjoy a lively nightlife in Elektrostal, with numerous bars, clubs, and entertainment venues.

Promotes cultural exchange and international relations.

Elektrostal actively engages in international partnerships, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic collaborations to foster global connections.

Surrounded by beautiful nature reserves.

Nearby nature reserves, such as the Barybino Forest and Luchinskoye Lake, offer opportunities for nature enthusiasts to explore and appreciate the region’s biodiversity.

Commemorates historical events.

The city pays tribute to significant historical events through memorials, monuments, and exhibitions, ensuring the preservation of collective memory.

Promotes sports and youth development.

Elektrostal invests in sports infrastructure and programs to encourage youth participation, health, and physical fitness.

Hosts annual cultural and artistic festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal celebrates its cultural diversity through festivals dedicated to music, dance, art, and theater.

Provides a picturesque landscape for photography enthusiasts.

The city’s scenic beauty, architectural landmarks, and natural surroundings make it a paradise for photographers.

Connects to Moscow via a direct train line.

The convenient train connection between Elektrostal and Moscow makes commuting between the two cities effortless.

A city with a bright future.

Elektrostal continues to grow and develop, aiming to become a model city in terms of infrastructure, sustainability, and quality of life for its residents.

In conclusion, Elektrostal is a fascinating city with a rich history and a vibrant present. From its origins as a center of steel production to its modern-day status as a hub for education and industry, Elektrostal has plenty to offer both residents and visitors. With its beautiful parks, cultural attractions, and proximity to Moscow, there is no shortage of things to see and do in this dynamic city. Whether you’re interested in exploring its historical landmarks, enjoying outdoor activities, or immersing yourself in the local culture, Elektrostal has something for everyone. So, next time you find yourself in the Moscow region, don’t miss the opportunity to discover the hidden gems of Elektrostal.

Q: What is the population of Elektrostal?

A: As of the latest data, the population of Elektrostal is approximately XXXX.

Q: How far is Elektrostal from Moscow?

A: Elektrostal is located approximately XX kilometers away from Moscow.

Q: Are there any famous landmarks in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to several notable landmarks, including XXXX and XXXX.

Q: What industries are prominent in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal is known for its steel production industry and is also a center for engineering and manufacturing.

Q: Are there any universities or educational institutions in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to XXXX University and several other educational institutions.

Q: What are some popular outdoor activities in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal offers several outdoor activities, such as hiking, cycling, and picnicking in its beautiful parks.

Q: Is Elektrostal well-connected in terms of transportation?

A: Yes, Elektrostal has good transportation links, including trains and buses, making it easily accessible from nearby cities.

Q: Are there any annual events or festivals in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal hosts various events and festivals throughout the year, including XXXX and XXXX.

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Amanda Hoover

Students Are Likely Writing Millions of Papers With AI

Students have submitted more than 22 million papers that may have used generative AI in the past year, new data released by plagiarism detection company Turnitin shows.

A year ago, Turnitin rolled out an AI writing detection tool that was trained on its trove of papers written by students as well as other AI-generated texts. Since then, more than 200 million papers have been reviewed by the detector, predominantly written by high school and college students. Turnitin found that 11 percent may contain AI-written language in 20 percent of its content, with 3 percent of the total papers reviewed getting flagged for having 80 percent or more AI writing. (Turnitin is owned by Advance, which also owns Condé Nast, publisher of WIRED.) Turnitin says its detector has a false positive rate of less than 1 percent when analyzing full documents.

ChatGPT’s launch was met with knee-jerk fears that the English class essay would die . The chatbot can synthesize information and distill it near-instantly—but that doesn’t mean it always gets it right. Generative AI has been known to hallucinate , creating its own facts and citing academic references that don’t actually exist. Generative AI chatbots have also been caught spitting out biased text on gender and race . Despite those flaws, students have used chatbots for research, organizing ideas, and as a ghostwriter . Traces of chatbots have even been found in peer-reviewed, published academic writing .

Teachers understandably want to hold students accountable for using generative AI without permission or disclosure. But that requires a reliable way to prove AI was used in a given assignment. Instructors have tried at times to find their own solutions to detecting AI in writing, using messy, untested methods to enforce rules , and distressing students. Further complicating the issue, some teachers are even using generative AI in their grading processes.

Detecting the use of gen AI is tricky. It’s not as easy as flagging plagiarism, because generated text is still original text. Plus, there’s nuance to how students use gen AI; some may ask chatbots to write their papers for them in large chunks or in full, while others may use the tools as an aid or a brainstorm partner.

Students also aren't tempted by only ChatGPT and similar large language models. So-called word spinners are another type of AI software that rewrites text, and may make it less obvious to a teacher that work was plagiarized or generated by AI. Turnitin’s AI detector has also been updated to detect word spinners, says Annie Chechitelli, the company’s chief product officer. It can also flag work that was rewritten by services like spell checker Grammarly, which now has its own generative AI tool . As familiar software increasingly adds generative AI components, what students can and can’t use becomes more muddled.

Detection tools themselves have a risk of bias. English language learners may be more likely to set them off; a 2023 study found a 61.3 percent false positive rate when evaluating Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) exams with seven different AI detectors. The study did not examine Turnitin’s version. The company says it has trained its detector on writing from English language learners as well as native English speakers. A study published in October found that Turnitin was among the most accurate of 16 AI language detectors in a test that had the tool examine undergraduate papers and AI-generated papers.

Lauren Goode

William Turton

Eric Ravenscraft

Schools that use Turnitin had access to the AI detection software for a free pilot period, which ended at the start of this year. Chechitelli says a majority of the service’s clients have opted to purchase the AI detection. But the risks of false positives and bias against English learners have led some universities to ditch the tools for now. Montclair State University in New Jersey announced in November that it would pause use of Turnitin’s AI detector. Vanderbilt University and Northwestern University did the same last summer.

“This is hard. I understand why people want a tool,” says Emily Isaacs, executive director of the Office of Faculty Excellence at Montclair State. But Isaacs says the university is concerned about potentially biased results from AI detectors, as well as the fact that the tools can’t provide confirmation the way they can with plagiarism. Plus, Montclair State doesn’t want to put a blanket ban on AI, which will have some place in academia. With time and more trust in the tools, the policies could change. “It’s not a forever decision, it’s a now decision,” Isaacs says.

Chechitelli says the Turnitin tool shouldn’t be the only consideration in passing or failing a student. Instead, it’s a chance for teachers to start conversations with students that touch on all of the nuance in using generative AI. “People don’t really know where that line should be,” she says.

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How israel and allied defenses intercepted more than 300 iranian missiles and drones.

Almost all the ballistic missiles and drones Iran launched at Israel in an unprecedented attack late Saturday were intercepted and failed to meet their mark, according to Israeli and American officials, highlighting the formidable, and multi-layered missile defense deployed by the two allied partners.

Most of the more than 300 Iranian munitions, the majority of which are believed to have been launched from inside of Iran’s territory during a five-hour attack, were intercepted before they got to Israel, more than 1,100 miles (1,770 kilometers) from their launch points.

Israel’s military said Sunday that “99%” of projectiles fired by Iran were intercepted by Israel and its partners, with only “a small number” of ballistic missiles reaching Israel.

In total, around 170 drones, more than 30 cruise missiles and more than 120 ballistic missiles were launched at Israel by Iran overnight Saturday, the military said.

In a call Sunday, US President Joe Biden told Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu that constituted a win for Israel as nothing of “value” was hit, a senior US administration official told CNN.

US officials said more than 70 drones and three ballistic missiles were intercepted by US Navy ships and military aircraft, without giving details of exactly what defenses were used to bring down the projectiles.

The US Navy shot down at least three ballistic missiles using the Aegis missile defense system aboard two guided-missiles destroyers in the eastern Mediterranean, officials told CNN’s Oren Liebermann at the Pentagon.

US warplanes also shot down Iranian ordnance, Liebermann reported. While it was not revealed from where those US jets operated, there are US Navy aircraft carriers and land-based aircraft well within range of the region.

Biden said in a statement the US was well-prepared to help defend Israel against the Iranian attack.

“To support the defense of Israel, the US military moved aircraft and ballistic missile defense destroyers to the region over the course of the past week,” the US president said in a statement.

“Thanks to these deployments and the extraordinary skill of our servicemembers, we helped Israel take down nearly all of the incoming drones and missiles,” Biden said.

Britain said it was also prepared to intervene using Royal Air Force aircraft it has in the region.

“These UK jets will intercept any airborne attacks within range of our existing missions, as required,” a Defense Ministry statement said.

An Israeli military spokesperson also said France was involved in blocking the Iranian attacks.

“We are working closely with the US, UK and France who acted tonight. This partnership has always been close, but tonight it manifested itself in an unusual way,” the spokesperson said.

Meanwhile, Israel operates a range of systems to block attacks from everything from ballistic missiles with trajectories that take them above the atmosphere to low-flying cruise missiles and rockets.

Israel’s Iron Dome system has been in the headlines often since the country began its military offensive in Gaza in response to the October 7 Hamas attacks inside Israel that sparked the current hostilities in the region.

The Iron Dome is the bottom layer of Israel’s missile defense, according to the country’s Missile Defense Organization (IMDO).

There are at least 10 Iron Dome batteries in Israel, each equipped with a radar that detects rockets and  then uses a command-and-control system that quickly calculates  whether an incoming projectile poses a threat or is likely to hit an unpopulated area. If the rocket does pose a threat, the Iron Dome fires missiles from the ground to destroy it in the air.

The next rung up the missile defense ladder is David’s Sling, which protects against short- and medium-range threats, according to the IMDO.

David’s Sling, a joint project of Israel’s Rafael Advanced Defense System and US defense giant Raytheon, uses Stunner and SkyCeptor kinetic hit-to-kill interceptors to take out targets as far as 186 miles away, according to the Missile Threat project at the Center for International and Strategic Studies (CSIS).

Above David’s Sling are Israel’s Arrow 2 and Arrow 3 systems, jointly developed with the United States.

The Arrow 2 uses fragmentation warheads to destroy incoming ballistic missiles in their terminal phase – as they dive toward their targets – in the upper atmosphere, according to the CSIS. The Arrow 2 has a range of 56 miles and a maximum altitude of 32 miles, according to the Missile Defense Advocacy Alliance, which called the Arrow 2 an upgrade of the US Patriot missile defenses Israel once used in this role.

Meanwhile, the Arrow 3 uses hit-to-kill technology to intercept incoming ballistic missiles in space, before they reenter the atmosphere on their way to targets.

Israel also has state-of-the-art fighter aircraft, including F-35I stealth jets that it has used to shoot down drones and cruise missiles before, according to news reports.

The ballistic missiles that did reach Israel fell on the Netavim Air Base in southern Israel, Israel’s military spokesman said, adding that they caused only light structural damage. The base was functioning and continuing its operations following the attack, with planes continuing to use the base, he added.

Photos released by the Israeli Air Force early Sunday showed F-35 and F-15 fighter jets returning to their bases in Israel after what were called successful “interceptions” and “aerial defense missions.”

Some of the weapons launched at Israel were fired from Iraq and Yemen, the spokesman added.

CNN’s MJ Lee, Irene Nasser, Eugenia Yosef and Benjamin Brown contributed to this report.

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