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100 Amazing Criminal Justice Research Topics 2023

To score the top grades, students must choose the right criminal justice research topics for their papers and essays. Writing assignments in this academic field deal with justice and crime. However, the study field of a learner can be limited to specific academic barriers and choices. Criminal justice is a science. Nevertheless, criminal justice is generally a science that focuses on the study, analysis of the occurrence, and prevention of illegal acts.

But, what are some criminal justice topics that learners can consider? Well, students can select criminal justice topics for their papers by focusing on definite issues.

Criminal justice topics are limited and flexible because they offer hypotheses. However, criminal justice paper topics should be based on case studies or legislative acts. Additionally, students should be confident in terms of their ability to research and write about their chosen topics.

So, are still asking, what are some good criminal justice research topics? If yes, here are some of the great criminal justice research paper topics to consider.

Basic Criminal Justice Research Topics

Perhaps, your educator asked you to write an original paper. In that case, consider standard or basic research topics in criminal justice. Here are examples of such topics.

What are the major problems in prison systems?
What are the major crime prevention principles?
Discuss the deterrence and rational option theory
How does the law punish workplace and school sexual offenders?
Why is capital punishment common among men than women?
What are the most common features for ransom and kidnapping cases- Consider behavior style and motifs
Explain the cybercrime’s legal perspective
Crime prevention- What are the major principles?
How to determine whether a person fired off accidentally or deliberately
How are crime, justice, and mass media related?
What is experimental criminology?
Discuss Miranda vs. Arizona and its effect today
What are victim services?
Discuss juvenile recidivism
A review of parental abduction laws
How to prevent wildlife crime
What is felon disenfranchisement?
Describe the functions of forensic science
How effective are witness protection programs?
How do criminal cases differ from civil cases?

If you wish to write a simple paper, consider some ideas from this list of basic criminal justice topics. Nevertheless, make sure that you’re comfortable researching and writing about the topic that you choose.

Controversial Topics in Criminal Justice

Maybe you want to write a paper on a controversial topic. In that case, consider any of these criminal justice controversial topics.

Major causes of college violence
Biased investigations of African Americans
Punishment versus reform- Which one is more beneficial?
How good is a restorative justice model as a tool for criminal justice
Should an insane person be exempted from liability?
Is school-based drug testing ideal for colleges and high schools
Is the current judicial system racial?
What is the correlation between crime and race?
How is juvenile delinquency related to bad parenting?
Can prisons be decongested by restrictive housing?
How can people protect themselves from false accusations?
Should the names of sex offenders be included in public records?
What causes controversy about prostitution legalization?
How is crime linked to the social class of a person?
Selective incapacitation- Is it effective as a crime reduction policy?
How can eyewitness testimony facilitate crime investigation?
How effective is community policing as a program for reducing homegrown crimes?
How effective are youthful offenders’ boot camps?
Should pornography be categorized as a form of sexual violence?
How can the state enhance gun control?

This category has some of the best argumentative topics. That’s because somebody can argue from different angles when discussing some of these topics. Nevertheless, extensive research is required to compose solid papers on these topics.

Criminal Justice Debate Topics

Maybe you want to write about a debate topic. This category has some of the best topics to talk about in criminal justice. That’s because they mostly involve current issues that concern most people. Some of them are about problems whose solutions have not been found yet. Here are examples of topics in this category.

How effective and fair is the death penalty as a way of deterring crime?
How fair is the extradition law?
Should deceit and trickery be used for interrogations and investigations?
Should cooperation with informants in prisons be acceptable?
Death penalty for juveniles- Should it be used?
How effective are super-max prisons?
Super-max prisons are cruel
How can police shootings be justified?
Drunk drivers’ punishment- Should it be severe?
How effective e is zero-tolerance when it comes to crime reduction?
Should criminal charges attract mandatory imprisonment without a possibility for parole?
Should shaming become an element of criminal punishment?
How are civil liberties threatened by the Patriot Act?
Should the Rights Amendment for a victim be added to the constitution?
Should plea bargaining be considered an acceptable means of settling criminal cases?
American society needs more laws to prevent the cruelty meted on animals
How humane is the U.S society?
Discuss the Susan Wright trial
What is political corruption?
Discuss the Marbury versus Madison Case

Criminal Justice Research Proposal Topics

What are some good research topics for criminal justice that will get you the necessary funding? You’re likely to ask this question when writing a proposal for your research. Here are some of the best research proposal topics to consider in criminal justice.

How does crime relate to aggression?
Mental health problems like depression and the internet
How mental health relate to violence
Use of violence and torture towards criminals
Invalidity or validity of Rational Choice theory
Crime and violence- Are they nurtured or products of nature?
Major trends in criminology
Crime and dysfunctional families
Basis, theories, and limitations of feminist criminology
How crime occurrence can be reduced by the examination of criminal behavior

Juvenile Justice Paper Topics

Perhaps, you need juvenile topics in criminal justice for your academic papers. In that case, consider criminal justice paper topics, prepared by our writing professionals.

Do children deserve the same trial with adults?
Rehabilitation of children involved in violent crimes
Should children and adults have the same prisons?
Can juveniles be socio-paths?
Should house arrest be granted to juvenile offenders that do not engage in violent crimes?
What are the best solutions for teens that keep committing crimes?
How can the criminal justice system deal with frequent juvenile offenders?
Is punitive juvenile justice effective?
How rampant is juvenile victimization?
How effective are school-based juvenile programs for preventing crime?

International Topics Dealing with Criminal Justice

Several criminal justice issue topics can be addressed at an international level. Here are examples of such topics.

How are international offenders treated currently?
NATO ethics in Afghanistan and Iraq
Violations of human rights in Uganda
International intervention- When is it acceptable?
Information accessibility and police cooperation at an international level
Methods used by criminals to traffic drugs
Analysis of an international criminal justice tribunal
What the appeal process for the international criminal court?
Discuss the issue of child soldiers during the Israel-Palestine conflict
Discuss the XYZ Corporation’s transnational crimes

Criminal Justice Thesis Topics

A thesis topic should be interesting and relevant. If struggling to come up with a topic for your thesis, consider these samples for inspiration.

Why do some offenders become criminals after servicing their sentences?
How can legislation change the delinquency and violence levels in the U.S concerning drug use?
How can wrong convictions be prevented?
How do people influence the making of decisions of public policies about the criminal justice system?
How accurately do television, novels, and movies depict a country’s criminal justice system?
Does a criminal deserve cruel treatment and unlawful use of force by law enforcers?
How effective are strategies for stopping or determining criminal behavior?
How can the reentry of an offender to society be made seamless?
Should law enforcers wear cameras?
How effective and accessible is the judicial system?

In addition to these ideas, you can choose criminal justice reform topics or criminal justice ethic topics. Nevertheless, choose only topics you find interesting and comfortable working on.

Get on top of your homework.

135+ Amazing Criminal Justice Research Topics In 2023

Are you a law student or enrolled in law college? Are you looking for criminal justice research topics? Here, in this blog, you can find your criminal justice research topics. Statanalytca.com explains the 135 amazing criminal research paper topic ideas for 2023 in this blog.

When we listen to the word criminal justice, many words come into our mind like “victim,” “enforcement,” “crimes,” “courts,” “prison,” and law sanctions. Criminal justice is a term that governments make to justice for people, reduce and make decisions to prevent crimes. Governments make law sanctions to reduce crimes. Every country has a different criminal justice system.

The criminal justice system in the United States is a complex system of federal, state, and local laws, with state and federal constitutions, international treaties, and customary law. Each layer of government shares responsibility for a different aspect of the process. Federal law enforcement agencies enforce laws that may be broken by people who are not in their jurisdiction.

For example : When an individual from New York City travels to Florida to commit a crime such as a robbery or murder they will be arrested by the Florida police and handed over to federal authorities.

A criminal justice research paper necessarily requires accuracy, attention, and patience. Sometimes students are confused about writing criminal research paper topics, or they have a shortage of time to complete research papers.

Most college students ask for assignments to write criminal justice research papers. If you want criminal justice research paper help, you can take our trusted research paper assignment help .

How To Choose A Good Research Topics

Table of Contents

Choosing a research topic is a very challenging task. You should pick a topic that is both interesting and relevant to your audience. You should analyze the crime report before choosing the criminal justice research topics. Research the types of crimes in your country and where your country ranks in the global crime index.

Some research topics include the following:

The role of law enforcement, prosecutors, and public defenders.
Challenges with eyewitness identifications.
Different types of evidence are used in criminal cases.
The effect of jury selection on trials.
How criminal justice impacts mental health.

What Is a Research Paper in Criminal Justice?

A research paper in criminal justice is an academic paper presenting findings from research on a specific criminal justice topic. These papers typically require extensive research and analysis of primary and secondary sources, such as case studies, official reports, statistics, and academic literature. The research paper aims to contribute new knowledge to the criminal justice field, identify trends or patterns, or assess the effectiveness of interventions or policies.

Research papers in criminal justice typically follow a standard academic format, including an introduction that sets the context and research questions, a literature review that summarizes existing research, a methodology section that outlines the research design and data collection methods, a results section that presents findings, and a conclusion that summarizes the research’s significance and implications.

Criminal justice research papers may focus on various topics, including the legal system’s operations, law enforcement practices, corrections, crime prevention, and victimization. These papers may be used to inform policymakers, practitioners, and academics about the state of the criminal justice system and suggest evidence-based solutions to improve its effectiveness and fairness.

Let’s Discuss The Criminal Justice Research Topics-

Here in this section, we will tell you some of the best criminal justice research topics for 2023:-

Basic Criminology and Criminal Justice Research Topics

Basic criminal Research Topics.
History of Criminal Ethics.
Criminology as Social Science.
Criminology and Public Policy.
Advantages of Private Prisons.
Civil Crimes vs War Crimes.
Offenses Against Religion & Cultural Traits.
Causes of victimization.

Court Cases Criminal Justice Research Topics

Can victims of crime receive help?
How serious are shoplifting incidents?
When do felony disenfranchisement laws apply?
Is organized crime and corruption synonymous?
What is legal help available to victims of date rape?
What is the difference between civil and criminal cases?
Forensic science: how effective is it in modern criminal justice?
Is there a link between substance abuse, crime, and substance use?
Who is eligible for the protection program, and what protection is provided?
Prison rape and violence: What can be done to prevent sexual and domestic violence in prison?

Controversial Criminal Justice Research Topics

Gun control causes.
Struggle with mental health issues.
Police officers’ legal rights are limited.
College Violence Causes.
Gun violence and prevention policies.
Crimes Propaganda and Modern Music Culture.
Race and politics of criminal justice.
An investigation into victim services.
Eyewitness Evidence Importance.
Legal codes used in America.
Zero tolerance policy and crime rates.
Sexual assault.
culture, and gender equality.
What is the best way to reduce recidivism?
pros and cons of prisons in America.
Criminalization of poverty.
Gender and Punishment.
The effects of drugs on children’s development.
Effects of drug addiction on mental health.
Youth offenders and Bootcamps.

Debate Criminal Justice Research Topics

Failures in criminal justice.
Criminal justice system expectations.
Statistical analysis in criminal justice.
Debate on criminal justice act.
criminal justice trend evaluation.
Trends in the criminal justice system.
Criminal justice system corrections in the USA.
Find the solution to prevent crimes.

Criminology Research Topics On Theories

Is employment related to law violations?
What is the relationship between family status and legal violations?
Is gender related to the type of law violation?
What is the relationship between citizenship and law enforcement?
How does education relate to crime levels?
How does gun ownership relate to breaking the law?
Is there a link between immigration status and law violations?
What types of crimes are common at what ages?
How does the type of crime relate to the level of aggression?

Criminal Justice Research Topics Based On Crime and Communities

The impact of community policing on crime prevention in urban areas.
The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism rates.
The relationship between poverty and crime in urban communities.
The role of race and ethnicity in criminal justice outcomes and disparities.
The effectiveness of community-based interventions in reducing juvenile delinquency.
The impact of gun laws on violent crime in urban communities.
Social media’s role in spreading crime and its effects on communities.
The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related crimes and improving public safety.
The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior in urban communities.
The impact of immigration policies on crime and public safety in urban areas.
The effectiveness of re-entry programs for ex-offenders in reducing recidivism and promoting successful reintegration into society.
The impact of community-based victim services on the criminal justice system and crime prevention.
The relationship between neighborhood social disorganization and crime rates.
The role of technology in improving crime prevention and solving crimes in urban communities.
The effectiveness of community-based diversion programs for non-violent offenders.
The impact of neighborhood watch programs on crime prevention and community safety.
The role of community involvement in addressing hate crimes and bias incidents.
The impact of domestic violence on communities and the criminal justice response.
The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing drug-related crime and improving public health.
The criminal justice system’s impact on marginalized communities and efforts to promote equity and justice.

Criminal Justice Research Topics On Racism and Discrimination

Eliminating discrimination in the criminal justice system.
Gender Bias in Eyewitnesses.
African American Legislative Apartheid.
Racial Discrimination in College Campuses.
How criminal justice law is enacted on Migrants.
Inequality in the criminal justice system Research.

General Criminal Justice Research Topics

Police brutality and excessive force
Criminal profiling and investigation techniques
Restorative justice programs
Cybercrime and cyberterrorism
Gun control policies and their effectiveness
The impact of race and ethnicity on sentencing
Juvenile delinquency prevention and intervention
Wrongful convictions and the death penalty
Gender and crime
Drug policy and its impact on crime.
Community policing and trust-building strategies
The effectiveness of rehabilitation and reentry programs for offenders
Domestic violence and its impact on victims
Crime prevention through environmental design
Forensic science and the reliability of evidence in criminal investigations
Corruption in law enforcement and the criminal justice system
Mental health treatment for inmates and offenders
Human trafficking and modern-day slavery
The use of technology in criminal investigations and surveillance
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the criminal justice system.

Types of Criminal Justice Research Topics

Homicide, serial murders, and serial murder are the most popular topics in murder studies.
A case study of robbery crime, unusual daylight robbery in a news article.
Identity Theft and Ways to Protect, the prevalence of identity theft in the community, causes, and effects of cell phone theft.
Analysis and critique of Current fraud cases, Fraud and business ethics, fraud schemes, and investigation.

International Criminal Law Topics

Criminal ethics, criminal law research assignment paper.
Criminal courtroom observation reaction.
Childhood obesity.
Crime Prevention.
International crimes and their laws.
International criminal court.
Human Rights and Inequality.
Rape Cases.

Criminal Justice Research Topics For College Students

The Impact of Police Body Cameras on Law Enforcement Accountability
Violent Crime Reduction Effectiveness of Restorative Justice Programs
Racial Disparities in Sentencing and Their Implications for Justice
The Role of Mental Health Services in Diverting Offenders from the Criminal Justice System
Media Effects on Perceptions of Crime and Criminal Conduct
Examining the Use of Technology in Solving Crimes and Enhancing Investigations
Juvenile Justice Policies: Rehabilitation vs. Punishment
The Intersection of Immigration Policies and Criminal Justice Outcomes
Criminal Profiling and its Reliability in Solving Crimes
The Effect of Minimum Sentence Laws on Incarceration Rates and Public Safety.

Criminology Research Topics

Armed Crime Groups History Motives.
Cyber Criminology Correction Methods.
Art Fraud Cooperation.
Drunk Driving Prevention Ads.
Identity Theft & Social Media.
Topic on Child Abuse & TV Violence.
Aggression Against Homeless People.
Unemployment & Street Situation Analysis.
Forensic Research Identification Methods.
Crime Witnesses PTSD Rehabilitation.

Career With The Criminology Major

There are a variety of jobs you can get with a criminology degree. We sort listed the top 8 trending jobs that you can get with a criminology degree:

Criminologist.
Private investigator
Forensic scientist .
Correction officer.
Jury consultant.
Loss prevention specialist
Clinical social worker.

Tips On How To Write Criminal Justice Research Topics

A step-by-step guide on how to write criminal justice research topics:

criminal justice research questions examples

Choose a particular topic.
Read the given materials and take some notes.
Come up with a thesis.
Create an outline for your project.
Write down all the information that you have collected.
Start with a cover page, and an intro.
List the technique you used and the results you got.
Include a discussion.
Always write a conclusion.
Don’t forget to correct your grammar mistakes.
Revise, proofread, and if it is incorrect then edit.

Importance of Criminal Justice Research Papers In 2023

Here are some important of criminal justice research papers in 2023:

1. Informed Policy-Making

Criminal justice research papers provide valuable data and insights that policymakers use to develop effective laws and policies, enhancing the fairness and efficiency of the justice system.

2. Evidence-Based Practices

Research papers help identify evidence-based strategies for law enforcement, corrections, and crime prevention, leading to better outcomes and reduced rates of reoffending.

3. Transparency and Accountability

By revealing systemic issues and gaps, research papers push for greater transparency and accountability within the criminal justice system, fostering public trust.

4. Improved Decision-Making

Policymakers, law enforcement, and other stakeholders use research findings to make informed decisions on resource allocation and allocation of efforts.

5. Advancing Knowledge

Criminal justice research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in the field, allowing researchers and academics to build on existing findings and develop innovative approaches to understanding crime and justice.

6. Addressing Disparities

Research papers shed light on disparities in the justice system, such as racial or socioeconomic disparities, prompting efforts to address and rectify these inequalities.

7. Enhancing Public Awareness

Research papers raise public awareness about issues like wrongful convictions, mental health challenges, and the impact of crime on communities, spurring advocacy and societal change.

Get More Criminal Justice Research Topics At Statanalytica.com

Hope you choose criminal justice research topics for this blog. If you have any difficulty choosing criminal justice research topics, you can contact us at any time. Our professional writers are available to suggest criminal justice research topics ideas and research paper help.

Here are some of the benefits of taking criminal justice research topics that you can hire us.

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So, you can contact us for any type of paper writing service and impress your teacher or professor by choosing a good criminal justice research topic.

This is the end of this post about criminal justice research topics. However, diverse criminal justice research topics offer unique insights into various aspects of the criminal justice system. These research areas are crucial for policymakers, practitioners, and academics to comprehensively understand the system’s challenges and develop effective interventions that improve its fairness and effectiveness.

On the other hand, we mentioned more than 135 criminal justice research topics based on different categories. So that it is easier for you to choose the best criminal justice research topics.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1.what are some criminal justice research topics.

Research Topics in Criminal Justice System: 1. Capital Punishment. 2. Community Corrections. 3. Crime Prevention. 4. Criminal Courts. 5. Criminal Justice Ethics. 6. Criminal Law. 7. Criminal Specialisation. 8. Drug Courts.

Q2. How do I choose a research topic?

Two main ways to find a research topic: through your academic interests or by self-initiation. You can find a topic through your academic focus, talk to your professors and classmates about what they’re working on, and they can point you in the right direction and introduce you to the process of conducting research. The other option is to start with The idea that interests you.

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Criminal Justice Research Guide

Source Selection & Evaluation

Characteristics of a Research Question

Topic selection, topic verification.

Search Tips & Strategies
Online Sources
Data & Statistics
Citing Sources [opens a new window] This link opens in a new window

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Research questions have a few characteristics.

They're open-ended . (They can't be answered with a simple yes or no response.)
They're often measurable through quantitative data or qualitative measures.
They summarize the issue/topic being researched.
They may take a fresh look at an issue or try to solve a problem.

In addition, research questions may . . .

answer how or why questions.
fit within a cause/effect structure.
have a pro/con format.
introduce an argument that is then supported with evidence .

Topic selection is the process you use to choose your topic. This is the more creative side of topic development. There are several steps to this process.

Brainstorming. Start a list of topics that interest you and are within the guidelines of the assignment. They could be personal, professional, or academic interests. Researching something that interests you is much more enjoyable and will keep you interested in the research process. Write down related words or phrases. These will be useful at the research stage.
Reshaping the topic. Sometimes you'll choose a topic that's either too narrow or too broad. Find out ways to broaden or narrow the topic so that it's a better size to fit your research assignment. This is where Wikipedia and generic Google searches are okay. You can use those sites to get other ideas of how your topic idea may work. Perform some simple searches to see what information is out there. (Just be sure not to cite Wikipedia or Google.)
Looking at the body of research. Once you have a topic that you think is a good size, take a look at the body of research that's available for the topic. Check in catalogs and databases. Look at reputable websites. You want to be sure that your topic has an adequate amount of research before you invest too much time into the idea.
Revising. Throughout this process, be prepared to revise your topic. Don't think that you have to keep the same topic that you started with. Topic revision happens all the time. In fact, we often develop better topics as a result of this revision!

Topic verification is the process you use to confirm your topic is viable for research. This is the more technical side of topic development. There are also several steps to this process.

Using search strategies. Do some experimental searching in the databases using search strategies . Try different combinations to see what you find. Use your notes from your brainstorming to search for different synonyms or phrases.
Locating relevant and reliable information. At this stage, you want to see if you can find both a good quality and good quantity of sources. You don't need to read the entirety of the sources right now. Just read their abstracts and identifying information. Confirm that the sources you find support each other. Double-check the authority of the authors. This is the source evaluation stage.
Verifying information. Once you've confirmed that the sources are reliable and relevant, decide whether or not you can verify the information in the sources. If your sources corrobate each other, you have a good topic. In fact, even if they dispute each other, that is sometimes okay. It just depends on your topic's goal. However, if you cannot verify the reliability of any of your sources' information, then you may need to start over again with a new topic idea.
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Last Updated: Dec 7, 2023 11:04 AM
URL: https://libguides.columbiastate.edu/crimjustice

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The Top 10 Most Interesting Criminal Justice Research Topics

Are you writing a research paper and having a hard time finding good criminal justice research topics? Thankfully, we have compiled a list of 10 of the best criminal justice research paper topic ideas. We’ve also included several criminal justice research questions and examples of criminal justice research topics to help you write your best paper.

Criminal justice is a great field for both those wanting a greater understanding of the US justice system and those who want to know what it is like to be a lawyer . If you want to write the best criminal justice paper you can, this article is for you.

Find your bootcamp match

What makes a strong criminal justice research topic.

Strong criminal justice research papers consist of a focused question to answer and a specific area of criminal justice like forensic science, serial killers, substance abuse, sexual offenders, cyber criminology, corporate crime, juvenile justice, or criminal behavior. Most educational institutions have guidelines that must be followed for picking criminal justice topics for your criminology research paper, and this list will give you a great place to start researching.

Tips for Choosing a Criminal Justice Research Topic

Follow the guidelines of your institution. If you are studying criminal justice at any university like Loyola University, Cornell University, Walden University, or even Harvard University, your professor has probably given you guidelines to stick to.
Keep it focused. When you’re writing a criminal justice research paper it is best to keep a tight focus on your topic. Keep your research focused and remember to stay on task by using study tips, taking breaks, and improving on and practicing your writing skills daily.
Choose a narrow topic. When choosing your topic the scope of your criminal justice research paper mustn’t be too broad. Ask and answer one question or use one thesis statement that is clear and well-defined.
Choose a topic that is well-researched. When writing a paper on criminal justice, many topics are too new to have solid research. Pick a topic that has many cases related to it, or is focused on a common issue.
Choose a topic you are passionate about. There is nothing worse than being stuck writing about a topic you have no interest in. That’s why you should make sure your topic is something that you want to write about. If it ignites your passion, write about it.

What’s the Difference Between a Research Topic and a Research Question?

The difference between a research topic and a research question is that research topics are the broad area of study and research that is used to answer the research question. Research questions are what you are attempting to answer by researching your criminal justice topic.

Criminology topics can encompass areas of study like crime mapping, crime rates, crime prevention, female crimes, experimental criminology, homegrown crimes, or even criminal psychology. Research questions should be very narrow and like do certain criminal justice laws reduce crime? Do criminal justice practitioners engage in critical criminology? Does education in prison reduce reincarnation?

How to Create Strong Criminal Justice Research Questions

When writing a strong criminal justice research question you should ask three questions. Does this question have sufficient research to reference? Is the question narrow and focused? Am I passionate about this topic? If you ask these questions and use our guide to help you get started, you’ll be well on your way to writing a great criminal justice research paper.

2. White-Collar Crimes Compared to Working-Class Criminals Punishments

White-collar crimes are generally finance-related crimes such as fraud, embezzlement, or money laundering. According to Cornell University School of Law, white-collar crime costs over $300 billion annually in the US. However, white-collar criminals are prosecuted less severely than their working-class counterparts.

3. False Accusation, False Confessions, and Plea Bargaining

This area of criminal behavior is interesting, as our justice system actually allows for admissions of guilt even if the party did not commit the crime. Sometimes sentences can be reduced if a guilty plea is entered even if the party did not commit the crime.

4. Restorative Justice Efforts on Youthful Offenders

Juvenile and youth offenders have many different rules and avenues for justice. One of these unique approaches to keeping young people from their delinquent behavior employed by problem-solving courts is the concept of restorative justice. Restorative justice is a process that helps offenders make amends with the person or community they hurt with their deviant behaviors.

5. Criminal Justice Reform in Hate Crimes

Hate crimes are crimes that are motivated by hatred of someone or a group of people’s immutable characteristics. In recent years, many states have adopted the federal bias categories as outlined by the Department of Justice. These categories are not adopted by every state, which creates several directions for research questions.

6. Organized Crime and the Social Class Criminal Behavior of Members

Organized crime has been around for centuries, but can be prevalent in communities that see crime as a way of life and family. It can be a robust topic to try and understand the influences that family and community have on organized crime.

7. Criminal Justice Agencies and International Crime Investigation Efforts

One thing that is not often talked about is the relationship between criminal justice agencies that work together across countries. Many agencies work together, and many are made jointly. The most notable agency that does this is Interpol which, in 2021, arrested 1,003 alleged criminals and closed 1,660 cases in just one investigation .

8. Impacts of Wildlife Crime and Environmental Crime

Two little written about criminal justice topics in this scientific field are the topics of environmental and wildlife crime. Pollution, littering, dumping, poaching, and wildfire started by humans are all areas that could be a great place to use your analytical skills and nab a decent grade.

9. Relationship Between Crime and Eyewitness Testimony

Eyewitness testimonies are a staple of modern justice. Many violent crime convictions hinge on the ability of eyewitness testimony to convince a jury of what occurred. Sometimes eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, or the multiple witnesses can testify something different from one another resulting in a wrongful conviction. Many crimes like drunk driving or theft can rest on this method of testimony.

10. Relationship Between Law Enforcement and Racial Profiling

Racial profiling is a topic that has received a lot of coverage and is one of the major criminal justice issues of today. Human rights careers deal with the impact of racial and social issues in the US. There are many areas in which law enforcement has to improve in the area of social science. This is a broad topic with many implications for criminal justice ethics and the area of distributive justice.

Criminal Justice Research Questions

Does restorative justice reduce incarceration rates in juveniles?
Do drug courts engage with racial profiling in the criminal justice system?
Are environmental crimes underreported in the criminal justice field?
Can organized criminal behavior be reduced by new crime control measures?
Does mental illness cause more false confessions?

Choosing the Right Criminal Justice Research Topic

If you take these criminal justice research topic ideas and start researching, you’ll find a topic that strikes your creativity and deals with current justice issues. If college courses seem like they may not be for you, you can always use your knowledge to get a job in criminal justice without a degree .

As we stated earlier, two important parts to finding a great topic for criminology studies or criminal justice is to follow your institution’s guidelines and find a topic that you’re passionate about. Difficult topics like child abuse, victim services, jury selection, sexual violence, or any other of the wide range of topics are important and you can do them real justice and care in your paper.

Criminal Justice Research Topics FAQ

A good criminal research topic should be a broad area with lots of research and case studies behind it. It follows your institutional guidelines and that you are passionate about.

Controversial topics in criminal justice include issues that the court is not settled on or ones that disrupt long-standing positions in the courts. Issues like private prisons, gun control, reproductive rights, and criminal court reform could all be considered controversial.

Feminist criminology started in the late 60s and early 70s to bring attention to both female criminals and victims. The movement started because of the male-focused approach to criminal psychology with little to no regard for how a woman may be psychologically different.

Current issues in the criminal justice system include topics like racial justice, social justice, police reform, reproductive rights, and LGBTQ+ discrimination. Many of these topics are being discussed in both state and federal courts.

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Research Methods for Criminal Justice Students

(3 reviews)

Monica Williams, Weber State University

Publisher: Monica Williams

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Kelly Arney, Dean of Behavioral Sciences, Associate Professor, Grace College on 12/15/23

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This textbook covers topics needed for criminal justice students to understand as they are going to be doing continual research in their field. Most of the examples cover criminal justice-specific real work examples with an emphasis on law enforcement. Interestingly, this could be utilized for a larger behavioral science class as it encompasses the foundations of research that can be applied to most degrees in behavioral sciences. It places a large emphasis on the scientific method, how to design research, and data collection. It differs from other textbooks by not exploring the specifics of experimental designs, nonexperimental designs, quasi-experimental strategies, and factorial designs. The integration of real-world examples throughout each chapter will likely help students to grow in their willingness to engage in research that is necessary to the profession. Emphasis is placed on finding, understanding, and utilizing research.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The content was accurate and error-free. No biases material or examples were identified.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The content was relevant and recent. The foundational terminology spans the last two decades. This book was originally based on Bhattachergee's 2012 Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practice and Blackstone's 2012 Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods. This material was built on and this textbook is accurate with more recent examples. It has devoted a chapter to ethics in research which I found particularly relevant. It not only covers ethical standards such as the Belmont Report but also dives deep into ethics surrounding the specifics of those requirements. It has a section for research on humans, the Stanford Prison Experiment, Institutional Review Boards, informed consent, vulnerable populations, and the professional code of ethics. This textbook explores these areas in depth. Compared to other textbooks, this has devoted a substantial area to these topics that seem especially relevant recently and particularly important to emphasize for the criminal justice student.

Clarity rating: 5

This textbook seems to make research a little easier. The author has bolded the terminology words for students and created a nice and simple way of organizing the areas of study. The author has multiple categories inside each chapter that give meaning to the section. It is clear what each chapter is about, then each section inside that chapter. Research Methods can be a world of confusing terminology, but this author has simplified this and taken it to a level that students can easily follow. The Key Terms and Discussion Questions at the end of each chapter are also a nice guide for students to clarify what they read in each chapter.

Consistency rating: 4

Consistency is a difficult task in research methods because terms are interchangeable. Some of the terminology was inconsistent, but it described the same things and did not seem confusing. This textbook was the easiest to read when compared to the other textbooks on Research Methods. The sentences were simple and to the point. The book was not overrun with examples or mathematical equations that tend to confuse students. The instructor of the class may need to work to create the standard terminology they want to be used in class. This textbook explores the different terminology, so that can be a learning experience for students in and of itself. People use different terms in real life. It is an easy read as far as research goes. The clarity in the sentences and larger categories is apparent.

Modularity rating: 5

This is one of the largest strengths of this textbook. The text is easy to follow. The author did an excellent job of dividing the chapters into categories that divide the content into smaller readable sections. This makes smaller assignments much easier to assign to instructors. The sections have nice bolded titles and clear spacing between them with bolded words inside the sections. This makes pulling out specific areas and the relevant terminology much easier than in a traditional textbook. It is clear the author put time into organizing this textbook in a student-friendly way.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The topics are organized well. The chapters flow in a way that seems relevant to how it should be taught in the classroom. It is logical in that flow. The chapters are encompassed into larger sections: Think like a researcher, Research design, Qualitative data collection and analysis techniques, A qualitative and quantitative data collection technique, and finally Quantitative data collection and analysis techiniques. Inside each of these larger 5 sections are the chapters that expand on that idea. It is wellorganized.

Interface rating: 5

The digital pdf and the online versions of the textbook did not have any navigational problems. This textbook has some illustrations that worked well. No issues were noted with the interface.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The writing in this textbook was straightforward and clear. I did not find any typos or grammatical errors. This was an easy-to-read textbook.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

This textbook was culturally inclusive. I did not find any of the materials in this book to be insensitive or offensive. The examples in this textbook were general examples and did not associate with a cultural component. The only area I think that encompassed this was the vulnerable population section. That was very generalized and mostly suggested students consider who would fall into the vulnerable population category given what they want to research. The chapter on Research Questions (CH 4) did dive into the idea that students are social scientists and use their bias for their research projects. This was more about observing the world around them and then asking questions. It did not dive into cultural sensitivity any further.

I would recommend this book for research in behavioral science college-level classes. This book can be applied to students well beyond the criminal justice major. Many of the examples can be used for psychology, sociology, law, political science, and social work students. Don't let the criminal justice part of the title limit you. This is an easy-to-read and well-organized research textbook with helpful review guides included at the end of each chapter.

Reviewed by Mari Sakiyama, Associate Professor, Western Oregon University on 12/14/23

Each chapter of the textbook included the objectives, summary, key terms, and a few discussion questions. The key terms used in the book were in bold and were easy to identify. The chapters covered in the textbook are appropriate, and they are grouped in sections. Given that the provided examples throughout the textbook are CJ related, the major specific students can relate themselves to the course materials and it is easier for them to apply their conceptual CJ research ideas to research questions or a proposal. Glossary with definitions at the end of the book was not listed.

Content Accuracy rating: 2

I thought the content was accurate, and the author put the book together in an error-free manner. However, I thought that the textbook was slightly qualitative research heavy as opposed to quantitative research. Also, in the sampling section, I probably would not label non-probability and probability sampling for inductive qualitative and deductive quantitative research, respectively.

Given that research methods is generally required at all 4-year CJ programs and the majority of the concept of the course does not get outdated, the textbook definitely meets both relevancy and longevity.

Despite research methods tend to be full of jargon and technical terminologies, the material was written and introduced in a very reader-friendly and lucid manner. Perhaps, this book might had been the easiest read amongst all the research methods books I have read.

Both terminology and framework were internally consistent throughout the textbook. Although research methods consist with many interchangeable terms that describe the same thing, the author did a great job maintaining its consistency. In addition, the format for each chapter was also consistent and was easy to follow.

Modularity rating: 4

The textbook contains 15 chapters and are grouped in 5 different sections. Each chapter or even within those chapters can be divisible into smaller segment to fit instructors’ existing course structure. However, as mentioned earlier, the textbook was more qualitative research oriented and I thought some of the sections could be combined (i.e., III & IV). In addition, I think sampling could be its own section. Nonetheless, with the divisibility as well as the author’s permission to reuse and modify with attribution, the issues could be easily resolved.

The textbook was well-organized and -structured. I generally do not cover different designs until after midterm but I personally like the flow of this textbook.

Interface rating: 3

The textbook did not have any navigation problems, since each chapter’s organization is consistent. Some of the tables that provided key summaries of strategies/designs or its comparison of strengths/weakness are very helpful to learners. The author did a great job creating charts and diagrams, bur there could be more of them. Also, the number of illustrations/photos were limited but that could be easily adjusted when incorporating the textbook.

The style of writing was appropriate and straightforward. I did not find any typos or grammatical errors. I believe that the textbook would be an easy read compared to other publishers’ research methods textbooks.

I did not find any of the materials in the textbook that were culturally insensitive nor offensive. Examples throughout the textbook were general examples that did not necessarily associate with cultural component.

While there have been OER research methods books for Sociology and Psychology, I think this is the first OER book for CJ research methods, at least that I know of (and kudos to the author)! It would be an excellent material for undergraduate CJ students. I definitely consider using this book for my class.

Reviewed by Youngki Woo, Assistant professor, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley on 12/16/22

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

The textbook covers most areas of research methods in the field of criminology and criminal justice. Like other textbooks, each chapter identifies the learning objectives and showed it in the beginning. At the end of each chapter, there are several discussion questions for students. Each chapter is comfortable to follow and addresses all the learning objectives to provide a straightforward response to the discussion questions. In addition, each chapter covers ideas of the subject appropriately and provides an effective index, key terms, and glossary.

Content is accurate and it is easy to read and follow.

Each chapter addresses fundamental concepts and techniques that students should know about research methods in social sciences. The book is published in 2022, indicating that content is up-to-date.

The text is simple and well-written, and content is informative and straight-forward.

Consistency rating: 5

The text is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework. The author did a great job in providing summary at the end of the chapter that tied along with the learning objectives that are provided at the beginning of the chapter.

There are five parts in the textbook and each part is easily divisible into smaller reading sections that can be assigned at different points within the course (please see the Table of Contents). Personally, chapter 4 and 5 covers relevant information, but they could have gone more in depth when describing the different techniques along with a variety of research examples.

The topics in the text are presented in a logical and clear fashion. The logical organization carries students through the sequence of the research process. As an instructor, I like the organization that is flexible and helps students better understand the fundamental research skills in criminal justice.

Personally, I would suggest the author to add more photos/images/charts to give examples of what each objective talk about on each chapter. It would help the reader to figure out some methodological techniques with a visual representation. Nonetheless, the text is free of significant interface issues, including navigation problems and any other display features that may distract or confuse the reader.

There are no typos or technical/grammatical errors that I am aware of in the textbook.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

The text is not culturally insensitive and offensive as the text discuss mainly about research methods. Some examples in the textbooks are children and family.

Overall, this book contains information that could help students understand the knowledge about methodological terms and skills. This book would be suitable for undergraduate methods courses in most social sciences.

1. Scientific Research
2. Paradigms, Theories, and Research
3. Ethics in Research
4. Research questions
5. Research approaches and goals
6. Research methodologies
7. Measurement
8. Sampling
9. Focus groups
10. Field research
11. Qualitative data analysis
12. Interviews
13. Surveys
14. Experiments
15. Quantitative data analysis

Ancillary Material

About the book.

This book is based on two open-access textbooks: Bhattacherjee’s (2012) Social science research: Principles, methods, and practices and Blackstone’s (2012) Principles of sociological inquiry: Qualitative and quantitative methods. I first used Bhattacherjee’s book in a graduate-level criminal justice research methods course. I chose the book because it was an open educational resource that covered the major topics of my course. While I found the book adequate for my purposes, the business school perspective did not always fit with my criminal justice focus. I decided to rewrite the textbook for undergraduate and graduate students in my criminal justice research methods courses. As I researched other open- educational resources for teaching social science research methods, I found Blackstone’s book, which covered more of the social science and qualitative methods perspectives that I wanted to incorporate into my book.

As a result, this open-access textbook includes some content from both previous works along with my own additions based on my extensive experience and expertise in conducting qualitative and quantitative research in social science settings and in mentoring students through the research process. My Ph.D. is in Sociology, and I currently teach undergraduates and graduate students in a criminal justice program at Weber State University. Throughout my career, I have conducted and published the results of research projects using a variety of methods, including surveys, case studies, in-depth interviews, participant observation, content analysis, and secondary analysis of quantitative data. I have also mentored undergraduates in conducting community-based research projects using many of these same methods with the addition of focus groups and program evaluations.

About the Contributors

Monica Williams, Ph.D ., Associate Professor, Weber State University

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Strong Research Questions

A strong research question covers a well-defined and well-studied area of research. Strong research topics/questions are:

clear and simple
consistent with assignment requirements
of interest to you

Developing Your Research Question

A broad topic has literally thousands of articles on it, and you won't be able to adequately cover it in your literature review. It will be far easier for you to research and write your literature review if you develop a strong, focused research question:

Do some exploratory research on your topic idea, in your course textbook and class notes to identify specific issues, arguments, and analytical approaches in your research area and then identify possible relationships between them.

Ask yourself questions about your research topic : What interests me about this topic? What have people said about it? What gaps, contradictions, or concerns arise as you learn more about it? What relationships are there between different aspects of the topic?

Write a research question that your hypothesis answers : Use the information from your exploratory research and your answers to questions about your broad topic and the area you've decided to explore to build a focused, clear, simple research question

Identify the key concepts of your research question : what concepts will you need to define and measure in a study to answer your research question? How will you operationally define these concepts into numbers that you can analyze?

Identify your variables: Use your operational definitions to identify and list the independent and dependent variables for your research question. Identify possible confounding variables and the variables you would use to control for them.

Choose a current topic: Develop a hypothesis for a research area about which articles are continuing to be published. Avoid defunct or little-known areas of research.

Write about what interests you: Professors want students to develop experiments in areas that they care about. If you're interested in the topic, it will be more fun for you to do your experiment and write up your research paper, and probably more fun for your professor to read it, too.

Ask your professor for feedback on whether the hypothesis you develop is a good hypothesis, one that can be tested.

Picking Your Topic IS Research

Once you've picked a research topic for your paper, it isn't set in stone. It's just an idea that you will test and develop through exploratory research. This exploratory research may guide you into modifying your original idea for a research topic. Watch this video for more info:

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Next: Read & Analyze Your Articles >>
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Home » 500+ Criminal Justice Research Topics

500+ Criminal Justice Research Topics

Criminal justice is a complex and critical field that encompasses various aspects of crime prevention, law enforcement, legal proceedings, and punishment. Research plays a crucial role in understanding and addressing the challenges and opportunities in this field. From studying the causes and consequences of crime to exploring the effectiveness of policies and interventions, there is a wide range of fascinating and important criminal justice research topics to explore. Whether you are a student, a scholar, a practitioner, or a curious citizen, delving into the world of criminal justice research can deepen your knowledge, sharpen your critical thinking skills, and contribute to creating a safer and fairer society. In this post, we will introduce some of the most compelling and relevant criminal justice research topics that you may find intriguing and informative.

Criminal Justice Research Topics

Criminal Justice Research Topics are as follows:

The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates
The impact of body-worn cameras on police accountability and public trust
The causes and consequences of police use of excessive force
The role of race and ethnicity in police-citizen interactions and perceptions
The effectiveness of diversion programs in reducing recidivism among juvenile offenders
The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing on crime rates and prison populations
The challenges and opportunities of restorative justice as an alternative to punitive justice
The role of mental health and substance abuse treatment in reducing criminal behavior
The ethics and implications of using predictive policing algorithms
The impact of private prisons on the criminal justice system and society
The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation in reducing the harm of crime
The prevalence and causes of wrongful convictions and the implications for justice
The role of media in shaping public perceptions of crime and justice
The effectiveness and fairness of the death penalty as a form of punishment
The role of international law in addressing transnational crimes such as terrorism and human trafficking
The impact of the War on Drugs on drug use, drug-related crime, and public health
The effectiveness of gun control laws in reducing gun violence and crime rates
The role of technology in enhancing or challenging the criminal justice system, such as DNA analysis or facial recognition software
The prevalence and causes of domestic violence and the effectiveness of intervention programs
The impact of sentencing disparities based on race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status
The role of plea bargaining in the criminal justice system and the implications for justice
The effectiveness of sex offender registries and notification laws in reducing sex crimes
The impact of pretrial detention on defendants’ rights and outcomes
The role of community-based corrections in reducing recidivism and promoting reentry
The ethics and implications of using unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) for surveillance and law enforcement
The effectiveness and implications of using risk assessment tools in pretrial decision-making
The prevalence and impact of hate crimes and the challenges of prosecuting them
The role of eyewitness testimony in criminal trials and the reliability of memory
The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related crime and improving outcomes for offenders
The impact of race and ethnicity on the administration of the death penalty
The role of juries in the criminal justice system and the factors that affect their decisions
The effectiveness and ethics of using informants in criminal investigations and prosecutions
The prevalence and impact of cybercrime and the challenges of investigating and prosecuting it
The effectiveness of juvenile justice reforms in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
The impact of community-based policing on police-citizen relations and trust
The role of social media in shaping perceptions of crime and justice
The effectiveness of prison education and vocational training programs in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
The prevalence and impact of human rights abuses in the criminal justice system, such as torture or discrimination
The effectiveness of gang prevention and intervention programs in reducing gang-related crime
The role of implicit bias in the criminal justice system and its impact on outcomes
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health, behavior, and reentry outcomes
The impact of police body cameras on public trust and police accountability.
The effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders.
The impact of community policing on crime reduction
The use of predictive policing in law enforcement
The impact of decriminalizing marijuana on crime rates
The role of mental health professionals in the criminal justice system
The effectiveness of de-escalation training for police officers
The impact of technology on police surveillance practices
The relationship between gender and sentencing disparities in the criminal justice system
The relationship between poverty and crime
The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of the War on Drugs on mass incarceration
The use of cognitive-behavioral therapy in offender rehabilitation
The effectiveness of diversion programs for people with substance use disorders
The role of implicit bias in jury selection
The impact of police officer stress on use of force incidents
The use of big data in criminal investigations and decision-making
The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in school disciplinary policies
The relationship between mental illness and homelessness in the criminal justice system
The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on juvenile offenders
The role of drug courts in the criminal justice system
The effectiveness of offender reentry programs for people with disabilities
The impact of restorative justice programs on victims of crime
The use of therapeutic jurisprudence in the criminal justice system
The relationship between race and ethnicity and the use of force by private security personnel
The effectiveness of educational programs in correctional facilities
The impact of eyewitness identification procedures on wrongful convictions
The role of community-based policing in reducing crime rates
The use of predictive analytics in bail decisions
The effectiveness of correctional education programs on recidivism
The impact of immigration enforcement policies on immigrant communities’ trust in law enforcement
The relationship between mental health and juvenile detention
The use of biometrics in criminal investigations and identification
The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing recidivism among people with co-occurring disorders
The impact of gender and sexuality on hate crime victimization and reporting
The role of cultural competence in police training
The use of risk assessment tools in pretrial detention decisions
The effectiveness of community supervision programs for people with substance use disorders
The impact of social and economic policies on criminal justice outcomes
The relationship between race and ethnicity and criminal case outcomes
The use of therapeutic communities in correctional facilities
The effectiveness of specialized courts for domestic violence cases
The impact of gun violence on public safety and crime rates
The role of eyewitness memory and recall in criminal investigations and trials
The use of DNA evidence in criminal investigations and exoneration
The effectiveness of probation and parole programs for people with disabilities
The impact of victim impact statements on sentencing decisions
The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial and ethnic disparities in incarceration rates
The use of unmanned aerial vehicles in law enforcement
The effectiveness of community-based restorative justice programs for juvenile offenders
The impact of public defender workload on criminal case outcomes
The role of community activism and advocacy in criminal justice reform
The use of risk assessment tools in school disciplinary policies
The effectiveness of family-focused interventions in reducing juvenile recidivism
The impact of police officer race and ethnicity on use of force incidents
The relationship between race and ethnicity and prosecutorial decision-making
The use of virtual reality simulations in police training
The effectiveness of mental health diversion programs for people with traumatic brain injuries
The impact of juvenile life without parole sentences on individuals and society.
The use of drones in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to incarceration for nonviolent offenders
The impact of wrongful convictions on the criminal justice system
The role of implicit bias in criminal justice decision-making
The use of risk assessment tools in child welfare investigations
The effectiveness of offender reentry programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of hate crimes on marginalized communities
The relationship between mental health and the use of force by police officers
The use of body language analysis in criminal interrogations
The effectiveness of community policing strategies in building trust between police and communities
The impact of race on police use of force and police brutality
The role of prosecutorial discretion in the criminal justice system
The use of algorithms in pretrial detention decisions
The effectiveness of victim-centered approaches to sexual assault investigations
The impact of domestic violence on child custody decisions
The relationship between social media and cybercrime
The use of facial recognition technology in law enforcement
The effectiveness of police officer training programs on cultural sensitivity and bias reduction
The impact of the school-to-prison pipeline on youth
The role of mental health courts in diversion programs
The use of virtual reality technology in criminal justice education and training
The effectiveness of crisis intervention teams in responding to mental health crises
The impact of immigration policies on crime reporting and victimization rates in immigrant communities
The relationship between police department size and use of force incidents
The use of predictive analytics in parole and probation supervision
The effectiveness of juvenile justice system diversion programs for LGBTQ+ youth
The impact of bail reform on pretrial detention rates and recidivism
The role of trauma-informed care in the criminal justice system
The use of artificial intelligence in forensic investigations
The effectiveness of prison entrepreneurship programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of COVID-19 on the criminal justice system
The relationship between mental health and incarceration rates
The use of social network analysis in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of drug testing and monitoring programs for probationers and parolees
The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on drug offenses
The role of the media in shaping public perceptions of crime and the criminal justice system
The use of body-worn cameras in courtroom proceedings
The effectiveness of mental health diversion programs for veterans involved in the criminal justice system
The impact of race and ethnicity on the plea bargaining process
The relationship between police department diversity and community trust
The use of crime mapping in law enforcement strategies
The effectiveness of animal therapy programs in correctional facilities
The impact of the death penalty on families of victims and offenders
The role of prosecutorial misconduct in wrongful convictions.
Racial disparities in the use of capital punishment
The effectiveness of electronic monitoring as an alternative to incarceration
The role of restorative justice in reducing recidivism
The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior
The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related offenses
The impact of body-worn cameras on police behavior and citizen complaints
The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing and release decisions
The effectiveness of boot camp programs for juvenile offenders
The use of eyewitness testimony in criminal trials
The impact of victim-offender mediation on the criminal justice system
The relationship between education level and criminal behavior
The effectiveness of parole and probation in reducing recidivism
The use of artificial intelligence in criminal justice decision-making
The role of public defenders in the criminal justice system
The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on the prison population
The effectiveness of therapeutic courts for individuals with substance abuse disorders
The impact of social media on the reporting of crimes and public perception of crime
The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing recidivism
The impact of mental health courts on the criminal justice system
The role of community service in reducing recidivism
The relationship between domestic violence and gun ownership
The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with mental illnesses
The impact of sentencing guidelines on judicial discretion
The use of police body language in detecting deception during interviews
The relationship between incarceration and employment opportunities post-release
The effectiveness of community-based supervision programs for released offenders
The impact of the war on drugs on the criminal justice system
The role of race and ethnicity in plea bargaining decisions
The use of risk assessment tools in juvenile justice
The effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy in correctional facilities
The impact of restorative justice on the victims of crime
The relationship between gun laws and gun violence rates
The effectiveness of pretrial diversion programs for individuals with mental illnesses
The role of reentry programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of mandatory arrest policies in domestic violence cases
The use of polygraph tests in criminal investigations
The relationship between gang membership and criminal behavior
The effectiveness of drug treatment courts in reducing recidivism
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and behavior
The role of gun buyback programs in reducing gun violence
The relationship between substance abuse and child abuse
The effectiveness of victim impact panels in reducing drunk driving
The impact of juvenile detention on mental health and behavior
The use of forensic science in criminal investigations
The relationship between race and wrongful convictions
The effectiveness of prison education programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of police militarization on community trust and safety
The relationship between race, ethnicity, and police use of force.
The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing laws on incarceration rates.
The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates.
The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior.
The role of gender in criminal justice sentencing and outcomes.
The impact of the war on drugs on incarceration rates and drug use.
The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism.
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and rehabilitation.
The relationship between poverty and crime rates.
The role of technology in modern policing and criminal justice.
The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related crime.
The relationship between immigration and crime rates.
The impact of mandatory arrest policies in cases of domestic violence.
The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation in reducing recidivism.
The role of social media in modern crime and policing.
The impact of police militarization on community trust and safety.
The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs for incarcerated individuals.
The relationship between gun ownership and violent crime.
The impact of wrongful convictions on individuals and the criminal justice system.
The role of race and ethnicity in jury selection and decision-making.
The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing recidivism.
The relationship between education and crime rates.
The impact of body-worn cameras on police officer behavior and decision-making.
The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing recidivism.
The relationship between domestic violence and gun ownership.
The impact of the death penalty on deterrence and sentencing outcomes.
The role of implicit bias in policing and criminal justice decision-making.
The effectiveness of community-based reentry programs for formerly incarcerated individuals.
The relationship between crime rates and social inequality.
The impact of predictive policing on crime rates and community trust.
The effectiveness of probation and parole programs in reducing recidivism.
The relationship between mental health and policing.
The impact of police unions on police accountability and reform efforts.
The role of the media in shaping public perceptions of crime and justice.
The effectiveness of pretrial diversion programs in reducing incarceration rates.
The relationship between police use of force and police training.
The impact of mandatory minimum drug sentences on racial disparities in the criminal justice system.
The effectiveness of juvenile detention alternatives in reducing recidivism.
The relationship between mass incarceration and economic inequality.
The impact of police body language on civilian compliance.
The role of community organizations in crime prevention and intervention.
The effectiveness of reentry programs for people with disabilities.
The relationship between mental health and criminal justice reform.
The impact of immigration policies on community safety and trust.
The role of prosecutorial discretion in the criminal justice system.
The effectiveness of job training programs for formerly incarcerated individuals.
The relationship between race and drug policy.
The impact of pretrial detention on case outcomes and incarceration rates.
The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with mental health issues
The prevalence and impact of police corruption and the challenges of rooting it out
The role of victim impact statements in the criminal justice system and their impact on sentencing
The impact of social inequality on crime rates and the criminal justice system
The role of political ideology in shaping criminal justice policy and practice
The effectiveness of rehabilitation and reentry programs for adult offenders
The prevalence and impact of sexual harassment and assault within the criminal justice system
The role of the Fourth Amendment in regulating police searches and seizures
The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in addressing campus sexual assault
The impact of mass incarceration on families and communities
The ethics and implications of using artificial intelligence in criminal justice decision-making
The role of bail reform in promoting justice and reducing pretrial detention
The prevalence and impact of police misconduct and accountability mechanisms
The effectiveness of drug policy reform in reducing drug-related harm and promoting public health
The impact of globalization on transnational crimes and the challenges of international cooperation
The role of prosecutorial discretion in shaping criminal justice outcomes
The prevalence and impact of white-collar crime and the challenges of prosecution
The role of public defenders in ensuring access to justice for indigent defendants
The effectiveness of mental health courts in diverting mentally ill offenders from the criminal justice system
The impact of the criminal justice system on immigrant communities and the challenges of immigrant detention and deportation
The role of forgiveness in restorative justice and its implications for healing and reconciliation
The effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution in reducing court congestion and promoting justice
The prevalence and impact of hate speech and the challenges of regulating it
The role of public opinion in shaping criminal justice policy and practice
The effectiveness of community supervision in reducing recidivism and promoting reentry
The impact of the criminalization of homelessness on vulnerable populations
The role of community activism and advocacy in promoting criminal justice reform
The effectiveness of therapeutic jurisprudence in promoting rehabilitation and well-being
The prevalence and impact of police militarization and its implications for public safety and civil liberties
The role of eyewitness identification procedures in criminal investigations and the reliability of identification evidence
The effectiveness of harm reduction strategies in reducing drug-related harm and promoting public health
The impact of the criminal justice system on Indigenous communities and the challenges of decolonizing justice
The role of hate crime legislation in promoting justice and reducing hate-motivated violence
The effectiveness of police training programs in reducing racial and ethnic bias and promoting cultural competence
The prevalence and impact of gun violence and the challenges of gun control policy
The role of the Eighth Amendment in regulating cruel and unusual punishment
The effectiveness of problem-solving courts in addressing complex social issues and promoting justice
The impact of the criminal justice system on LGBTQ+ communities and the challenges of achieving equality and inclusivity
The role of victim services in promoting healing and well-being for crime victims
The effectiveness of drug testing and monitoring programs in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
The prevalence and impact of prison gangs and the challenges of managing them
The role of implicit bias in eyewitness identification and the implications for justice
The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with substance abuse issues
The impact of social media on crime reporting and law enforcement
The role of mental health diversion programs in reducing mass incarceration and promoting treatment
The prevalence and impact of wrongful convictions of innocent people and the challenges of exoneration
The relationship between immigration and crime rates
The impact of drug courts on drug-related offenses and recidivism rates
The use of restorative justice practices in the criminal justice system
The effectiveness of reentry programs for people released from prison
The use of polygraph tests in criminal investigations and court proceedings
The impact of bail amounts on pretrial detention and case outcomes
The relationship between gun ownership and crime rates
The effectiveness of mental health screening and assessment for individuals involved in the criminal justice system
The use of virtual courtrooms in criminal proceedings
The impact of juvenile detention on mental health and future criminal behavior
The relationship between poverty and crime rates
The use of eyewitness identification procedures in criminal investigations and court proceedings
The effectiveness of community service programs as a sentencing alternative
The role of racial profiling in law enforcement practices
The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing and parole decisions
The impact of mandatory reporting laws on child abuse and neglect cases
The relationship between parental incarceration and children’s wellbeing
The effectiveness of diversion programs for drug-related offenses
The use of cognitive-behavioral therapy in offender rehabilitation programs
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and recidivism rates
The relationship between social capital and crime rates
The use of DNA evidence in criminal investigations and court proceedings
The effectiveness of crisis response teams in reducing police use of force incidents
The role of race and ethnicity in jury selection and decision-making
The impact of court fines and fees on individuals involved in the criminal justice system
The relationship between education and crime rates
The use of risk assessment tools in domestic violence cases
The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with substance use disorders
The impact of court-appointed attorneys on case outcomes and access to justice
The role of victim impact statements in sentencing decisions
The use of mental health courts for individuals with co-occurring disorders
The effectiveness of court-mandated treatment programs for drug offenders
The impact of gender on the sentencing and treatment of offenders
The relationship between drug policy and crime rates
The use of forensic psychology in criminal investigations and court proceedings
The effectiveness of cognitive interviewing techniques in witness testimony
The impact of the media on public perceptions of the criminal justice system
The relationship between neighborhood characteristics and crime rates
The use of body-worn cameras in police-community interactions
The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with intellectual disabilities
The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on sentencing disparities
The role of mental health providers in prisons and jails
The use of civil asset forfeiture in law enforcement practices
The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with mental illness involved in the criminal justice system
The impact of police militarization on community trust and police accountability
The relationship between unemployment and crime rates
The use of artificial intelligence in identifying and preventing human trafficking
The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with traumatic brain injuries
The impact of community-based alternatives to policing on public safety and crime rates.
The impact of the militarization of police on community relations
The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in reducing recidivism
The relationship between socioeconomic status and juvenile delinquency
The impact of police department culture on officer behavior
The role of community courts in addressing low-level offenses
The effectiveness of reentry programs for people who were formerly incarcerated
The impact of body-worn cameras on police officer behavior and community perceptions
The relationship between mental illness and police use of force
The use of neuroscience in criminal sentencing
The effectiveness of gun control policies in reducing gun violence
The role of alternative dispute resolution in the criminal justice system
The use of biometrics in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of gang prevention and intervention programs
The impact of domestic violence on employment and economic stability
The use of artificial intelligence in criminal investigations and sentencing
The role of implicit bias in eyewitness identification
The use of drug courts in addressing drug addiction and drug-related crimes
The effectiveness of reentry programs for juvenile offenders
The impact of social media on crime and victimization
The relationship between mental health and incarceration of women
The use of surveillance technologies in correctional facilities
The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation programs
The impact of prosecutorial discretion on plea bargaining outcomes
The role of mental health assessments in competency to stand trial determinations
The use of biographical information in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of diversion programs for people with mental illness
The impact of police body language on community perceptions
The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial disparities in healthcare
The use of geospatial analysis in predicting crime patterns
The effectiveness of community service programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of court fines and fees on people with low incomes
The role of neuroscience in detecting deception
The use of technology in victim advocacy and support services
The effectiveness of juvenile justice diversion programs for LGBTQ+ youth
The impact of parental incarceration on children and families
The relationship between race and juvenile justice system involvement
The use of facial recognition technology in correctional facilities
The effectiveness of community-based mental health services in reducing incarceration rates
The impact of prison labor on employment opportunities for formerly incarcerated people
The role of community-based restorative justice in addressing hate crimes
The use of predictive analytics in child welfare investigations
The effectiveness of alternative sentencing programs for drug-related offenses
The impact of immigration enforcement policies on crime reporting in immigrant communities
The relationship between implicit bias and jury decision-making
The use of technology in improving language access in the criminal justice system.
The impact of police body language on citizen perceptions and trust
The effectiveness of police academy training on officer decision-making in high-pressure situations
The role of technology in the spread of human trafficking
The relationship between mental health and probation and parole revocation rates
The use of community courts in addressing quality of life offenses
The effectiveness of prisoner reentry programs on family reunification and support systems
The impact of public defender caseloads on the quality of legal representation
The role of implicit bias in jury selection and decision-making
The use of diversion programs for juveniles involved in prostitution
The effectiveness of community supervision programs for offenders with serious mental illness
The impact of immigration enforcement policies on the criminal justice system
The relationship between recidivism rates and prison education and vocational programs
The use of body-worn cameras in prison settings
The effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution in reducing court congestion
The impact of prison labor on reentry and recidivism rates
The role of risk assessment tools in parole and probation decision-making
The effectiveness of drug courts in addressing substance abuse and recidivism
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and behavior in prison
The relationship between domestic violence and firearm possession
The use of mental health diversion programs for veterans involved in the criminal justice system
The effectiveness of juvenile drug court programs on reducing recidivism
The impact of private prisons on inmate rehabilitation and public safety
The role of implicit bias in pretrial detention decisions
The use of GPS monitoring in pretrial release and probation supervision
The effectiveness of offender education and job training programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of collateral consequences on reentry and recidivism rates
The use of crisis intervention teams in responding to mental health emergencies
The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to detention for juveniles
The role of public opinion in shaping criminal justice policy
The effectiveness of police body-worn cameras in reducing police misconduct and excessive use of force
The impact of incarceration on family dynamics and relationships
The relationship between access to legal representation and case outcomes
The use of community supervision and support programs for individuals with substance use disorders
The impact of pretrial detention on case outcomes and recidivism rates
The role of prosecutorial discretion in plea bargaining and sentencing
The use of facial recognition technology in criminal investigations and surveillance
The effectiveness of problem-solving courts in addressing specialized criminal cases
The impact of prison privatization on inmate rights and access to services
The relationship between race, gender, and criminal justice outcomes
The use of mental health courts in diversion programs
The effectiveness of community policing strategies in building trust and reducing crime rates
The impact of police militarization on community perceptions and police-citizen interactions
The role of forensic evidence in criminal investigations and court proceedings
The use of artificial intelligence in predicting criminal behavior and recidivism.
The use of restorative justice in the criminal justice system
The impact of police militarization on community policing efforts
The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with substance use disorders
The relationship between economic inequality and crime rates
The use of artificial intelligence in pretrial risk assessment
The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on non-violent drug offenses
The impact of the War on Drugs on communities of color
The relationship between mental health and probation violations
The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing recidivism rates
The role of eyewitness testimony in wrongful convictions
The use of facial recognition technology in criminal investigations and prosecutions
The effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders
The impact of probation and parole supervision on recidivism rates
The relationship between police use of force and mental health disorders
The use of predictive analytics in criminal sentencing
The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with mental illness
The impact of bail systems on low-income individuals and communities
The role of implicit bias in sentencing decisions
The use of social media in criminal investigations
The impact of mandatory sentencing on judicial discretion
The relationship between drug addiction and property crime
The use of predictive analytics in risk assessment for pretrial release
The effectiveness of substance abuse treatment programs in correctional facilities
The impact of police body-worn cameras on police-citizen interactions
The role of forensic evidence in wrongful convictions
The use of drones in border patrol and immigration enforcement
The effectiveness of community supervision programs for individuals with mental illness
The impact of mandatory sentencing on the prison population and corrections costs
The relationship between gang activity and violent crime
The use of artificial intelligence in criminal investigations and evidence collection
The effectiveness of juvenile diversion programs for first-time offenders
The impact of prosecutorial misconduct on wrongful convictions
The role of implicit bias in police use of force incidents
The use of risk assessment tools in pretrial detention decisions for juvenile defendants
The effectiveness of prison education programs in reducing recidivism rates
The impact of racial profiling on policing practices and community trust
The relationship between homelessness and criminal behavior
The use of predictive analytics in identifying and preventing cybercrime
The effectiveness of mental health treatment programs for incarcerated individuals
The impact of the school-to-prison pipeline on students of color
The role of community-based programs in reducing crime rates and recidivism
The use of neuroscience in criminal investigations and sentencing decisions
The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with co-occurring disorders
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and recidivism rates.
The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with substance use disorders
The impact of judicial discretion on sentencing outcomes
The relationship between access to legal representation and sentencing disparities
The use of body-worn cameras in reducing police misconduct and brutality
The impact of bail practices on pretrial detention and racial disparities
The relationship between police unions and police accountability
The effectiveness of community supervision in reducing recidivism
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health outcomes for inmates
The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial wealth inequality
The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing decisions
The effectiveness of mandatory minimum sentences in reducing crime rates
The impact of victim impact statements on sentencing outcomes
The relationship between criminal justice policies and environmental justice
The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) in law enforcement
The effectiveness of juvenile justice diversion programs for at-risk youth
The impact of police militarization on community relations
The relationship between immigration enforcement and public safety
The use of artificial intelligence in predicting recidivism risk
The effectiveness of police training on de-escalation tactics
The relationship between the criminal justice system and income inequality
The use of geographic profiling in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing incarceration rates
The impact of mandatory arrest policies on domestic violence victims
The relationship between criminal justice policies and public health outcomes
The use of body-worn cameras in reducing false accusations against police officers
The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy in reducing domestic violence recidivism
The impact of race and ethnicity on police use of force during traffic stops
The use of predictive analytics in parole and probation revocation decisions
The effectiveness of offender treatment programs for intimate partner violence offenders
The impact of prison education programs on post-release employment and recidivism
The relationship between prison labor and modern-day slavery
The use of predictive modeling to prevent child abuse and neglect
The effectiveness of community courts in reducing recidivism rates
The impact of community-based organizations on crime prevention
The relationship between mental health and substance use disorders in the criminal justice system
The use of mobile forensic technology in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of gender-responsive programming in reducing female recidivism rates
The impact of anti-immigrant sentiment on policing in immigrant communities
The relationship between police legitimacy and public trust
The use of data analytics in law enforcement resource allocation
The effectiveness of reentry programs for people with disabilities
The impact of police misconduct on wrongful convictions
The relationship between restorative justice and school discipline
The use of location tracking technology in the criminal justice system
The effectiveness of anti-bias training for law enforcement officers
The impact of drug decriminalization on public safety and health.

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6 Chapter 6: Qualitative Research in Criminal Justice

Case study: exploring the culture of “urban scrounging” 1.

Research Purpose

To describe the culture of urban scrounging, or dumpster diving, and the items that can be found in dumpsters and trash piles.

Methodology

This field study, conducted by Dr. Jeff Ferrell, currently a professor of sociology at Texas Christian University, began in 2002. In December of 2001, after resigning from an academic position in Arizona, Ferrell returned home to Fort Worth, Texas. An avid proponent for and participant in field research throughout his career, he decided to use the next eight months, prior to the 2002 academic year beginning, to explore a culture in which he had always been interested, the urban underground of “scrounging, recycling, and secondhand living” (p. 1). Using the neighborhoods of central Fort Worth as a backdrop, Ferrell embarked, often on his bicycle, into the fife of a dumpster diver. While he was not completely homeless at the time, he did his best to fully embrace the lifestyle of an urban scrounger and survive on what he found. For this study, Ferrell was not only learning how to survive off of the discarded possessions of others, he was systematically recording and describing the contents of the dumpsters and trash piles he found and kept. While in the field, Ferrell was also exploring scrounging as a means of economic survival and the social aspects of this underground existence. A broader theme of Ferrell’s research emerged as he encountered the number and vast array of items he found discarded in trash piles and dumpsters. This theme concerns the “hyperconsumption” and “collective wastefulness” (pp. 5–6) by American citizens and the environmental destruction created by the accumulating and discarding of so many material goods.

Results and Implications

Ferrell’s time spent among the trash piles and dumpsters of Fort Worth resulted in a variety of intriguing yet disturbing realizations regarding not only material excess but also social and personal change. While encounters with others were kept to a minimum, as they generally are for scroungers, Ferrell describes some of the people he met along the way and their conversations. Whether food, clothes, building materials, or scrap metal, the commonality was that scroungers could usually find what they were looking for among the trash heaps and alleyways. Throughout his book, Ferrell often focuses on the material items that he discovered while scrounging. He found so much, he was able to fill and decorate a home with perfectly good items that had been discarded by others, including the bicycle he now rides and a turquoise sink and bathtub. He found books and even old photographs and other mementos meant to document personal history. While discarded, these social artifacts tell the stories of society and often have the chance to find altered meaning when possessed by someone new.

Beyond the things found and people met, Ferrell discusses the boundary shift that has taken urban scrounging from deviant to criminal as lines are often blurred between public access and ownership. Not only do these urban scroungers face the stigma associated with their scrounging activities, those who dive in dumpsters and dig through trash piles can face criminal charges for trespassing. While this makes scrounging more challenging, due to basic survival or interest, the wealth of items and artifacts to be found are often worth the risk. Ultimately, Ferrell’s experiences as an urban scrounger provide not only a description of this subculture but also a critique on American consumption and wastefulness, a theme that becomes more important as Americans and others continue in economically tenuous times.

In This Chapter You Will Learn

To explain what it means for research to be qualitative

To describe the advantages of field research

To explain the challenges of field studies for researchers

To provide examples of field research in the social sciences

To discuss the case study approach

Introduction

In Chapter 2, you read about the differences between quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Whereas methods that are quantitative in nature focus on numerical measurements of phenomena, qualitative methods are focused on developing a deeper understanding regarding groups of people, or subcultures, about which little is known. Using detailed description, findings from qualitative research are generally more sensitizing, providing the research community and the interested public information about these generally elusive groups and their behaviors. A debate rages between criminologists as to which type of research should be achieved and referenced more often. The truth is that both have something valuable to offer regarding the study of deviance, crime, and victimization.

Field Research

Qualitative methodologies involve the use of field research, where researchers are out among these groups collecting information rather than studying participant behavior through surveys or experiments that have been developed in artificial settings. Field research provides some of the most fascinating reading because the researcher is observing closely or acting as part of the group and is therefore able to describe in depth not only the subjects’ behaviors, but also consider the motivations that drive their behaviors. This chapter focuses on the use of qualitative methods in the social sciences, particularly the use of participant observation to study deviant, and sometimes criminal, behaviors. The many challenges as well as advantages of conducting this type of research will be discussed as will well-known examples of past field research and suggestions for conducting this type of research. First, however, it is important to understand what sets qualitative field research apart from the other methodologies discussed in this text.

The Study of Behavior

It is common for criminal justice researchers to rely on survey or interview methodologies to collect data. One advantage of doing so is being able to collect data from many respondents in a short period of time. Technology has created other advantages with survey methodology. For example, Internet surveys are a convenient, quick, and inexpensive way to reach respondents who may or may not reside nearby. Researchers often survey community residents and university students, but may also focus specifically on offender or victim samples. One significant limitation of using survey methodologies is that they rely on the truthfulness of the respondents. If researchers are interested in attitudes and behaviors that may be illegal or otherwise controversial, it could be that respondents will not be truthful in answering the questions placed before them. Survey research has focused on past or current drug use (see the Monitoring the Future Program), past victimization experiences (see the National Criminal Victimization Survey), and prison sexual assault victimization (see the Prison Rape Elimination Act data collection procedures conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics), just to name a few. If a student uses marijuana but does not want anyone to know, they may choose to falsify their survey responses when asked about marijuana use. If a citizen or prison inmate has been sexually assaulted but is too ashamed or afraid to tell anyone, they may be untruthful when asked about such victimization experiences on a survey. The point is, although researchers attempt to better understand the attitudes and behaviors of a certain population through the use of surveys, there is one major drawback to consider: the disjunction between what people say and what they actually do. As mentioned previously, a student may be a drug user but not admit to it. Someone may be a gang member, but say they are not when asked directly about it. Someone may respond that they have never committed a crime or been victimized when in fact they have. In short, people sometimes lie and there are many potential reasons for doing so. Perhaps the offender or drug user has not yet been caught and does not want to be caught. Whatever the reason, this is a hazard of measuring attitudes and behaviors through the use of surveys. One way to overcome the issue of untruthfulness is to conduct research using various forms of actual participation or observation of the behaviors we want to study. By observing someone in their natural environment (or, “the field”), researchers have the ability to observe behaviors firsthand, rather than relying on survey responses. These research strategies are generally known as participant observation methods.

Types of Field Research: A Continuum

Participant observation strategies involve researchers studying groups or individuals in their natural setting. Think of participant observation as a student internship. Students may read about law enforcement in their textbooks and discuss law enforcement issues in class, but only through an internship with a law enforcement agency will a student have a chance to understand how things actually happen from firsthand observation. Field strategies were first developed for social science, and particularly crime, research in the 1920s by researchers working within the University of Chicago’s Department of Sociology. The “Chicago School,” as this group of researchers is commonly known, focused on ethnographic research to study urban crime problems. Emerging from the field of anthropology, ethnographic research relies on field research methodologies to scientifically examine human culture in the natural environment. Significant theoretical developments within the field of criminology, such as social disorganization, which focused on the impact of culture and environment, were advanced at this time. For example, researchers such as Shaw and McKay, Thrasher, and others used field research to study the activities of subcultures, particularly youth gangs, as well as areas of the city that were most impacted by crime. These researchers were not interested in studying these problems from afar. Instead, they were interested in understanding social problems, including the impact of environmental disintegration, from the field.

There are various ways to conduct field research, and these can be placed on a continuum from most to least invasive and also from more qualitative to more quantitative. In attempting to understand phenomena from the standpoint of the actors, a researcher may participate fully in the behaviors of the group or may instead choose to observe from afar as activities unfold. The most invasive, and also most qualitative, form of participant observation is complete participation. The least invasive, and also most quantitative, is complete observation. In between these two are participant as observer and observer as participant. Each of these strategies will now be discussed in more detail.

Complete participation, sometimes referred to as disguised observation, is a method that involves the researcher becoming a full-fledged member of a particular group. For example, if a researcher is interested in understanding the culture of correctional officers, she may apply to be hired on as a correctional officer. Once hired on, the researcher will wear the uniform and obtain firsthand experience working in a prison environment. To study urban gangs, a researcher may attempt to be accepted as a member or associate of the gang. In complete participation, the true identity of the researcher is not known to the members of the group. Therefore, they are ultimately just like any other member of the group under study. Not only will the researcher have the ability to observe the group from the inside, he can also manipulate the direction of group activity through participation or through the use of confederates. This method is considered the most qualitative because, as a complete participant, the researcher will be fully sensitized to what it is like to be a member of the group under study, and will fully participate in the group’s activities. The researcher can then share the information he has gathered on the group’s inner workings, motivations, and activities from the perspective of a group member.

Researchers utilizing the participant as observer method will also participate in the activities of the group under study. The difference between the complete participant strategy and participant as observer strategy is that in the participant as observer method, the researcher reveals herself as a researcher to the group. Her presence as a researcher is known. Accordingly, the researcher does not overtly attempt to influence the direction of group activity. While she does participate, the researcher is more interested in observing the group’s activity and corresponding behaviors as they occur naturally. So, if a researcher wanted to examine life as a homeless person, she might go to where a group of homeless persons congregate. The researcher would introduce herself as such but, if safe, stay one or many days and nights out with the homeless she meets in order to conduct observations and participate in group activities.

The third participant observation strategy is observer as participant. As with the participant as observer method, researchers using the observer as participant method reveal themselves to the group as a researcher. Here again, their presence as a researcher is known. What makes this strategy different from the first two is that the researcher does not participate in the group’s activities. While he may interact with the participants, he does not participate. Instead, the researcher is there only to observe. An example of this method would be a researcher who conducts “ride-alongs” in order to study law enforcement behavior during traffic stops. The researcher will interact with the officers, but he will not participate or even exit the car during the traffic stops being observed.

The least invasive participant observation strategy is complete observation. As you will learn in Chapter 7, this is a totally unobtrusive method; the research subjects are not aware that they are being observed for purposes of research. Think of a law enforcement officer being on a stakeout. These officers generally sit in unmarked vehicles down the street as they observe the movements and activities of a certain person or group of people. Researchers who are complete observers work much the same way. While being the least invasive, complete observation is also the least qualitative. Studying an individual or group from afar means that there is no interaction with that individual. Without this interaction, researchers are unable to gain a more sensitized understanding of the motivations of the group. This strategy is considered to be more quantitative because researchers must rely on counts of activities or movements. For example, if you are a researcher interested in studying how many drivers run a stop sign on campus, you may sit near the intersection and observe driver behavior. In collecting the data, you will count how many drivers make a complete stop, how many come to a rolling stop, and how many run the stop sign altogether. Now, although you may have these counts, you will not know why drivers stopped or not. It could be that one driver had a sick passenger who he was rushing to the hospital and that is why he did not come to a complete stop. As with most quantitative research, as a complete observer, questions of “why?” often go unanswered.

FIGURE 6.1 | Differences among Participant Observation Methods

Advantages and Disadvantages of Field Research by Method

As with any particular research method, there are advantages and disadvantages to conducting field research. Some of these are specific to the type of field research a researcher decides to conduct. One general advantage to participant observation methods is that researchers are able to study “hard to reach” populations. A disadvantage is that these groups may be difficult to study for a number of reasons. It could be that the group is criminal in nature, such as a youth gang, a biker gang, or the Mafia. While perhaps not criminal, the individual or group may be involved in deviant behaviors that they are unwilling to discuss even with people they know. An additional disadvantage is that there could be administrative roadblocks to conducting such research. If a researcher wants to understand the correctional officer culture but the prison will not allow the researcher to conduct the study, she may have to get hired on and conduct the research as a full participant. Examples of research involving each of these situations will be discussed later in this chapter.

Another challenge for field researchers is the ability to maintain objectivity. In Chapter 2, the importance of objectivity for scientific research was discussed. If data gathered is subjective or biased in some way, research findings will be impacted by this subjectivity and will therefore not be reflective of reality. While objectivity would be easier to maintain from afar, the closer a researcher becomes to a group and its members, the easier it may be to lose objectivity. This is true particularly for complete participants. For researchers who participate as members of the group under study, it may become difficult not to begin to identify with the group. When this occurs, and the researcher loses sight of the research goals in favor of group membership, it is called “ going native. ” This is a hazard of field research in which the researcher spends a significant amount of time, perhaps years, within a group. The researcher may begin to see things from the group’s perspective and therefore not be able to objectively complete the intended study. To balance this possible hazard of complete participation is the advantage of not having reactivity. Because the research subjects do not know they are being observed, they will not act any differently than they would under normal circumstances. Researchers therefore avoid the Hawthorne Effect when conducting field research as a complete participant.

There is the possibility that a researcher who incorporates the participant as observer strategy may also go native. Although his presence as a researcher is known, he is interacting with the group and participating in group activities. Therefore, it is possible he may begin to lose objectivity due to an attachment to or identification with the group under study. Whereas complete participants can avoid the Hawthorne Effect, participants as observers do not have this luxury. Even though these researchers may be participating in group activities, because their presence as a researcher is known, it can be expected that the group may in some way alter their behavior because they are being observed. An additional disadvantage to this strategy is that it may take time for a researcher to be accepted by group members who are aware of the researcher’s presence. If certain group members are uncomfortable with the researcher’s presence, they may make it difficult for the researcher to interact with other members or join in group activities.

Researchers on the observing end of the participant observation continuum face some similar and some unique challenges. Those who conduct observer as participant field studies will also face reactivity, or the Hawthorne Effect, because their presence as a researcher is known to the group under study. As in the ride-along example discussed previously, if a patrol officer knows she is being observed, she may alter her behavior in such a way that the researcher is not observing a realistic traffic stop. Additionally, these researchers may face difficulties gaining access or being accepted into the group under study, especially since they are there only to observe and not to participate with the group. In this case, the researcher may be ostracized even further by the group because she is not acting as one of them.

Researchers acting as complete observers to gather data on an individual or group are not limited by reactivity. Because the research subjects are unaware they are being observed, the Hawthorne Effect will not impact study findings. The advantage is that this method is totally unobtrusive, or noninvasive. The main disadvantage here is that the researcher is too far away to truly understand the group and their behaviors. As mentioned previously, at this point, the research becomes quite quantitative because the researcher can only observe and count movements and interactions from afar. Lacking in context, these counts may not be as useful in understanding a group as findings would be from the use of another participant observation method.

Costs One of the more important factors to consider when determining whether field research is the best option is the demand such research may place on a researcher. If you remember from the opening case study, Ferrell spent months in the field to collect information on urban scrounging. Researchers may spend weeks, months, and even years participating with and/or observing study subjects. Due to this, they may experience financial, personal, and sometimes professional costs. Time away from family and friends can take a personal toll on researchers. If the researcher is funding his own research or otherwise not able to earn a salary while undergoing the field study, he may suffer financially. Finally, also due to time away and perhaps due to activities that may be considered unethical, fieldwork can have a negative impact on a researcher’s career. While these demands are very real, past researchers have found ways to successfully navigate the world of field research resulting in fascinating findings and ultimately coming out unscathed from the experience.

Gaining Access Gaining access to populations of interest is also a difficult task to accomplish as these populations are often small, clandestine groups who generally keep out of the public eye. Field research is unlike survey research in that there is not a readily available list of gang members or dumpster divers from which you can draw a random sample. Instead, researchers often rely on the snowball sampling technique. If you remember from Chapter 3, snowball sampling entails a researcher meeting one or a handful of group members and receiving introductions to other group members from the initial members. One member leads you to the next, who then leads you to the next.

When gathering information as an observer as participant, a researcher should be straightforward and announce her intentions to group members immediately. It may be best to give a detailed explanation of her presence and purpose to group leaders or other decision-makers. If this does not happen, when the group does find out a researcher is in their presence, they may feel the researcher was trying to hide something. If the identity of the researcher is known, it is important that the researcher be a researcher, and that she not pretend to be one of the group, as this may also cause problems. It may be disconcerting to group members if an outsider thinks she is closer to the group than members are willing to allow her to be.

While complete participant researchers may be introduced to one or more members, this does not mean that they will be readily accepted as part of the group. This is true even if they are acting as full participants. There are some things researchers can do to increase their chances of being accepted. First, researchers should learn the argot, or language, of the group under study. Study subjects may have a particular way of speaking to one another through the use of slang or other vernacular. If a researcher is familiar with this argot and is able to use it convincingly, he will seem less of an outsider. It is also important to time your approach. A researcher should be aware, as much as possible, about what is happening in the group before gaining access. If a researcher is studying drug dealers and there was just a big drug bust or if a researcher is studying gangs and there was recently a fight between two gangs, it may not be the best time to gain access as members of these groups may be immediately suspicious of people they do not know.

Researchers often must find a gatekeeper in order to join a group. Gatekeepers are those individuals who may or may not know about the researcher’s true identity, who will vouch for the researcher among the other group members and who will inform the researcher about group norms, territory, and the like. Gatekeepers may lobby to have a researcher become a part of the group or to be allowed access to the place where the group gathers. While this is helpful for the researcher, it can be dangerous for the gatekeeper, especially if something goes wrong. If the researcher is attempting to be a full participant but her identity as a researcher is exposed, the gatekeeper may be held responsible for allowing the researcher in. This may be the case even if the gatekeeper was not aware of the researcher’s true identity. If a researcher does not want to enter the group himself, he may find an indigenous observer, or a member of the group who is willing to collect information for him. The researcher may pay or otherwise remunerate this person for her efforts as she will be able to see and hear what the researcher could not. A similar problem may arise, however, if this person is caught. There may be negative consequences to pay if it is found out that she is revealing information about the group. Additionally, the researcher must be careful when analyzing the information provided as it may not be objective, or may not even be factual at all.

Maintaining Objectivity Once a researcher gains access, there is another issue she must face. This is the difficulty of remaining an outsider while becoming an insider. In short, the researcher must guard against going native. Objectivity is necessary for research to be scientific. If a researcher becomes too familiar with the group, she may lose objectivity and may even be able to identify with and/or empathize with the group under study. If this occurs, the research findings will be biased and not an objective reflection of the group, what drives the group, and the activities in which the group members participate. For these reasons, it is not suggested that a researcher conduct field research among a group of which he is a member. If a researcher has been a member of a social organization for many years and is friends, or at least acquaintances, with many of the members, it would be very difficult for her to objectively study the group. The researcher may consider the group and the group’s activities as normal and therefore miss out on interesting relationships and behaviors. This is also why external researchers are often brought in to evaluate agency programs. If employees of that program are tasked with evaluating it, they may—consciously or not—design the study in such a way that findings are sure to be positive. This may be because they feel that a negative evaluation will mean an end to the program and ultimately an end to their jobs. Having such a stake in the findings of research is sure to impact the objectivity of the person tasked with conducting the study. While bringing in external researchers may ensure objectivity, these researchers face their own challenges. Trulson, Marquart, and Mullings 3 offer some tips for breaking in to criminal justice agencies, specifically prisons, as an external researcher. The first two tips pertain to obtaining access through the use of a gatekeeper. The third tip focuses on the development and cultivation of relationships within the agency in order to maintain access. The remaining tips describe how a researcher can make a graceful exit once the research project is completed while still maintaining those relationships, as well as building new ones, for potential future research endeavors.

❑ Tip #1: Get a Contact

❑ Tip #2: Establish Yourself and Your Research

❑ Tip #3: Little Things Count

❑ Tip #4: Make Sense of Agency Data by Keeping Contact

❑ Tip #5: Deliver Competent Readable Reports on Time

❑ Tip #6: Request to Debrief the Agency

❑ Tip#7: Thank Everyone

❑ Tip #8: Deal with Adversity by Planning Ahead

❑ Tip #9: Inform the Agency of Data Use

❑ Tip #10: Maintain Trust by Staying in for the Long Haul (pp. 477–478)

CLASSICS IN CJ RESEARCH

Youth Violence and the Code of the Street

Research Study

Based on his ethnography of African American youth living in poor, inner-city neighborhoods, Elijah Anderson 2 developed a comprehensive theory regarding youth violence and the “code of the street.” Anderson explains that, stemming from a lack of resources, distrust in law enforcement, and an overall lack of hope, aggressive behavior is condoned by the informal street code as a way to resolve conflict and earn respect. Anderson’s detailed description and analysis of this street culture provided much needed awareness regarding the context of African American youth violence. Like other research discussed in this chapter, these populations could not be sent an Internet survey or be surveyed in a classroom. The only way for Anderson to gain this knowledge was to go out to the streets and observe and interact with the youth himself. To do this, he conducted four years of field research in both the inner city and the more suburban areas of Philadelphia. During this time, he conducted lengthy interviews with youth and acted as a direct observer of their activities. Anderson’s research is touted for bringing attention to and understanding of inner-city life. Not only does he describe the “code of the street,” but, in doing so, he provides answers to the problem of urban youth violence.

Documenting the Experience Researchers must also decide how best to document their experiences for later analysis. There is a Chinese Proverb that states, “the palest ink is better than the best memory.” Applied here, researchers are encouraged to document as much as they can, as giving a detailed account of things that have occurred from memory is difficult. When taking notes, it is important for researchers to be as specific as possible when describing individuals and their behaviors. It is also important for researchers not to ignore behaviors that may seem trivial at the time, as these may actually signify something much more meaningful.

Particularly as a complete participant, researchers are not going to have the ability to readily pull out their note pad and begin taking notes on things they have seen and heard. Even careful note taking can be dangerous for a researcher who is trying to hide his identity. If a researcher is found to be documenting what is happening within the group, this may breed distrust and group members may become suspicious of the researcher. This suspicion may cause the group members to act unnaturally around the researcher. Even if research subjects are aware of the researcher’s identity, having someone taking notes while they are having a casual conversation can be disconcerting. This may make subjects nervous and unwilling to participate in group activities while the researcher is present. Luckily, with the advance of technology, documentation does not have to include a pen and a piece of paper. Instead, researchers may opt for audio and/or visual recording devices. In one-party consent states, it is legal for one person to record a conversation they are having with another. Not all states are one-party consent states, however, so researchers must be careful not to break any laws with their plan for documentation.

WHAT RESEARCH SHOWS: IMPACTING CRIMINAL JUSTICE OPERATIONS

Application of Field Research Methods in Undercover Investigations

Participant observation research not only informs criminal justice operations, but police and other investigative agencies use these methods as well. Think about an undercover investigation. While the purpose of going undercover for a law enforcement officer is to collect evidence against a suspect, the officer’s methods mirror those of an academic researcher who joins a group as a full participant. In the 1970s, FBI agent Joe Pistone 4 went undercover to obtain information about the Bonnano family, one of the major Sicilian organized crime families in New York at the time. Assuming the identity of Donnie Brasco, the jewel thief, Pistone infiltrated the Bonnano family for six years. Using many of the techniques discussed here—learning the argot and social mores of the group, finding a gatekeeper, documenting evidence through the use of recording devices—by the early 1980s, Pistone provided the FBI with enough evidence to put over 100 Mafioso in prison for the remainder of their lives. Many of you may recognize his alias, as Pistone’s experiences as an undercover agent were brought to the big screen with the release of Donnie Brasco, starring Johnny Depp. Depp’s portrayal of Pistone showed not only his undercover persona but also the difficulties he had maintaining relationships with his loved ones. Now, more than 30 years later, people are still interested in Pistone’s experiences as Brasco. As recently as 2005, the National Geographic Channel premiered Inside the Mafia, a series focused on Pistone’s experiences as Brasco. While this is a more well-known example of an undercover operation, undercover work goes on all the time. Whether making drug busts, infiltrating gangs or other trafficking organizations, or conducting a sting operation on one of their own, investigators employ many of the same techniques as field researchers rely upon.

Ethical Dilemmas for Field Researchers

As you can tell, field research poses unique complications for researchers to consider prior to and while conducting their studies. Ethical issues posed by field research, particularly field research in which the researcher’s identity is not known to research subjects, include the use of deception, privacy invasion, and the lack of consent. How can a researcher obtain informed consent from research subjects if she doesn’t want anyone to know research is taking place? Is it ethical to include someone in a research study without his or her permission? When the first guidelines for human subjects research were handed down, they caused a huge roadblock for field researchers. Later, however, it was determined that social science poses less risk to human subjects, particularly those being observed in their natural setting. Because it was recognized that the risk for harm was significantly less, field researchers were allowed to conduct their studies without conditions involving informed consent. The debate remains, however, as to whether it is truly ethical to conduct research on individuals without them knowing. A related issue is confidentiality and anonymity. If researchers are living among study subjects, anonymity is impossible. One way field researchers protect their subjects in this regard is through the use of pseudonyms. A pseudonym is a false name given to someone whose identity needs to be kept secret. In writing up their study findings, researchers will use pseudonyms instead of the actual names of study subjects.

Beyond the ethical nature of the research itself, field studies may introduce other ethical dilemmas for the researcher. For example, what if the researcher, as a participating member of a group, is asked to participate in an illegal activity? This may be a nonviolent activity like vandalism or graffiti, or it may be an activity that is more sinister in nature. Researchers, as full participants, have to decide whether they would be willing to commit the crime in question. After all, if caught and arrests are made, “I was just doing research,” will not be a justification the researcher will be able to use for his participation. Even if not a full participant, a researcher may observe some activity that is unlawful. The researcher will then have to decide whether to report this activity or to keep quiet about it. If a researcher is called to testify, there could be consequences for not cooperating. Depending on what kind of group is being studied, these dilemmas may occur more or less frequently. It is important that researchers understand prior to entering the field that they may have to make difficult decisions that like the research itself, could have great costs to them personally and professionally.

RESEARCH IN THE NEWS

Field Research Hits Prime Time

In 2009, CBS aired a new reality television series, Undercover Boss, 5 in which corporate executives go “undercover” to experience life as an employee of their company. Fully disguised, the executives are quickly thrown into the day-to-day operations of their workplaces. From the co-owner of the Chicago Cubs, to the CEO of Norwegian Cruise Line, to the mayor of Cincinnati, these executives conduct field research on camera to gain a better understanding of how their company, or city administration, runs from the bottom up. Often, they find hard-working, talented employees who are deserving of recognition, which is given as the episode comes to a close and the executive reveals himself and his undercover activities to his employees. Other times, they find employees that are not so good for business. Ultimately, the experience provides these executives with awareness they did not have prior to going undercover, and they hope to be able to utilize this knowledge to position their workplaces for continued success. Not only has this show benefited the companies and other workplaces profiled, with millions of viewers each week, it has certainly brought the adventures of field research into prime time.

Examples of Field Research in Criminal Justice

If you recall from Chapter 2, Humphreys’ Tea Room Trade is an example of field research. Humphreys participated to an extent, acting as a “watchqueen” so that he could observe the sexual activities taking place in public restrooms and other public places. Another study exploring clandestine sexual activity was conducted by Styles. 6 Styles was interested in the use of gay baths, places where men seeking to have sexual relationships with other men could have relatively private encounters. While Styles was a gay man attempting to study other gay men, at the outset his intention was to be a nonparticipant observer. Having a friend vouch for him, he easily gained access into the bath and began figuring out how to best observe the scene. After observing and conducting a few interviews, Styles was approached by another man for sexual activity. Although he was resolved to only observe, this time he gave in. From this point on, he began attending another bath and collecting information as a complete participant. Styles’ writing is informative, not only for the description regarding this group’s activity, but also for the discussion he provides about his travels through the world of field research, beginning as an observer and ending as a complete participant. His writing on insider versus outsider research resulted in four main reflections for readers to consider:

There are no privileged positions of knowledge when it comes to scrutinizing human group life;

All research is conditioned by value biases and factual preconceptions about the group being studied;

Fieldwork is a process of building up images from one’s biases, preconceptions, and new information, testing these images against one’s observations and the reports of informants, and accepting, modifying, or discarding these images on the basis of what one observes and what one has been told; and

Insider and outsider researchers will differ in the ways they go about building and testing their images of the group they study. (pp. 148–150)

Reviewing the literature, one finds that field researchers often choose sexual deviance as a topic for their field studies. Tewksbury and colleagues have researched gender differences in sex shop patrons 7 and places where men have been found to have anonymous sexual encounters 8 such as sex shop theaters. 9 Another interesting field study was conducted by Ronai and Ellis. 10 For this study, Ronai acted as a complete participant, drawing from her past as a table dancer and also gaining access as an exotic dancer in a Florida strip bar for the purpose of her master’s thesis research. Building on Ronai’s experiences and her interviews with fellow dancers, the researchers examined the interactional strategies used by dancers, both on the stage and on the floor, to ensure a night where the dancers were well paid for their services. In conducting these studies, these researchers were able to expose places where many are either unwilling or afraid to go, or perhaps afraid to admit they go.

In their study of women who belong to outlaw motorcycle gangs, Hopper and Moore 11 used participant observation methods as well as interviews to better understand the biker culture and where women fit into this culture. Moore provided access, as he was once a member and president of Satan’s Dead, an outlaw biker club in Mississippi. Like Styles, Hopper and Moore discuss the challenges of conducting research among the outlaw biker population. Having to observe quietly while bikers committed acts opposite to their personal values and not being able to ask many questions or give uninvited comments were just some of the hurdles the researchers had to overcome in order to conduct their study. The male bikers were, at the least, distrustful of the researchers, and the women bikers even more so. While these challenges existed, Hopper and Moore were able to ascertain quite a bit about the female experience as relates to their role in or among the outlaw biker culture.

Ferrell has been one of the most active field researchers of our time. He is considered a founder and remains a steadfast proponent of cultural criminology, 12 a subfield of criminology that examines the intersections of cultural activities and crime. Not only did he conduct the ethnography on urban scrounging discussed at the beginning of this chapter, he has spent more than a decade in the field studying subcultural groups who defy social norms. Crossing the United States, and the globe, Ferrell has explored the social and political motivations of urban graffiti artists, 13 anarchist bicycle group activists, and outlaw radio operators, 14 just to name a few. The research conducted by Ferrell, and others discussed here, has been described as edgework, or radical ethnography. This means that, as researchers, Ferrell and others have gone to the “edge,” or the extreme, to collect information on subjects of interest. Ferrell and Hamm 15 have put together a collection of readings based on edgework, as have Miller and Tewksbury. 16 While dangerous and wrought with ethical challenges, their research has shed light on societal groups who, whether by choice or not, often reside in the shadows.

Although ethnographers have spent years studying criminal and other deviant activities, field research has not been limited to those groups. Other researchers have sought to explore what it’s like to work in criminal justice from the inside. In the 1960s, Skolnick 17 conducted field research among police officers to better understand how elements of their occupation impacted their views and behaviors. He wrote extensively about the “working personality” of police officers as shaped by their occupational environment, including the danger and alienation they face from those they are sworn to protect, and the solidarity that builds from shared experiences. Beyond law enforcement, there have also been a variety of studies focused on the prison environment. When Ted Conover, 18 a journalist interested in writing from the correctional officer perspective, was denied permission from the New York Department of Correctional Services to do a report on correctional life, he instead applied and was hired on as an actual correctional officer. In Newjack: Guarding Sing Sing, Conover offers a compelling account of his journalistic field research, which resulted in a one-year stint as a corrections officer. From his time in training until his last days working in the galleries, Conover’s experiences provide the reader a look into the challenges faced by correctional officers, stemming not only from the inmates but the correctional staff as well.

Prior to Conover’s writing, Marquart was also interested in correctional work and strategies utilized by prison guards to ensure control over the inmate population. Specifically, in the 1980s, Marquart 19 examined correctional officials’ use of physical coercion and Marquart and Crouch 20 explored their use of inmate leaders as social control mechanisms. In order to conduct this field study, Marquart, with the warden’s permission, entered a prison unit in Texas and proceeded to work as a guard from June 1981 until January 1983. He was able to work in various posts within the institution so that he could observe how prison guards interacted with inmates. Marquart not only observed the prison’s daily routine, he examined institutional records, conducted interviews, and also developed close relationships with 20 prison guards and inmate leaders, or building tenders, whom he relied on for their insider knowledge of prison life and inmate control. Based on his fieldwork, Marquait shared his findings regarding the intimidation and physical coercion used by prison guards to discipline inmates. This fieldwork also provided a fascinating look into the building tender system that was utilized as a means of social control in the Texas prison system prior to that system being discontinued.

In the early 1990s, Schmid and Jones 21 used a unique strategy to study inmate adaptation from inside the prison walls. Jones, an offender serving a sentence in a prison located in the upper midwestern region of the United States, was given permission to enroll in a graduate sociology course focused on methods of research. This course was being offered by Schmid and led to collaborative work between the two men to study prison culture. They specifically focused on the experiences of first-time, short-term inmates. With Jones acting as the complete participant and Schmid acting as the complete observer, the pair began their research covertly. While they were aware of Jones’s meeting with Schmid for purposes of the research methods course in which he was enrolled, correctional authorities and other inmates perceived Jones to be just another inmate. In the 10 months that followed, Jones kept detailed notes regarding his daily experiences and his personal thoughts about and observations of prison life. Also included in his notes was information about his participation in prison activities and his communications with other similar, first-time, short-term inmates. Once his field notes were prepared, Jones would mail them to Schmid for review. Over the course of these letters, phone calls, and intermittent meetings, new observation strategies and themes began to develop based on the observations made by Jones. Upon his release from prison and their analyzing of the initial data, Jones and Schmid reentered the prison to conduct informed interviews with 20 first-time, short-term inmates. Using these data, Schmid and Jones began to write up their findings, which focused on inmate adaptations over time, identity transformations within the prison environment, 22 and conceptions of prison sexual assault, 23 among other topics. Schmid and Jones discussed how their roles as a complete observer and a complete participant allowed them the advantage of balancing scientific objectivity and intimacy with the group under study. The unfettered access Jones had to other inmates within the prison environment as a complete participant added to the unusual nature of this study yielding valuable insight into the prison experience for this particular subset of inmates.

Case Studies

Beyond field research, case studies provide an additional means of qualitative data. While more often conducted by researchers in other disciplines, such as psychology, or by journalists, criminologists also have a rich history of case study research. In conducting case studies, researchers use in-depth interviews and oral/life history, or autobiographical, approaches to thoroughly examine one or a few illustrative cases. This method often allows individuals, particularly offenders, to tell their own story, and information from these stories, or case studies, may then be extrapolated to the larger group. The advantage is a firsthand, descriptive account of a way of life that is little understood. Disadvantages relate to the ability to generalize from what may be an atypical case and also the bias that may enter as a researcher develops a working relationship with their subject. Most examples of case studies involving criminological subjects were conducted more than 20 years ago, which may be due to criminologists’ general inclination toward more quantitative research during this time period.

The earliest case studies focused on crime topics were conducted in the 1930s. Not only was the Chicago School interested in ethnographic research, these researchers were also among the first to conduct case studies on individuals involved in criminal activities. Shaw’s The Jack Roller (1930) 24 and Sutherland’s The Professional Thief (1937) 25 are not only the oldest but also the most well-known case studies related to delinquent and criminal figures. Focused on environmental influences on behavior, Shaw profiled an inner city delinquent male, “Stanley” the “jack roller,” who explained why he was involved in delinquent behavior, specifically the crime of mugging intoxicated men. Fifty years later, Snodgrass 26 updated Shaw’s work, following up with an elderly “Stanley” at age 70. Sutherland’s case study, resulting in the publication of The Professional Thief, was based on “Chic Conwell’s” account of his personal life and professional experience surviving off of what could be stolen or conned from others. The 1970s and 1980s witnessed numerous publications based on case studies. Researchers examined organized crime figures and families, 27 heroin addicts, 28 thieves, 29 and those who fence stolen property. 30 As with participant observation research, case studies have not been relegated to offenders only. In fact, more recently the case study approach has been applied to law enforcement and correctional agencies. 33 These studies have examined activities of the New York City Police Department, 34 the New Orleans Police Department’s response in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, 35 and Rhode Island’s prison system. 36

As with field research, the case study approach can provide a deeper understanding of individuals or groups of individuals, such as crime families, who live outside of the mainstream. Case studies inform us about the motivations for why individuals or groups behave the way they do and how those experiences or activities were either beneficial or detrimental for them. The same goes for agency research. One department or agency can learn from the experiences of another department or agency. With more recent research utilizing the case study approach, it could be that this methodology will be seen more often in the criminal justice literature.

Making Critical Choices as a Field Researcher

In conducting field studies, researchers often must make decisions that impact the viability of their research. Sometimes, researchers don’t make the best choices. In the 1990s, Dr. Ansley Hamid was an esteemed anthropologist, well-known for his field research focused on the drug subculture. 31 Based on his previous success as a researcher documenting the more significant trends in drug use and addiction, he, through his position as a university professor, was awarded a multimillion-dollar federal research grant to examine heroin use on the streets of New York. It was not long after the grant was awarded, however, that Hamid was accused of misusing the funds provided by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, even going so far as to use the funds to purchase heroin for his own use and the use of his research subjects. While the criminal charges were eventually dismissed, Hamid paid the ultimate professional price for his behavior, particularly his use of the drug, which was documented in his handwritten field notes. 32 As of 2003, the professor was no longer connected to John Jay College of Criminal Justice at the City University of New York. In fact, Hamid is no longer working in higher education at all due to the accusations and accompanying negative publicity. Instead, he owns a candle shop in a small Brooklyn neighborhood. He does not plan to stop researching and writing though. His book, Ganja Complex: Rastafari and Marijuana, was published in 2002. This case is a prime example of what can happen when researchers cross the boundary of objectivity. Hamid’s brief experience in the shoes of a heroin user led to his ultimate downfall as an objective and respected researcher.

Chapter Summary

Qualitative research strategies allow researchers to enter into groups and places that are often considered off limits to the general public. The methods and studies discussed here provide excellent examples of the use of field research to discover motivations for the development and patterns of behavior within these groups. These qualitative endeavors offer a unique look into the lives of those who may live or work on the fringes of modern society. As it would be nearly impossible to conduct research on these groups using methods such as experiments, surveys, and formal interviews, participant observation techniques extend the ability of researchers to study activities beyond the norm by participating with and observing subjects in their natural environment and later describing in detail their experiences in the field.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What are the advantages to using a more qualitative research method?

2. Compare and contrast the four different participant observation strategies.

3. What must a researcher consider before conducting field research?

4. What did Styles learn about conducting research as an insider versus an outsider?

5. How has the case study approach been applied to criminal justice research?

case study: In-depth analysis of one or a few illustrative cases

complete observation: A participant observation method that involves the researcher observing an individual or group from afar

complete participation: A participant observation method that involves the researcher becoming a full-fledged member of a particular group; sometimes referred to as disguised observation

confederates: Individuals, who are part of the research team, used to speed up the events of interest when observations are being made

edgework: This refers to researchers going to the “edge,” or the extreme, to collect information on subjects of interest

ethnographic research: Relies on field research methodologies to scientifically examine human culture in the natural environment

field research: Research that involves researchers studying individuals or groups of individuals in their natural environment

gatekeeper: A person within the group under study whom the researcher can use to learn about and access the group

going native: A challenge to field research in which the researcher loses her identity as a researcher and begins to identify more with her role as a member of the group under study

Hawthorne Effect: Based on a study of worker productivity, this term refers to changes in behavior caused by being observed

indigenous observer: A person within the group under study who is willing to collect information about the group for compensation

journalistic field research: Field research conducted by journalists and used to write books or articles about a certain topic of interest

observer as participant: A participant observation strategy in which the researcher is known to the group and is only there to observe

oral/life history: Methods used to conduct case studies; similar to an autobiographical account

participant as observer: A participant observation strategy in which the researcher will participate with the group but his identity as a researcher is known

participant observation strategies: First used for social science in the 1920s, these are research methodologies that involve participation and/or observation with the group under study; there are four such strategies

pseudonym: A false name given to someone whose identity needs to be kept secret

reactivity: The problem of having research subjects change their natural behavior in reaction to being observed or otherwise included in a research study

1 Ferrell, J. (2006). Empire of scrounge: Inside the urban underground of dumpster diving, trash picking, and street scavenging. New York: New York University Press.

2 Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

3 Trulson, C., J. Marquait, & J. Mullings. (2004). “Breaking in: Gaining entry to prisons and other hard-to-access criminal justice organizations.” Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 15(2), 451–478.

4 Lovgren, S. (2005, June 10). “FBI Agent ‘Donnie Brasco’ recalls life in the Mafia.” Retrieved March 7, 2012 from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/pf/34063528 .html.

5 See series website, http://www.cbs.com/shows /undercover_boss/.

6 Styles, J. (1979). “Outsider/insider: Researching gay baths.” Urban Life, 8(2), 135–152.

7 McCleary, R., & R. Tewksbury. (2010). “Female patrons of porn.” Deviant Behavior, 31, 208–223.

8 Tewksbury, R. (2008). “Finding erotic oases: Locating the sites of men’s same-sex anonymous sexual encounters.” Journal of Homosexuality, 55(1), 1–19.

9 Douglas, B., & R. Tewksbury. (2008). “Theaters and sex: An examination of anonymous sexual encounters in an erotic oasis.” Deviant Behavior, 29(1), 1–17.

10 Ronai, C. R., & C. Ellis. (1989). “Turn-ons for money: Interactional strategies of the table dancer.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 18, 271–298.

11 Hopper, C. B., & J. Moore. (1990). “Women in outlaw motorcycle gangs.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 18(4), 363–387.

12 Ferrell, J., & C. Sanders (Eds.). (1995). Cultural criminology. Boston: Northeastern University Press.

13 Ferrell, J. (1996). Crimes of style: Urban graffiti and the politics of criminality. Boston: Northeastern University Press.

14 Ferrell, J. (2002). Tearing down the streets: Adventures in urban anarchy. New York: Palgrave Mcmillan.

15 Ferrell, J., & M. Hamm (Eds.). (1998). Ethnography at the edge: Crime, deviance, and field research. Boston: Northeastern University Press

16 Miller, J., & R. Tewksbury (Eds.). (2001). Extreme methods: Innovative approaches to social science research. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

17 Skolnick, J. (1966). Justice without trial: Law enforcement in a democratic society. New York: Wiley & Sons.

18 Conover, T. (2000). Newjack: Guarding Sing Sing. New York: Random House, Inc.

19 Marquart, J. (1986). “Prison guards and the use of physical coercion as a mechanism of prisoner control.” Criminology, 24(2), 347–366.

20 Marquart, J. & B. Crouch. (1984). “Coopting the kept: Using inmates for social control in a southern prison.” Justice Quarterly, 1(4), 491–509.

21 Schmid, T. J., & R. S. Jones. (1993). “Ambivalent actions: Prison adaptation strategies of first-time, short-term inmates.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 21(4), 439–463.

22 Schmid, T. J., & R. S. Jones. (1991). “Suspended identity: Identity transformation in a maximum security prison.” Symbolic Interaction, 14, 415–432.

23 Jones, R. S., & T. J. Schmid. (1989). “Inmates’ conceptions of prison sexual assault.” Prison Journal, 69, 53–61.

24 Shaw, C. (1930). The jack-roller. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

25 Sutherland, E. (1937). The professional thief. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

26 Snodgrass, J. (1982). The jack-roller at seventy: A fifty year follow-up. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.

27 Abadinsky, H. (1983). The criminal elite: Professional and organized crime. Wesport, CT: Greenwood Press.; Anderson, A. (1979). The business of organized crime. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press.; Ianni, F., & E. Reuss-Ianni. (1972). A family business: kinship and social control in organized crime. New York: Russell Sage.

28 Agar, M. (1973). Ripping and running: A formal ethnography of urban heroin users. New York: Seminar Press.; Rettig, R., M. Torres, & G. Garrett. (1977). Manny: A criminal addict ’ s story. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

29 Chambliss, W. (1972). Boxman: A professional thief ’ s journal, with Harry King. New York: Harper and Row.; King, H., & W. Chambliss. (1984). Harry King: A professional thief ’ s journal. New York: Wiley.

30 Klockars, C. (1974). The professional fence. New York: Free Press; Steffensmeier, D. (1986). The fence: In the shadow of two worlds. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield.

31 Forero, J. (1999, November, 1). “Charges unravel drug-use scholar’s career.” The New York Times Archives. Retrieved March 7, 2012 from http://www.nytimes .com/1999/11/01/nyregion/charges-unravel-drug-use-scholar-s-career.html?pagewanted=print&src=pm.

32 Smallwood, S. (2002, October 25). “Crossing the line: A heroin researcher partakes and pays the price.” The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved March 7, 2012 from http://chronicle.com/article /Crossing-the-Line/2839.

33 Travis, L. III (1983). “The case study in criminal justice research: Applications to policy analysis.” Criminal Justice Review, 8, 46–51.

34 Eterno, J. (2003). Policing within the law: A case study of the New York City Police Department. Westport, CT: Praeger.

35 Wigginton, M. (2007). “The New Orleans police emergency response to Hurricane Katrina: A case study.” A Dissertation completed for the University of Southern Mississippi.

36 Carroll, L. (1998). Lawful order: A case study of correctional crisis and reform. New York: Garland.

Applied Research Methods in Criminal Justice and Criminology by University of North Texas is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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v.134(1 Suppl); May-Jun 2019

Asking Survey Questions About Criminal Justice Involvement

1 Westat, Rockville, MD, USA

David Cantor

Criminal justice involvement is a multifaceted construct encompassing various forms of contact with the criminal justice system. It is a sensitive topic to ask about in surveys and also a sensitive topic for respondents to answer. This article provides guidance for writing survey questions on criminal justice involvement, starting with a review of potential causes for reporting error and nonresponse error associated with survey questions on criminal justice involvement. Questions about criminal justice involvement are subject to errors that are common to any survey (eg, misunderstanding questions, recall bias, telescoping). Reponses to these questions are also subject to underreporting because of social desirability concerns. We also address strategies to reduce error for questions pertaining to criminal justice involvement (eg, self-administered data collection, wording of forgiving questions, indirect methods). We then discuss common design decisions associated with writing survey questions on criminal justice involvement (eg, type and frequency of criminal justice involvement, reference period,) and provide examples of questions from current surveys.

Criminal justice involvement encompasses various forms of contact with the criminal justice system. Involvement in the criminal justice system starts after an individual is arrested and can include pretrial detention, conviction, incarceration, probation, and parole. 1 Criminal justice involvement is an important life event that affects not only the persons involved but also others involved in their lives. Research shows that criminal justice involvement has a negative effect on people’s physical and mental health, 2 - 4 employment and earnings, 5 marriage and family life, 5 , 6 and access to housing opportunities, 7 among other areas. Parental involvement in the criminal justice system is found to have a detrimental effect on children’s health, 8 , 9 behaviors, 7 , 10 , 11 income and financial security, 12 , 13 food security, 13 receipt of health services, 14 and education, including college access and completion. 15 - 17

Given the detrimental effects criminal justice involvement can have on a person’s life, data are needed to systematically examine these effects on the general population. However, collecting such data is challenging, in part because asking questions about criminal justice involvement in general population surveys is often a sensitive issue for respondents. This article provides guidance and advice for writing survey questions on criminal justice involvement, with particular attention to the sensitive nature of the topic. 18 Although guidance and advice are available for writing questions about a sensitive topic, 19 - 21 they are not specifically designed for questions about criminal justice involvement. Therefore, we first review potential causes for reporting error and nonresponse error associated with survey questions on criminal justice involvement. Next, we discuss strategies to reduce error for such questions. We conclude by discussing common design decisions associated with writing survey questions on criminal justice involvement and providing examples of questions from current surveys.

Reporting and Nonresponse Error Related to Questions on Criminal Justice Involvement

As with any type of survey question, questions pertaining to criminal justice involvement are subject to error related to reporting and nonresponse. With regard to reporting error, a respondent can misunderstand the survey question, partially or inaccurately recall relevant information, use a cognitive shortcut to come up with a response, or fail to report an answer using one of the response options provided to them. 19 For example, the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG)—a general population survey introduced to sampled members as being about “family life, marriage and divorce, having and raising children, and health and health care”—asks all male respondents, “In the last 12 months, have you spent any time in a jail, prison, or a juvenile detention facility?” 22 To respond, a respondent must first interpret what the question means (comprehension), determine what is considered a “jail, prison, or a juvenile detention facility,” and then interpret what it means to “spend any time” in such a place. Some respondents might interpret “spend any time” to mean “spending time as a result of formal sentencing,” whereas others might interpret it as a 1-night stay in a jail before appearing in court.

A respondent must then remember events that qualify under the given definition (recall). One type of recall error is external telescoping, 23 , 24 which occurs when a respondent reports an incident taking place outside the period of interest. Respondents are more likely to telescope memorable events they can recall, even if the event occurred before the period of interest. 25 A second type of recall error is when the respondent does not remember the event at all. 25 For example, respondents might forget or not recall a 1-night stay in a jail that happened in the distant past. 26

In addition to these common sources of reporting error, questions on criminal justice involvement are also subject to response error because they cover a sensitive topic. Topics can be sensitive because of (1) intrusiveness (criminal justice involvement is not generally discussed with others); (2) possible negative consequences, sometimes even legal concerns, from disclosing criminal justice involvement to another individual; and (3) the social stigma associated with criminal justice involvement. 4 , 27 Because of the social stigma associated with criminal justice involvement, respondents are prone to not report these events even when they are retrieved from memory, leading to underreporting. 18 The tendency to underreport events that invoke social stigma is also known as social desirability bias. For example, on the NSFG, the respondent might recall from memory an instance of criminal justice involvement in the correct reference period. However, before reporting, the respondent might edit his or her answer to “no” to avoid potential judgment.

Evidence of this editing process for criminal justice involvement can be found in studies comparing self-reported data with administrative data that found that arrests, 26 delinquent activities that led to police contact, 28 committing welfare and unemployment benefit fraud, 29 and convictions 29 were underreported. In addition, female respondents, 27 , 29 older persons, 27 , 29 persons with higher education, 27 , 30 persons with higher levels of social desirability concerns, 27 , 28 , 30 and persons with more severe offenses 26 , 27 , 30 underreport criminal justice involvement more often than male respondents, younger respondents, persons with lower education, persons with lower levels of social desirability concerns, and persons with minor offenses, respectively.

With regard to nonresponse error, several studies show that persons tend not to participate in surveys that have sensitive topics, 31 especially surveys that ask about undesirable behaviors and attitudes. 32 , 33 However, including items about criminal justice involvement in general population surveys is unlikely to substantially alter response rates unless (1) the survey is introduced as a survey on criminal justice involvement or (2) respondents know beforehand that items on criminal justice involvement are part of the survey. As mentioned earlier, the NSFG is described as a survey about “family life, marriage and divorce, having and raising children, and health and health care” in the advance letter to sampled households. 22 Sampled members do not know beforehand that the survey includes 4 questions on criminal justice involvement ( Table 1 ) asked of men aged 15-44. The final weighted response rate for the 2006-2010 NSFG data collection was similar between men (75%) and women (78%), even though the 4 questions on criminal justice involvement are asked only of male respondents. 34 During the 2011-2013 NSFG data collection, the response rate for the male questionnaire was 1 percentage point lower than the response rate for the female questionnaire, 35 a difference that was negligible.

Item nonresponse rates to questions on criminal justice involvement from general population surveys, United States

a Item nonresponse rates were calculated by using public-use data. The rates are unweighted. Percentages were calculated as the number of respondents who agreed to participate in the survey but did not provide a substantive answer to a particular question about criminal justice involvement divided by the number of respondents who agreed to participate in the survey and were asked the question about criminal justice involvement.

Nonresponse to specific survey questions (also known as “item nonresponse”) also does not seem to be a problem with questions on criminal justice involvement. We computed item nonresponse rates to questions on criminal justice involvement from 4 surveys (the NSFG, 35 National Survey on Drug Use and Health [NSDUH], 36 Survey of Criminal Justice Experience, 37 and National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health 38 ; Table 1 ). Item nonresponse rates were <2% for all but 2 estimates from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (ie, question on “father in jail/prison” in wave 3 and wave 4). This low nonresponse rate is within the typical range of missing data for nonsensitive questions. 39 However, it may also be that refusing to answer these questions is perceived to be an admission of criminal justice involvement.

Strategies to Reduce Reporting Error Common to All Survey Questions

As noted previously, questions about criminal justice involvement are subject to errors common to any survey (eg, misunderstanding survey questions, forgetting, telescoping). When crafting survey questions on criminal justice involvement, several principles minimize these sources of error. First, survey questions on criminal justice involvement should use simple language 40 that can be understood by all respondents. Questions should avoid the use of jargon or technical or big words. For example, the term criminal justice involvement may have various meanings across the general population. In addition, respondents might interpret jail in multiple ways. Some respondents may think it is a specific type of incarceration (eg, jail vs prison) and others might interpret it as being incarcerated. One way to increase comprehension is to provide a definition to the respondent when using a specific term.

Second, question writers should keep the task of answering manageable for the respondent. 40 Even if a respondent understands the meaning of criminal justice involvement, the task of recall and using retrieved memory to answer the question may become unmanageable, especially for respondents who have to search their memory for events that happened a long time ago or for respondents who have multiple experiences with criminal justice involvement.

One way to aid the recall task is to use examples. Examples make the search of memory more specific to the targeted behavior or situation. For example, if the intent of the question is to include any time the person was incarcerated, regardless of the type of facility (eg, jail, prison, or a juvenile facility), examples can illustrate a stay as the result of formal sentencing, a temporary stay before appearing in the court, or being in a secure facility as a juvenile. Although examples are generally useful for making the question easy for the respondent to answer, respondents might focus too much on the examples. 41 This excess focus on the examples might unduly restrict the respondent’s memory search to just the examples and could make the question longer and more complex than necessary. The survey designer has to judiciously select examples that cover a variety of situations without substantially increasing the length and complexity of the survey. For example, the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth—1997 Cohort (NLSY97) asks respondents if they have ever “been sentenced to spend time in a corrections institution.” The examples provided to respondents for this question include “a jail, prison, or a youth institution like a juvenile hall or reform school or training school.” 42 The examples do not substantially increase the length and complexity of the question but are comprehensive enough to cover almost all situations.

Another way to aid recall is to lengthen the survey questions by adding memory cues to improve recall. 20 Memory cues can take the form of examples, but they may also provide contexts that promote recall. For example, referencing a particular period of a person’s life (eg, divorce, losing a job) may trigger memories that are associated with criminal justice involvement. Although textbooks on questionnaire design recommend writing short questions, 21 , 40 long questions with memory cues have been found to increase the reporting of a targeted behavior. 43 A compromise has to be made among question length, questionnaire space, and simplification, and question writers have to be mindful of this compromise.

Strategies to Reduce Reporting Error for Sensitive Questions

The sensitivity of questions about criminal justice involvement leads to additional concerns about reporting error. Specifically, respondents tend to underreport criminal justice involvement because of fear of negative repercussions or presenting a negative image. Several survey procedures are used to reduce this type of underreporting.

Self-Administered Modes

A survey can be administered by an interviewer in person or completed by respondents on their own. Research shows that respondents are more likely to report sensitive behaviors when using self-administered modes than when using interviewer-administered modes. 18 , 27 , 44 - 48 Self-administration removes respondents’ concerns about privacy and looking good in front of the interviewer. Self-administered modes also reduce the likelihood that another person will hear or read their answers, thereby reducing the risk of disclosure. The effectiveness with which self-administration reduces underreporting does not differ across various self-administration modes (eg, paper questionnaire, online survey). 18 The NSFG follows this strategy by including the 4 questions on criminal justice involvement in the audio computer-assisted self-interviewing component of the survey. 49

“Forgiving” Introduction

The survey literature suggests that sensitive questions be set up in a “forgiving” context to reduce social desirability concerns by relaxing the “norm” associated with the topic. For example, Holtgraves et al 50 provided a forgiving introduction before asking respondents about vandalism: “Almost everyone has probably committed vandalism at one time or another.” They then compared answers obtained under this introduction with answers obtained without the forgiving introduction. The question with the forgiving introduction elicited 70% more admissions of vandalism than the question without a forgiving introduction. Examples of forgiving introductions can be found in 2 other studies. 31 , 51 Several studies, however, did not find that a forgiving introduction improved reporting of socially undesirable behaviors or attitudes. 45 , 52 The Survey of Criminal Justice Experience uses this strategy when asking about being stopped by the police; the survey includes a forgiving introduction—“Nowadays, people are often stopped by the police for many different reasons”—before asking if respondents have ever been stopped by the police since age 18. 37

Question Presupposing the Behavior

Related to the forgiving introduction is using “loaded” survey questions; that is, survey questions that presuppose or assume that respondents have engaged in the socially undesirable behavior. 20 Research has found that questions presupposing a behavior produce a higher report of that behavior than questions that do not make such an assumption. For example, Knauper 53 reported on one study that asked respondents, “In the past 10 years, how many times did you witness a crime?” This loaded question led to substantially more reports of witnessing crimes than the alternative question that did not carry such a presupposition (eg, “Did you witness a crime in the past 10 years? If yes, how many times?”). 53 This strategy is recommended for questions measuring socially undesirable behaviors, 20 although no empirical research has examined the usefulness of this strategy when asking questions about criminal justice involvement.

Long Questions With Familiar Words

Bradburn and colleagues 20 recommend using words or terms that are familiar to respondents to reduce the threat of the survey items. They found that respondents to surveys generally preferred the word booze to liquor and that survey items using the word booze produced 15% more reports of socially undesirable behavior than did survey items using the word liquor . 20 Bradburn and colleagues 20 also showed that longer items increased the report of socially undesirable behavior. Although this result has not been generalized to other types of sensitive behaviors such as criminal justice involvement, the NSDUH 36 and the NLSY97 42 use examples to make questions longer (NSDUH: “During the past 12 months, that is, since [DATE], did you stay overnight or longer in any type of juvenile detention center, sometimes called ‘juvie,’ prison, or jail?” NLSY-97: “Have you ever been sentenced to spend time in a corrections institution, like a jail, prison, or a youth institution like a juvenile hall or reform school or training school or to perform community service?”).

“Ever” Only or Before “Current”

Bradburn et al 20 recommend asking whether respondents have “ever” engaged in a sensitive behavior (eg, Did you ever, even once, take something from a store without paying for it?) before asking whether they currently engage in that behavior (eg, In the past 12 months, did you take something from a store without paying for it?). Their thinking is that if respondents report a behavior for their lifetime, they may be more willing to report it in the recent past than those who did not report a behavior for their lifetime. Bradburn et al did not present empirical evidence supporting this recommendation, but several surveys (eg, the NSDUH 36 and the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey 54 ) use this recommendation when asking about sensitive behaviors.

High-Frequency List or Open-Ended Format

Closed-ended response categories communicate to the respondent what the investigator believes is the norm for the population. These norms are used when responding to a question. A high-frequency list communicates a higher norm than a low-frequency list. For example, when asked to report sexual partners using a low-frequency list (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ≥5) or a high-frequency list (0, 1-4, 5-9, 10-49, 50-99, ≥100), female respondents reported more sexual partners when responding to a condition that had the high-frequency list than to a condition that had the low-frequency list. 45 An alternative to using a high-frequency list or low-frequency list is to use an open-ended question that does not provide any response categories to the respondent.

Indirect Methods

All previously mentioned strategies aim to encourage the report of socially undesirable behaviors or attitudes by reducing the perceived threat or social undesirability of survey items. Another approach to encourage reports of sensitive behaviors is to use indirect methods that maintain respondents’ anonymity. 18 , 55 For instance, Holbrook and Krosnick 56 used the forced alternative method, a version of the randomized response technique, to measure voter turnout. Specifically, they asked respondents to get a coin and flip it. Respondents whose coins came up tails were instructed to answer “no” (regardless of their true status with respect to voter turnout), whereas respondents whose coins came up heads were asked to answer the survey item, “Did you vote in the elections held on November 5, 2002?” By using the randomized response technique, respondents’ answers do not directly reveal their status with respect to the sensitive behavior of interest. However, the prevalence of persons engaged in the behavior can still be estimated at the aggregate level. Because of this extra protection of individual status, indirect methods increase disclosure of socially undesirable behaviors. 55 , 57 Examples of indirect methods include the randomized response technique (respondents are randomly assigned to answer 1 of 2 questions about a controversial issue) 58 and its possible variations. One such variation is the unrelated question method, in which respondents are randomly assigned to answer the question of interest (eg, voter turnout) or a question unrelated to the question of interest (eg, whether the respondent was born in April). 59 Another variation is the force alternative method that has been described previously. 56 , 60 In the variation called the cross-wise model, respondents are presented with both a sensitive question of interest and an innocuous question that is unrelated to the sensitive question and 2 response options from which to choose; the 2 response options are “my answers are the same for both questions” and “my answers are different for both questions” without revealing what their answers to the sensitive question are. 61

The item count technique is another indirect method in which respondents are randomly assigned to receive a long list of questions including the sensitive question of interest or the same list without the sensitive question of interest. Respondents are then asked to provide the number of items from the list they endorse. 62 In the 2-list method (a variation of the item count technique), all respondents receive 2 mutually exclusive lists—list A and list B; for a random half of the respondents, list A includes the sensitive question of interest, whereas for the other random half, list B includes the sensitive question. 63 Lastly, the item sum technique for continuous variables randomly assigns the respondents to receive a long list with the sensitive question or a short list without the sensitive question and asks them to report, for example, a sum across the list. 64

A major disadvantage common to all these indirect methods is that individual status with regard to the sensitive behavior of interest is not known, making it difficult, if not impossible, to analyze the data at the individual level. There are emerging methods to analyze the data obtained using the item count technique, 65 but their application is not straightforward. Furthermore, these methods may not be applicable to other indirect methods.

Designing Questions on Criminal Justice Involvement for General Population Surveys

To apply the aforementioned principles for designing questions on criminal justice involvement, it is first necessary to make decisions on what information is most essential to collect. One such decision is what type of criminal justice involvement is of interest. Questions about criminal justice involvement are asked in several general population surveys ( Table 2 ). The questions cover a range of criminal justice involvement, including committing crimes, being incarcerated, and being paroled. The questions differ in the type of criminal justice involvement. For example, the NSFG 49 and NLSY97 42 ask about any type of incarceration. The NSDUH 36 asks about any type of incarceration among juveniles only. The Survey of Criminal Justice Experience (SCJE 37 ) asks about incarceration in jail and in prison separately.

Reference period of questions on criminal justice involvement in general population surveys, United States a

a The table showcases that (1) different reference periods are used for different types of involvement and (2) different surveys use different reference periods even for a similar type of involvement. The table is organized by type of involvement, such as committing crimes, being stopped or ticketed by police, being arrested or charged, having to go to court, being convicted, being probated, being incarcerated (including in jail or prison), and being paroled. Reference periods for recalling criminal justice involvement include since last interview, lifetime, in past 12 months, since age 18, and current. The survey items are chosen for illustrative purposes; the table is not intended to be exhaustive of all survey items asked in all surveys.

b This question is asked of respondents aged 12-17.

A second decision is choosing the appropriate reference period for criminal justice involvement. The surveys we examined included questions about lifetime experience (eg, NSDUH, NLSY97), involvement since age 18 (eg, SCJE), involvement in the past year (eg, NSDUH), involvement since the last interview (NLSY97), or current involvement (the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study [FFCWS]; Table 2 ). Various reference periods can be found within the same survey. For example, NLSY97 asks about lifetime conviction for a felony but about the past 12 months for parole. Schaeffer and Presser 69 advise setting the appropriate reference period based on the periodicity of the target events, the salience and regularity of the events, and the analytic goals of the survey. In general, rare and salient events can use longer reference periods, and mundane and more frequent events should use shorter reference periods. Criminal justice involvement is a rare, memorable, and salient event for most persons. According to the 2011-2013 NSFG, nearly 7 in 100 males aged 15-44 reported having spent any time in a jail, prison, or juvenile detention center in the past 12 months. 49 Thus, asking about lifetime experience is appropriate for a survey of the general population. However, a shorter reference period (eg, in the past 12 months) might be more appropriate for some subgroups who have more frequent involvement with criminal justice (eg, current inmates or former prisoners). Researchers’ analytic use of the information should also be considered when setting the reference period. If the researcher is interested in studying the effect of current or recent incarceration on health, the reference period should be set to reflect that need.

In many cases, surveys on criminal justice involvement are interested not only in whether there was any involvement but also in how often involvement occurred. The survey designer should decide whether it is better to ask for the number of events or the rate of occurrence during a specified period (eg, once per month, once per week). Questions on the frequency of criminal justice involvement take various forms ( Table 3 ). We suggest asking for counts of criminal justice involvement in surveys of the general population because criminal justice involvement does not occur regularly enough in the general population for a rate to be useful. In the surveys we reviewed, nearly all questions about the frequency of criminal justice involvement asked for a count. A closed-ended question format with a high-frequency list is recommended for this purpose.

Questions on the frequency and duration of criminal justice involvement in general population surveys, United States a

a The table illustrates that surveys on criminal justice involvement are interested not only in whether there was any involvement but also in how often involvement occurred. The table is organized by type of involvement, such as committing crimes, being arrested, being charged, being convicted, being probated, being incarcerated (including in jail or prison), being paroled, or being required to perform community service. Types of information on how often criminal justice involvement occurred include frequency and length of time of criminal justice involvement. Reference periods for recalling criminal justice involvement include since last interview, lifetime, in past 12 months, since age 18, and current. The survey items are chosen for illustrative purposes; the table is not intended to be exhaustive of all survey items asked in all surveys.

Several surveys ask about the total time spent incarcerated. Questions on duration of criminal justice involvement ask for the total length of time during a respondent’s lifetime (National Former Prisoner Survey 70 ), the length of time in the past 12 months (NSDUH), the duration of the most recent involvement (NSFG, SCJE), or the duration of current involvement (SCJE). Total length of time during the lifetime or in the past 12 months will require calculations and estimation on the part of the respondent if there is more than 1 spell in the reference period. Duration for the longest spell or the most recent spell is cognitively less demanding because it does not involve mental calculations. In addition, asking about the longest spell or the most recent spell allows respondents to anchor on a specific event, facilitating better recall and more accurate placement of the event in the correct reference period. We encourage researchers to provide anchors of this type when writing questions about frequency or duration of criminal justice involvement. For example, NLSY97 is a longitudinal survey, and respondents are interviewed multiple times. In the later waves of interviews, NLSY97 asks respondents to report what happened to them since the last interview. Using the last interview as an anchoring point for respondents has the potential to reduce external telescoping and encourage better recall.

It may be of interest to researchers on criminal justice involvement to ask about the type of crime or offense that led to the criminal justice involvement. Some surveys do not ask for the type of crime or offense involved (eg, NSFG). Other surveys ask only for a broad category of crime or offense; NLSY97 has 1 question asking if respondents have ever been convicted of a felony. Still other surveys (eg, FFCWS, NSDUH) ask about specific crimes charged for, convicted of, or committed. NSDUH asks if respondents have been arrested or booked for 17 types of crime, ranging from vandalism and driving under the influence of alcohol or other drugs to arson and murder. The specificity of crime type is driven by the analytic goals of the researchers and other practical concerns, such as questionnaire length. Respondents may not be able to map their knowledge about the crime to formal categories, such as those shown in NSDUH. Differences may also exist between what respondents were arrested for and of what they were convicted. To the extent possible, categories on the questionnaire should be developed around the analytic goals.

After the questions are designed, researchers are encouraged to pretest and evaluate their survey questions before taking them into the field. Pretesting could involve requesting feedback from potential respondents, having experts in criminal justice involvement and survey methodology review the questions, and administering the questions to a small number of eligible respondents. 71 One common mistake of survey designers is not allowing enough time to pretest and revise the survey based on the feedback. It is best to build pretesting into the project schedule to ensure that results can be incorporated into the final survey questions.

As shown in the surveys we reviewed, it is possible to collect data on criminal justice involvement in general population surveys. Little evidence suggests that including questions on criminal justice involvement in surveys affects response rates 34 , 35 or results in abnormally high item nonresponse ( Table 1 ). Survey designers need to be aware that these questions should follow design principles similar to any other question, making the respondent’s cognitive tasks as simple as possible by facilitating comprehension and recall of the target events. In addition, researchers should design the procedures and questions to account for the sensitive nature of the topic, which may involve using a self-administered questionnaire (or module), writing the questions to promote disclosure (eg, using forgiving wording), or using indirect questioning methods.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This article was commissioned by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Standing Committee on Improving Collection of Indicators of Criminal Justice System Involvement in Population Health Data Programs on behalf of the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Opinions and statements included in this article are not necessarily adopted, endorsed, or verified as accurate by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine or any other organization or agency that provided support for the project. Support for the Standing Committee was provided by HHS through an interagency agreement with the National Science Foundation (No. SES-1024012).

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If you landed on this blog, chances are you are looking for engaging criminal justice research paper topics. This intricate field is brimming with potential subjects, yet not all of them lend themselves to effective research. So, how to navigate this sea of possibilities, you would ask. Fear not, as our dedicated online essay writer team has done all the heavy lifting for you. Check out these criminal justice topics for a research paper, each providing a different perspective.

What Are Criminal Justice Research Topics?

Criminal justice is the branch of law that focuses on punishing those who break the law and preventing others from doing so. It consists of criminal and civil justice systems, which are responsible for investigating, prosecuting, and resolving legal disputes.

With this in mind, criminal justice research topics can include a wide variety of both theoretical and empirical aspects ranging from crime prevention strategies to prison reform. Some other examples of criminal justice topics include types of crime, corrections and rehabilitation, law enforcement and policing, social control theories, sentencing policies, and more.

Characteristics of Good Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics

Beginning your study without a properly selected criminal justice topic can steer you off course. For this reason, you should consider topics that satisfy the following criteria:

Relevance Do some research to determine if your topic is timely and relevant to the field of criminal justice.
Engagement You should select not only easy research paper topics for criminal justice, but also those that you find interesting.
Scope Make sure your topic is not too broad or narrow for the scope of your project.
Accessibility Ensure you can find enough reliable sources for research and support your thesis.
Debate Is the criminal justice topic for research papers controversial or open for discussion? This can make a paper much more meaningful.

How to Choose a Criminal Justice Research Topic?

Once you understand the criteria for great criminology topics for research, it’s time to consider potential ideas. Follow these steps to get you on the right track:

Understand your interests Start by identifying your interests within criminology. Reflect on the courses, lectures, or readings that sparked your curiosity.
Identify current issues Stay up-to-date with recent developments in the field. Read scholarly articles, news reports, and policy papers to recognize burning topics.
Polish Narrow down your selection by researching what’s already been completed in the field.
Investigate Research each of your refined topics in criminal justice to determine whether there is enough reliable data. Can you access necessary records, reports, or subjects for investigation?
Finalize your topic After considering the above factors, make your final choice.

Remember that you can always rely on our professional online research paper writers . We have experts holding a Ph.D. degree in law and having a solid track record in writing academic works on different criminology research paper topics.

List of Top Criminal Justice Research Topics

Below we have curated a list of current criminological research topics, each unique as a fingerprint. Our paper writers did their best to tailor this assortment to unique research needs. Every topic on this list allows us to delve deeper into the many faces of criminal justice, whether it's a question about modern technology's role or an investigation into longstanding procedures.

Analyzing the influence of social media on modern crime reporting.
Investigating the role of body cameras in policing: Are they legit tools or privacy invaders?
How mandatory sentencing laws contribute to the issue of prison overcrowding.
Are we ready for cybercrime, the invisible threat of our era?
Understanding the root causes of hate crimes and potential preventive measures.
Delving into recidivism rates to evaluate the success of rehabilitation programs.
Significant role of forensic science in contemporary law enforcement.
Re-evaluating the ethics of the death penalty in today's society.
Is community policing a passing trend or a lasting solution?
Should victimless crimes fall under the purview of the criminal justice system?
How domestic violence laws affect family structures.
Probing into racial profiling practices in law enforcement.
Juvenile justice system: a struggle between rehabilitation and punishment.
Eyewitness testimony: A reliable source of evidence or a roll of the dice?
Can restorative justice be an effective alternative to traditional criminal justice methods?

Good Criminal Justice Research Topics

As any seasoned expert would confirm, the foundation of a good investigation, or in our case, a study, is built on a robust subject. Our team has scoured the scene and discovered ten topics, each as unique as a detective's case and rich with resources for a comprehensive study. Ranging from law enforcement techniques to judicial practices, these topics are versatile, offering you a broad spectrum to explore.

Developing strategies to prevent and prosecute human trafficking.
Evaluating the effectiveness of drug courts in managing substance abuse offenders.
Crafting successful crime prevention strategies for high crime neighborhoods.
Gun control laws and rates of violent crime: Correlational study .
How does socioeconomic status influence criminal behavior?
The interplay between drug abuse and criminal activity.
Decoding the effectiveness of parole systems: are they working as intended?
Is immigration tied to crime rates? A fresh look.
The impact of disparities in legal representation on judicial outcomes.
The use of lie detector tests in law enforcement: are they beneficial or problematic?
The influence of the #MeToo movement on the evolution of sexual assault laws.
Why is crisis intervention training critical for today's police officers?
Does the 'Three Strikes' law deter crime? An empirical investigation.
The role of mass media in shaping public perception of crime.
Why is victim advocacy important in the criminal justice system?

Easy Criminal Justice Research Topics

If you are a novice researcher, the range of topics might seem intimidating. Don’t worry — here we present criminal justice paper topics that will provide an easy start for your study.

How law enforcement plays a role in ensuring community safety?
Delving into the workings of the juvenile justice system.
Fine line between privacy and security in modern surveillance practices.
What happens when drug use is decriminalized? An in-depth study.
What are some parameters of police brutality?
White-collar crime and its ripple effects on the economy.
An exploration of the psychological factors driving criminal behavior.
Challenges faced in rehabilitating prisoners: A comprehensive review.
How does education contribute to crime prevention strategies?
Is the bail system fair? An analysis.
How do crime-themed TV shows influence public perception of the criminal justice system?
What are some implications of overpopulation in prisons?
Unmasking cybercrime: Its impact on individuals and businesses.
Domestic violence: Understanding its causes, consequences, and potential solutions.
How is social media reshaping modern law enforcement practices?

General Criminal Justice Research Topics

Tackling a criminal justice research paper is never an easy feat. To help you make this process smoother, here are some common topics for a criminal justice paper. Feel free to make them your own or explore these ideas further.

How do socioeconomic factors influence crime rates?
A comprehensive review of alternative sentencing methods.
The impact of media bias on public perception of crime.
Analyzing the causes and effects of wrongful convictions.
How does neighborhood environment contribute to crime rates?
The pros and cons of private prisons: An objective analysis.
The role of victim advocacy in the criminal justice system.
Examining the trend of cyberbullying and its legal consequences.
What influences jurors' decisions? An exploration.
The efficacy of gun control laws in reducing violent crime.
A comparative study of criminal justice systems across the world.
Uncovering the impact of organized crime on society.
The evolution of women's role in law enforcement.
Human rights issues within the criminal justice system.
Modern surveillance techniques.

Interesting Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics

Are you looking for something more unconventional? Don’t worry, we have you covered. Here are some interesting criminal justice topics for research papers that your professors will surely appreciate.

Psychology of serial killers: nature vs. nurture.
How can artificial intelligence help in predicting and preventing crime?
Unmasking the dark web: Its influence on cybercrime rates.
How forensic science has revolutionized crime-solving.
The impact of drug decriminalization on crime rates: A case study .
Analyzing the true effectiveness of crime profiling in solving cases.
How does prison architecture influence inmate behavior and rehabilitation?
The role of cryptocurrency in facilitating online crime.
True crime podcasts and their impact on public perception of criminal justice.
The impact of climate change on crime rates.
Examining the intersection between immigration law and criminal justice.
The role of cultural factors in shaping crime rates globally.
How social media is used in solving crimes: An exploration.
How can virtual reality technology be used for training in law enforcement?
Crime and justice in dystopian literature: Its implications on society.

Controversial Criminal Justice Research Topics

While the field of criminal justice holds a vast array of researchable areas, it's often in controversy where the most thought-provoking discussions arise. To spark your creative juices, here are some debatable topics for a criminal justice research paper.

Ethical dilemmas of entrapment in law enforcement.
Is racial profiling a necessary evil or an unfair practice?
Potential consequences of full-scale drug legalization.
Using torture in interrogations: An ethical necessity or a grave misstep?
Solitary confinement: An effective deterrent or a practice of inhumanity?
Where does the debate stand on stricter gun control laws?
Analyzing implications of mass surveillance on personal privacy.
Restorative justice versus retributive justice: Which proves to be more effective?
Controversy surrounding the privatization of prisons.
How does socioeconomic status play a role in sentencing?
Implications and effects of sentencing minors as adults.
Dissecting the controversial practice of criminal profiling.
Police militarization: A necessary protection or an instance of excessive force?
What are the effects of false accusations on public trust in law enforcement?
Is it ethical to use lie detectors and voice stress analysis for criminal investigations?

>> Read more: Law Research Paper Topics

Unique Criminal Justice Research Topics Ideas

Are you all set to write your paper but can’t seem to find an authentic topic? Look no further — here are some unique criminal justice topics to write about.

Graffiti: Is it vandalism or expression?
The role of body language in lie detection.
What is the impact of parental incarceration on child development?
How do video games influence youth criminal behavior?
Crime in space: Who holds legal jurisdiction and how is law enforcement managed extraterrestrially?
Understanding the role of cryptocurrency in money laundering.
How does social media influence jury bias?
Fashion and crime: How does clothing play a role in criminal identification?
Evaluating the impact of Covid-19 on domestic violence rates.
What has caused the rise of eco-terrorism and what are its consequences?
How does pop culture influence youth criminal behavior?
Examining the impact of virtual reality on the future of law enforcement training.
Animal rights and criminal justice: What laws and ethical questions need exploration?
Has dark tourism had an impact on crime rates in famous crime sites?
What are some implications of overcrowding and overpopulation in prisons?

Criminology Research Topics

Criminology, the scientific study of crime, criminal behavior, and the law, presents a world of fascinating subjects ripe for exploration. From analyzing the psychology behind criminal acts to examining the social factors influencing crime rates, criminology research offers multiple issues for consideration. Scroll down to find the best research topics for criminology.

Criminology Research Topics Based on Theories

Theories offer a backbone to any field of study, and criminology is no exception. They help to explain why crimes occur and what factors contribute to them. With a theoretical framework , we can dissect the complexities of crime from a fresh, intriguing perspective. Below you can find criminal law research topics grounded in theories.

Exploring the impact of the Broken Windows Theory on modern law enforcement.
How does Social Learning Theory apply to cybercrime?
Understanding the influence of Labeling Theory on youth crime rates.
Application of Rational Choice Theory to drug use.
Why do people obey the law? An exploration of Social Control Theory.
How does gender influence crime?
The intersection of Routine Activity Theory and domestic burglary.
Biosocial Theory and the nature vs nurture debate in criminology.
How does Cultural Criminology influence hate crimes?
Class and crime: A perspective from Marxist Criminology.
Unpacking the influence of Social Disorganization Theory on community crime rates.
Is serial killing explained by General Strain Theory?
Differential Association Theory: a pathway to understanding gang violence.
What role does Neutralization Theory play in juvenile delinquency?
Does the Deterrence Theory hold true? Does fear of punishment prevent crime?

Criminology Research and Measurement Topics

Equipped with advanced data collection methods, a criminologist can use quantitative research to measure the impact of various criminological phenomena. Here are some interesting criminal justice topics for exploring law through exploration and measurement.

Evaluating the accuracy of crime rate statistics.
How effective are crime prediction models?
Understanding crime patterns using Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
Data analytics in modern crime investigation.
How do victim surveys contribute to our understanding of crime?
What are some implications of the dark figure of crime on criminology research?
Quantitative methods for analyzing juvenile crime trends.
Measuring the effectiveness of community policing strategies.
How does measurement error impact crime statistics?
Evaluating the reliability and validity of self-report crime surveys.
Understanding domestic violence through qualitative research methods .
The use of longitudinal studies in crime causation research.
Using artificial intelligence to predict crime hotspots.
The role of ethnographic studies in understanding gang culture.
The impact of biased sampling on crime research findings.

International Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics

As our world becomes more interconnected, understanding the complexities of international criminal justice is paramount. The pursuit of justice without borders is not just a theoretical exercise; it's a call to shape a fairer society on a global scale. We've curated a list of compelling international criminal justice topics to write a paper on.

How effective are International Criminal Courts?
Exploring the challenges of transnational crime in the age of globalization.
The role of the United Nations in maintaining international law and order.
Genocide and crimes against humanity: How effective is the international response?
What are some legal and ethical implications of drone warfare?
The impact of international law on combating terrorism.
Cross-border data privacy and international criminal justice.
Evolution and effectiveness of international humanitarian law.
How does international law address state-sponsored terrorism?
International maritime law and piracy: How effective are the current measures?
Evaluating the role of the International Criminal Court in the prosecution of war crimes.
Evolution and impact of international laws on human trafficking.
Analyzing international laws concerning the use of nuclear weapons.
The extradition process: Challenges and implications for international criminal justice.
International laws governing cyber warfare.

Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics on Society

How does law shape and get shaped by societal norms and attitudes? That's what we aim to explore in this section. We've compiled a list of good research topics for criminal justice, each one illuminating the link between law and society.

How does media representation affect public perception of crime?
Societal impacts of prison overcrowding.
How does education level influence criminal behavior?
Does socioeconomic status influence judicial outcomes?
How do societal attitudes towards drugs shape drug laws?
The role of community support in offender rehabilitation.
Social consequences of racial profiling.
Does neighborhood environment influence youth criminal behavior?
How does social stigma impact ex-convicts' reintegration into society?
What is the social impact of zero-tolerance policies in schools?
How does society perceive and react to "victimless crimes"?
Social repercussions of wrongful convictions.
How do social media platforms contribute to or prevent crime?
Effects of implementing restorative justice.
How does media bias influence public opinion on criminal justice?

>> Learn more: Sociology Research Topics

Research Topics in Criminal Justice System

In this section, we will investigate the criminal justice system and its various facets. Explore these research topics for criminal justice to gain a better understanding of how the law system works.

Analyzing the role of police discretion in modern policing.
The impact of plea bargaining on the criminal justice system.
How has gentrification impacted crime rates?
What role does prison system play in perpetuating social inequality?
How does the school-to-prison pipeline affect youth?
Are crime rates influenced by climate change?
The opioid crisis: What is its effect on the criminal justice system?
How effective are sex offender registries?
Are predictive analytics a viable tool for police departments?
What is the justice system's response to online hate crimes?
Do DNA databases pose a threat to privacy and civil liberties?
The role of the criminal justice system in addressing homelessness.
How is virtual reality changing forensic investigations?
How is the aging inmate population affecting the prison system?
Is blockchain technology a viable solution for crime prevention?

Criminal Justice Research Topics on Types of Crime

This section focuses on the various types of crime and criminal behavior. Get to know the key issues concerning different categories of crime with these suggested criminal justice topics for an essay and research paper.

The rise of cybercrime: causes, impacts, and responses.
A comprehensive study of hate crimes in the 21st century.
Evolution of organized crime: From prohibition to cyber syndicates.
Human trafficking: Examining modern-day slave trades.
Domestic violence: Hidden costs and societal impacts.
Understanding the trends and impacts of drug-related crimes.
An examination of terrorism in the post-9/11 era.
Corporate crimes: Analysis of impacts and regulatory measures.
Wildlife crimes and their impact on biodiversity.
Cyberbullying: Understanding its psychological effects and legal repercussions.
What drives the high rates of recidivism in property crimes?
Identity theft in the digital age: Impacts and preventive measures.
Intellectual property crimes: How are they impacting innovation?
Psychology behind serial killings.
Financial crimes in the era of cryptocurrencies.

>> Read more: Psychology Research Topics

Criminal Justice Research Topics About Court Cases

This section highlights some of the most significant court cases in criminal justice history. Pick any one of these criminal justice topics to research a legal precedent or event.

Analysis of court cases that have influenced capital punishment policies.
A review of major court cases that transformed juvenile justice.
Analysis of court cases addressing the rights of crime victims.
Roe v. Wade and its implications for abortion law in the US.
Miranda v Arizona: A landmark decision that redefined police interrogations.
Gideon v Wainwright: The landmark case that guaranteed the right to counsel.
Engle v Vitale: Examining effects of this important school prayer ruling.
The trial of Socrates and its influence on philosophical thought.
Schenck v United States: Exploring free speech rights during wartime.
Marbury v Madison: Analyzing impacts of judicial review on US law.
Katz v US: Exploring the Fourth Amendment's protection of privacy.
The impact of Brown v Board of Education on civil rights in America.
United States v Nixon: Examining the president's right to executive privilege.
Examining legal implications of Terry v Ohio and stop-and-frisk policies.
Griswold v Connecticut: Analyzing the effects of a birth control ruling.

Criminal Justice Research Topics on Racism & Discrimination

Below we offer to explore the complex relationship between racism and criminal justice. Select any of these trending ideas for criminal justice research papers and essays.

The intersection of race and capital punishment.
An analysis of racial disparities in sentencing.
How do racial biases influence jury selection?
The impact of "stop and frisk" policies on communities of color.
Is there racial discrimination in the bail system?
Immigration enforcement and allegations of racial profiling.
Racial disparities in the juvenile justice system.
The influence of racial bias in death penalty cases.
Race and the war on drugs.
Racial discrimination in the implementation of three strikes laws.
Impact of police brutality on racial minorities.
Racism and its influence on probation decisions.
Ethnic disparities in the enforcement of hate crime legislation.
The relationship between neighborhood racial composition and police use of force.
Racial bias in risk assessment tools.

Research Topics in Criminal Justice for Ph.D.

If you are searching for PhD-level topics related to criminal justice, go no further. Choose any of the following criminal justice research proposal topics for your doctoral dissertation or thesis project.

Rehabilitation programs for incarcerated veterans.
Cyber forensics: New frontiers in solving crime.
An exploration of crime among the elderly population: Hidden statistics.
The impact of evolving technologies on intellectual property crime.
Impact of climate change on global crime patterns: An empirical analysis.
Criminology of anonymous cybercrime.
Understanding crime among indigenous populations: A comparative study.
An evaluation of crime reporting systems in smart cities.
The role of public transportation design in crime occurrence.
Cybercrime legislation across different jurisdictions.
Migration and crime: A quantitative study.
Complexities of dealing with organized crime syndicates.
Economic globalization and transnational crime patterns.
Correlation between drug abuse and crime rates: Longitudinal study.
Ethical implications of predictive policing.

Criminal Justice Research Questions

If you need to come up with a research question for criminal justice, here are a few ideas. These criminal justice issue topics can come in handy for both college students and university graduates.

How does technology within law enforcement agencies impact crime rates?
How effective are neighborhood watch programs in deterring crime?
What is the impact of drug decriminalization on crime rates?
What factors influence the success rate of exonerations?
How does the portrayal of law enforcement in the media influence public trust?
What is the effect of witness protection programs on successful prosecution rates?
How do the conditions of solitary confinement affect prisoner mental health?
How has the rise of online black markets changed the face of organized crime?
What role does family structure play in juvenile delinquency?
What is the impact of victim advocacy programs on the judicial process?
How have recent changes in immigration policy impacted crime rates?
What effect do right-to-carry laws have on violent crime rates?
How have digital forensics evolved to combat cybercrime?
To what extent does the militarization of police influence community relations?
How has the legalization of marijuana impacted crime rates in various states?

Bottom Line on Criminology Research Topics

We did our best to provide you with worthwhile ideas and topics to research in criminal justice. Whether you prefer to focus on psychological, sociological, legal, or organizational aspects of crime and justice, there are plenty of great research questions to choose from. Be sure to double-check any topic with your instructor before beginning your assignment. Likewise, you can consult with our experts to receive professional college paper writing service .

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CCJ4701 - Research Methods in Criminal Justice

Starting your search, research methods in criminal justice, tips for writing research proposals, literature reviews & empirical research articles.

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Identify your topic and possibly even your thesis statement. Unlike in Google, in our databases, you need to search by using keywords. Keywords are the words that describe your topic. So, start brainstorming about what words you can use to describe your topic.

Here is a sample topic: I am conducting a literature review on drug use by Hispanic gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender adults, possibly even polysubstance use. I would also like try to find research that incorporates information from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH).

Right away you can identify some key concepts:

Polysubstance use
National Survey on Drug Use (NSDUH)

Now that you have identified your key concepts, you need to flesh these out to include all the various forms of these concepts - this allows for your search to be as inclusive as possible:

drug use or drug abuse or substance abuse or substance use or recreational drug use
polysubstance use or polysubstance abuse
drug users or drug abusers or drug addicts
hispanic or latino or latina or mexican or central american or south american or hispanics or latin or Latinx
gay or lesbian or glbt or homosexual or transgender or lgbt or lgbtq or queer
National Survey on Drug Use and Health or NSDUH

You're now ready to begin searching! Just remember to check-out the recommended databases to search for peer-reviewed articles!

Research Questions Research proposals outline a planned research project and the research questions that will be investigated. Requirements and expectations may differ based on the discipline and whether the proposal is for a class assignment, a thesis or dissertation, or to apply for research funding or grants. However, regardless of the type, all proposals require clearly defined research questions. Some challenges for choosing good research questions often include identifying questions that have a manageable scope and locating sources that include scholarly research about the issues.

Identifying a Manageable Scope Research questions that have a manageable scope are neither too broad nor too narrow. If a research question(s) is too broad, there will be too much information and too many issues to cover. If a research question(s) is too narrow, there may not be enough information. Keep in mind that assigned topics are often designed to be broad to allow you to choose the focus and specific issues you want to investigate. To select an appropriate scope, investigate the topic and issues by reviewing books, ebooks, encyclopedias, or handbooks that provide topic overviews.

Locating Criminal Justice Research To narrow a research question think about the issues associated with the broader topic or problem. Then, explore the topic by locating academic research that discusses evidence about the issues. The library provides access to thousands of criminal justice resources where you can find background information about topics and scholarly research articles that discuss issues.

Developing an outline early in the writing process using section headings and sub headings is a good first step to get organized and begin thinking through your proposal. It is also good to establish a habit of regularly reviewing sources about your topic (books, journal articles, etc.) and keep track of the sources you read and will potentially use. Listed below are some writing tips to consider as you begin to write your proposal.

Research Proposals should include:

concise title that describes the focus of your research (working titles are often changed while investigating a topic)
document elements that include appropriate headings/subheadings (Title, Abstract, Introduction, Literature Review, Method, Proposed Timeline, References)
explanation of why your research is important and useful within your discipline (how does the research fit in with existing research)
statement of aims that indicate the goals and scope of your investigation (focus on developing a manageable topic)
synthesis of "the literature" related to your research topic/questions (the literature refers to relevant research found in scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles)
describe the research method you propose (research setting, sample, and a protocol showing the steps you will use in the process)
citations to the sources you consulted for your proposal (APA style requires in-text citations and complete reference entries)

References & Resources

Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Feig, E. (n.d.). Writing the research proposal . In OER Commons . Retrieved from https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/module/13393 Grand Canyon University. (n.d.). Developing a research proposal . In Center for Innovation in Research and Teaching . Retrieved from https://cirt.gcu.edu/ University of Central Florida Writing Center. (n.d.). Grammar and punctuation . Retrieved from http://uwc.cah.ucf.edu/find-resources/ University of Southern California USC Libraries. (2018). Writing a research proposal. In Organizing Y our Social Sciences Research Paper. Retrieved from http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchproposal

Literature Reviews

Literature reviews provide a synthesis of the scholarly literature related to a research question(s) or topic. They include a discussion of information reported by researchers in empirical journal articles along with your own analysis and evaluation of sources. Preparing a literature review is a two-step process that includes conducting literature searches to locate relevant empirical articles and your own analysis and synthesis of the research in the written review.

Keep in mind that there are various types of literature reviews. The most common are included as a section in an empirical research article, a chapter in a thesis or dissertation, a standalone literature review article, or a section in an academic paper.

Literature reviews in empirical research articles, theses and dissertations, or standalone review articles are considerably broader in scope and involve comprehensive literature searches.
Literature reviews in academic papers are narrower in scope and requirements are typically based on course assignments. Often, students are required to locate a certain number of empirical journal articles (research articles). Secondary sources (journal articles, books, book chapters, government reports, etc.) that often discuss empirical research or provide background information might also be included.

Academic Databases & Google Scholar

Empirical articles are published in peer-reviewed journals (sometimes called refereed), which means that articles are reviewed by experts in their field prior to publication to ensure that only reliable, high-quality information is published. Empirical journal articles for all disciplines are accessible by searching academic databases that are provided by the Libraries. The video below provides an example of how to locate Criminal Justice databases and search strategies to locate peer-reviewed research articles.

Google Scholar can also be helpful to use in combination with library database searches because it provides citations and links to empirical journal articles. Typically Google Scholar does not provide full text access to most articles. You must link to, but you can use the links provided to access the full text from the UCF Libraries pages. Google Scholar also does not include options to limit searches to view only peer-reviewed journal articles or filter options to refine searches.

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Last Updated: Oct 26, 2023 10:44 AM
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256 Research Topics on Criminal Justice & Criminology

Are you a law school student studying criminal behavior or forensic science? Or maybe just looking for good criminal justice topics, questions, and hypotheses? Look no further! Custom-writing.org experts offer a load of criminology research topics and titles for every occasion. Criminological theories, types of crime, the role of media in criminology, and more. Our topics will help you prepare for a college-level assignment, debate, or essay writing.

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⚖️ Criminology vs. Criminal Justice
🔬 120 Criminology Research Topics
💂 116 Criminal Justice Research Topics

🔥 Hot Criminology Research Topics

The role of media in criminology.
Cultural explanation of crime.
Benefits of convict criminology.
Main issues of postmodern criminology.
Is criminal behavior affected by the politics?
How does DAWN collect data?
The limitations of crime mapping.
Personality traits that trigger criminal behavior.
Community deterioration and crime rates.
Does experimental criminology affect social policy?

🔬 120 Criminology Research Topics & Ideas

Here are 100 criminology research topics ideas organized by themes.

Just in 1 hour! We will write you a plagiarism-free paper in hardly more than 1 hour

General Criminology Research Paper Topics

Criminology as a social science.
Criminology and its public policies.
History of criminology.
Crime commission: legal and social perspectives .

Criminal Psychology Research Topics

What is the nature of criminal behavior ?
How does the lack of education affect the incarceration rates?
Childhood aggression and the impact of divorce
The effect of the upbringing on antisocial adult behavior
How do gender and cultural background affect one’s attitude towards drug abuse ?
Forensic psychology and its impact on the legal system
What is the role of criminal psychologists?
Different types of forensic psychological evaluations
What’s the difference between therapeutic and forensic evaluation?
Does socioeconomic status impact one’s criminal behavior ?

Criminology Research Topics: Theories

What crimes are typical for what ages?
How does the type of crime correspond with the level of exerted aggression ?
What is the connection between citizenship (or lack thereof) and law violation?
How does education (or lack thereof) correspond with crime level?
Does employment (or lack thereof) correspond with law violation?
What is the connection between family status and law violation?
Does gender affect on the type of law violation?
How does ownership of firearms correspond with law violation?
Does immigrant status correlate with law violation?

Is there a connection between mental health and law violation?
What are the causes of violence in the society?
Does the crime rate depend on the neighborhood ?
How does race correspond with the type of crime?
Do religious beliefs correspond with law violation?
How does social class correlate with crime rate?
What are the reasons for the homeless’ improsonment?
How does weather correspond with law violation?

Criminology Topics on Victimization

Biological theories of crime: how do biological factors correspond with law violation?
Classical criminology: the contemporary take on crime, economics, deterrence, and the rational choice perspective.
Convict criminology: what do ex-convicts have to say on the subject?
Criminal justice theories: punishment as a deterrent to crime.
Critical criminology : debunking false ideas about crime and criminal justice.
Cultural criminology: criminality as the product of culture.
Cultural transmission theory: how criminal norms are transmitted in social interaction.
Deterrence theory: how people don’t commit crimes out of fear of punishment.
Rational choice theory : how crime doing is aligned with personal objectives of the perpetrator.
Feminist Criminology: how the dominant crime theories exclude women.
Labeling and symbolic interaction theories: how minorities and those deviating from social norms tend to be negatively labeled.
Life course criminology : how life events affect the actions that humans perform.
Psychological theories of crime: criminal behavior through the lense of an individual’s personality.
Routine activities theory : how normal everyday activities affect the tendency to commit a crime.
The concept of natural legal crime.
Self-control theory : how the lack of individual self-control results in criminal behavior.
Social construction of crime: crime doing as social response.
Social control theory : how positive socialization corresponds with reduction of criminal violation.
Social disorganization theory : how neighborhood ecological characteristics correspond with crime rates.
Social learning theory : how (non)criminal behavior can be acquired by observing and imitating others.
Strain theories : how social structures within society pressure citizens to commit crime.
Theoretical integration: how two theories are better than one.

Criminology Research and Measurement Topics

Citation content analysis (CCA): a framework for gaining knowledge from a variety of media.
Crime classification systems: classification of crime according to the severity of punishment.
Crime mapping as a way to map, visualize, and analyze crime incident patterns.
Reports and statistics of crime: the estimated rate of crime over time. Public surveys.
Drug abuse warning network (DAWN): predicting trends in drug misuse.
Arrestee drug abuse monitoring (ADAM): drug use among arrestees.
Edge ethnography: collecting data undercover in typically closed research settings and groups through rapport development or covert undercover strategy.
Experimental criminology: experimental and quasi-experimental research in the advancement of criminological theory.
Fieldwork in criminology: street ethnographers and their dilemmas in the field concerning process and outcomes.
Program evaluation: collecting and analyzing information to assess the efficiency of projects, policies and programs.
Quantitative criminology: how exploratory research questions, inductive reasoning , and an orientation to social context help recognize human subjectivity.

Criminology Topics on Types of Crime

Campus crime: the most common crimes on college campuses and ways of preventing them.
Child abuse : types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
Cybercrime : cyber fraud, defamation, hacking, bullying, phishing.
Domestic violence : gender, ways of detection and prevention, activism.
Domestic violence with disabilities .
Elder abuse : types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
Environmental crime. Natural resource theft: illegal trade in wildlife and timber, poaching, illegal fishing.
Environmental crime. Illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances, hazardous waste; pollution of air, water, and soil.
Environmental crime: local, regional, national, and transnational level.
Environmental crime: climate change crime and corruption.
Environmental crime: wildlife harming and exploitation.
Hate crime : how prejudice motivates violence.

Homicide : what motivates one person to kill another.
Human trafficking : methods of deception, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
Identity theft : methods, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
Gambling in America .
Juvenile delinquency : risk groups, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.
Juvenile Delinquency: Causes and Effects
Organizational crime: transnational, national, and local levels. Ways of disrupting the activity of a group.
Prostitution : risk groups, different takes on prevention policies, activism.
Robbery : risk groups, ways of prevention, prosecution and punishment.
Sex offenses: risk groups, types, prevalence, ways of detection and prevention.
Terrorism: definition, history, countermeasures .
Terrorism : individual and group activity, ways of detection and prevention.
Theft and shoplifting : risk groups, ways of detection, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.
Counter-terrorism: constitutional and legislative issues .
White-collar crime : types, ways of detection, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.

Criminology Topics on Racism and Discrimination

How systemic bias affects criminal justice?
How discriminatory portrayal of minority groups in the media affects criminal justice?
Racial profiling : targeting minority groups on the basis of race and ethnicity.
Racism and discrimination towards African-Americans .
Racial profiling : what are the cons? Are there any pros?
How discriminatory is the UK Court System?
How discriminatory is the US Court System?

🌶️ Hot Criminal Justice Topics

The history of modern police.
Different types of prison systems.
Is situational crime prevention effective?
How to prevent wrongful convictions.
Challenges faced by crime victims.
The advantages of community corrections.
How do ethics influence criminal justice?
Disadvantages of felony disenfranchisement.
Does correctional system in the USA really work?
Possible problems of prisoner reentry process.

💂 116 Criminal Justice Research Topics & Questions

Here are some of the most typical and interesting criminal justice issues to dazzle your professor.

Prison system : the main problems and the hidden pitfalls.
The question of gender: why are there more men who receive capital punishment than women?
Kidnapping and ransom: common features, motifs, behavior patterns.
Crime prevention : key principles.
Firing a gun: what helps professionals understand whether it was deliberate or happened by accident?
Cybercrime : the legal perspective.
Internet vigilantism: revenge leaks.
Hate crime on the Internet: revenge leaks, trolling, defamation.
Crime and justice in mass media .
Parental abduction laws.
Sex offender registry: pros and cons.
The deterrence theory and the theory of rational choice : are they relevant in the modern world?
Sexual assault in schools and workplaces.
Jury selection: how is it performed?
Experimental criminology: the latest innovations.

Wildlife crime: areas of prevalence, ways of prevention.
Felony disenfranchisement laws: when do they apply?
The relation between organized crime and corruption .
Victim services: what help can a victim of a crime get?
Prison rape and violence: the psychological aspect, ways of prevention.
Juvenile recidivism : what are the risk groups?
Forensic science : role and functions in modern criminal justice.
Shoplifting: how to prevent theft?
Witness Protection Program: who is eligible and how to protect them.
Date rape : what are the ways for the victims to seek legal assistance?
Substance abuse and crime: correlation or causation?
Identity theft: dangers and consequences in the modern world.
Online predators: what laws can be introduced to protect kids? Real-life examples.
Civil and criminal cases: how to differentiate?
Domestic abuse victims: what laws protect them?
Elder abuse : what can be done to prevent it?
The strain theory : the unachievable American dream.
Concepts of law enforcement: pursuing criminal justice .
Ethics and criminal justice: the unethical sides of law enforcement.
The top problems to be solved by law enforcement today.
Information sharing technology: how has it helped in the fight against terrorism ?
Terrorism in perspective: characteristics, causes, control .
Serial killers : types.
Drug use and youth arrests.
Aggressive behavior : how does it correlate with criminal tendencies?
Community corrections : are they effective?
Sentencing: how does it take place?
Punishment types and the established terms.
Unwarranted arrest: when is it acceptable?
Human trafficking in the modern world.
Human trafficking: current state and counteracts .
The role of technology in modern forensics .
Similarities and differences between homicide , murder, and manslaughter.
Types of offenders: classification.
Effects of gun control measures in the United States .
The role of crime mapping in modern criminal justice.
Male crimes vs female crimes: are they different?
Prisons : the problems of bad living conditions.
Victimization : causes and ways of prevention.
Victimology and traditional justice system alternatives .
Rape victims: what are their rights?
Problem-solving courts: what underlying problems do they address?
Mandatory sentencing and the three-strike rule.
Have “three-strikes” laws been effective and should they be continued?
Criminal courts : what can be learned from their history?
Hate crimes : what motivates people to commit them?
Youth gangs: what is their danger?
Fieldwork: how is it done in criminology?
Distributive justice : its place in criminal justice.
Capital punishment : what can be learned from history?
Humanities and justice in Britain during 18th century .
Abolition of capital punishment .
Criminals and prisoners’ rights .
Crime prevention programs and criminal rehabilitation .
Campus crime: what laws and precautions are there against it?
Criminal trial process: how does it go?
Crimes committed on a religious basis: how are they punished?
The code of ethics in the Texas department of criminal justice .
Comparison between Florida and Maryland’s legislative frameworks .
Fraud in the scientific field: how can copyright protect the discoveries of researchers?
Prosecution laws: how are they applied in practice?
The classification of crime systems.
Cyberbullying and cyberstalking: what can parents do to protect their children?
Forgery cases in educational institutions, offices, and governmental organizations.
Drug courts : how do they work?

Controversial Topics in Criminal Justice

Want your work to be unconventional? Consider choosing one of the controversial topics. You will need to present a number of opposite points of view. Of course, it’s acceptable to choose and promote an opinion that you think stands the best. Just make sure to provide a thorough analysis of all of the viewpoints.

You can also stay impartial and let the reader make up their own mind on the subject. If you decide to support one of the viewpoints, your decision should be objective. Back it up with plenty of evidence, too. Here are some examples of controversial topics that you can explore.

Reform vs. punishment: which one offers more benefits?
Restorative justice model : is it the best criminal justice tool?
The war on drugs : does it really solve the drug problem?
Criminal insanity: is it a reason enough for exemption from liability?
Juvenile justice system : should it be eliminated?
Drug testing on the school ground.
Police brutality in the United States .
How to better gun control ?
Why Gun Control Laws Should be Scrapped .
Pornography: is it a type of sexual violence?
Whether death penalty can be applied fairly?
Jack the Ripper: who was he?
The modern justice system: is it racist?
A false accusation: how can one protect themselves from it?
Concealed weapons: what are the criminal codes of various states?
Race and crime: is there a correlation?
Registering sex offenders: should this information be in public records?
Juvenile delinquency and bad parenting: is there a relation?
Assessing juveniles for psychopathy or conduct disorder .
Should all new employees be checked for a criminal background ?
Are delinquency cases higher among immigrant children?
Restrictive housing: can it help decongest prisons?
Homegrown crimes: is there an effective program against them?
Prostitution: the controversy around legalization .
Eyewitness testimony : is it really helpful in an investigation?
Youthful offenders in boot camps: is this strategy effective?
Predictive policing : is it effective?
Selective incapacitation: is it an effective policy for reducing crime?
Social class and crime: is there a relation?
Death penalty: is it effective in crime deterrence?
Extradition law: is it fair?
Devious interrogations: is deceit acceptable during investigations?
Supermax prisons: are they effective or just cruel?
Zero tolerance: is it the best policy for crime reduction?
Marijuana decriminalization: pros and cons.
Marijuana legalization in the US .

Now that you have looked through the full list of topics, choose wisely. Remember that sometimes it’s best to avoid sensitive topics. Other times, a clever choice of a topic will win you extra points. It doesn’t depend on just the tastes of your professor, of course. You should also take into account how much relevant information there is on the subject. Anyway, the choice of the topic of your research is up to you. Try to find the latest materials and conduct an in-depth analysis of them. Don’t forget to draw a satisfactory conclusion. Writing may take a lot of your time and energy, so plan ahead. Remember to stay hydrated and good luck!

Now, after we looked through the topic collections on criminology and criminal justice, it is time to turn to the specifics in each of the fields. First, let’s talk more extensively about criminology. If you are training to be a criminologist, you will study some things more deeply. They include the behavior patterns of criminals, their backgrounds, and the latest sociological trends in crime.

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In the field of criminology, the specialties are numerous. That’s why it’s difficult to pinpoint one career that represents a typical member of the profession. It all depends on the background of a criminologist, their education, and experience.

Careers possible with a criminology major.

A criminologist may have a number of responsibilities at their position. For example, they might be called forth to investigate a crime scene. Participation in autopsies is unpleasant yet necessary. Interrogation of suspects and subsequent criminal profiling is another essential duty.

Some professionals work solely in research. Others consult government agencies or private security companies. Courts and law firms also cooperate with criminologists. Their job is to provide expert opinion in criminal proceedings. Some of them work in the prison systems in order to oversee the rehabilitation of the convicted.

Regardless of the career specialty , most criminologists are working on profiling and data collection. A criminologist is another word for an analyst. They collect, study, and analyze data on crimes. After conducting the analysis, they provide recommendations and actionable information.

A criminologist seeks to find out the identity of the person who committed the crime. The time point of a crime is also important, as well as the reason for it. There are several areas covered by the analysis of a criminologist. The psychological behavior of the criminal or criminals is closely studied. The socio-economic indicators are taken into account. There are also, of course, the environmental factors that may have facilitated the crime.

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Some high-profile cases require a criminologist to correspond with media and PR managers extensively. Sometimes criminologists write articles and even books about their findings. However, it should be noted that the daily routine of a professional in the field is not so glamorous. Most criminologists do their work alone, without the attention of the public.

The research a criminologist accumulates during their work is extensive. It doesn’t just sit there in a folder on their desk, of course. The collected statistics are used for developing active criminal profiles that are shared with law enforcement agencies. It helps to understand criminal behavior better and to predict it. That’s why a criminologist’s work must be precise and accurate for it to be practical and useful. Also, criminology professionals must have a good grasp of math and statistics.

Thinking of a career in criminology? You will need to, at the very least, graduate from college. There, you’ll master mathematics, statistics, and, of course, criminology. An associate’s degree may get you an entry-level position. But the minimum entry-level requirement is usually the bachelor’s degree. The best positions, though, are left for the professionals with a master’s degree or a PhD.

Just having a degree is not enough. To succeed as a criminologist, you will require all your intelligence, commitment, and the skill of analyzing intricate situations. An aspiration to better the society will go a long way. You will need to exercise your creative, written, and verbal communication skills, too. An analytical mind will land you at an advantage.

Criminology: Research Areas

Times change and the world of crime never ceases to adapt. The nature of criminal transgression is evolving, and so do the ways of prosecution. Criminal detection, investigation, and prevention are constantly advancing. Criminology studies aim to improve the practices implemented in the field.

There are six unified, coordinated, and interrelated areas of expertise. Within each, the professionals are busy turning their mastery into knowledge and action.

The first research area is the newest worry of criminology – cybercrime. The impact of this type of crime is escalating with every passing day. That’s why it’s crucial for the law enforcement professionals to keep up to date with the evolving technology. Cybercrime research is exploring the growing threat of its subject at all levels of society. Cybercrime may impact people on both personal and governmental levels. Cybercrime research investigates the motivation and methodology behind the offenses and finds new ways to react.

The second research area is counter fraud. Crimes that fall under this category include fraud and corruption. The questions that counter fraud research deals with are many. How widely a crime is spread, what method is best to fight it, and the optimal courses of action to protect people and organizations.

The third research area is that of forensics. The contemporary face of justice has been changed by forensic science beyond recognition. Nowadays, it’s much harder for criminals to conceal their activity due to evolved technologies. The research in forensics is utilizing science in the identification of the crime and in its reconstruction. It employs such techniques as DNA recovery, fingerprinting, and forensic interviewing.

What is forensic interviewing? It helps find new ways to gather quality information from witnesses and crime scenes. It also works on developing protocols that ensure the protection of this human data and its correct interpretation by police.

The fourth research area is policing. Police service is facing a lot of pressing issues nowadays due to budget cuts. At the same time, police officers still need to learn, and there are also individual factors that may influence their work.

The fifth research area is penology. It’s tasked with exploring the role of punishment in the criminal justice system. Does punishment aid the rehabilitation of perpetrators, and to what extent? The answer will help link theory to practice and thus shape how criminal justice practitioners work.

The sixth research area is that of missing persons. Before a person goes missing, they may display a certain pattern of behavior. The study of missing persons helps to identify it. The results will determine the handling of such cases.

Now that we know what criminology is, it’s time to talk about criminal justice.

While criminology focuses on the analysis of crime, criminal justice concentrates on societal systems. Its primary concern is with the criminal behavior of the perpetrators. For example, in the USA, there are three branches of the criminal justice system. They are police (aka law enforcement), courts, and corrections. These branches all work together to punish and prevent unlawful behavior. If you take up a career in criminal justice, expect to work in one of these fields.

The most well-known branch of criminal justice is law enforcement. The police force is at the forefront of defense against crime and misdemeanor. They stand against the criminal element in many ways. For instance, they patrol the streets, investigate crimes, and detain suspects. It’s not just the police officers who take these responsibilities upon themselves. There are also US Marshals, ICE, FBI Agents, DEA, and border patrol. Only after the arrest has been made, the perpetrator enters the court system.

The court system is less visible to the public, but still crucial to the criminal justice system. Its main purpose is to determine the suspect’s innocence or guilt. You can work as an attorney, lawyer, bailiff, judge, or another professional of the field. In the court, if you are a suspect, you are innocent until proven guilty. You are also entitled to a fair trial. However, if they do find you guilty, you will receive a sentence. Your punishment will be the job of the corrections system.

The courts determine the nature of the punishment, and the corrections system enforces it. There are three elements of the corrections system: incarceration, probation, and parole. They either punish or rehabilitate the convicts. Want to uptake a career in corrections? You may work as, including, but not limited to: a parole officer, a prison warden, a probation officer, and a guard.

📈 Criminal Justice: Research Areas

The research areas in criminal justice are similar, if not identical, to those of criminology. After all, those are two very closely related fields. The one difference is that criminal justice research has more practical than theoretical applications. But it’s fair to say that theory is the building blocks that practice bases itself on. One is impossible without the other unless the result you want is complete chaos.

So, the question is – what topic to choose for the research paper? Remember that the world of criminal justice is constantly changing. Choosing a subject for research in criminal justice, consider a relevant topic. There are many pressing issues in the field. Exploring them will undoubtedly win you points from your professor. Just make sure to choose a direction that will give you the opportunity to show off both your knowledge and your analytical skills.

Not sure that your original research direction will be appreciated? Then choose one of the standard topics. Something that is widely discussed in the media. And, of course, make sure that you are truly interested in the subject. Otherwise, your disinterest will translate into your writing, which may negatively affect the overall impression. Also, it’s just more enjoyable to work on something that resonates with you.

What can you do with your research paper? Literally anything. Explore the background of the issue. Make predictions. Compare the different takes on the matter. Maybe there are some fresh new discoveries that have been made recently. What does science say about that?

Also, remember to backup all your arguments with quotes and examples from real life. The Internet is the best library and research ground a student could hope for. The main idea of the paper, aka the thesis, must be proven by enough factual material. Otherwise, it’s best to change your research direction.

And, of course, don’t put it all off till the last minute. Make a plan and stick to it. Consistency and clever distribution of effort will take you a long way. Good luck!

🤔 Criminal Justice Research FAQs

Criminological and criminal justice research are the scientific studies of the causes and consequences, extent and control, nature, management, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the social and individual levels.

Criminal justice and criminology are sciences that analyze the occurrence and explore the ways of prevention of illegal acts. Any conducted personal research and investigation should be supported by the implemented analytical methods from academic works that describe the given subject.

There are six interrelated areas of criminology research:

Cybercrime research makes law enforcement professionals keep up to date with the evolving technology.
Counter fraud research investigates cases of fraud and corruption.
Forensics research utilizes science: DNA recovery, fingerprinting, and forensic interviewing.
Research in policing investigates individual factors that may influence the work of police officers.
Penology explores the role of punishment in the criminal justice system.
The study of missing persons helps to identify patterns of victims’ behavior.

There are seven research methods in criminology:

Quantitative research methods measure criminological and criminal justice reality by assigning numerical values to concepts to find patterns of correlation, cause and effect.
Survey research collects information from a number of persons via their responses to questions.
Experimental research assesses cause and effect in two comparison groups.
Cross-sectional research studies one group at one point in time.
Longitudinal research studies the same group over a period of time.
Time-series designs study the same group at successive points in time.
Meta-analysis employs quantitative analysis of findings from multiple studies.

The basis of criminological theory is criminological research. It influences the development of social policies and defines criminal justice practice.

Criminological research doesn’t just enable law students to develop analytical and presentational skills. The works of criminal justice professionals, scholars, and government policymakers dictate the way law enforcement operates. The newest ideas born out of research identify corrections and crime prevention, too.

Here is a step-by-step instruction on how to write a criminal justice research paper:

Choose a topic
Read the materials and take notes
Come up with a thesis
Create an outline for your work
Draft the body
Start with a cover page, an abstract, and an intro
List the methods you used, and the results you got
Include a discussion
Sum it up with a conclusion
Don’t forget a literature review and appendices
Revise, proofread, and edit

The most common types of methodologies in criminal justice research include:

Observation of participants.
Surveys and interviews.
Observation of focus groups.
Conducting experiments.
Analysis of secondary data and archival study.
Mixed (a combination of the above methods).

Learn more on this topic:

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A List of Research Topics for Students. Unique and Interesting
Good Research Topics, Titles and Ideas for Your Paper
The Differences Between Criminal Justice and Criminology: Which Degree Is Right for You? (Concordia St. Paul)
Corporate Crime: Britannica
The Development of Delinquency: NAP
Databases for Research & Education: Gale
A CS Research Topic Generator: Purdue University
A Introduction To The Federal Court System: US Department of Justice
Criminal Justice Research Topics: Broward College
Research Topics in Criminology: Cambridge Institute of Criminology
CRIMINOLOGY: University of Portsmouth
Research: Department of Criminology & Criminal Justice, University of Maryland
Criminal Justice: RAND
Research Methods in Criminal Justice: Penn State University Libraries
Research: School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University
Criminology – Research Guide: Getting started (Penn Libraries)
Criminology Research Papers: Academia
The History & Development of the U.S. Criminal Justice System: Study.com
CRIMINAL JUSTICE & CRIMINOLOGY: Marshall University
Criminal Justice: Temple University
Criminal Justice: University of North Georgia
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The schools of criminology seems like such a fascinating field — it’s definitely not for the lighthearted though! Here in the Philippines, criminology as a course is highly underrated; hopefully that’ll change!

I understand. Thank you for sharing your thoughts!

The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

UTC Library
Research Guides
Single Page

Criminal Justice Research Methodology

Research Guides | UTC Library
Click Here for CRMJ Library Instruction Module

This module should take you 30 minutes to complete. It will walk you through the process of using Criminal Justice Abstracts database for your research. Click the blue button above to begin.

Below is information about how to conduct a literature review.

After submitting the Library Instruction Module, feel free to review:

What is Empirical Research
What is a Literature Review?
Where Should I Search?

Choose the Best Keywords

Build a search strategy.

Literature Review Matrix
Formulate a Question
Using SAGE Research Methods

What is Empirical Research?

Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.

How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology." Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?

Key characteristics to look for:

Specific research questions to be answered
Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied
Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)

Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:

Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
Results : sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies

You should also see an Abstract , or short summary, and a References section with all of the works cited in the article.

Where Should I Search?

Criminal Justice Abstracts

Criminal Justice Abstracts is the top recommended database for the field of Criminal Justice. Find it at the top of the Criminal Justice Research Guide, or follow these directions:

Click Databases button on the library's homepage
Search for Criminal Justice Abstracts , or limit by subject to Criminal Justice and it will be in the top results.

Other places to search:

Find relevant, interdisciplinary research. Note the "cited by" feature, which is helpful for identifying impactful research.

If it has more of a criminal justice lens, this database may be useful.

Criminal Justice Database

Why are keywords important?

By this point in your college career, you have had a chance to search library databases. You understand that you need keywords (not sentences) when you search a database. However, using criminal justice related keywords might be new territory.

Natural Language vs. Database Language

Natural language refers to the common way that we speak in everyday life. Database language refers to how a database classifies a concept and is usually very technical and academic in nature. Though most databases are great at matching natural language entered with database terminology, it’s important for you to begin recognizing specialized terminology. Some examples include:

Where to Find Synonyms

The Internet : Is your search term or concept called anything else? Look it up in an online encyclopedia to find out. For example, in the Wikipedia entry for "hypertension", the synonym high blood pressure is quickly identified in the opening sentence. This is true for most Wikipedia entries for social science and medical terminology. It is Wikipedia, so exercise caution when using this as a background reading source.
Other background sources: You can also easily find synonyms in other background sources, including your lecture notes, textbooks, and print encyclopedias (yes, they still exist!).
Use database subject headings: If you run a search and find a good article, look at the subject terms listed by the database. Use those terms in subsequent searches.
Start with your research question: Are there sentencing disparities for the same crime based on the gender of the perpetrator?
Sort out the major terms. In this case: sentencing AND disparities AND gender

Synonyms and related terms for the word sentencing:

Prison sentences

Criminal sentencing

Synonyms and related terms for gender might include:

Now that you've formulated a research question and developed some keywords, it's time to create a search strategy. Each of the following sections will help you build and properly conduct your search.

Search Operators (AND, OR, & NOT)

These operators can be used in Library databases, but also work really well in Google! They are important for creating efficient, effective searches.

Phrase Searching

Use quotation marks to search for phrases. Phrase searching is excellent when the desired result is specificity.

Google Site Searching

Google site searching can help search across various government websites or can help you better search poorly indexed websites. Site searches should be typed into the browser search bar (where the web address is located).

Site Searching by URL

site:URL plus search terms

Site Searching by Domain

To keep organized while you research, you should start a spreadsheet for yourself. Add columns for the citation (including the URL of the article), and once you read it, track the authors' research question, methods, findings and themes. You will see themes or facts emerge as you read more and more articles.

Here's an example Literature Review Matrix for you to view. Download a sample matrix as an Excel file and edit with your own sources.

A research question is the question around which you center your research. It should be:

clear : it provides enough specifics that one’s audience can easily understand its purpose without needing additional explanation.
focused : it is narrow enough that it can be answered thoroughly in the space the writing task allows.
concise : it is expressed in the fewest possible words.
complex : it is not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no,” but rather requires synthesis and analysis of ideas and sources prior to composition of an answer.
arguable : its potential answers are open to debate rather than accepted facts.

You should ask a question about an issue that you are genuinely curious and/or passionate about.

When deciding on a research question, follow these steps:

Background research - use Google to find articles about the topic you are interested in.
READ - read a few articles.
Keep track - write down keywords, related phrases, synonyms that are used while reading up on your topic. Keep track of what keyword combinations you use.
Explore perspectives- What viewpoints or angles surround your topic?

Example topic: United States incarceration rates

Example Perspective: United states incarceration rates due to drug convictions

Example perspective: United states incarceration rates and juvenile offenders

You should be able to brainstorm several perspectives or angles for your topic. Is there a psychological issue? Legal issue? Policing issue? Identify whichever perspective interests you most and focus on that for your research question.

Example Research Question:

Are the current incarceration policies in line with public perception of incarceration for drug related crimes?

SAGE Research Methods

SAGE Research Methods is a how-to database. It is not where you go to find articles, instead, it's where you can find resources to help you become a better researcher.

Some highlights:

Project Planner- provides articles on each step of the research process, from designing a research question to analyzing and presenting results
Methods- provides information about the most common research methods used, including surveys, interviews, and observational research
Which Stats Test?- provides a short quiz to help you select the write statistical tool for the research you are trying to conduct, and provides information about statistics.

SAGE Research Methods has relevant information about using SPSS, conducting interviews, best practices for creating survey questions, and tons of case studies that you could model your own work on.

Additional research tutorials

Evaluating Sources

Avoiding Plagiarism

How to Read a Scholarly Article

A note about citations:

When using citations generated by the databases or a citation generating software always double check that the citation is accurate. The APA’s style site includes reference examples for the most commonly cited formats.

APA Style Guide Examples
Criminal Justice Research Guide
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Finding Data

Data and Statistics Guide

Find data in library databases and freely available resources across disciplines, time periods, and geographies. This guide also provides strategies for searching for data beyond the linked resources.

Last Updated: Dec 21, 2023 8:10 AM
URL: https://guides.lib.utc.edu/crmj3110

Mixed Methods Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice: a Systematic Review

Published: 07 January 2021
Volume 47 , pages 526–546, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

Nicole Wilkes 1 ,
Valerie R. Anderson 1 ,
Cheryl Laura Johnson 2 &
Lillian Mae Bedell 1

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The field of criminology and criminal justice encompass broad and complex multidisciplinary topics. Most of the research that falls under these areas uses either quantitative or qualitative methodologies, with historically limited use of mixed methods designs. Research utilizing mixed methods has increased within the social sciences in recent years, including a steadily growing body of mixed method research in criminal justice and criminology. The goal of this study was to examine how mixed method designs are being employed within research related to criminal justice and criminology. Our systematic review located 327 mixed method articles published between 2001 and 2017. Findings indicated most criminology and criminal justice research is being conducted within the specialty area of victimology. This study provides an overview of mixed methods research in criminology and criminal justice and also illustrates that most publications are not including methodological concepts specific to mixed methods research (e.g., integration). Along with our systematic review, we offer a series of recommendations to move mixed methods research forward in criminology and criminal justice.

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All Mixed Up: Considerations in Blending Qualitative and Quantitative Components in Substance Abuse Research

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Wilkes, N., Anderson, V.R., Johnson, C.L. et al. Mixed Methods Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice: a Systematic Review. Am J Crim Just 47 , 526–546 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09593-7

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428 Criminology Research Topics & Questions for Students

As you might already know, criminology is the study of crime. To be more precise, criminology studies crime as a social trend, including its origin, various manifestations, and its impact on society.

Criminology research influences how the police work, how society treats criminals, and how the community maintains law and order. In this article, you’ll find top criminology research topics for your inspiration. We’ll also look into the main criminology theories and research methods and explain the difference between criminology and criminal justice.

🔝 Top-10 Criminology Research Topics

🔤 what is criminology.

🔎 Criminology Research Methods
📝 Research Topics for Assignments

🦹‍♂️ Crime Research Topics

🚔 Topics in Law Enforcement
🕵️ Criminal Investigation Topics

⚖️ Criminal Law Research Topics

🔒 Topics to Research in Crime Prevention

🧑‍⚖️ Criminal Justice Research Topics

🆚 Criminology Vs Criminal Justice

❓ Criminology Topics: FAQ

🔗 references.

Criminology as a science: criminology theories.
The importance of eyewitness evidence.
The issue of racial bias in the investigation.
Crime propaganda on social media.
The leading causes of college violence.
The benefits of private prisons.
The debate around gun control.
The analysis of power abuse among police officers.
Drunk driving and how to prevent it.
The importance of forensic psychology in the investigation.

Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, supported by the principles of sociology and other sciences, including economics, statistics, and psychology.

Criminologists study a variety of related areas, including:

Characteristics of people who commit crimes.
Reasons behind committing different crimes.
Impact of crime on individuals and communities.
Measures for preventing crimes.

Criminology Theories

Criminology theories have appeared as an attempt to answer the question, “What is criminal behavior, and what causes it?” The answer to this question affects how society responds to and prevents crime. Proposing new theories and testing existing ones is essential for criminologists to continue working toward understanding the causes of criminal behavior.

Let’s consider the most relevant criminology theories.

🔎 Research Methods Used in Criminology

There are many research methods used within criminology. Usually, they are divided into two groups: primary and secondary research methods.

Primary Research Methods in Criminology

Primary research in criminology is any type of research that you collect yourself rather than based on secondary sources, such as articles or books. Examples of primary research methods in criminology include the following:

Surveys and questionnaires. Survey research collects information from individuals through their responses to questions. It is considered one of the most widely used research tools in criminology.
Experiments. For experiments , researchers take large samples of people who might become or have already been involved in crimes as victims or offenders. Then, they divide these samples into two groups, each receiving a different treatment.
Interviews. An interview requires participants to answer a set of open-ended questions, often on sensitive topics, such as victimization or criminal behaviors. This method allows criminologists to gain more valuable insights into the research topic.
Focus groups. A focus group is a small number of demographically similar people gathered to discuss a particular crime-related topic. This method allows criminologists to analyze people’s views, attitudes, and perceptions concerning crime.
Observations. Observations involve a researcher studying groups or individuals in their natural setting without interfering. It is a common research method within the social learning theory.

This image shows primary research methods in criminology.

Secondary Criminology Research Methods

Secondary research methods use information that was collected by someone else so that you can analyze it and identify the trends. Here are the two leading types of secondary research in criminology:

Secondary analysis of data. A secondary analysis occurs when a researcher uses data collected by other researchers. You can obtain secondary data from surveys, official crime statistics, or official records.
Literature review. A literature review involves reading, analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing literature about a specific criminology topic. It helps scholars identify research gaps and problems that need to be addressed.

📝 Criminology Research Topics for Assignments

To write an outstanding research paper on criminology, choose a topic that will spark your interest. Below you’ll find excellent criminology topic ideas for college students.

Criminology Research Paper Topics

Criminology theory and its main elements.
Criminology discipline and theories .
American crime trends and criminological theories.
The significance of criminological studies in the US.
Criminology: legal rights afforded to the accused .
The impact of violence and crime on the tourism industry.
How did US crime rates change over the last 20 years?
Classical and positivist schools of criminology .
Should abortion be treated as a crime?
Official and unofficial instruments within the criminal investigation.
Criminology: femininity and the upsurge of ladettes .
Criminal rehabilitation programs and their significance.
Shoplifting and how to prevent it.
Emerging technologies in criminology .
The effects of illegal immigrants on crime rates.
Drug trafficking by organized crime groups.
Criminology and victimology: victim stereotypes in criminal justice .
Can genetics lead to crime?
The procedures of crime scene investigation.
Labeling theory and critical criminology: sociological research .
Hate crimes in modern society.
The phenomenon of white-collar crime and its causes.
How to prevent crimes in the workplace?
Criminology: the social control theory .
Stereotypes that surround serial killers and their crimes.
The comparison of organized crime in New York and Chicago.
Prevention strategies for small business crimes.
Criminology: four types of evidence .
Relations between crime, justice, and the media.

Criminology Research Proposal Topics

How to prevent intellectual property crimes in cyberspace?
Identity theft and cybercrime in modern society.
Contemporary theories in criminology .
The problem of racial profiling in the US.
How has criminology contributed to the study of terrorism ?
Possible solutions to the issue of street harassment .
Postmodern criminology: the violence of the language .
Gender bias in the investigation: pink-collar criminals.
The phenomenon of digital terrorism and how to prevent it.
How do immigration services help fight against terrorism?
Green criminology: environmental harm in the Niger Delta .
How has marijuana legalization influenced crime rates?
Tools for collecting and analyzing crime evidence.
How does international law manage war crimes ?
The due process: criminology .
What are victimless crimes ?
The relation between crime rates and poverty.
National system for missing and unidentified persons.
Three case briefs in criminology .
The impact of mental illness on criminal behavior.
The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in reducing crime rates.
The use of AI technology in crime prevention and investigation.
Sexual assault: criminology .
The role of media coverage in public perception of crime.
The impact of community policing on reducing crime rates.
The impact of mass shootings on gun control laws.
The impact of automation technology on criminology .

Criminology Thesis Topics

The role of juvenile justice in preventing future criminal behavior.
Feminism and criminology in the modern justice system .
The effectiveness of mandatory minimum sentencing in the US.
Drug laws : fighting crime or fueling it?
Police brutality : a systemic problem in criminal justice.
Criminology: USA Patriot Act overview .
The impact of hate crimes on marginalized communities.
How does organized crime affect the global economy?
The significance of DNA evidence for criminal investigations.
Use of statistics in criminal justice and criminology .
The ethics of plea bargaining in criminal cases.
Mental illness and criminal behavior: breaking the stigma.
The impact of social media on cyberbullying and harassment.
Robert Merton’s strain theory in criminology .
Causes and consequences of police corruption .
The role of restorative justice in repairing harm caused by crime.
The effectiveness of treatment programs in reducing drug-related crimes.
Hernando Washington case: criminology .
The negative effects of human trafficking on global communities.
The role of forensic science in crimes investigation.
The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to imprisonment.
Integrity as a key value: criminology and war .
The relationship between poverty, education, and crime rates.
Cybercrime : the dark side of the digital age.
Hate crimes: motivations and impact on modern society.
Feminist perspectives’ contribution to criminology .
The impact of incarceration on families and communities.

Criminology Research Questions for Dissertation

Can criminal profiling accurately predict offender behavior?
How do hate crimes affect individuals and communities?
How were the US Constitution and the Bill of Rights influenced by the classical school of criminology ?
What are the psychological effects of cyberbullying on victims?
What factors contribute to domestic violence , and how can it be prevented?
How have organized crime groups evolved over time?
How is statistics used in criminology and criminal justice ?
Is the death penalty an effective crime deterrent?
What motivates individuals to engage in white-collar crime?
What are the consequences of police corruption for society?
What is variance analysis in criminal justice and criminology ?
How does drug addiction contribute to criminal behavior?
How does gender influence criminal behavior and justice outcomes?
What drives individuals to commit mass shootings?
What is the broken window theory in criminology ?
What are the biggest challenges facing criminal justice reform efforts?
How do urban gangs perpetuate violence and criminal activity?
How do criminal law and procedures protect individual rights and liberties?
What is the impact of corporate fraud ?
What challenges do individuals with mental health issues face in the criminal justice system?
How can society combat human trafficking and exploitation?
What measures can be taken to enhance cybersecurity and protect against cybercrime?
What is the aboriginal crisis from a criminology perspective ?
How can victimology help us better understand the experience of crime victims?
What are effective crime prevention strategies for different types of crime?
What is legal insanity in criminology ?
How does environmental crime impact communities and the environment?
How is the peace-making model applied in criminology ?

A significant part of criminology research is dedicated to various types of crimes and their reasons. Consider our crime topic ideas that will spark instant interest in your readers:

The psychological impact of kidnapping on victims and their families.
The racialization of crime and cultural panic .
The ethical considerations surrounding ransom payments in kidnapping cases.
The effect of burglary on small businesses and their ability to recover.
The impact of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on homicide rates and patterns.
Shoplifting: a crime of convenience .
The effectiveness of different types of anti-theft devices in preventing motor vehicle theft.
The role of forensic science in investigating arson cases, including the use of accelerant detection dogs.
The concept of natural legal crime .
The psychological profiles of white-collar criminals and their motivations.
The psychological effects of burglary on victims and their sense of security.
The concept of juvenile crime .
The role of social media in facilitating and preventing kidnappings.
The use of forensic evidence in homicide investigations and the challenges of prosecuting homicide cases.
Sex crime recidivism rates.
Illegal immigrantion and its effects on crime .
The effectiveness of international efforts to combat money laundering .
The efficacy of community watch programs in reducing burglary rates.
The role of corporate culture in facilitating or preventing white-collar crime.
Crimes in America: the 9/11/01 terrorist attacks .
Technology in motor vehicle theft: GPS tracking and remote disabling systems.
Human trafficking and the exploitation of vulnerable populations.
Crime and criminals: general characteristics .
The ethical and moral implications of capital punishment as a response to homicide.
The effectiveness of fire prevention and education programs in reducing instances of arson.
US gun control measures and crime rates reduction .
The use of cryptocurrency in money laundering and illegal activities.
White-collar crime and the abuse of power in corporate and financial settings.
Cargo crimes and threats: government accountability office .
The rise of cyberstalking and its impact on victims’ mental health.
The effects of pollution on communities and the legal response to environmental crimes.
Cyber-bullying and cyber-stalking as crimes .
The effects of society’s reaction to crime.
The use of technology in financial fraud schemes .
Crimes against property and their characteristics .
The intersection of racism and hate crimes against Asian Americans.
The impact of deforestation on indigenous communities and wildlife.
Crime types and their harm to society .
The prevalence of domestic violence and the legal response to it.
The exploitation of child labor in the fashion industry .
Race and crime among minorities in the US .
The ethical implications of using artificial intelligence in law enforcement.
The psychological effects of hate crimes on victims and their communities.
How does local television news viewing relate to fear of crime ?
The evolution of cybercrime and its most common types.
Parental responsibility for children’s crimes.
The sex crime: influence of childhood experiences .
Prostitution : a victimless crime.
Sociology and media representation of crime.
The profile of a crime victim .
A theory of gendered criminology: women’s crime.

🚔 Research Topics in Law Enforcement

Another exciting area within criminology to investigate is law enforcement and police jobs. Have a look at the list of burning and controversial topics we came up with:

The impact of community policing on crime rates and public trust.
Law enforcement: online crimes and social media .
Do body-worn cameras reduce police misconduct?
The effects of implicit bias on the police use of force.
Law enforcement cameras as an invasion of privacy .
The impact of police militarization on community relations.
Why is mental health training essential for police officers in crisis situations?
Law enforcement officers’ attitudes regarding body-worn cameras .
The role of police in addressing hate crimes and bias incidents.
The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to traditional policing.
Organizational changes in law enforcement agencies .
The efficacy of police-community partnership in addressing gang violence.
The impact of police officer diversity on community relations and trust.
Local, state, and federal law enforcement in the US .
The role of police in addressing cybercrime and online harassment.
The effects of police body language and nonverbal cues on public perceptions.
Cumulative career traumatic stress in law enforcement .
Social media and its role in shaping public perceptions of police behavior.
The role of police discretion in enforcing drug laws and addressing addiction.
Mindfulness practice in law enforcement .
The effectiveness of hot spot policing in reducing crime rates.
Organizational culture in the police department.
Stress in law enforcement officers and available programs .
The role of police leadership in promoting ethical behavior and accountability.
The effectiveness of community-based justice programs for juvenile offenders.
Law enforcement in colonial America .
Police-community partnerships for addressing domestic violence.
The role of police in addressing human trafficking and exploitation.
Misrepresentation of law enforcement by media .
School safety and the police.
How does stress affect the performance of law enforcement officers?
The law enforcement: verbal communication as the best form of interaction .
The significance of federal and state law enforcement mechanisms.
The adverse effects of toxic leadership in quality law enforcement.
Balance between effective law enforcement and personal liberty .
The importance of discipline in public services.
The connection between police salary and rates of police brutality.
Role of police agencies in law enforcement .
Police investigative questioning and techniques.
The issue of corruption in law enforcement.
Significance of computer forensics to law enforcement .
Case study: police response to the Ningbo protest.
Police actions to stop school bullying .
Law enforcement position in society .
New technological advances within the police department.
Do law enforcement cameras violate privacy right?
Different types of evaluation designs in law enforcement .
Recognition of women’s right to work as police officers.
The effectiveness of foot and bike patrols of the streets.
Firearms types and usage in law enforcement .
The competencies of international law enforcement authorities.
Comparison of police brutality statistics for different genders.
Ethical theories in law enforcement practice .

🕵️ Criminal Investigation Research Topics

The criminal investigation process is another criminology area worth discussing in your research paper. Below you’ll find the most intriguing criminal investigation topics:

The history and evolution of criminal investigation techniques.
Crime scene investigation in media and real life .
The role of forensic science in criminal investigations.
How does technology impact modern criminal investigations?
The importance of preserving crime scenes and evidence.
Crime scene investigation effect in the justice system .
The ethics of interrogation techniques used in criminal investigations.
Eyewitness testimony in criminal investigations.
The role of criminal profiling in solving crimes.
Organized business crime prosecution and investigation .
How does media coverage affect criminal investigations?
The use of informants in criminal investigations.
The main challenges of investigating white-collar crimes.
Undercover police investigations in drug-related crimes .
The role of private investigators in criminal investigations.
The impact of false confessions on criminal investigations.
How is DNA evidence collected in criminal investigations?
Importance of toxicology in crime investigation .
The role of the FBI in national criminal investigations.
The use of undercover operations in criminal investigations.
The main challenges of investigating organized crime.
Crime level investigation in the United States .
Witness protection programs in criminal investigations.
The impact of plea bargaining on criminal investigations.
Surveillance techniques in criminal investigations.
Investigating crime with age and mental illnesses factors .
How are cybercrimes investigated?
The role of international cooperation in criminal investigations.
How do racial biases influence criminal investigations?
Drug trafficking: investigation on Frank Lucas .
Polygraph tests in criminal investigations.
The main challenges of investigating terrorism-related crimes.
Homicide investigations and forensic evidence .
The role of victim advocacy in criminal investigations.
Lie detector tests in criminal investigations.
The role of forensic psychology in the investigation .
The effects of community involvement on criminal investigations.
The problem of false accusations in criminal investigations.
Approaches in criminal investigation .
The use of forensic accounting in financial crime investigations.
How does the media shape public perception of criminal investigations?
Key rulings on the conduct of investigators at the scene of a fire .
The impact of political pressure on criminal investigations.
The main challenges of investigating human trafficking.
The Breonna Taylor case and criminal investigation .
The role of victim compensation in criminal investigations.
Behavioral analysis in criminal investigations.
Procedures within crime scene investigation .
Crime scene reconstruction in criminal investigations.

Criminology goes hand-in-hand with legal studies. If you’re interested in both areas, you should definitely write a research paper on one of the criminal law research topics:

The evolution of criminal law in the US .
Criminal law: stolen valor .
The difference between criminal and civil law.
Human trafficking and criminal law.
Types of criminal offenses and the elements of crime.
International criminal law and measures .
The role of the burden of proof in criminal cases.
Criminal defenses and their validity.
The insanity defense in criminal law.
Actus reus in English criminal law .
The controversies around the death penalty.
Juvenile delinquency and criminal law.
Cybercrime and its legal implications.
Criminal law – is graffiti a crime or not ?
Domestic violence and criminal law.
Hate crimes and their legal consequences.
Restitution for victims in criminal law.
Civil vs. criminal law and differences between them .
Forensic evidence and its admissibility in court.
Sexual assault and criminal law.
The rights of the accused in criminal cases.
Regulatory criminal laws in the criminal justice system .
Receiving immunity for testimony in a criminal law case.
The legal classification of criminal offenses.
Self-defense in criminal law cases.
How Canadian criminal law regulates deviant conduct .
Sentencing guidelines and their impact on society.
The use of DNA evidence in criminal cases.
Eyewitness testimony and its reliability in court.
Fundamental aspects of Canadian criminal law .
The role of the media in criminal trials.
The impact of social inequality on criminal justice outcomes.
The future of criminal law and its impact on society.
Criminal law in India and access to justice .
International criminal law and its enforcement.
Extradition and its legal implications.
The impact of globalization on criminal law.
Juvenile vs. adult criminal law .
The importance of victim rights in criminal cases.
Restorative justice and its benefits for society.
Alternatives to incarceration for non-violent offenders.
Automatism as a defence in criminal law .
The role of defense attorneys in criminal trials.
The role of prosecutors in criminal trials.
The right to a public trial in a criminal law case.
Civil and criminal law penalties and differences .
Car searches in criminal investigations by law enforcement.

🔒 Criminology Topics for Research in Crime Prevention

Researching crime prevention allows you to learn more about the strategies for reducing criminal behavior. Have a look at our outstanding crime prevention topic ideas:

Understanding and explaining crime prevention.
Theories that explain criminal activities and criminology .
The effectiveness of community policing in preventing crime.
The benefits and drawbacks of crime prevention in the US.
How can education reduce crime rates?
Crime prevention programs and criminal rehabilitation .
Technological innovations and their impact on crime prevention.
The importance of early childhood interventions in preventing criminal behavior.
The relationship between poverty and crime prevention strategies.
Youth crime prevention and needs assessment .
The use of restorative justice in reducing recidivism.
The effectiveness of gun control laws in preventing gun-related crimes.
The impact of social media on crime prevention and awareness.
Crime prevention program in Australia .
The use of CCTV cameras in preventing crime.
Evidence for crime prevention programs in developing countries.
The role of mental health services in preventing criminal behavior.
Crime prevention practices: overview .
The effectiveness of community-based programs in reducing juvenile delinquency.
The use of environmental design in preventing crime by shaping space and behavior.
Victim support programs for lowering crime rates.
Situational and social crime prevention approaches .
The effectiveness of after-school programs in preventing juvenile offenses.
Techniques for preventing situational and social crime.
The impact of citizen participation in crime prevention.
Computer crime prevention measures .
The efficacy of community watch programs in preventing neighborhood crimes.
The use of community centers for preventing gang-related crimes.
The impact of sentencing policies on crime prevention.
Biometrics recognition and crime prevention .
The relationship between video game violence and youth crime .
Social media and cybercrime prevention.
The role of social workers in crime prevention.
Three-strikes law for preventing violent crimes .
Decreasing crime rates through education and medicine.
The use of animal-assisted therapy for reducing criminal behavior.
The effectiveness of aftercare programs in reducing recidivism.
Capital punishment as ineffective crime deterrence .
The main strategies for proactive crime prevention.
The impact of domestic violence prevention programs on crime rates.
The use of probation and parole in preventing criminal behavior.
Juvenile weapon crimes and strategies to address .
The role of faith-based organizations in crime prevention.
The use of diversion programs in juvenile crime prevention.
The distinctions between crime prevention and community safety.
Preventing crime victimization in international students .
The impact of agriculture and rural development on crime prevention.

Criminal justice might be a challenging research topic, but it is worth the time and effort. Consider our unique topic ideas for your successful research:

The effectiveness of community policing.
The use of statistics in criminal justice and criminology .
Rehabilitation programs offered in prisons and their efficacy.
The importance of defense attorneys in the criminal justice system.
The code of ethics in the Texas Department of Criminal Justice .
The significance of restorative justice programs.
The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing laws.
Criminal justice process: felony criminal charge .
The role of judges in the criminal justice system.
Probation and parole in the criminal justice system.
Veterans in the criminal justice system .
The comparison of prison privatization in the US and UK.
The main issues women experience in the prison system.
US terrorism and criminal justice decision-making model .
The prison system in a democratic society.
The role of psychologists in the criminal justice system.
Transgender offenders in the criminal justice system .
The impact of private prisons on crime rates.
The effectiveness of victim compensation programs.
The successes and failures to reform punishment in the criminal justice system .
Community involvement in the criminal justice system.
The main challenges of long-term prisoner rehabilitation.
Technology application in criminal justice .
The role of victim-offender mediation in the criminal justice system.
Gender disparity in the criminal justice system.
Recidivism in criminal justice: the American prison system .
How does solitary confinement impact people in prisons?
Legal and ethical issues in international intervention.
Racial and ethnic disparities in the criminal justice system .
Do mandatory minimum sentences help or hurt?
The effects of prison on children of incarcerated individuals.
Psychopathy in the criminal justice system .
The importance of mental health professionals in the criminal justice system.
Techniques for influencing criminal justice system change.
Non-inclusiveness of the criminal justice system .
The impact of racial profiling on the criminal justice system.
The effectiveness of diversion programs for veterans.
False confessions in the US criminal justice system .
Racism in the criminal justice system of the US.
People with disabilities and criminal justice.
Ethical dilemmas in the criminal justice system .
Forensic psychology guidelines for criminal justice.
The impact of technology on jury selection .
Effective writing and criminal justice .
The effectiveness of mandatory drug testing for probationers and parolees.
The effect of wrongful executions on the criminal justice system.
Discontinuity of care in the criminal justice system .
The influence of media on criminal justice and community.
The impact of cybercrime on the global criminal justice system.
Criminal justice: coerced confessions .
The role of private prisons in the criminal justice system.
The effectiveness of diversion programs for people without housing.
Criminal justice system and the problem of racism .
What can be learned from the history of criminal courts?
Comparison between American and British legislative frameworks.
Criminal justice case: types of sentences, probation, and final decision .
The overview of the modern justice system.
The ethical issue of unwarranted arrests.
Civil liability in criminal justice .
The risk groups of juvenile recidivism .

🆚 Difference between Criminology and Criminal Justice

Students often confuse criminology with criminal justice because both areas study crime and criminal behavior. Understanding their main differences is essential before conducting research in any of these areas.

Is Criminology a Science?

Criminology can be considered as a science because it uses the scientific method. The scientific method involves five steps: stating the problem, forming the hypothesis, collecting the data, interpreting these data, and drawing conclusions. Within criminology, scientists use standard research methods, such as surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.

What Does Criminology Study?

Criminology studies crime, including its causes, methods of prevention, and responses from law enforcement. It relies on other non-legal studies, such as sociology, psychology, and statistics, to examine the characteristics of people who commit crimes and the effects of criminality on individuals and society.

What Are the Principal Areas of Criminology Research?

Four significant criminology areas include:

The history of criminology . This area focuses on criminology founders and theories of crime and punishment development.
Theory of crime causation . This aspect explores if a criminal’s behavior is determined by their social environment.
Typologies of crime . This field describes different types of crimes and the reasons for committing them.
Crime prevention efforts . This area studies crime measures that can curb crimes before they occur.

What Are the Principal Types of Research Methods in Criminology?

Criminology uses quantitative (analyzing measurements and statistics) and qualitative (analyzing non-numerical data) research methods to gain valuable insights. The most common scientific methods in criminology are surveys, experiments, secondary data analysis, interviews, historical/comparative research, and ethnography.

Criminology and Criminal Justice: Pick a Topic | Marquette University
Criminology Questions & Topics | David H. Kessel
Topics | Ghent University
Emergent Issues in Crime & Justice | University of Maryland
Qualitative Research in Criminal Justice | University of North Texas
Criminology, Law & Society | UCI Libraries
What the Data Says (and Doesn’t Say) about Crime in the United States | Pew Research Center
Types of Criminal Offenses | Justia
Criminal Justice and Criminology Theses | East Tennessee State University
Research Overview | The University of Alabama
Criminology Research | University of Portsmouth
Research | Arizona State University
Research Themes | University of Surrey, Centre for Criminology
Advanced Criminology & Criminal Justice Research Guide | Mardigian Library
Criminology – Research Guide: Getting Started | PennLibraries
Law and Criminology | University of Plymouth
Topics for a Criminology Research Paper | Classroom
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The Full List of Criminal Justice Research Proposal Topics

Researches in the criminal justice system are essential for society. With the help of statistics, data, and other important information the law enforcement can guarantee a high level of justice and safety for law-abiding citizens. That’s why all researches in this field will be useful for both average people and employees of the justice system.

What Is a Research Paper in Criminal Justice?

This is the traditional research that scopes the topics of justice and crimes. It aims to reveal important tendencies, methods, and reasons to understand the current situation in society. Also, such a job can help to reduce the level of crimes and improve the punishment system.

We can compare the meaning of research papers in this field with the meaning of justice. It is said this science aims to study, analyze, and prevent the breaking the laws. No matter what we talk about theoretical rules or real case studies: the results of your research will be valuable for people.

If you study at college or university you are required to prepare different types of academic papers including comprehensive research. Experience in other areas will be very useful but it’s better to find out more about criminal justice before starting your task. First of all, start with the topic selection.

It is very important to be good at the topic selection. The list of potential subjects below will make your task easier but you need to understand the relevance of each option.

How to Pick Up a Perfect Topic for Criminal Justice Research

Thanks to the particularities of criminology, all subjects in this field are very flexible and valuable. You can research everything from the justice of punishment to particular crime cases. So, criminal justice is a very wide area for scientists to research.

Brainstorming is the most efficient method to collect the library of great topics for current and further researches in criminal justice. Here are special questions that will help you to brainstorm:

is this topic good and relevant enough;
why this topic bothers people;
how this subject can help society to improve relationships between people;
what kind of criminal justice research you can make;
is this topic unique and valuable, etc.

Usually, students do not worry about the paper structure and pay more attention to the content. The author takes care of the quality of primary and secondary sources, analyzes cases, make conclusions. So, you shouldn’t use all your strength on the selection of the topic. Just pick one from this list and start your writing job.

You can also read interesting cases and use them in your researches. Such empirical material will increase the practical value of your research paper.

But the best option is to pick one topic you like the most from the list created by experts in this field. Here is this comprehensive list specifically for you.

Basic topics to make research on criminal justice

What are the main weaknesses of the current prison system?
How to prevent crimes?
What are the top motives for kidnapping?
How social media and mass media influence crimes?
Should justice punish corruption criminals more severely?
How to solve violence in prisons?
Why capital punishment is more spread among men than among women?
What are the meaning and aims of forensic science?
What does strain theory mean?
Is aggressive behavior a sign the person will cause a crime someday?

Controversial topics in criminal justice

Do criminals face racism in the modern justice system?
Which strategy is better for people: a punishment or reform?
Are boot camps efficient for young people or they should go to standard prisons?
Can gun control change the level of criminals and help to avoid murders?
Can we consider pornography to be violence?
Is it possible to protect yourself from a false accusation in a crime?
Are parents of criminals responsible for their crimes?
Is it ethical to check employees’ criminal backgrounds before hiring them?
Can we consider the restorative model of justice to be the most efficient nowadays?
Is it ethical to legalize prostitution?

Criminal justice topics to provoke debates

Should we accept the death penalty as the supreme penalty?
Why extradition laws exist in several countries and do not exist in others?
Is it acceptable to cooperate with prisoners to detect crimes?
Can social shaming help in punishing a criminal and improve his personality?
Is it fair to send criminals to supermax prisons or such establishments are too cruel?
Will marijuana legalization cause more criminals?
Is it fair for young criminals to deviate from the punishment?
Should drunk drivers carry stronger responsibility for their crimes?
What is zero tolerance and how it can reduce crimes?
Will prostitution legalization cause more criminals?

Thesis topics in criminal justice

Is the current judicial system efficient? Could it be improved with some reforms?
Why do private companies exist in the current justice system?
Is it fair to register sexual abusers in special public records?
How to reduce the impact of the Mexican drug war on the USA justice system?
Why so many people were falsely accused of crimes they hadn’t committed?
Do criminals deserve their rights to be obligated even in prisons?
What are the best strategies to prevent crimes?
How would the justice system change if the drugs could be legalized?
What are the main steps to improve the current justice system?
What are the main reasons former criminals commit crimes again?

General topics for criminal justice researches

Are parents responsible for their children’s crimes?
How to make the current justice system better in the nearest future?
What are the main particularities of New York criminal justice laws?
Is it possible to reduce the number of economic crimes with more strict laws?
What are the main advantages of the gun control system?
How detention criminal process of kids differs from the same process with adults?
Should organized crimes be punished more severely?
Why do single crimes allow minimizing the punishment for a criminal?
How to reduce the crime figure among young people?
How to reduce the abuse of police authority?

Topics about discrimination in criminal justice

Is racial prejudice still happen in American prisons?
How slavery history impact on criminal justice?
Who are the most famous criminals with African roots in the USA?
Should immigrants be deported to their countries and be sentenced there?
Is it ethical for the American justice system to judge immigrants?
How gender influences the punishment of a criminal?
Is rap music considered to be a feature of criminals?
Is there any place for religious discrimination in American prisons?
Does the number of immigrants increase the crime rate?
Are there any signs of discrimination in the negotiation process?

Research topics in criminology

What are the most efficient methods of cyber criminology?
How to minimize drunk driving with social ads?
Why crimes in the army happen?
How social media help to identify criminals?
How to help witness avoid danger because of the depositions?
Why people demonstrate aggression to homeless people?
Does unemployment increase the crime rate?
How modern technologies help to identify criminals?
How society and government can help victims to come back to normal life?
Is it rational to make news reports on TV during a criminal investigation?

Research topics in the criminal justice system

How to help police officers to reduce stress and professional deformation?
Is it ethical to record the suspected people during interrogation without their will?
What does transitional justice mean?
How child protective services could help to prevent crimes?
What are the basic principles of prison labor ethics?
Can reform be more efficient than traditional punishment?
How to avoid power abuse in the modern justice system?
What are the main disadvantages of parole?
How to punish underage girls and boys?
What are the main particularities of white-collar crimes in the USA?

Research topics in international crimes

What are the main particularities of the international crime investigation?
How international criminal tribunal holds justice?
What is a famous example of plea bargaining?
What feminists think about the role of gender in international crime investigation?
How to deal with international cybercrimes?
What are the main reasons for child soldiers to be recruited in Africa?
How to investigate sexual crimes committed by immigrants?
Should immigrants have more rights during the interrogation process?
What is the human rights situation in Asian countries?
How to prevent human rights violations during international crime investigation?

These topics will suit any academic level of students. Such options are unique and exciting so will help the scientists to reveal important findings. Use this list of the best topics for criminal justice system analysis and find relevant assistant here!

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Why Inclusive Criminal Justice Research Matters

Engaging with impacted community leaders can help contextualize data and drive solutions.

Accurate Crime Data
Social & Economic Harm

A new Brennan Center study of recent trends and persistent racial disparities in New York City’s misdemeanor enforcement system showcases the benefits of taking an inclusive approach to criminal justice research and policymaking. In addition to examining court data between 2016 and 2022, researchers conducted in-depth qualitative engagements with 166 stakeholders, including law enforcement and impacted Black and Latino community leaders, to understand the context behind the numbers. Working with people impacted by the criminal justice system as collaborators and integrating their expertise throughout the research process strengthened our data analysis and allowed us to craft actionable recommendations for improving approaches to minor offenses.

Although these practices have long been used in fields like public health , education , and democracy , inclusive research approaches have now expanded to criminal justice, specifically to address the structural factors that drive racial disparities in the criminal justice system. These are also known as community-engaged research or participatory action research . For example, recent studies about youth gun culture , prosecutorial reforms , and prisons engage community members with lived experience as fellow experts to collaboratively conduct research and develop recommendations. In contrast, traditional research methods have historically treated marginalized groups , including justice-involved people, as subjects in need of intervention. This has also led to the exploitation of community knowledge — where members are too often pathologized — without accountability and transparency from research institutions.

In studying minor offenses, Brennan Center researchers adopted three core inclusive research strategies. First, we worked to forge connections with a wide range of key stakeholders, especially community leaders most impacted by the justice system who are typically excluded from research. Strong relationships cannot be formed overnight. Rather, community partnerships require long-term and sustained efforts in active listening, transparency, and mutual exchange. To develop our skills, we facilitated ongoing trainings and debriefs on qualitative interviewing and analysis, cultural humility , community engagement , and research accountability practices. These tools allowed us to grapple with the responsibility and privilege of being outside researchers invited into programs and communities. They also ensured that we were able to accurately capture stakeholders’ experiences and recommendations.

Second, participants were compensated for their time and expertise — a core principle of this research approach. This builds on a standard research practice that enjoins researchers to reimburse people for any significant study contributions, including feedback from subject matter experts. Impacted community leaders are no exception. We also accommodated individuals’ needs and preferences in study participation, such as arranging virtual or in-person discussions and scheduling to accommodate work, childcare, and other commitments. Additionally, host organizations received compensation for recruitment and meeting spaces used for qualitative engagement. Showing stakeholders that they are valued facilitates participation and stronger partnerships with community experts.

Finally, as a critical part of the methodology, some community stakeholders reviewed the quantitative data to help researchers understand the experiences behind the numbers. Resulting themes identified by stakeholders support growing research that highlights how structural factors like housing instability, poorer health, and lack of economic opportunity — referred to as the social determinants of justice — are likely what drive interactions with New York City’s minor offense system.

Participants also recommended solutions to tackle some of these factors. As highlighted in an accompanying Brennan Center resource , these included better addressing structural needs related to health and housing, such as specialized court diversion programs (e.g., for mental health and substance use), alternative responses for behavioral health crises, more supportive housing for justice-involved people, and community-led prevention models . Of note, researchers found common ground across community, nonprofit, and government stakeholders in expanding solutions that more substantively address community safety. A common frustration among community leaders is how government officials and nonprofits do not consult people most impacted by the justice system when developing and implementing programs and policy reforms, despite their proximity to and knowledge of the issues in their communities.

Adopting an inclusive research approach with a wide range of stakeholders, especially with members of impacted communities, led to more robust findings. However, challenges remain in applying the approach more broadly. Inclusive research requires significant time and resources to build trusting relationships with community-based partners. Furthermore, the location of research, whether courts, jails, or prisons, may be challenging for this approach. That is because security mandates, restrictive conditions, and intense surveillance are obstacles to ensuring confidentiality.

While not all studies may be able to implement a full participatory methodology, it is important, nonetheless, to grow organizational capacity for inclusive research approaches. Maintaining long-term relationships with community partners and incorporating community-informed analyses, for example, can be a boon in better ensuring that communities are connected, represented, and invested in the research. We recommend that such approaches be more widely adopted in criminal justice policymaking and research in the future.

Related Issues:

Social & Economic Harm

Related Resources

Illustration of the cycle of misdemeanor arrests and incarcerations.

Misdemeanor Enforcement Trends in New York City, 2016–2022

Cases have declined, yet low-income Black and Latino New Yorkers continue to disproportionately face charges.

Josephine Wonsun Hahn

Ram Subramanian

Tiffany Sanabia

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The Hidden Toll of New York City’s Misdemeanor System

Caseloads are shrinking but remain a burden on communities and government resources.

Myth vs. Reality: Trends in Retail Theft

Despite spikes in some cities, crime data doesn’t show a nationwide increase in shoplifting and other forms of retail theft.

Fact-Checking Trump’s Speech on Crime and Immigrants

Trump misleads about crime and public safety, again, criminal justice reforms aren’t driving rising crime, analyzing the fbi’s national crime data on 2022 — with an eye toward 2023 trends, crime trends in 2021–22: what we know so far, informed citizens are democracy’s best defense.

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100 Criminal Justice Research Topics For College Students
100 Amazing Criminal Justice Research Topics 2023. To score the top grades, students must choose the right criminal justice research topics for their papers and essays. Writing assignments in this academic field deal with justice and crime. However, the study field of a learner can be limited to specific academic barriers and choices.
35 Criminal Justice Topics for Students
A PhD in Criminal Justice can prepare graduates for a number of positions, including police chief, corrections facility director, professor, and research consultant. 1. At Walden University, students pursuing a PhD in Criminal Justice can choose the General Program or one of several specializations: The courses you take and the area you ...
100+ Interesting Criminal Justice Research Questions and Topics
Criminal Justice Research Topics on Society and Justice. Criminal justice creates a bridge between the legal system and society. Therefore, legally discussing societal issues would work as a criminal justice research proposal example. These research questions for criminal justice highlight some of the areas you could tackle, Social learning methods
135+ Amazing Criminal Justice Research Topics In 2023
Here are some important of criminal justice research papers in 2023: 1. Informed Policy-Making. Criminal justice research papers provide valuable data and insights that policymakers use to develop effective laws and policies, enhancing the fairness and efficiency of the justice system. 2.
Construct a Research Question
Looking at the body of research. Once you have a topic that you think is a good size, take a look at the body of research that's available for the topic. Check in catalogs and databases. Look at reputable websites. You want to be sure that your topic has an adequate amount of research before you invest too much time into the idea. Revising.
Criminal Justice Research Topics
Two little written about criminal justice topics in this scientific field are the topics of environmental and wildlife crime. Pollution, littering, dumping, poaching, and wildfire started by humans are all areas that could be a great place to use your analytical skills and nab a decent grade. 9.
Research Methods for Criminal Justice Students
This book is based on two open-access textbooks: Bhattacherjee's (2012) Social science research: Principles, methods, and practices and Blackstone's (2012) Principles of sociological inquiry: Qualitative and quantitative methods. I first used Bhattacherjee's book in a graduate-level criminal justice research methods course. I chose the book because it was an open educational resource ...
Advanced Criminology & Criminal Justice Research Guide
It will be far easier for you to research and write your literature review if you develop a strong, focused research question: Do some exploratory research on your topic idea, in your course textbook and class notes to identify specific issues, arguments, and analytical approaches in your research area and then identify possible relationships ...
500+ Criminal Justice Research Topics
500+ Criminal Justice Research Topics. March 25, 2024. by Muhammad Hassan. Criminal justice is a complex and critical field that encompasses various aspects of crime prevention, law enforcement, legal proceedings, and punishment. Research plays a crucial role in understanding and addressing the challenges and opportunities in this field.
230 Criminal Justice Research Topics for your Inspiration
Criminal Law Research Topics. The Evolution of Criminal Law and Its Impact on Society. Comparative Analysis of Criminal Law Systems Worldwide. The Role of International Law in Combating Transnational Crime. The Effectiveness of the Insanity Defense in Criminal Trials. Cyber Law: Addressing New Age Cybercrimes.
6 Chapter 6: Qualitative Research in Criminal Justice
Examples of Field Research in Criminal Justice. If you recall from Chapter 2, Humphreys' Tea Room Trade is an example of field research. Humphreys participated to an extent, acting as a "watchqueen" so that he could observe the sexual activities taking place in public restrooms and other public places.
Asking Survey Questions About Criminal Justice Involvement
Research shows that criminal justice involvement has a negative effect on people's physical and mental health, 2 - 4 employment and earnings, 5 marriage and family life, 5, 6 and access to housing opportunities, 7 among other areas. Parental involvement in the criminal justice system is found to have a detrimental effect on children's ...
250+ Criminal Justice Research Topics: Top List for Students
With this in mind, criminal justice research topics can include a wide variety of both theoretical and empirical aspects ranging from crime prevention strategies to prison reform. Some other examples of criminal justice topics include types of crime, corrections and rehabilitation, law enforcement and policing, social control theories ...
Research Process
Research Questions Research proposals outline a planned research project and the research questions that will be investigated. Requirements and expectations may differ based on the discipline and whether the proposal is for a class assignment, a thesis or dissertation, or to apply for research funding or grants. ... Locating Criminal Justice ...
256 Research Topics on Criminal Justice & Criminology
Criminology Topics on Types of Crime. Campus crime: the most common crimes on college campuses and ways of preventing them. Child abuse: types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention. Cybercrime: cyber fraud, defamation, hacking, bullying, phishing. Domestic violence: gender, ways of detection and prevention, activism.
Criminal Justice Research Methods 301
Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology: A Text and Reader. Christine Tartaro. New York, Routledge, 2021. "Explains and illustrates criminal justice research topics, including ethics in research, research design, causation, operationalization of variables, sampling, methods of data collection (including surveys), reliance on ...
Criminal Justice Research Methodology
Search for Criminal Justice Abstracts, or limit by subject to Criminal Justice and it will be in the top results. Other places to search: Google Scholar. Find relevant, interdisciplinary research. Note the "cited by" feature, which is helpful for identifying impactful research. SAGE Journals Database. If it has more of a criminal justice lens ...
Mixed Methods Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice: a
The field of criminology and criminal justice encompass broad and complex multidisciplinary topics. Most of the research that falls under these areas uses either quantitative or qualitative methodologies, with historically limited use of mixed methods designs. Research utilizing mixed methods has increased within the social sciences in recent years, including a steadily growing body of mixed ...
428 Criminology Research Topics & Questions for Students
Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, supported by the principles of sociology and other sciences, including economics, statistics, and psychology. Criminologists study a variety of related areas, including: Characteristics of people who commit crimes. Reasons behind committing different crimes.
A Qualitative Study: An Examination of Police Officers' Lived
In the United States, as society was evolving with increased population and technology in the late 19th century and early 20th century, a primary role of the police was to provide social service-type functions such as assisting those in need of housing and food (Oliver, 2017).Then the police transitioned toward a focus on their crime control function in the reform era of policing (Walker, 1977 ...
Framing the Questions in Criminal Justice Evaluation
these systematic variations permitted a comparative appraisal of the effect of certain programmatic elements on the outcome measures. the second example cited is an evaluation effort by the criminal justice research center, inc., in albany, n.y., funded by the national institute of law enforcement and criminal justice.
Criminal Justice Research Proposal Topics By Tutoriage Writers
What Is a Research Paper in Criminal Justice? This is the traditional research that scopes the topics of justice and crimes. It aims to reveal important tendencies, methods, and reasons to understand the current situation in society. Also, such a job can help to reduce the level of crimes and improve the punishment system.
Why Inclusive Criminal Justice Research Matters
A new Brennan Center study of recent trends and persistent racial disparities in New York City's misdemeanor enforcement system showcases the benefits of taking an inclusive approach to criminal justice research and policymaking. In addition to examining court data between 2016 and 2022, researchers conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with 166 stakeholders, including law enforcement ...
Asking Survey Questions About Criminal Justice Involvement
Research shows that criminal justice involvement has a negative effect on people's physical and mental health, 2 - 4 employment and earnings, 5 marriage and family life, 5, 6 and access to housing opportunities, 7 among other areas. Parental involvement in the criminal justice system is found to have a detrimental effect on children's ...

100 Amazing Criminal Justice Research Topics 2023

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Basic Criminology and Criminal Justice Research Topics

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Importance of Criminal Justice Research Papers In 2023

1. Informed Policy-Making

2. Evidence-Based Practices

3. Transparency and Accountability

4. Improved Decision-Making

5. Advancing Knowledge

6. Addressing Disparities

7. Enhancing Public Awareness

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Top 10 Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics

2. White-Collar Crimes Compared to Working-Class Criminals Punishments

3. False Accusation, False Confessions, and Plea Bargaining

4. Restorative Justice Efforts on Youthful Offenders

5. Criminal Justice Reform in Hate Crimes

6. Organized Crime and the Social Class Criminal Behavior of Members

7. Criminal Justice Agencies and International Crime Investigation Efforts

8. Impacts of Wildlife Crime and Environmental Crime

9. Relationship Between Crime and Eyewitness Testimony

10. Relationship Between Law Enforcement and Racial Profiling

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