case study on radioactive pollution in india

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Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

Tackling radioactive wastes efficiently

Any activity related to the nuclear fuel cycle, that produces or uses radioactive materials generates radio-active waste. The management of radiation emitting radioactive material is a matter of concern and is what sets nuclear wastes apart. Public acceptance of nuclear energy largely depends on the public assurance for safe management of radioactive wastes. Not all nuclear wastes are particularly hazardous or difficult to manage as compared to other toxic industrial wastes.

Safe management of radioactive waste has been accorded high priority right from the inception of our nuclear energy program. In accordance with international guidelines, a coherent comprehensive and consistent set of principles and standards are being practiced all over the world for waste management system. Radioactive waste would be managed in a manner so as not to cause any undue radiation risk to the workers, the public (present as well as future generation) and the environment.

Management of these wastes covers the entire range of activities right from handling, treatment, conditioning, transport, storage and disposal. The recent technological developments in India realize the recovery of valuable radionuclide from radioactive waste for societal application besides ensuring the highest level of safety in the management of radioactive waste.

Understanding radioactive wastes

Radioactive wastes are generated during various operations of the nuclear fuel cycle as well as production and use of radionuclide for various societal applications. The activities like mining and processing of uranium ore, fabrication of nuclear fuel, generation of power in nuclear reactor, processing of spent nuclear fuel, management of radioactive waste, production and use of radionuclide for various industrial and medical applications, research associating with radioactive material etc. generates the different types of radioactive waste. Radioactive waste can be in gas, liquid or solid form, and its level of radioactivity can vary. The waste can remain radioactive for a few hours or several months or even hundreds of thousands of years. Depending on the level and nature of radioactivity, radioactive wastes can be classified as exempt waste, Low & Intermediate level waste and High Level Waste. The most important and advantageous property of radioactive waste is 'Its radioactive hazard potential reduces with time depending on the half lives of radionuclide present in the waste' . Such feature differentiates them significantly from conventional chemical or industrial waste, hazard potential or toxicity of which does not alter with time and remains constant till its transformation to other suitable form.

Low and Intermediate Level Waste (LILW)

Low and Intermediate Level Waste (LILW) radioactive waste are generated in radiation facilities and nuclear fuel cycle operations ranging from uranium processing, fuel fabrication, nuclear power plants, research reactors, radiochemical facilities and fuel reprocessing. LILW have generally high volumes and low levels of radioactivity. They are segregated based on their physical nature and different management techniques have been established based on their nature for their effective treatment. They are further classified based on their radioactivity as well as also based on half life of radionuclide, as short lived and long lived wastes. Significant quantum of LILW of diverse nature gets generated in different nuclear installations.

They are essentially of two types

Primary Wastes comprising of radioactively contaminated equipment (metallic hardware) spent radiation sources etc.

Secondary wastes resulting from different operational activities, protective rubber and plastic wears, cellulosic and fibrous material, organic ion exchange resins filter cartridges and others.

High Level Waste

Management of radioactive wastes

Utmost emphasis is given to waste minimization, and volume reduction in the choice of processes and technologies adopted in radioactive waste management plants. As a waste management philosophy, no waste in any physical form is released / disposed to the environment unless the same is cleared, exempted or excluded from regulations . A comprehensive radioactive waste management is established taking into account the operational capability for the management of radioactive waste and an independent regulatory capability for its overview.

• Delay and Delay
• Dilute and Disperse
• Concentrate and Contain
• Recycle and Reuse

Effective management involves segregation, characterization, handling, treatment, conditioning and monitoring prior to final disposal.

Solid Waste

Substantial amount of LIL wastes of diverse nature, gets generated in different nuclear installations as radioactive solid waste. Treatment and conditioning of solid wastes are practiced, to reduce the waste volume in ways, compatible to minimizing the mobility of the contained radioactive materials. A wide range of treatment and conditioning processes are available today with mature industrial operations involving several interrelated steps and diverse technologies.

Proper disposal of Solid waste is essential to ensure protection of the health and safety of the public and quality of the environment including air, soil, and water supplies. Radiological hazards associated with short lived wastes stone lined trenches, reinforced concrete trenches and tile holes at Near Surface Disposal Facility (NSDF) . These disposal structure are located both above and under-ground in access - controlled areas and are designed based on multi barrier principle for ensuring effective containment and isolation of the radioactivity till it decays to innocuous level. The NSDFs where the disposal structures are located are kept under constant surveillance with the help of bore-wells laid out in a planned manner by routinely monitoring the underground soil and water samples to confirm effective confinement of radioactivity present in the disposed waste.

The high level solid wastes contain large concentration of both short and long lived radionuclide's, warranting high degree of isolation from the biosphere and usually calls for final disposal into Geological Disposal Facility (GDF). A key idea was that long-term disposal would be best carried out by identifying suitable sites at which the waste could be buried, a process called deep geological disposal.

Liquid Waste (LIL)

Liquid waste streams are pre-treated by various techniques, such as filtration, adsorption, chemical treatment, evaporation, ion exchange; reverse osmosis etc., prior to immobilization in suitable matrix depending upon the nature, volume & radioactivity content.

Gaseous Waste

Gaseous waste is treated at the source of generation. Various techniques involoving adsorption on activated charcoal, absorption / scrubbing, filtration by high efficiency particulate air filter etc., are used for effective treatment of gaseous waste

Management of High Level Waste

• Immobilisation of high level liquid waste into inert vitrified borosilicate glasses through process called 'vitrification'.
• Engineered interim storage of the vitrified waste for passive cooling & surveillance over a period of time, qualifying it for subsequent disposal.
• Disposal of the vitrified waste in a deep geological repository.

Vitrification

India is one of the few countries to have mastered the technology of vitrification. Over the years BARC has developed the technology for vitrification of HLW. India has a unique distinction of having operating vitrification plant at Trombay, Tarapur and Kalpakkam.

In our existing plant at Trombay vitrification process is essentially batch operation consisting of heating and fusing of pre-concentrated waste and glass forming additives and is carried out in Induction Heated Metallic Melter based on induction heating.

While the plant at Trombay is based on pot glass technology, the concept of Joule Heated Ceramic Melter (JHCM) is utilized at the facility at Tarapur. The Joule Melter Technology is essentially a single step process, where immobilisation of HLW in a borosilicate glass matrix is achieved in a refractory-lined melter. The Joule Heated Ceramic Melter (JHCM) process exploits the high temperature behaviour of glass whereby it becomes an electrical conductor at elevated temperatures and favourable changes in its viscosity near the pour point, helps in product withdrawal and shut off. The distinctive features of the Advanced Vitrification System (AVS) of Tarapur and Waste Immobilisation Plant, Kalpakkam, employing JHCM for vitrification of HLW, are increased throughput, availability of higher furnace temperature and minimum dependence on operator skills.

Cold Crucible Induction Melter (CCIM) is emerging as a futuristic technology for vitrification of high level liquid waste. Besides being compact and advantageous as in-cell equipment, it offers flexibility, susceptibility to treat various waste forms with better waste loading and enhanced melter life. The CCIM is manufactured from contiguous segments forming a cylindrical volume, but separated by a thin layer of electrically insulating material. The number and the shape of the segments and the insulating gap between them must be optimized to minimize the power dissipation by induced currents in the crucible, while ensuring cooling of the crucible.

Interim Storage of Vitrified Waste

The vitrified product is encapsulated in suitable containers and over packs and stored for dissipation of radioactive decay, heat and surveillance for a period of 15-20 years. Sufficient data can be generated on the product behavior and the radiation and thermal conditions of the product are expected to get stabilized to a level where transport of the product becomes viable. On the basis if safety and techno-economic considerations, a natural draught air cooling system has been designed for the storage vault.

Wealth from Waste

High level radioactive liquid waste contains various useful fission product such as 137 Cs, 90 Sr, 106 Ru etc., which have many industrial as well as medical applications. The energy associated with these isotopes can be used for blood irradiation, food preservation, sewage treatment, therapeutic applications, brachy therapy & various other industrial applications. Separation and recovery of these useful isotopes from radioactive waste and their deployment for societal application makes the waste as a material of resource.

137 Cesium glass pencils for irradiation

137 Cs can be used as a prominent alternate irradiation source to 60C° for various applications like blood irradiator, food irradiator, irradiation of sewage sludge etc. Due to longer half-life of 137 Cs as compare to 60 Co, the radiation sources need to be replaced at lesser frequency. 137 Cs is available in large quantity in radioactive waste as one of the principal fission product. In-house development of selective extractants and their deployment has resulted into recovery of bulk of 137 Cesium from waste. The recovered 137 Cs solution is converted into non- dispersible cesium glass pencil to be used as blood irradiator. Few lac Ci of 137 Cs have been recovered successfully and are converted into Cs glass pencils each having activity of 2.0 to 5.0 Ci/gm of 137 Cs at Waste Immobilization Plant Trombay. These pencils have been supplied to various hospitals through BRIT after ensuring rigorous quality assurance. Research and Development is being pursued to make use of Cs glass pencils for other irradiation process such as food irradiation.

90 Stronium for milking of 90 Yttrium for radiopharmaceutical application

90 Sr, another isotope present in waste, decays to 90 Y by beta decay having its application as a radiopharmaceutical product for therapeutic use during treatment of cancer. In-house developed strontium selective extractant has been successfully deployed for separation/ recovery of strontium from HLW and converting into Yttrium generator. 90Y is milked out from purified 90Sr using in-house developed membrane technology and supplied for radiopharmaceutical application.

106 Ru for eye cancer treatment

106 Ru has an important application for eye cancer treatment as a brachy therapy. Till date, 106 Ru plaques are imported. Technology for recovery of 106 Ru from nuclear waste and fabrication of 106 Ru containing silver plaque has been successfully developed as an import substitute for eye cancer treatment along with cost effectiveness. Ru plaques, containing about 300-600 microcurrie of Ru-106 activity, are produced and supplied to various eye hospitals through BRIT for eye cancer treatment. The indigenously developed Ru-106 eye plaques are cost effective and thier performance is at par the international standard.

Safe management of radioactive waste has been accorded high priority right from the inception of our nuclear energy program. As a result of rugged design with 'defense in depth' concept, well established practices and safety review by independent agency, an excellent track record for safe management of radioactive waste in India has been demonstrated for more than five decades. Consistent efforts in R&D has enabled indigenous development of novel processes and technologies in the field of management of radioactive waste and their deployment to realise the waste volume minimization, effective isolation of radionuclide in engineered matrix, minimization of discharges and extracting wealth from waste by separating useful radionuclide from radioactive waste for societal applications. Such developments enable the country to be front-runner in the field of radioactive waste management in the world.

A brief summary of the various radioactive waste management practices followed in India

Schematic of Induction Heated Metallic Melter (Pot Melter)

Schematic of Joule Heated Ceramic Melter

Solvent extraction system, WIP, Trombay for recovery Ceasium from waste

Cs glass re-melting system, WIP, Trombay

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12 Sustainable Management of Radioactive Waste: What Can India Learn from Stakeholder Engagement in the West?

• Published: June 2014
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Chapter 12 looks at the lessons that have been learnt over the past three decades in Europe, North America, and Asia on the need for early and meaningful public engagement in radioactive waste management (RWM). India’s Atomic Energy Control Board, though, has stated that technical regulation and control should provide ‘adequate assurance’ to the public and secure their trust and confidence. Will this be sufficient to secure a ‘social license to operate’? This chapter investigates the factors that may positively or negatively influence the Indian public’s confidence in the Indian nuclear establishment—factors that the Government should be aware of to shape a trusted RWM strategy. It traces the various successful approaches in Europe, where some communities now volunteer and compete to host these facilities. This chapter shows that technical soundness is not sufficient to gain the trust of citizens or develop sustainable and socially acceptable RWM solutions; procedural fairness is of equal importance.

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• J Lab Physicians
• v.10(1); Jan-Mar 2018

Biomedical waste management in India: Critical appraisal

Priya datta.

Department of Microbiology, Government Medical College Hospital, Chandigarh, India

Gursimran Kaur Mohi

Jagdish chander.

The safe and sustainable management of biomedical waste (BMW) is social and legal responsibility of all people supporting and financing health-care activities. Effective BMW management (BMWM) is mandatory for healthy humans and cleaner environment. This article reviews the recent 2016 BMWM rules, practical problems for its effective implementation, the major drawback of conventional techniques, and the latest eco-friendly methods for BMW disposal. The new rules are meant to improve the segregation, transportation, and disposal methods, to decrease environmental pollution so as to change the dynamic of BMW disposal and treatment in India. For effective disposal of BMWM, there should be a collective teamwork with committed government support in terms of finance and infrastructure development, dedicated health-care workers and health-care facilities, continuous monitoring of BMW practices, tough legislature, and strong regulatory bodies. The basic principle of BMWM is segregation at source and waste reduction. Besides, a lot of research and development need to be in the field of developing environmental friendly medical devices and BMW disposal systems for a greener and cleaner environment.

Introduction

Biomedical waste (BMW) is any waste produced during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human or animal research activities pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of biological or in health camps. It follows the cradle to grave approach which is characterization, quantification, segregation, storage, transport, and treatment of BMW.

The basic principle of good BMW practice is based on the concept of 3Rs, namely, reduce, recycle, and reuse. The best BMW management (BMWM) methods aim at avoiding generation of waste or recovering as much as waste as possible, rather than disposing. Therefore, the various methods of BMW disposal, according to their desirability, are prevent, reduce, reuse, recycle, recover, treat, and lastly dispose. Hence, the waste should be tackled at source rather than “end of pipe approach.”[ 1 ]

BMW treatment and disposal facility means any facility wherein treatment, disposal of BMW or processes incidental to such treatment and disposal is carried out.[ 1 ]

Only about 10%–25% of BMW is hazardous, and the remaining 75%–95% is nonhazardous. The hazardous part of the waste presents physical, chemical, and/or microbiological risk to the general population and health-care workers associated with handling, treatment, and disposal of waste.[ 2 ]

In a World Health Organization (WHO) meeting in Geneva, in June 2007, core principles for achieving safe and sustainable management of health-care waste were developed. It was stressed that through right investment of resources and complete commitment, the harmful effects of health-care waste to the people and environment can be reduced. All stakeholders associated with financing and supporting health-care activities are morally and legally obliged to ensure the safety of others and therefore should share in the cost of proper management of BMW. In addition, it is the duty of manufacturer to produce environment-friendly medical devices to ensure its safe disposal. WHO reinforced that government should designate a part of the budget for creation, support, and maintenance of efficient health-care waste management system. These include novel and ingenious methods/devices to reduce the bulk and toxicity of health-care waste. Nongovernmental Organization should undertake program and activities that contribute in this incentive.[ 3 ]

The first edition of WHO handbook on safe management of wastes from health-care activities known as “The Blue Book” came out in 1999. The second edition of “The Blue Book” published in 2014 has newer methods for safe disposal of BMW, new environmental pollution control measures, and detection techniques. In addition, new topics such as health-care waste management in emergencies, emerging pandemics, drug-resistant bacteria, and climate changes were covered in the second edition.[ 1 ]

International Agreement and Conventions

There are three international agreements and conventions which are particularly pertinent in BMWM, environment protection, and its sustainable development and therefore should be kept in mind by preparing waste management policies. These are Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste, Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), and Minamata Convention on Mercury.

Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste is the most inclusive global environmental treaty on hazardous and other wastes. It has 170 member countries, and its objectives are to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects resulting from the generation, management, and disposal of hazardous wastes, specifically clinical wastes from health care in hospitals, health centers, and clinics.[ 4 ]

Stockholm Convention on POPs (the Stockholm Convention) is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from POPs (POPs – dioxins and furans). POPs are toxic chemicals which accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and cause damage. These chemicals are formed by medical waste incinerators and other combustion processes. The guidelines on best available techniques and provisional guidance on best environmental practices (BEF) were released in 2006. It deals with BEP including source reduction, segregation, resource recovery and recycling, training, and proper collection and transport.[ 5 ]

Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury. On October 10, 2014, in Japan, more than 90 nations signed the first new global convention on environment and health. This treaty includes the phasing out of certain medical equipment in health-care services, including mercury-containing medical items such as thermometers and blood pressure device.[ 6 ]

Biomedical Waste Management Outside India

In 2012, WHO conducted a survey on the BMWM status of 24 countries of West Pacific area, which included countries such as Japan, China, Australia, New Zealand, Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Republic of Korea, Micronesia, Nauru, and Kiribati. The survey included a literature search, review of publications, newspaper articles, and other sources of information. The status in each country was assessed on five main areas of BMW, namely, management, training, policy and regulatory framework, technologies implemented, and financial resources. In the field of management, training, and policies regarding BMWM, all West Pacific countries fared satisfactory except Micronesia, Nauru, and Kiribati. Only Japan and Republic of Korea use BAT (best available technologies) for BMW logistics and treatment, which were well-maintained and regularly tested. Most of the countries had no or very less financial resources for BMWM. Therefore, HCWM is still far from ideal in most of West Pacific countries, and additional backing for the expansion of HCWM systems in countries is vital to ensure that within the next decade, safe HCWM systems are applied.[ 7 ]

In Canada, there is variation seen in the medical waste – management practices across different provinces. Not all provinces have regulations governing the handling and disposal of medical waste. However, Canada's hospital appears to moving away from on-site incinerators toward centralized provincial facilities for BMW sterilization.[ 8 ]

Biomedical Waste Situation in India

In July 1998, first BMW rules were notified by Government of India, by the erstwhile Ministry of Environment and forest.[ 9 ] In India, BMW problem was further compounded by the presence of scavengers who sort out open, unprotected health-care waste with no gloves, masks, or shoes for recycling, and second, reuse of syringe without appropriate sterilization.[ 3 ]

During 2002–2004, International Clinical Epidemiology Network explored the existing BMW practices, setup, and framework in primary, secondary, and tertiary health care facility (HCF) in India across 20 states.[ 10 ] They found that around 82% of primary, 60% of secondary, and 54% of tertiary HCFs in India had no credible BMWM system. In 2009, around 240 people in Gujarat, India contracted hepatitis B following reuse of unsterilized syringes.[ 11 ] This and many more studies shows that despite India being among the first country to initiate measures for safe disposal of BMW, there is an urgent need to take action for strengthening the existing system capacity, increase the funding and commitment toward safe disposal of BMW.

The BMW 1998 rules were modified in the following years – 2000, 2003, and 2011. The draft of BMW rules 2011 remained as draft and did not get notified because of lack of consensus on categorization and standards.[ 12 ] Now Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate change in March 2016 have amended the BMWM rules [ Table 1 ]. These new rules have increased the coverage, simplified the categorization and authorization while improving the segregation, transportation and disposal methods to decrease environmental pollution [ Table 2 ]. It has four schedule, five forms and eighteen rules [Tables ​ [Tables3 3 and ​ and4 4 ].[ 13 ]

Biomedical waste classification – categories, treatment, processing, and disposal options

Difference between biomedical waste rules 1998 and 2016

Difference in schedule for biomedical waste of 1998 and 2016

Different forms with biomedical waste 2016

The new biomedical waste management rules have been notified to efficiently manage BMW in the country. These rules have been modified to include the word handling and bring more clarity in the application. In addition, strict rules have been made to ensure no pilferage of recyclables item, no secondary handling or in advent scattering or spillage by animals during transport from the HCFs to the common BMW treatment facility (CBMWTF). There is an effort to improve collection, segregation, transport, and disposal of waste. Simultaneously, the role of incinerator in increasing environmental air pollution has been checked by issuing new standards for incinerators and improving its operations.[ 13 ]

Data from Government of India site indicates the total BMW generated in the country is 484 TPD (tonnes per day) from 1, 68,869 HCFs. Unfortunately, only 447 TPD is treated, and 37 TPD is left untreated. There are 198 CBMWTF in operation and 28 under construction. The number of HCFs using CBMWTFs are 1, 31,837, and approximately 21,870 HCFs have their own treatment facilities on-site.[ 13 ]

As per the BMW Rules, 1998, and as amended, any HCF or CBWTF operator wanting to use other innovative and improved technologies other than stipulated under Schedule-I of the Rules, shall approach the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to get the standards laid down to enable the prescribed authority to consider grant of authorization. During the year 2010–2013, CPCB have granted conditional or provisional approval to new technologies (other than notified under BMW Rules) for treatment of BMW. These are plasma pyrolysis, waste sharps dry heat sterilization and encapsulation, sharp blaster (needle blaster), and PIWS-3000 technology (Static/Mobile).

Salient Features of Biomedical Waste Rules 2016

• The scope of the rules have been expanded to include various health camps such as vaccination camps, blood donation camps, and surgical camps[ 13 ]
• Compulsory pretreatment of the laboratory, microbiological waste, and blood bags on-site before disposal either at CBMWTF or on-site. The method of sterilization/disinfection should be in accordance with National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) or WHO
• The use of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves, blood bags, etc. should be gradually stopped and this phasing out should be within 2 years from the date of notification of these rules
• To provide training to all its HCWs and protect them against diseases such as hepatitis B and tetanus by immunization
• Liquid waste to be separated at source by pretreatment before mixing with other liquid waste
• To set up a barcode system for BMW containing that is to be sent out of the premises for treatment and disposal
• All major accidents including accidents caused by fire hazards, blasts, during handling of BMW, and remedial action taken by the prescribed authority should be reported
• The existing incinerator should be upgraded/modified to achieve the new standard within 2 years from the date of this notification
• BMW disposal register is to be maintained daily and updated monthly on the website.
• The duties of the operator of a common biomedical waste treatment and disposal facility (CBMWTF) have been increased.[ 13 ] They should assist in training of HCW from where the waste is being collected. Furthermore, there should be barcoding and global positioning system established for handling of BMW within 1 year. Maintain all records for operation of incineration/hydroclaving/autoclaving for a period of 5 years
• The segregation, packaging, transportation, and storage of BMW have been improved. Biomedical waste has been classified into four categories based on color code-type of waste and treatment options. In addition, untreated human anatomical waste, animal anatomical waste, soiled waste, and biotechnology waste should not be stored beyond a period of 48 h. In case, there is a need to store beyond 48 h, the occupier should take all appropriate measures to ensure that the waste does not adversely affect human health and the environment (no permission to be obtained)[ 13 ]
• No HCF shall establish on-site BMW treatment and disposal facility if the provision of CBMWTF is present at a distance of seventy-five kilometers. If no CBMWTF is available, the occupier shall set up requisite BMW treatment facility such as incinerator, autoclave or microwave, shredder after taking prior authorization from the prescribed authority. After confirming treatment of plastics and glassware by autoclaving or microwaving followed by mutilation/shredding, these recyclables should be given to authorized recyclers
• Authorization for BMW disposal for nonbedded HCFs is granted to the occupier at one time only. The validity of authorization shall be synchronized with validity of consent orders for bedded HCFs
• Standards for emission from incinerators have been modified to be more environmental friendly. These are permissible limit for SPM-50 mg/nm 3 ; residence time in secondary chamber of incinerator – two seconds; standard for dioxin and furans – 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm 3
• Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate change will monitor the implementation of rules yearly. The responsibility of each state to check for compliance will be done by setting up district-level committee under the chairpersonship of District Collector or District Magistrate or Additional District Magistrate. In addition, every 6 months, this committee shall submit its report to the State Pollution Control Board.

Benefits of the new biomedical waste rules

The new rules are stringent and elaborate and should bring about a change in the way, the BMW is being managed in India. Under the new rules, coverage has increased to include various health-care related camps such as vaccination camps, blood donation camps, and surgical camps.

Another distinction is in the segregation, packaging, transport, and storage of BMW waste. The categories have been reduced to four to bring about ease of segregation. One of the main principle of disposal of BMW is that segregation has to be done at the source of generation of the waste. To overcome confusion created by large number of categories, this has been simplified to make it convenient and manageable for all HCWs. Now, the color coding (i.e., yellow, red, white, and blue) of the bags/containers is linked to a particular type of waste and its specific treatment option. For example, the disposal of chemical solid waste and cytotoxic waste to be done in yellow bag which goes for incineration/plasma pyrolysis/deep burial.

In addition, the HCF has to do pretreatment of various laboratory waste and blood bags according to guidelines of WHO and NACO, to decrease chances of infections being transmitted to HCWs handling waste at treatment stage. Within 2 years, plastic bags, gloves, and blood bags have to be phased out to eliminate emissions of dioxins and furans during their burning into the environment. The new rule also calls for a bar code system for all bags/containers used for BMW treatment and disposal. This step will help in tracking and identifying bags during inspection for quality control and also quality assurance.

The BMW in red/blue bag or container which is for recycling will be sent only to an authorized recycler. This will keep the recycler in realm and in control of various government agencies. Greater emphasis has been given to recycling of waste to conserve resources as well as decrease pollution.

The 2016 guidelines are more specific regarding the dependence of HCFs on CBMWTF and who will provide land for setting up CBMWTF. State government or UT government will provide land for setting up CBMWTF and no occupier of an HCF shall establish an on-site treatment and disposal facility if a CBMWTF is available within 75 kms. This has several advantages as installation and functioning of individual BMW treatment facility as well as recruiting separate, dedicate, and skilled workforce require high capital investment. CBMWTF is a popular concept in developed countries because by operating it at its full potential, the cost of treatment/kg BMW gets significantly reduced. Further, this makes control and checking of various waste disposal plants less tedious. Furthermore, maintaining records and log book will streamline the documentation.

The emission standards for incinerator has been made more stringent (acceptable SPM reduced to 50 mg/nm 3 , retention time in secondary camber lowered to 2 s). This will reduce dioxins and furans release (which are produced at temperature greater than 600°C) and lead to production of carbon dioxide and water.

The new rules lays down new criteria for authorization of an HCF and have made the procedure for getting authorization very simple. Bedded hospitals will get automatic authorization and nonbedded HCFs will get a one-time authorization.

Another improvement in the new rules is in the monitoring sector. The MoEF (Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate change) will review HCFs once a year through state health secretaries and the SPCB (State Pollution Control Board). Moreover, according to the new rules, the advisory committee on BMWM is now mandated to meet every 6 months.

Challenges in the Implementation of New Biomedical Waste 2016 Rules

One of the biggest challenges the government hospitals and small HCFs will face, during the implementation of BMW 2016 rules will be due to the lack of funds. To phase out chlorinated plastic bags, gloves, blood bags and to establish a bar code system for bags/containers the cost will be high and time span for doing this i.e. two years is too short.

Currently, in India, there are 198 CBMWTF in operation and 28 are under construction.[ 13 ] There is a great need for rapid development of many more CBMWTF to fulfill the need of treatment and disposal of all BMW generated in India. Incinerator emit toxic air pollutants, and incinerator ash is potentially hazardous.

Incinerator and its Hazards

The first solution for the disposal of BMW was to burn the waste. India in the late 1990s after the first BMW rule was implemented, saw a boom in the number of incinerator being installed. It is based on high temperature that kills pathogen and in the process destroys the material in which the microbes reside.[ 14 , 15 ] However, a number of toxins are produced during its operation such as products of incomplete combustion (PIC) and dioxins. During incineration and postcombustion cooling, waste components dissociate and recombine forming new particles called PIC, which are toxic. Metals are not destroyed but are dispersed into the environment and these cause serious health issues. Dioxins are an unintentional by-product of waste combustion produced during incinerator operation. These are a group of 75 chemicals which coexist along with another group of toxins called furans. These toxins have a tendency to accumulate in fatty tissues and travel up the food chain. Burning of medical devices made up of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is the largest dioxin producers in the environment.[ 16 ] In addition, metals present in the medical waste act as a catalyst for dioxin formation. These are very toxic, being known carcinogenic, and cause damage with immune and endocrine system of human. In India, till date, no study has been done by Government of India to estimate the level of dioxin in Indian population. In 2000, Subramanian et al . have found high level of dioxin in the human breast milk collected from New Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata.[ 17 ] Recently, in January 2017 appreciating the importance of the presence of dioxins in the environment, a joint project by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and technology has started a study to analyze the presence of dioxins in Thiruvananthapuram.[ 18 ] Moreover, the incinerator ash is also hazardous and needs to be checked for the level of toxin before being sent to secured landfill. Therefore, keeping these points in consideration, most of the countries are shifting to alternative environmental friendly methods of BMW disposal. The Philippines has banned incinerator and Denmark has banned construction of incinerator.[ 19 , 20 ]

Alternative Technology for Biomedical Waste Disposal

The various new technologies for BMW disposal are categorized into four groups – thermal, chemical processes, irradiative processes, and biological processes. Most of these are still under research.[ 21 ]

Thermal processes are grouped into three – low, medium, and high.

• Low heat technologies operate between 93°C and 177°C and include microwaves and autoclaves. In autoclave, steam is used as a method for sterilization. Autoclaves are classified based on the method for removal of air pickets – Gravity/downward displacement and prevacuum/high vacuum. Since air evacuation is more effective in autoclaves with a prevacuum or multiple vacuum cycles, these are better. A shredder or grinder should be used if waste is to be made unrecognizable or reduction in waste volume is needed. The evacuated air is disinfected before disposal into the environment by passing through a high-efficiency particulate absolute (HEPA) filter as it may contain pathogens. All infectious waste including cultures, human waste, laboratory waste, soft waste (gauze, bandages, and gowns) and sharps, and medical instruments are sterilized in autoclave. Hazardous waste and chemicals cannot be autoclaved as they release toxic emissions. Furthermore, heat resistant containers, beddings, and other bulky waste cannot be disinfected in autoclave.[ 21 ] Microwave uses moist heat and steam generated by microwave energy to disinfect. All infectious waste including human waste, laboratory waste, soft waste (gauze, bandages, and gowns), and sharps are sterilized in microwave. Volatile, semi-volatile organic compounds, mercury, and radiological waste should not be put in microwave. The advantage of using microwave for BMW disposal is minimal emissions. Its disadvantage include requirement of high capital for setup, problem of odor near the machine, and there is a chance of leak of microwave energy
• Medium heat technologies operate between 177°C and 540°C and include reverse polymerization and thermal depolymerization. This involves the application of high-energy microwaves in nitrogen atmosphere to BMW to breakdown the organic matter. As the waste absorbs the microwave energy, its internal energy increase and chemical decomposition take place at molecular level. Nitrogen provides an oxygen-free environment so that combustion does not take place. Then, shredders are used to mutilate the waste[ 21 ]
• High heat technologies operate between 540°C and 8300°C and include pyrolysis – oxidation, plasma pyrolysis, induction-based pyrolysis, and lase-based pyrolysis. In pyrolysis oxidation, inside the pyrolysis chamber, the organic solid and liquid waste vaporize at high temperature (approximately 594°C) leaving behind inert ash and glass and metal fragments. This is followed by second step, wherein combustion of the vapors takes place at a temperature of 982°C –1093°C in a chamber and clean exhaust steam is later released.

Plasma pyrolysis uses plasma torches to generate plasma energy. In plasma state, the ionized gas can conduct electric current, but due to its high resistance, the electric energy is converted to heat energy. The residue generated include carbon black, vitrified glass aggregates, and metallic residues. A wide variety of waste can be destroyed in plasma-based technology – infectious waste, sharps, plastics, dialysis waste, hazardous waste, chemotherapeutic waste, chemotherapy waste, and low-level radioactive waste (one exemption is mercury which plasma systems do not handle). Many advantages of this system are low emission rate, waste residue is inert and sterile, i.e., environment friendly, and there is reduction in volume (95%) and mass (80%–90%). Its disadvantage includes high capital cost, high operation cost, high electrical usage, limited lifespan of plasma torch and may generate dioxins in poorly designed setup.[ 22 ]

Chemical-based technology

Many chemical used for BMW disposal are currently under development. The type of waste treated by chemical-based technology includes cultures, sharps, liquid waste, human waste, laboratory waste, and soft waste (gauze, bandages, and gowns). Volatile, semi-volatile organic compounds, mercury, and radiological waste should not be treated with chemical-based methods. The chemical-based technology requires closed system or is operated under negative pressure and the exhausted air has to be passed through HEPA to safeguard against aerosol formation during shredding. In chemical-based technology, shredding of BMW is must. The advantages of chemical-based technology include fully automated technique, easy to use, ease of discharge of liquid effluent into the sewage, and no by-products of combustion formed. The disadvantages include toxic by-products due to large-scale chlorine and hypochlorite use, chemical hazards, and often production of offensive odor. The chemical-based technology can be divided into chlorine- and nonchlorine-based systems.

The chlorine-based system uses sodium hypochlorite or chlorine dioxide. Sodium hypochlorite was one of the first chemical disinfectants used to treat BMW. Lately, it has been shown that toxins such as dioxins, halo acetic acid, and chlorinated aromatic compounds are released where sodium hypochlorite is used. Chlorine dioxide is unstable, so it is generated and used on-site. It is a strong biocide. It decomposes to form salt, less toxins are produced with its use, and it does not react with ammonium or alcohol.

Nonchlorine-based technologies use either gas, liquid, or dry chemical to treat BMW. Many of such system have come in market and few are discussed here. The SteriEcocycle 10 4 uses a portable chamber for collecting waste into which a peracetic acid-based decontaminant vial is added. After 10–12 min, peracetic acid disinfects the waste and aerosolized pathogens are prevented from escaping by use of HEPA filter. The liquid effluent is discharged into sewer and the waste goes as regular rash.[ 21 ]

Waste reduction (WR)[ 2 ] technology uses alkaline hydrolysis at high temperature to convert human and microbial waste into neutral aqueous solution. It is used for human/tissue waste, body fluids, and degradable bags. In addition, it can handle chemotherapy waste. The alkali also destroys fixative sin tissues and various hazardous chemicals such as glutaraldehyde and formaldehyde. This automated system has a steam-jacketed stainless steel container with a retainer for biodegradable waste such as bone and teeth.[ 21 ]

Lynntech's another technology uses ozone for decontamination of BMW. Being a strong oxidant, ozone destroys microbes and converts into molecular oxygen.[ 21 ]

Ionizing radiation cause damage to DNA and by producing free radicals cause further damage proteins and enzymes of infectious particles. The electron beam technology produces ionizing radiation in the form of a beam of high-energy electron propelled at high speed to strike the target. The waste to be treated are infectious waste including human waste, laboratory waste, soft waste (gauze, bandages, and gowns), and sharps. Volatile, semi-volatile organic compounds, mercury, and radiological waste should not be treated in electron beam units. The various advantages of this method are that it does not produce toxic emission, no liquid effluent, no ionizing radiation after machine is switched off, fully automated, and low operational cost. The disadvantage include protection from radiation exposure, concrete shield several feet thick around the system, removal of ozone gas, and there is no decrease in waste volume and need shredders or grinders.[ 21 ]

Biological methods for disposal of BMW include an emerging system called “Bio-converter” 9 Biomedical Disposal, Inc.). It uses a solution of enzyme to decontaminate medical waste, and the resulting sludge is put through an extruder used to remove water for sewage disposal and the solid waste is sent to landfill. Another method of environmental BMW disposal is the use of biodegradable plastics. Many biomedical implants built with biodegradable plastics undergo biological degradation with microbial extracellular enzymes. These microbes utilize these biodegradable polymers as substrate under starvation and in unavailability of suitable substrate. Further research needs to be done for large-scale economic manufacture of biodegradable plastics.[ 21 , 23 ]

Conclusions

BMWM should be a shared teamwork with committed government backing, good BMW practices followed by both health-care workers and HCFs, continuous monitoring of BMW practices, and strong legislature. It is our fundamental right to live in clean and safe environment. The pillar of BMWM is segregation of waste at source and WR. The current BMWM 2016 rules are an improvement over earlier rules in terms of improved segregation, transportation, and disposal methods, to decrease environmental pollution and ensure the safety of the staff, patients, and public. Moreover, more use of non-PVC medical devices and development of newer novel, eco-friendly systems for disposal of BMW should be encouraged. All participants in BMWM should pledge to guarantee a cleaner and greener environment.

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Case Study on Radioactive Pollution

Radioactive pollution case study:.

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Radioactive Pollution: Ionizing and Non-Ionizing Radiation

Last updated on March 13, 2024 by ClearIAS Team

What is Radioactivity? What is Radioactive Pollution? What are the types of Radiation? What are the effects of Radioactive Pollution? What measures are taken to control Radioactive Pollution? Read further to know more.

Radioactive pollution is the term for the dangerous level of radiation emitted by radioactive elements. Radiation exposure from all man-made sources contributes 98% of the population’s dose and accounts for 20% of the population’s overall exposure.

More than 3600 million diagnostic radiological treatments are performed each year around the world, along with 37 million nuclear medicine operations and 7.5 million radiation treatments.

High levels of radiation can induce chronic disorders, cancer, gene mutation, cell disintegration, or even rapid death in rare circumstances of extreme exposure.

Table of Contents

What is Radioactivity?

• The spontaneous emission of particles or waves from the unstable nucleus of some elements is known as radioactivity.
• Alpha, Beta, and Gamma are the three types of radioactive particles.
• Positively charged particles are alpha particles. Beta particles are negatively charged electrons, and gamma rays are neutral electromagnetic radiations.
• The earth’s crust contains naturally occurring radioactive elements.
• Three NORM ( Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials ) series contaminate water resources: uranium, thorium, and actinium.

What is Radioactive Pollution?

• Radioactive Pollution is defined as the increase in the natural radiation levels in the environment that pose a serious threat to humans and other life forms.
• Radioactive contamination is the deposition of or presence of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids, or gases (including the human body), where their presence is unintended or undesirable ( International Atomic Energy Agency definition ).
• Radioactive pollution occurs when radioactive materials are present or deposited in the atmosphere or environment, especially when their presence is unintentional and poses a risk to the environment due to radioactive decay
• The radioactive materials destroying emitting hazardous ionizing radiation (radioactive decay) such as beta or alpha particles, gamma rays, or neurons into the environment where they exist.
• Human activities are considered to be responsible for around 20% of the radiation we are exposed to.
• Activities involving radioactive materials, such as mining, handling and processing radioactive materials, handling and storage of radioactive waste, and the use of radioactive reactions to generate energy (nuclear power plants), as well as the use of radiation in medicine (e.g. X-rays) and research, are all examples of human activities that can release requestion.

Types of Radiation

Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous fission of a proton (alpha-particles), electrons (beta-particles), and gamma rays (short-wave electromagnetic waves) due to the disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements.

These cause radioactive pollution. Radiations can be categorized into two groups namely non-ionizing radiations and ionizing radiations.

Non-ionizing radiations

• Non-ionizing radiation is a type of lower energy radiation that cannot detach electrons from atoms or molecules, whether they are part of matter or living things.
• Visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light, microwaves, radio waves, and radiofrequency energy from cell phones are all examples of non-ionizing radiation.
• They have a limited ability to penetrate and have an impact on the chemicals and cells that they absorb.
• The majority of non-ionizing radiation types, though, are carcinogenic.
• These waves have energies enough to excite the atoms and molecules of the medium through which they pass, causing them to vibrate faster but not strong enough to ionize them.
• They may damage eyes which reflections and cause direct blindness) directly looking towards the sun during an eclipse.
• They injure the cells of skin and blood capillaries reddening blisters and reddening sunburns.

Ionizing radiations

• Ionizing radiation is a type of radiation that has enough energy to separate electrons from atoms or molecules, which results in atomic-level alterations when it interacts with anything, including living things.
• The word “ionizing” radiation refers to changes that typically result in the formation of ions (atoms or molecules that are Explicitly charged).
• Examples: X-rays, cosmic rays, and atomic radiations are some of them (radiations emitted by radioactive elements).
• Ionizing radiation has a strong ability to penetrate matter and can shatter large molecules.
• Molecular damage may result in Long-range (delayed) or short-range (immediate).
• Ionization is when an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons to form ions, often in conjunction with other chemical changes.

Sources of Radioactive Pollution

Sources of radioactive pollution can be widely classified as Natural sources and man-made sources of radioactive pollution.

Natural Sources of Radioactive Pollution

The following are the natural sources of radioactive pollution:

Exposure to Cosmic Radiation

• Cosmic radiation is constantly bombarding the Earth’s outer atmosphere.
• Cosmic radiation is made up of fast-moving particles that exist in space and can come from a variety of places, including the sun and other celestial occurrences.
• Protons make up the majority of cosmic rays, although they can also be other particles or wave energy.

Terrestrial Radiation

• Terrestrial radiation is produced by the Earth itself. Natural radioactive materials can be found in soil and rock.
• Natural reserves of uranium, potassium, and thorium, which produce modest amounts of ionizing radiation during natural decay, are the principal sources.
• Uranium and thorium are “ubiquitous,” which means they can be found almost wherever.

Radiation through Inhalation

• Inhalation of radioactive gases created by radioactive materials found in soil and bedrock accounts for the majority of variations in natural radiation exposure.
• The decay of uranium- releases colorless odorless and colorless radioactive gas. It is an inert gas, which means it does not react with the matter around it.
• Radon can easily migrate up through the ground and into the sky since it does not react.
• Thoron is a thorium-derived radioactive gas.
• The amount of radon and thoron in the air varies greatly depending on the soil and bedrock makeup.

Man-Made (Anthropogenic) Sources of Radioactive Pollution

The following are the anthropogenic sources of radioactive pollution:

Nuclear Power Plants

• The nuclear fusion process in nuclear power plants is the prime culprit for the generation of radioactive waste.
• These processes generate radioactive wastes such as uranium mill tailings, spent (used) reactor fuel, and other various wastes which are hazardous environmental hazards associated with nuclear power plants.
• For thousands of years, these elements can stay radioactive and are harmful to human health.

Nuclear Waste Handling and Disposal

• Nuclear waste handling and disposal can produce low to medium levels of radioactivity time.
• The radioactivity has the potential to pollute and spread through the air, water, and soil.
• As a result, their impacts may be difficult to discern and anticipate. Furthermore, certain nuclear waste sites may go undetected.
• The primary problem with radioactive waste is that it cannot be decomposed chemically or handled biologically.

Nuclear Weapons

• Nuclear weapons testing began with the advent of the atomic era, resulting in the radioactive pollution of a vast number of locations around the world.
• According to statistics from the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute platform, between 1945 and 2006, 2053 nuclear tests were conducted globally.
• This was one of the major sources of radioactive pollution.

Effects of radioactive Pollution

Many ill effects are occurring due to radioactive  pollution listed as follows:

Genetic Mutations

• When it comes to genes and genetics, radiation has negative consequences.
• It causes DNA strand damage, which leads to genetic disintegration over time.
• The degree of genetic mutation leading to changes in DNA composition varies depending on the amount and type of radiation one has been exposed to.
• If a person or animal is exposed to too much radiation through the atmosphere, food, or even water, their bodies are likely to have already absorbed the radiation.
• Because energy cannot be eliminated, it remains active once within the body.
• As a result of the mutation, one is extremely vulnerable to cancer.
• Our health is severely harmed by radioactive pollution. Acute radiation syndrome is a rare condition that is one of the most deadly side effects of radioactive pollution.
• It is, however, a result of high-level radioactive radiation. Within a few hours, this condition causes nausea and vomiting.
• If the situation is extremely bad, the person may die in a matter of days or weeks.
• Radiation can also cause cancer, which is by far the most common side effect.

Soil Infertility

• Radiation is prevalent in soils due to its exposure to the atmosphere.
• Radioactive compounds in the soil react with various nutrients, causing the nutrients to be destroyed and the soil to become infertile and very poisonous.
• Such soil results in the harvest of crops that are contaminated with radiation and consequently unsafe for human and animal consumption.

Impact on Marine Life

• For decades, power plants have been releasing radioisotopes into the water as a source of nuclear energy and chemical processing.
• They include Cesium, Radon, Crypton, Ruthenium, Zinc, and Copper, to name a few.
• The fact that the waste is emitted at a “permissible” level does not imply that it is safe.
• These radionuclides can be found in the fishes’ soft tissues as well as their bones.
• The radioisotope of ruthenium was believed to be present in the seaweed used in bread.
• The shells and tissues of all shelled fishes are polluted with radionuclides.

Measures to Control Radioactive Pollution

Radiation can still be found in radioactive waste. As a result, it cannot be disposed of in the same manner as regular waste.

Proper Method of Disposing of Radioactive Waste

• Because seepage is a possibility, this waste should be stored in large, thick concrete containers.
• Since storage may not be practicable, another alternative is to dilute the radiation.

Proper Labeling

• Any material containing radioactive material must be labeled, with the required precautions stated on the label’s content.
• The reason for this is that even light contact with radioactive material can allow radiation to enter the body.
• Containers containing such materials should be clearly labeled to encourage the use of protective equipment when handling them.

Prohibition of Nuclear Tests

• It has already been established that nuclear power possesses a great deal of latent destructive force.
• Nonetheless, the tests conducted to perfect the energy play a significant role in the overall presence of radioactive materials.
• Furthermore, although being conducted in the deserts, these tests wind up leaking into other ecosystems, impacting the livelihoods of many people.

Alternative Energy Sources

• Initially, the development and usage of nuclear power were not dreadful things.
• However, given the harm and threats it poses to the environment, it is past time for its use to be phased out in favor of alternative and ecologically friendly energy sources, such as renewable energy sources (solar, hydroelectric, and wind power).
• When radioactivity is used to generate energy in nuclear power plants, for example, the waste emitted from the various processes and combustion results in more radiation being discharged into the atmosphere.

Regulatory Measures

• The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), which was founded in 1954, is the executive agency for all nuclear energy-related activities.
• Nuclear installation locations are selected with safety considerations in mind.
• Several structural barriers are planned to prevent any serious radiation leakage from the reactor.
• Every month, the radiation exposure of employees is assessed.
• The exposure limit for personnel has been set at 30 millisieverts (mSv) by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB).
• This conforms to the International Commission on Radiological Protection’s (ICRP) level (ICRP).
• The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, an independent arm of the Atomic Energy Commission, executes all safety and regulatory duties mandated by the Atomic Energy Act of 1962, which applies to all Department of Atomic Energy institutions.
• Additionally, it has the authority to make decisions about the location, planning, execution, and maintenance of all nuclear installations.

It is important to control radioactive pollution both at the individual level and at the government level. Using radiation exposure protection, proper labels, and appropriate storage and disposal are a few of them. All locations that utilize potentially hazardous levels of radioactive material urgently require increased security measures.

The best preventive approach to dealing with this kind of pollution may be to speed the development of low-cost alternatives for radioactive materials in a wide range of applications through research programs and incentives.

Article written by Aseem Muhammed

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Radioactive contamination

Syllabus : Environment Conservation

Source: DTE

  Context: The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has released its annual report on the illicit trafficking of nuclear and other radioactive material (part of the Incident and Trafficking Database), stating that radioactive materials and contaminated devices are entering into the scraps recycling chain , posing a severe health hazard.

What is Radioactive contamination?

Radioactive contamination occurs when radioactive substances, such as particles or radiation, are deposited onto surfaces, objects, or people. E.g., Radioactive-laced waste products are often found while scrapping ships .

Sources of Radioactive contamination:

Health impact of radioactive contamination:

The institutional mechanism in India against Radioactive Contamination:

• Atomic Energy Act, 1962: It provides a regulatory framework for all activities related to atomic energy and the use of ionizing radiation.
• Atomic Energy Regulatory Board to exercise regulatory and safety functions.
• Atomic Energy Rules, 2004 and 2012

Additional Information:  

Tests for Radioactive elements:

Radioactivity in drinking water can be determined by a gross alpha test . Radioactivity is measured in  Becquerel (SI unit) or in Curie . The unit Sievert measures the quantity of radiation absorbed by human tissues.

About IAEA:

  The International Atomic Energy Agency (HQ: Vienna, Austria; Est: 1957) is an intergovernmental organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. It was set up as the world’s “Atoms for Peace” organization. India is a member.

About the Incident and Trafficking Database (ITDB):

  ITDB (est. in 1995) to assist States on incidents involving illicit trafficking and maintain and analyze reported information to identify common threats, trends, and patterns. ITDB is part of the IAEA’s Nuclear Security Plan that aims to Assist States in establishing, maintaining, and sustaining national nuclear security regimes.

Mains Link:

A recent report has highlighted uranium contamination in India’s groundwater. Discuss the causes, effects and ways to address the issue.

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