a short sentence with the word dissertation

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DISSERTATION in a Sentence Examples: 21 Ways to Use Dissertation

A dissertation is a formal academic document presenting research and findings on a specific subject. Typically required for completion of a doctoral degree, a dissertation showcases original research and analysis conducted by the author.

This comprehensive document serves as a written representation of the author’s scholarly work and demonstrates their expertise in a particular field of study. Often ranging from 100 to over 300 pages, a dissertation requires meticulous research, critical thinking, and writing skills to produce a well-supported argument or study.

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7 Examples Of Dissertation Used In a Sentence For Kids

• Dissertation is a big project for students to show what they learned.
• I need to do a dissertation about animals for school.
• My sister is writing a dissertation about plants in her college.
• Dissertation is a long paper that needs lots of research.
• I will make a dissertation on colors and share it with my classmates.
• My friend’s dissertation is about space and planets.
• When I grow up, I want to write a dissertation like my mom.

14 Sentences with Dissertation Examples

• Dissertation submission deadline is approaching, make sure to proofread your work before final submission.
• It is essential to seek guidance from professors while choosing a topic for your dissertation .
• Library resources are crucial for conducting research for your dissertation .
• Forming a study group can help you stay motivated during the dissertation writing process.
• Use academic databases to find relevant literature for your dissertation .
• Time management is key when working on your dissertation alongside other academic commitments.
• Seek feedback from peers on your dissertation draft to improve the quality of your work.
• Creating an outline can help you structure your dissertation effectively.
• Make sure to cite all sources properly to avoid plagiarism in your dissertation .
• Attending workshops on research methodologies can improve your skills for dissertation writing.
• Collaborating with industry professionals can add valuable insights to your dissertation .
• Use software tools like EndNote for easier referencing in your dissertation .
• Take breaks during your dissertation writing process to prevent burnout.
• Presenting your dissertation findings at conferences can enhance your academic profile.

How To Use Dissertation in Sentences?

Dissertation is a formal academic document that presents research findings and conclusions on a particular topic. It is usually written by students pursuing a higher degree, such as a master’s or doctorate.

To use dissertation in a sentence, first, identify the main topic or idea you want to convey. For example, “Carla’s dissertation explores the impact of climate change on coral reefs.” In this sentence, the word “dissertation” is used to indicate that Carla has conducted research on a specific subject.

Make sure to place the word dissertation appropriately within the sentence to ensure clarity and coherence. You can also use it to describe the writer’s academic achievement or the significance of their research. For instance, “Dr. Patel’s dissertation on sustainable agriculture received high praise from her colleagues.”

Remember that dissertation is a formal and specific term, so it is important to use it accurately in academic or professional contexts. Avoid using it in casual conversations or when referring to general research papers.

By following these guidelines and practicing with different sentence structures, you will become more comfortable using dissertation in your writing.

In conclusion, the examples provided demonstrate how sentences with ‘dissertation’ encompass a range of academic and research-related contexts. Whether discussing the process of writing a dissertation, providing guidelines for structuring it, or highlighting the significance of original research in a dissertation, these sentences underscore the importance and complexity of this academic endeavor. Through these varied examples, it becomes clear that a dissertation serves as a cornerstone of advanced education, requiring careful planning, rigorous research, and critical analysis to successfully contribute to one’s field of study.

By highlighting the various aspects and stages involved in writing a dissertation, these sentences illustrate the comprehensive nature of this academic task. From defining research objectives and developing a methodology, to analyzing findings and drawing meaningful conclusions, the dissertation plays a crucial role in advancing knowledge and understanding in a particular subject area. Ultimately, these examples underscore the rigour, dedication, and intellectual effort required to produce a high-quality dissertation that makes a valuable contribution to academia.

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Writing a Paper: Thesis Statements

Basics of thesis statements.

The thesis statement is the brief articulation of your paper's central argument and purpose. You might hear it referred to as simply a "thesis." Every scholarly paper should have a thesis statement, and strong thesis statements are concise, specific, and arguable. Concise means the thesis is short: perhaps one or two sentences for a shorter paper. Specific means the thesis deals with a narrow and focused topic, appropriate to the paper's length. Arguable means that a scholar in your field could disagree (or perhaps already has!).

Strong thesis statements address specific intellectual questions, have clear positions, and use a structure that reflects the overall structure of the paper. Read on to learn more about constructing a strong thesis statement.

Being Specific

This thesis statement has no specific argument:

Needs Improvement: In this essay, I will examine two scholarly articles to find similarities and differences.

This statement is concise, but it is neither specific nor arguable—a reader might wonder, "Which scholarly articles? What is the topic of this paper? What field is the author writing in?" Additionally, the purpose of the paper—to "examine…to find similarities and differences" is not of a scholarly level. Identifying similarities and differences is a good first step, but strong academic argument goes further, analyzing what those similarities and differences might mean or imply.

Better: In this essay, I will argue that Bowler's (2003) autocratic management style, when coupled with Smith's (2007) theory of social cognition, can reduce the expenses associated with employee turnover.

The new revision here is still concise, as well as specific and arguable.  We can see that it is specific because the writer is mentioning (a) concrete ideas and (b) exact authors.  We can also gather the field (business) and the topic (management and employee turnover). The statement is arguable because the student goes beyond merely comparing; he or she draws conclusions from that comparison ("can reduce the expenses associated with employee turnover").

Making a Unique Argument

This thesis draft repeats the language of the writing prompt without making a unique argument:

Needs Improvement: The purpose of this essay is to monitor, assess, and evaluate an educational program for its strengths and weaknesses. Then, I will provide suggestions for improvement.

You can see here that the student has simply stated the paper's assignment, without articulating specifically how he or she will address it. The student can correct this error simply by phrasing the thesis statement as a specific answer to the assignment prompt.

Better: Through a series of student interviews, I found that Kennedy High School's antibullying program was ineffective. In order to address issues of conflict between students, I argue that Kennedy High School should embrace policies outlined by the California Department of Education (2010).

Words like "ineffective" and "argue" show here that the student has clearly thought through the assignment and analyzed the material; he or she is putting forth a specific and debatable position. The concrete information ("student interviews," "antibullying") further prepares the reader for the body of the paper and demonstrates how the student has addressed the assignment prompt without just restating that language.

Creating a Debate

This thesis statement includes only obvious fact or plot summary instead of argument:

Needs Improvement: Leadership is an important quality in nurse educators.

A good strategy to determine if your thesis statement is too broad (and therefore, not arguable) is to ask yourself, "Would a scholar in my field disagree with this point?" Here, we can see easily that no scholar is likely to argue that leadership is an unimportant quality in nurse educators.  The student needs to come up with a more arguable claim, and probably a narrower one; remember that a short paper needs a more focused topic than a dissertation.

Better: Roderick's (2009) theory of participatory leadership  is particularly appropriate to nurse educators working within the emergency medicine field, where students benefit most from collegial and kinesthetic learning.

Here, the student has identified a particular type of leadership ("participatory leadership"), narrowing the topic, and has made an arguable claim (this type of leadership is "appropriate" to a specific type of nurse educator). Conceivably, a scholar in the nursing field might disagree with this approach. The student's paper can now proceed, providing specific pieces of evidence to support the arguable central claim.

Choosing the Right Words

This thesis statement uses large or scholarly-sounding words that have no real substance:

Needs Improvement: Scholars should work to seize metacognitive outcomes by harnessing discipline-based networks to empower collaborative infrastructures.

There are many words in this sentence that may be buzzwords in the student's field or key terms taken from other texts, but together they do not communicate a clear, specific meaning. Sometimes students think scholarly writing means constructing complex sentences using special language, but actually it's usually a stronger choice to write clear, simple sentences. When in doubt, remember that your ideas should be complex, not your sentence structure.

Better: Ecologists should work to educate the U.S. public on conservation methods by making use of local and national green organizations to create a widespread communication plan.

Notice in the revision that the field is now clear (ecology), and the language has been made much more field-specific ("conservation methods," "green organizations"), so the reader is able to see concretely the ideas the student is communicating.

Leaving Room for Discussion

This thesis statement is not capable of development or advancement in the paper:

Needs Improvement: There are always alternatives to illegal drug use.

This sample thesis statement makes a claim, but it is not a claim that will sustain extended discussion. This claim is the type of claim that might be appropriate for the conclusion of a paper, but in the beginning of the paper, the student is left with nowhere to go. What further points can be made? If there are "always alternatives" to the problem the student is identifying, then why bother developing a paper around that claim? Ideally, a thesis statement should be complex enough to explore over the length of the entire paper.

Better: The most effective treatment plan for methamphetamine addiction may be a combination of pharmacological and cognitive therapy, as argued by Baker (2008), Smith (2009), and Xavier (2011).

In the revised thesis, you can see the student make a specific, debatable claim that has the potential to generate several pages' worth of discussion. When drafting a thesis statement, think about the questions your thesis statement will generate: What follow-up inquiries might a reader have? In the first example, there are almost no additional questions implied, but the revised example allows for a good deal more exploration.

Thesis Mad Libs

If you are having trouble getting started, try using the models below to generate a rough model of a thesis statement! These models are intended for drafting purposes only and should not appear in your final work.

• In this essay, I argue ____, using ______ to assert _____.
• While scholars have often argued ______, I argue______, because_______.
• Through an analysis of ______, I argue ______, which is important because_______.

Words to Avoid and to Embrace

When drafting your thesis statement, avoid words like explore, investigate, learn, compile, summarize , and explain to describe the main purpose of your paper. These words imply a paper that summarizes or "reports," rather than synthesizing and analyzing.

Instead of the terms above, try words like argue, critique, question , and interrogate . These more analytical words may help you begin strongly, by articulating a specific, critical, scholarly position.

Read Kayla's blog post for tips on taking a stand in a well-crafted thesis statement.

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Thesis Statements

What this handout is about.

This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.

Introduction

Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)

How do I create a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a “working thesis” that presents a basic or main idea and an argument that you think you can support with evidence. Both the argument and your thesis are likely to need adjustment along the way.

Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming .

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following :

• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question. If the prompt isn’t phrased as a question, try to rephrase it. For example, “Discuss the effect of X on Y” can be rephrased as “What is the effect of X on Y?”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is likely to  be “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s okay to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

Suppose you are taking a course on contemporary communication, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: “Discuss the impact of social media on public awareness.” Looking back at your notes, you might start with this working thesis:

Social media impacts public awareness in both positive and negative ways.

You can use the questions above to help you revise this general statement into a stronger thesis.

• Do I answer the question? You can analyze this if you rephrase “discuss the impact” as “what is the impact?” This way, you can see that you’ve answered the question only very generally with the vague “positive and negative ways.”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not likely. Only people who maintain that social media has a solely positive or solely negative impact could disagree.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? No. What are the positive effects? What are the negative effects?
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? No. Why are they positive? How are they positive? What are their causes? Why are they negative? How are they negative? What are their causes?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? No. Why should anyone care about the positive and/or negative impact of social media?

After thinking about your answers to these questions, you decide to focus on the one impact you feel strongly about and have strong evidence for:

Because not every voice on social media is reliable, people have become much more critical consumers of information, and thus, more informed voters.

This version is a much stronger thesis! It answers the question, takes a specific position that others can challenge, and it gives a sense of why it matters.

Let’s try another. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

You begin to analyze your thesis:

• Do I answer the question? No. The prompt asks you to analyze some aspect of the novel. Your working thesis is a statement of general appreciation for the entire novel.

Think about aspects of the novel that are important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

• Do I answer the question? Yes!
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not really. This contrast is well-known and accepted.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? It’s getting there–you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation. However, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? Not yet. Compare scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions and anything else that seems interesting.
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?”

After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. 2018. The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing , 8th ed. New York: Pearson.

Ruszkiewicz, John J., Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. 2010. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers , 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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The Thesis Sentence

The thesis sentence is arguably the most important sentence in an academic paper. Without a good, clear thesis that presents an intriguing arguable point, a paper risks becoming unfocused, aimless, not worth the reader's time.

The Challenge of the Thesis Sentence

Because the thesis sentence is the most important sentence of a paper, it is also the most difficult to write. Readers expect a great deal of a thesis sentence: they want it to powerfully and clearly indicate what the writer is going to say, why she is going to say it, and even how it is that she is going to go about getting it said. In other words, the job of the thesis sentence is to organize, predict, control, and define the paper's argument.

In many cases, a thesis sentence will not only present the paper's argument, it will also point to and direct the course that the argument is going to take. In other words, it may also include an "essay map" - i.e., phrases or clauses that map out for the reader (and the writer) the argument that is to come. In some cases, then, the thesis sentence not only promises an argument, it promises the structure of that argument as well.

The promises that a thesis sentence makes to a reader are important ones and must be kept. It's helpful sometimes to explain the thesis as a kind of contract between reader and writer: if this contract is broken, the reader will feel frustrated and betrayed. Accordingly, the writer must be very careful in the development of the thesis.

Working on the Thesis Sentence

Chances are if you've had trouble following or deciphering the argument of a paper, there's a problem with the thesis. If a tutor's first response to a paper is that he doesn't know what the paper is about, then the thesis sentence is either absent from the paper, or it's hiding. The first thing you might wish to do is to ask the writer what his thesis is. He may point to a particular sentence that he thinks is his thesis, giving you a very good place to start.

Let's say that you've read a paper in which you've encountered this thesis:

Although heterosexuality has long been regarded as the only natural expression of sexuality, this view has been recently and strongly challenged by the gay rights movement.

What's wrong with this sentence? Many things, the most troublesome of which is that it argues nothing. Who is going to deny that the heteronormative view has been challenged by the gay rights movement? At this point, you need to ask the writer some questions. In what specific ways has the gay rights movement challenged heterosexuality? Do these ways seem reasonable to the writer? Why or why not? What argument does he intend to make about this topic? Why does he want to make it? To whom does he want to make it?

After giving the writer some time to think about and talk about these questions, you'll probably want to bring up another problem that is certain to arise out of a thesis like this one: the matter of structure. Any paper that follows a thesis like this one is likely to ramble. How can the reader figure out what all the supporting paragraphs are doing when the argument itself is so ill-defined? You'll want to show the writer that a strong thesis suggests - even helps to create - strong topic sentences. (More on this when we consider matters of structure, below).

But before we move on to other matters, let's consider the problem of this thesis from another angle: its style. We can see without difficulty that the sentence presents us with at least two stylistic problems: 1) this thesis, which should be the most powerful sentence of the paper, employs the passive voice, and 2) the introductory clause functions as a dangling modifier (who regards heterosexuality as the only natural way to express sexuality?).

Both stylistic problems point to something at work in the sentence: the writer obliterates the actors - heterosexuals and homosexuals alike - by using the dangling modifier and the passive voice. Why does he do that? Is he avoiding naming the actors in these sentences because he's not comfortable with the positions they take? Is he unable to declare himself because he feels paralyzed by the sense that he must write a paper that is politically correct? Or does he obliterate the actors with the passive voice because he himself wishes to remain passive on this topic?

These are questions to pose to the writer, though they must be posed gently. In fact, you might gently pose these questions via a discussion of style. For instance, you might also suggest that the writer rewrite the sentence in the active voice:

Although our society has long regarded heterosexuality as the only natural expression of sexuality, members of the gay rights movement have challenged this view strongly.

This active construction helps us to see clearly what's missing:

Although our society has long regarded heterosexuality as the only natural expression of sexuality, members of the gay rights movement have challenged this view strongly, arguing XYZ.

This more active construction also makes it clear that merely enumerating the points the author wants to make is not the same thing as creating an argument. The writer should now be able to see that he needs to go one step further - he needs to reveal his own position on the gay rights movement. The rest of the paper will develop this position.

In short, there are many ways to begin work on a writer's thesis sentences. Almost all of them will lead you to other matters important to the paper's success: its structure, its language, its style. Try to make any conversation you have about thesis sentences point to other problems with the writing. Not only is this strategy efficient, but it also encourages a writer to see how important a thesis is to the overall success of his essay.

Talking Your Way to a Workable Thesis

For the sake of making (we hope) a somewhat humorous illustration of the matter at hand, we offer the following scenario, which shows how tutor and tutee can talk their way to a workable thesis - and, indeed, to a good essay. So sit back, and enjoy this "break" in your training.

Imagine (though it is indeed quite a stretch) that a freshman composition teacher has the audacity to assign a paper on cats (the animals, not the play). The students may write any kind of paper they like - narration, description, compare/contrast, etc. - as long as their essays contain a thesis (that is, that they argue some point) concerning cats. A writer comes to you for help in developing her thesis. You read the assignment, and then you tell the writer that she first must choose the kind of paper she would like to do. She decides to do a narrative because she thinks she has more freedom in the narrative form. Then you ask her what she has to say about cats. "I don't like them," is her reply.

"OK," you say, "that's a start. Why don't you like them?" The writer has lots of reasons: they smell, they're aloof, they shed, they keep you up nights when they're in heat, they're very middle class, they steal food off of the table, they don't get along with dogs (the writer loves dogs), and on, and on. After brainstorming for a while, you tell the writer to choose a few points on which she'd like to focus - preferably those points that she feels strongly about or those which seem unusual. She picks three: cats smell, they steal food, and they are middle class. She offers her thesis: "I don't like cats because they are smelly, thieving, and middle class."

"O.K.," you say, "It's not a very sophisticated thesis but we can use it for now. After all, it defines your stance, it controls your subject, it organizes your argument, and it predicts your strategy - all the things that a thesis ought to do. Now let's consider how to develop the thesis, point by point."

You begin to ask questions about cats and their smell. "What do they smell like?" you say. The writer thinks awhile, and then says, "They smell like dirty gym shorts, like old hamburgers, like my eighth-grade math teacher's breath." The writer laughs, particularly fond of the final simile. Then she adds, "My boyfriend has a cat. A Tom. When he moved into his first apartment, that cat sprayed all over the place, you know, marking his territory. The place stunk so bad that I couldn't even go there for a week. Can you imagine? Your boyfriend gets his first apartment, and you can't even go in the place for a week?"

The writer has sparked your imagination; you think that she can spark her teacher's imagination as well. "Why don't you do your narrative about your boyfriend's cat? You could tell the story - or you could make up a story - about going over there for dinner, hoping for a romantic evening, and being put off by the cat." The writer likes this idea and goes off to write her draft. She returns with the following story about her boyfriend and his cat.

She was hoping for a romantic dinner; he was making her favorite meal. She could smell the T-bone and the apple pie before she even got to his door. But when she opened the door, her appetite was obliterated: the smell of cat spray smelled worse than her eighth-grade math teacher's breath. Of course, because she remained hopeful for a romantic evening, she put on her best face, tried not to grimace, and gave her boyfriend the flowers she'd picked up on the way. They chat; everything is going fine; he goes to the kitchen to check on dinner; she hears his shriek. The cat has stolen all of the food! Upon searching, they find the cat under the sofa, not only with their dinner, but with the writer's wallet, her favorite picture of her mom torn in half, her new leather jacket now full of cat hairs. This cat not only stinks, he's a thief as well. Still, the evening need not be a total waste. They order pizza, have some wine. She and her man talk; their moods improve, and she decides that it might be a nice time to kiss. She pulls the old yawn trick to get her arm around him, and just as she's ready to kiss him the cat jumps into his lap. "Oh, Pookie, Pookie, Pookie," her boyfriend says, giving himself over to the purring cat. "Damn lap cat," the writer says to herself, and leaves it at that. She has written a paper illustrating that cats are smelly, thieving, and middle class. She has fulfilled her thesis.

Now, you like this paper. It's got a great voice, and it's got humor. You feel, however, that the writer should refine the thesis. It has served the writer well in helping her to organize, control, predict, and define her essay; however, she needs now to consider how to choose words and a tone which will hook the reader and reel him in. You explain to the writer that her thesis can be humorous, that she can feel free to be extreme, because a funny, exaggerated thesis would suit this funny, exaggerated paper.

After some doodling and some dialogue, the writer comes up with the following thesis: "All cats should be exterminated because they are the stinking, kleptomaniacal darlings of the bourgeoisie." You laugh; you like it. Moreover, the thesis has given the writer an ending for her essay: she exterminates the cat in her boyfriend's microwave, convinces him to get a goldfish instead, and the two of them live happily ever after. The writer is happy. The tutor is happy. The paper works.

While you will likely not encounter a "cat" assignment at Dartmouth, this sort of experience with writing a thesis is a common one. Even when papers are more sophisticated than this one - even when the subject is Hitler's rise to power, or Freud's treatment of taboo - writers will often write a working thesis, one that guides them through the writing process. Then they will return to the thesis, sometimes several times before their paper is finished, revising it to better fit their paper's increasingly refined argument and tone.

Polishing the Thesis Sentence

Look at the sentence's structure. Is the main idea of the paper placed appropriately in the main clause? If there are parallel points made in the paper, does the thesis sentence signal this to the reader via some parallel structure? If the paper makes an interesting but necessary aside, is that aside predicted - perhaps in a parenthetical element? Remember: the structure of the thesis sentence also signals much to the reader about the structure of the argument. Be sure that the thesis reflects, reliably, what the paper itself is going to say.

As to the style of the sentence: hold the thesis sentence to the highest stylistic standards. Help a writer to make sure that it is as clear and concise as it can be, and that its language and phrasing reflect confidence, eloquence, and grace.

While Sandel argues that pursuing perfection through genetic engineering would decrease our sense of humility, he claims that the sense of solidarity we would lose is also important.

This thesis summarizes several points in Sandel’s argument, but it does not make a claim about how we should understand his argument. A reader who read Sandel’s argument would not also need to read an essay based on this descriptive thesis.  

Broad thesis (arguable, but difficult to support with evidence) 

Michael Sandel’s arguments about genetic engineering do not take into consideration all the relevant issues.

This is an arguable claim because it would be possible to argue against it by saying that Michael Sandel’s arguments do take all of the relevant issues into consideration. But the claim is too broad. Because the thesis does not specify which “issues” it is focused on—or why it matters if they are considered—readers won’t know what the rest of the essay will argue, and the writer won’t know what to focus on. If there is a particular issue that Sandel does not address, then a more specific version of the thesis would include that issue—hand an explanation of why it is important.  

Arguable thesis with analytical claim 

While Sandel argues persuasively that our instinct to “remake” (54) ourselves into something ever more perfect is a problem, his belief that we can always draw a line between what is medically necessary and what makes us simply “better than well” (51) is less convincing.

This is an arguable analytical claim. To argue for this claim, the essay writer will need to show how evidence from the article itself points to this interpretation. It’s also a reasonable scope for a thesis because it can be supported with evidence available in the text and is neither too broad nor too narrow.  

Arguable thesis with normative claim 

Given Sandel’s argument against genetic enhancement, we should not allow parents to decide on using Human Growth Hormone for their children.

This thesis tells us what we should do about a particular issue discussed in Sandel’s article, but it does not tell us how we should understand Sandel’s argument.  

Questions to ask about your thesis 

• Is the thesis truly arguable? Does it speak to a genuine dilemma in the source, or would most readers automatically agree with it?  
• Is the thesis too obvious? Again, would most or all readers agree with it without needing to see your argument?  
• Is the thesis complex enough to require a whole essay's worth of argument?  
• Is the thesis supportable with evidence from the text rather than with generalizations or outside research?  
• Would anyone want to read a paper in which this thesis was developed? That is, can you explain what this paper is adding to our understanding of a problem, question, or topic?
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Synopsis: "Tell them what you are going to tell them (i.e., your thesis statement), tell them (the body of your paper), tell them what you told them (your conclusion)."

Can you spot the thesis sentence(s) in this paragraph? A thesis sentence is a single sentence that summarizes the main idea of your topic and declares your position on it. This single sentence (sometimes two, almost never three) is the result of your thinking about the assignment and the information you have found. Before you can create a good thesis statement you need to collect and organize information, look for connections between known facts, and think about the significance of these connections. Most essays, whether compare/contrast, argumentative, explanatory, or narrative, have thesis statements that take a position and present evidence for that position being true. Unless your essay is simply to inform, your thesis is considered 'persuasive'. A persuasive thesis usually contains an opinion and the reason why your opinion is true. (A good way to write a thesis statement is to consider what is true in the articles, etc., you have read, and then describe how you know it is true. When you can do that in one or two sentences you probably have a good thesis sentence.) Once you have thought about the information you have found, you will likely have a “working thesis” that has the main idea of your paper and you will also have some thoughts about how to support your thesis statement with evidence. Both how you show the evidence that supports your thesis statement, and the exact wording of your thesis statement, are likely to need to change some as you do more reading and as you write. This is natural and quite common.

• Length: A thesis statement can be short or long, depending on how many points it mentions. Usually, it is only one relatively short and informative sentence. It contains at least two clauses, usually an independent clause (the opinion, which is usually stated first) and a dependent clause (the reasons for that opinion, usually coming after the opinion). Aim for a single sentence that is maybe two lines long, or maybe about 30 to 40 words long.
• Position: A thesis statement belongs at the beginning of an essay. It is a sentence that tells the reader what the writer is going to discuss. (Teachers will have different preferences for approximately where the thesis should be, but generally it is in the introduction paragraph, often within the last two or three sentences of that paragraph.)
• Strength: For a persuasive thesis to be strong, it needs to be arguable. This means that the statement is somewhat not obvious (to people unfamiliar with the articles/books/etc. you have been reading), and it is not something that everyone agrees is true. (The body paragraphs of your paper explain why you are convinced your thesis statement is true.)

Writing a thesis statement takes more thought than many other parts of an essay. But, because a thesis statement summarizes your entire argument in just a few words, it is worth taking the time to compose this sentence as early in your paper-writing as possible. It can help focus your research and how you present your evidence so that your essay is informative, focused, and gives your readers something to think about. (Do not worry if you discover that you can write a thesis sentence that better summarizes/introduces your paper after you write your conclusion - by the time you 'finish' your paper you have thought a lot more about what you need, or want, to say. So, it is not surprising that you might discover a better way to describe your paper than you had when you started your paper.)

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• How to Write an Abstract for a Dissertation or Thesis
• Doing a PhD

What is a Thesis or Dissertation Abstract?

The Cambridge English Dictionary defines an abstract in academic writing as being “ a few sentences that give the main ideas in an article or a scientific paper ” and the Collins English Dictionary says “ an abstract of an article, document, or speech is a short piece of writing that gives the main points of it ”.

Whether you’re writing up your Master’s dissertation or PhD thesis, the abstract will be a key element of this document that you’ll want to make sure you give proper attention to.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

The aim of a thesis abstract is to give the reader a broad overview of what your research project was about and what you found that was novel, before he or she decides to read the entire thesis. The reality here though is that very few people will read the entire thesis, and not because they’re necessarily disinterested but because practically it’s too large a document for most people to have the time to read. The exception to this is your PhD examiner, however know that even they may not read the entire length of the document.

Some people may still skip to and read specific sections throughout your thesis such as the methodology, but the fact is that the abstract will be all that most read and will therefore be the section they base their opinions about your research on. In short, make sure you write a good, well-structured abstract.

How Long Should an Abstract Be?

If you’re a PhD student, having written your 100,000-word thesis, the abstract will be the 300 word summary included at the start of the thesis that succinctly explains the motivation for your study (i.e. why this research was needed), the main work you did (i.e. the focus of each chapter), what you found (the results) and concluding with how your research study contributed to new knowledge within your field.

Woodrow Wilson, the 28th President of the United States of America, once famously said:

The point here is that it’s easier to talk open-endedly about a subject that you know a lot about than it is to condense the key points into a 10-minute speech; the same applies for an abstract. Three hundred words is not a lot of words which makes it even more difficult to condense three (or more) years of research into a coherent, interesting story.

What Makes a Good PhD Thesis Abstract?

Whilst the abstract is one of the first sections in your PhD thesis, practically it’s probably the last aspect that you’ll ending up writing before sending the document to print. The reason being that you can’t write a summary about what you did, what you found and what it means until you’ve done the work.

A good abstract is one that can clearly explain to the reader in 300 words:

• What your research field actually is,
• What the gap in knowledge was in your field,
• The overarching aim and objectives of your PhD in response to these gaps,
• What methods you employed to achieve these,
• You key results and findings,
• How your work has added to further knowledge in your field of study.

Another way to think of this structure is:

• Introduction,
• Aims and objectives,
• Discussion,
• Conclusion.

Following this ‘formulaic’ approach to writing the abstract should hopefully make it a little easier to write but you can already see here that there’s a lot of information to convey in a very limited number of words.

How Do You Write a Good PhD Thesis Abstract?

The biggest challenge you’ll have is getting all the 6 points mentioned above across in your abstract within the limit of 300 words . Your particular university may give some leeway in going a few words over this but it’s good practice to keep within this; the art of succinctly getting your information across is an important skill for a researcher to have and one that you’ll be called on to use regularly as you write papers for peer review.

Keep It Concise

Every word in the abstract is important so make sure you focus on only the key elements of your research and the main outcomes and significance of your project that you want the reader to know about. You may have come across incidental findings during your research which could be interesting to discuss but this should not happen in the abstract as you simply don’t have enough words. Furthermore, make sure everything you talk about in your thesis is actually described in the main thesis.

Make a Unique Point Each Sentence

Keep the sentences short and to the point. Each sentence should give the reader new, useful information about your research so there’s no need to write out your project title again. Give yourself one or two sentences to introduce your subject area and set the context for your project. Then another sentence or two to explain the gap in the knowledge; there’s no need or expectation for you to include references in the abstract.

Explain Your Research

Some people prefer to write their overarching aim whilst others set out their research questions as they correspond to the structure of their thesis chapters; the approach you use is up to you, as long as the reader can understand what your dissertation or thesis had set out to achieve. Knowing this will help the reader better understand if your results help to answer the research questions or if further work is needed.

Keep It Factual

Keep the content of the abstract factual; that is to say that you should avoid bringing too much or any opinion into it, which inevitably can make the writing seem vague in the points you’re trying to get across and even lacking in structure.

Write, Edit and Then Rewrite

Spend suitable time editing your text, and if necessary, completely re-writing it. Show the abstract to others and ask them to explain what they understand about your research – are they able to explain back to you each of the 6 structure points, including why your project was needed, the research questions and results, and the impact it had on your research field? It’s important that you’re able to convey what new knowledge you contributed to your field but be mindful when writing your abstract that you don’t inadvertently overstate the conclusions, impact and significance of your work.

Thesis and Dissertation Abstract Examples

Perhaps the best way to understand how to write a thesis abstract is to look at examples of what makes a good and bad abstract.

Example of A Bad Abstract

Let’s start with an example of a bad thesis abstract:

In this project on “The Analysis of the Structural Integrity of 3D Printed Polymers for use in Aircraft”, my research looked at how 3D printing of materials can help the aviation industry in the manufacture of planes. Plane parts can be made at a lower cost using 3D printing and made lighter than traditional components. This project investigated the structural integrity of EBM manufactured components, which could revolutionise the aviation industry.

What Makes This a Bad Abstract

Hopefully you’ll have spotted some of the reasons this would be considered a poor abstract, not least because the author used up valuable words by repeating the lengthy title of the project in the abstract.

Working through our checklist of the 6 key points you want to convey to the reader:

• There has been an attempt to introduce the research area , albeit half-way through the abstract but it’s not clear if this is a materials science project about 3D printing or is it about aircraft design.
• There’s no explanation about where the gap in the knowledge is that this project attempted to address.
• We can see that this project was focussed on the topic of structural integrity of materials in aircraft but the actual research aims or objectives haven’t been defined.
• There’s no mention at all of what the author actually did to investigate structural integrity. For example was this an experimental study involving real aircraft, or something in the lab, computer simulations etc.
• The author also doesn’t tell us a single result of his research, let alone the key findings !
• There’s a bold claim in the last sentence of the abstract that this project could revolutionise the aviation industry, and this may well be the case, but based on the abstract alone there is no evidence to support this as it’s not even clear what the author did .

This is an extreme example but is a good way to illustrate just how unhelpful a poorly written abstract can be. At only 71 words long, it definitely hasn’t maximised the amount of information that could be presented and the what they have presented has lacked clarity and structure.

A final point to note is the use of the EBM acronym, which stands for Electron Beam Melting in the context of 3D printing; this is a niche acronym for the author to assume that the reader would know the meaning of. It’s best to avoid acronyms in your abstract all together even if it’s something that you might expect most people to know about, unless you specifically define the meaning first.

Example of A Good Abstract

Having seen an example of a bad thesis abstract, now lets look at an example of a good PhD thesis abstract written about the same (fictional) project:

Additive manufacturing (AM) of titanium alloys has the potential to enable cheaper and lighter components to be produced with customised designs for use in aircraft engines. Whilst the proof-of-concept of these have been promising, the structural integrity of AM engine parts in response to full thrust and temperature variations is not clear.

The primary aim of this project was to determine the fracture modes and mechanisms of AM components designed for use in Boeing 747 engines. To achieve this an explicit finite element (FE) model was developed to simulate the environment and parameters that the engine is exposed to during flight. The FE model was validated using experimental data replicating the environmental parameters in a laboratory setting using ten AM engine components provided by the industry sponsor. The validated FE model was then used to investigate the extent of crack initiation and propagation as the environment parameters were adjusted.

This project was the first to investigate fracture patterns in AM titanium components used in aircraft engines; the key finding was that the presence of cavities within the structures due to errors in the printing process, significantly increased the risk of fracture. Secondly, the simulations showed that cracks formed within AM parts were more likely to worsen and lead to component failure at subzero temperatures when compared to conventionally manufactured parts. This has demonstrated an important safety concern which needs to be addressed before AM parts can be used in commercial aircraft.

What Makes This a Good Abstract

Having read this ‘good abstract’ you should have a much better understand about what the subject area is about, where the gap in the knowledge was, the aim of the project, the methods that were used, key results and finally the significance of these results. To break these points down further, from this good abstract we now know that:

• The research area is around additive manufacturing (i.e. 3D printing) of materials for use in aircraft.
• The gap in knowledge was how these materials will behave structural when used in aircraft engines.
• The aim was specifically to investigate how the components can fracture.
• The methods used to investigate this were a combination of computational and lab based experimental modelling.
• The key findings were the increased risk of fracture of these components due to the way they are manufactured.
• The significance of these findings were that it showed a potential risk of component failure that could comprise the safety of passengers and crew on the aircraft.

The abstract text has a much clearer flow through these different points in how it’s written and has made much better use of the available word count. Acronyms have even been used twice in this good abstract but they were clearly defined the first time they were introduced in the text so that there was no confusion about their meaning.

The abstract you write for your dissertation or thesis should succinctly explain to the reader why the work of your research was needed, what you did, what you found and what it means. Most people that come across your thesis, including any future employers, are likely to read only your abstract. Even just for this reason alone, it’s so important that you write the best abstract you can; this will not only convey your research effectively but also put you in the best light possible as a researcher.

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• What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

Published on 15 September 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on 5 December 2023.

A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as the final step of a PhD program in the UK.

Writing a thesis can be a daunting experience. Indeed, alongside a dissertation , it is the longest piece of writing students typically complete. It relies on your ability to conduct research from start to finish: designing your research , collecting data , developing a robust analysis, drawing strong conclusions , and writing concisely .

Thesis template

You can also download our full thesis template in the format of your choice below. Our template includes a ready-made table of contents , as well as guidance for what each chapter should include. It’s easy to make it your own, and can help you get started.

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Table of contents

Thesis vs. thesis statement, how to structure a thesis, acknowledgements or preface, list of figures and tables, list of abbreviations, introduction, literature review, methodology, reference list, proofreading and editing, defending your thesis, frequently asked questions about theses.

You may have heard the word thesis as a standalone term or as a component of academic writing called a thesis statement . Keep in mind that these are two very different things.

• A thesis statement is a very common component of an essay, particularly in the humanities. It usually comprises 1 or 2 sentences in the introduction of your essay , and should clearly and concisely summarise the central points of your academic essay .
• A thesis is a long-form piece of academic writing, often taking more than a full semester to complete. It is generally a degree requirement to complete a PhD program.
• In many countries, particularly the UK, a dissertation is generally written at the bachelor’s or master’s level.
• In the US, a dissertation is generally written as a final step toward obtaining a PhD.

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The final structure of your thesis depends on a variety of components, such as:

• Your discipline
• Your theoretical approach

Humanities theses are often structured more like a longer-form essay . Just like in an essay, you build an argument to support a central thesis.

In both hard and social sciences, theses typically include an introduction , literature review , methodology section ,  results section , discussion section , and conclusion section . These are each presented in their own dedicated section or chapter. In some cases, you might want to add an appendix .

Thesis examples

We’ve compiled a short list of thesis examples to help you get started.

• Example thesis #1:   ‘Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the “Noble Savage” on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807’ by Suchait Kahlon.
• Example thesis #2: ‘”A Starving Man Helping Another Starving Man”: UNRRA, India, and the Genesis of Global Relief, 1943-1947’ by Julian Saint Reiman.

The very first page of your thesis contains all necessary identifying information, including:

• Your full title
• Your full name
• Your department
• Your institution and degree program
• Your submission date.

Sometimes the title page also includes your student ID, the name of your supervisor, or the university’s logo. Check out your university’s guidelines if you’re not sure.

Read more about title pages

The acknowledgements section is usually optional. Its main point is to allow you to thank everyone who helped you in your thesis journey, such as supervisors, friends, or family. You can also choose to write a preface , but it’s typically one or the other, not both.

Read more about acknowledgements Read more about prefaces

An abstract is a short summary of your thesis. Usually a maximum of 300 words long, it’s should include brief descriptions of your research objectives , methods, results, and conclusions. Though it may seem short, it introduces your work to your audience, serving as a first impression of your thesis.

Read more about abstracts

A table of contents lists all of your sections, plus their corresponding page numbers and subheadings if you have them. This helps your reader seamlessly navigate your document.

Your table of contents should include all the major parts of your thesis. In particular, don’t forget the the appendices. If you used heading styles, it’s easy to generate an automatic table Microsoft Word.

Read more about tables of contents

While not mandatory, if you used a lot of tables and/or figures, it’s nice to include a list of them to help guide your reader. It’s also easy to generate one of these in Word: just use the ‘Insert Caption’ feature.

Read more about lists of figures and tables

If you have used a lot of industry- or field-specific abbreviations in your thesis, you should include them in an alphabetised list of abbreviations . This way, your readers can easily look up any meanings they aren’t familiar with.

Read more about lists of abbreviations

Relatedly, if you find yourself using a lot of very specialised or field-specific terms that may not be familiar to your reader, consider including a glossary . Alphabetise the terms you want to include with a brief definition.

Read more about glossaries

An introduction sets up the topic, purpose, and relevance of your thesis, as well as expectations for your reader. This should:

• Ground your research topic , sharing any background information your reader may need
• Define the scope of your work
• Introduce any existing research on your topic, situating your work within a broader problem or debate
• State your research question(s)
• Outline (briefly) how the remainder of your work will proceed

In other words, your introduction should clearly and concisely show your reader the “what, why, and how” of your research.

Read more about introductions

A literature review helps you gain a robust understanding of any extant academic work on your topic, encompassing:

• Selecting relevant sources
• Determining the credibility of your sources
• Critically evaluating each of your sources
• Drawing connections between sources, including any themes, patterns, conflicts, or gaps

A literature review is not merely a summary of existing work. Rather, your literature review should ultimately lead to a clear justification for your own research, perhaps via:

• Addressing a gap in the literature
• Building on existing knowledge to draw new conclusions
• Exploring a new theoretical or methodological approach
• Introducing a new solution to an unresolved problem
• Definitively advocating for one side of a theoretical debate

Read more about literature reviews

Theoretical framework

Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework, but these are not the same thing. A theoretical framework defines and analyses the concepts and theories that your research hinges on.

Read more about theoretical frameworks

Your methodology chapter shows your reader how you conducted your research. It should be written clearly and methodically, easily allowing your reader to critically assess the credibility of your argument. Furthermore, your methods section should convince your reader that your method was the best way to answer your research question.

A methodology section should generally include:

• Your overall approach ( quantitative vs. qualitative )
• Your research methods (e.g., a longitudinal study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., interviews or a controlled experiment
• Any tools or materials you used (e.g., computer software)
• The data analysis methods you chose (e.g., statistical analysis , discourse analysis )
• A strong, but not defensive justification of your methods

Read more about methodology sections

Your results section should highlight what your methodology discovered. These two sections work in tandem, but shouldn’t repeat each other. While your results section can include hypotheses or themes, don’t include any speculation or new arguments here.

Your results section should:

• State each (relevant) result with any (relevant) descriptive statistics (e.g., mean , standard deviation ) and inferential statistics (e.g., test statistics , p values )
• Explain how each result relates to the research question
• Determine whether the hypothesis was supported

Additional data (like raw numbers or interview transcripts ) can be included as an appendix . You can include tables and figures, but only if they help the reader better understand your results.

Read more about results sections

Your discussion section is where you can interpret your results in detail. Did they meet your expectations? How well do they fit within the framework that you built? You can refer back to any relevant source material to situate your results within your field, but leave most of that analysis in your literature review.

For any unexpected results, offer explanations or alternative interpretations of your data.

Read more about discussion sections

Your thesis conclusion should concisely answer your main research question. It should leave your reader with an ultra-clear understanding of your central argument, and emphasise what your research specifically has contributed to your field.

Why does your research matter? What recommendations for future research do you have? Lastly, wrap up your work with any concluding remarks.

Read more about conclusions

In order to avoid plagiarism , don’t forget to include a full reference list at the end of your thesis, citing the sources that you used. Choose one citation style and follow it consistently throughout your thesis, taking note of the formatting requirements of each style.

Which style you choose is often set by your department or your field, but common styles include MLA , Chicago , and APA.

Create APA citations Create MLA citations

In order to stay clear and concise, your thesis should include the most essential information needed to answer your research question. However, chances are you have many contributing documents, like interview transcripts or survey questions . These can be added as appendices , to save space in the main body.

Read more about appendices

Once you’re done writing, the next part of your editing process begins. Leave plenty of time for proofreading and editing prior to submission. Nothing looks worse than grammar mistakes or sloppy spelling errors!

Consider using a professional thesis editing service to make sure your final project is perfect.

Once you’ve submitted your final product, it’s common practice to have a thesis defense, an oral component of your finished work. This is scheduled by your advisor or committee, and usually entails a presentation and Q&A session.

After your defense, your committee will meet to determine if you deserve any departmental honors or accolades. However, keep in mind that defenses are usually just a formality. If there are any serious issues with your work, these should be resolved with your advisor way before a defense.

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation shouldn’t take up more than 5-7% of your overall word count.

When you mention different chapters within your text, it’s considered best to use Roman numerals for most citation styles. However, the most important thing here is to remain consistent whenever using numbers in your dissertation .

If you only used a few abbreviations in your thesis or dissertation, you don’t necessarily need to include a list of abbreviations .

If your abbreviations are numerous, or if you think they won’t be known to your audience, it’s never a bad idea to add one. They can also improve readability, minimising confusion about abbreviations unfamiliar to your reader.

A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical first steps in your writing process. It helps you to lay out and organise your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.

Generally, an outline contains information on the different sections included in your thesis or dissertation, such as:

• Your anticipated title
• Your abstract
• Your chapters (sometimes subdivided into further topics like literature review, research methods, avenues for future research, etc.)

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Types of Sentence to Master: A Hands-On Tour to English Grammar

Table of contents

• 1 Main Four Kinds of Sentences in English
• 2 4 Different Types of Sentences in One Comparison Table
• 3 Saying What Is What: Exploring Declarative Sentences
• 4.1 The Language of Strong Emotion: Exclamatory Sentences
• 5.1 How to Improve Your Writing: Trying Different Sentence Styles
• 5.2 Offer Diversity to Improve the Flow
• 5.3 Final Advice After Reviewing Different Sentence Types

Sentences are the core of any academic work either dissertation or thesis. Constructing them in different ways can both enrich your reader’s experience and confuse them with obscure information. In today’s material, we aim to do the first ─ supplement you with critical info about sentences, so later you will:

• Discover 4 types of sentences and how to use any type of sentence you need.
• Find out various types of sentences according to their structure and their definitions.
• Review the comprehensive table with all four types of sentences and many examples for every kind of sentences.
• Find valuable tips and practical methods to enhance your writing skills.
• Start by exploring the basics of sentence types, their role, and the structure presented below.

Make sure to review each point so that you can create not a pile of confusing sentences but a comprehensive text that flows smoothly from one sentence to another!

Main Four Kinds of Sentences in English

Have you ever thought you could express yourself more clearly with a proper sentence construction process? ​​Indeed, for effective communication, all students must grasp the nuances of language, especially the four types of sentences.

In English, there are four basic types of sentences: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. They all have a distinct function, whether making a declaration, posing a question, issuing instructions, or describing feelings.

4 Different Types of Sentences in One Comparison Table

We’ll examine the four types of sentences in the following comparison chart. For each type, we’ll explain what it does and how it’s built by showing examples from everyday talk.

Saying What Is What: Exploring Declarative Sentences

Declarative ones are the most prevalent kind of phrases. Their primary duty is to tell information without asking questions or giving orders. Thus, using different sentences and including details in your statements makes you clearer in communication.

Take a look at these declarative sentences:

• Roses are red, and violets are blue.
• His students play the violin perfectly.

They ask nothing and don’t make orders; they just state the facts or share their opinions.

Structurally, declarative sentences operate according to the subject-verb-object pattern: ​​the subject performs the action indicated by the verb upon an object. How do you recognize them?

Declarative sentences typically have a period at the end. They have a calm tone, although they may disclose moods depending on the circumstances. Accordingly, they are the building blocks of both written and spoken communication.

Just Asking: About Interrogative Sentences

Want to ask a question? It’s time to craft some interrogative sentences! Their main function is to provoke a response and get certain information from others.

Here are a few examples of interrogative sentences:

• Where is the independent clause in this sentence?
• Are you available for a quick review?
• Have you been in this restaurant before?
• Who joined you at the concert?

Any interrogative sentence seeks to identify and gather answers. For this purpose, from a structural standpoint, they begin with “ who ,” “ what ,” “ where ,” “ how ,” “ why ,” and “ when ” question elements. At the end of the sentence, there is an obligatory question mark. Thus, these elements help define the information being sought.

Sometimes, interrogative sentences switch the order of the subject and verb to form yes/no questions. As a teaching instance, “ She is going to the market ” transforms into a question: “ Is she going to the market? ”.

Additionally, a conjunctive adverb can pose inquiries that suggest opposition. Example: “ Why did you leave the prom so early? Did you manage to talk with other students? ” Likewise, it allows for creating a complete thought in the last question.

Apparently, interrogative sentences play a critical role in interactions by fostering dialogue. When we ask questions, we’re inviting others to share knowledge. As a result, it helps us receive the needed information, hear interesting quotations, and keep the conversation moving. Whether chatting, having a serious conversation, or writing, asking questions is a great approach to learning something new.

Taking the Headship: The Role of Imperative Sentences

Phrases that issue directives, provide guidelines, or submit requests are known as imperative sentences. Their main purpose is to deliver instructions or give an atmosphere of hurry or seriousness.

As an illustration, “ Open the door ”, “ Make your argumentative essay shorter ”, or “ Write to me later, please ” are imperative sentences.

As you can see, imperative sentences start with the verb in its base form since they frequently exclude the subject. Thus, they clarify and streamline the request. For example, “You contact me” changes into “ Contact me ” without “ you .”

Consequently, imperative sentences are adaptable and function as a communication channel to accomplish tasks quickly. Indeed, they are fundamental for sharing advice or demands, whether given to someone to follow, made as an idea, or provided direction.

The Language of Strong Emotion: Exclamatory Sentences

Exclamatory sentences express thrill, surprise, delight, amazement, or anger. Therefore, their main responsibility is to fully portray these strong feelings, giving the message greater focus and intensity.

“ What a great rhetorical essay! ” and “ Wow, I like the view! ” are examples of an exclamatory sentence. Their expressions of delight and adoration heighten the statement’s effect.

No wonder these sentences typically start with phrases like “ Wow ”, “ What ” or “ How ”, and then the subject and verb come next. Obviously, an exclamation point after a sentence designates an exclamatory statement and indicates an enhanced mood.

As a rule, exclamatory sentences use strong words and punctuation to show how strong their emotions are. When you say, “ Wow, I love this! ” with much energy, it catches people’s interest and represents your feelings. Thus, this approach helps students to express when they’re super excited, surprised, or amazed.

Four Types of Sentences According to Structure

Depending on their sentence structure, sentences vary. In fact, each type creates a different system for structuring ideas, improving students’ writing and speech in harmony and precision. Now, let’s examine the four primary categories of sentences:

• Simple Sentences: It’s the simplest kind with one independent clause. An independent clause involves a subject and a verb as a predicate and offers a whole notion. Apparently, simple statements are easy to understand since they are clear-cut and brief. For instance, “ The water boils ” is a simple sentence.
• Compound Sentences: These join two or more separate clauses. For this reason, two or more independent clauses are joined by coordinating conjunctions like “and,” “but,” and “or”. In a compound sentence like “ My brother works, and my sister sings ”, every clause can be understood as a whole. Besides, writing becomes more nuanced by using compound phrases and a coordinating conjunction to connect every clause and similar concepts.
• Complex Sentences: A complex sentence consists of one independent clause plus at least one dependent clause. Thus, independent and dependent clauses cannot stand alone as a full sentence. It is standard to include dependent clauses with linking words like “ because ,” “ although ,” or “since.” For example, “ Although my brother works, my sister sings. ”
• Compound-Complex Sentences: Here, the elements of both compound and complex sentences are united. They have a minimum of one dependent clause and two independent clauses, but be aware that there can be more than two independent clauses. Using a compound-complex sentence, it is possible to describe several connected thoughts and relationships in a single statement.  Example: “ My brother works, and my sister sings when no one is home to hear. ” However, be careful with every comma and use punctuation correctly ; these sentences are tricky.

How to Improve Your Writing: Trying Different Sentence Styles

Want to write a good essay ? Explore various sentence styles and use the writing tips and techniques we describe below.

Use Declarative Sentences Briefly

Make sure your declarative sentences are clear and short. Be direct in your remarks, and refrain from using extraneous words. Say, for instance, “I am in a cafe”, not “At this wonderful moment, I am sitting in a cafe surrounded by some students, cups, and plates with cheesecake.” Remember: a simple sentence is better when you must quickly pass the info.

Active Participation With Interrogative Sentences

Interrogative sentences are excellent for grabbing your readers’ attention by raising queries or encouraging reflection. They force students to find an answer. “What marvels lurk across the ocean?” is just one example.

Captivate Focus Using Imperative Sentences

An imperative sentence with imperatives draws the reader in and motivates engagement. So, make use of them to offer commands. Take “Imagine yourself in the next five years” as an example.

Describe Feelings With Declarative Phrases

Declarative sentences highlight a point of view. They’re ideal for adding passion to your work. For example: “What an amazing scene!”

Offer Diversity to Improve the Flow

Writing has more rhythm when sentence patterns are switched. For simple narrative writing, use declarative sentences; for intense drama or action, use imperatives and their command. Meanwhile, use interrogative sentences for mystery or rhetorical impact and exclamatory types of statements for a personal reaction. Take a look:

Declarative: “He walks to the office every Monday.”

Interrogative: “Will I ever see her again?”

Imperative: “Hurry up! Students are coming!”

Exclamatory: “How wonderful she looked that night!”

Use these methods to engage audience members, arouse their emotions, and develop a lively story with all four types of sentences.

Final Advice After Reviewing Different Sentence Types

You occasionally write regardless of who you are ─ a writer, student, or astronaut. That is why you must be able to identify different types of sentences to write smoothly. By learning how to employ declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences, you can create texts that convey your message clearly. However, there is a way to do it faster: using an essay writing service well-versed in every sentence type. Keep it in mind the next time you sit down to write, and consider experimenting with any sentence structure to improve the quality of your work!

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Gsas students shine in 2024 three minute thesis competition.

April 30, 2024

Ayla Cordell | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

The 2024 Three Minute Thesis Competition (3MT) at Brandeis Graduate School of Arts & Sciences was not Will Dahl’s first rodeo. “It took me two tries,” the Molecular and Cell Biology PhD student said. “On my first attempt last year, I missed a line and stood silent for what felt like ages. To be honest, I was terrified!” This year, Will took home the first place prize for the Sciences of $1,000 and the overall win. He credits his success to careful planning, refinement, and lots of practice. He focused on formatting his talk as a story that would resonate with a wide audience: “Every sentence must be calibrated to communicate, and there is no room for asides. The talk converges from broader impacts to the actual thesis.”

Explaining your research in just three minutes is a tall order, but on April 5, the third annual 3MT Competition, founded by the University of Queensland , saw ten GSAS students meet that very task. Marika McCann, Associate Director of Professional Development at GSAS and member of the 3MT team, alongside Associate Professor of Anthropology and Faculty Director of Professional Development Jon Anjaria; Anahita Zare of MRSEC ; and Becky Prigge, Assistant Dean of Student Affairs at GSAS, said this about the 2024 competitors: “Our team was very impressed with how hard our students worked and the overall enthusiasm they brought to their talks. The audience learned so much from our students in this short time, including the possibility of early detection of Parkinson’s Disease, the importance of examining circadian rhythms, patterns in Honduran ceramics, and Tamil transfeminine performance in post-war Sri Lanka.”

Under the bright white stage lights and looking out upon an audience of friends, family, members of the Brandeis community, and a panel of five judges, finalists took to the Spingold Theatre stage. While it was certainly nerve-wracking, contestants noted the benefits of presenting in this format.

Manning Zhang, who won first place in the Humanities/Creative Arts/Social Sciences category, said the best moment of the competition was standing on the stage for the final round with rushing adrenaline. Acknowledging that few friends and family know about what she researches in Sociology and Health Policy, she began sharing more with them to understand how different people would react to her research. While this helped her prepare for the competition, it ended up holding deeper meaning for Zhang: “It took me a really long time to pursue my research and say, ‘This is meaningful.’ Getting feedback from people and hearing that they understand what I’m doing is really important to me.”

Victoria Khaghani, a Master’s student in Anthropology who was Runner Up in the Humanities/Creative Arts/Social Sciences category, echoed this sentiment. “You have to push yourself pretty hard to be able to condense your research down. But being able to then present my research to my family and have them say, ‘We finally understand what you’re doing,’ where they can understand the importance of it…that was huge.”

While contestants hoped to teach their audience something about their research, some finished the competition having learned new things about themselves. “I really like speaking in front of people,” Pranav Ojha, a Molecular and Cell Biology PhD student, discovered. “Figuring out what words to say, how to communicate them to inspire care - I enjoyed that process, and I’m coming out of it with different career ideas.” His passion for public speaking was evident - Ojha finished the competition with a total $1,250, after winning both Runner Up in the Sciences and the People’s Choice Award, which is determined through audience vote.

The final round may have showcased three minutes of individual presentation, but 3MT thrives as a collective and collaborative effort. “This is one of the only opportunities GSAS students at Brandeis have to share their research with the overall Brandeis community, outside of their departments,” McCann noted. Zhang (Sociology and Health Policy) even reached out to 2022 winner Emiliano Gutierrez-Popoca (PhD English ‘23), whose talk on Master-Servant Relations in Early Modern Drama led him to the National 3MT competition. Though they come from different disciplines, 3MT provided a platform for shared experience, and Popoca helped Zhang revise her draft for the final round. “I’ve gained a lot of rapport with people I didn’t think I could have rapport with…networking is very precious,” Zhang said. The 3MT community at Brandeis continues to strengthen and grow, and we cannot wait for next year!

Special thanks to 3MT sponsors: Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Materials Research Science and Engineering Center, Mandel Center for the Humanities, Office of the Vice Provost for Research, and the Division of Sciences

This year’s winners include:

First Place - William Dahl (overall winner), Molecular and Cell Biology, Stressed Cells' Secret Weapon for Survival

Runner Up - Pranav Ojha, Molecular and Cell Biology, What Makes our Clock Tick: A Look at Where It All Starts

Humanities/Social Sciences/Creative Arts

First Place - Manning Zhang, Sociology and Health Policy, Move It or Lose It

Runner Up - Victoria Khaghani, Anthropology, The Devil’s in the Details: Neglected Patterns of Honduras

People’s Choice

Pranav Ojha

How To Reduce Word Count In Your Dissertation, Thesis Or Academics Assignments

(without losing those precious marks).

If you follow some of the advice on this blog, chances are one of your biggest challenges is keeping your academic writing projects within the specified word count limits. It’s a good problem to have (at least compared to having not enough to say), and in this post, I’ll discuss 4 steps to reduce word count without risking losing marks.

First things first – write to think.

Before I get started, it’s worth making an important point regarding writing in general. There are essentially two ways to think about the process of writing :

• Writing as the outcome of thinking – in other words, you think deeply first, construct your argument, and then simply transfer it to paper by way of writing. You do little revising.
• Writing as a form of thinking – in other words, writing helps you flesh out your thinking and develop your arguments. Writing is an iterative process, wherein you might revise numerous times and even rewrite altogether, but this all contributes to a better quality of thinking.

Which side of the fence do you sit on? I’m an avid advocate of the latter perspective and approach – and I’m not alone. Numerous books and journal articles have covered the topic of “writing as thinking”. If the idea interests you, have a look at Henning’s “Finding your way in academic writing.”

In short, putting pen to paper as early as possible (i.e. before you feel “ready”) and then revising as your thoughts develop (as a result of writing) is an excellent way to improve the overall quality of your arguments and academic work. To do this, you cannot constantly fret over word count (at least not while you’re writing). Instead, you need to let the words flow onto paper, and then sort the wheat from the chaff at a later stage. Sure, you need some constraints, but forcing yourself to apply X model within 350 words is going to stifle your flow and limit your depth. Rather let your thoughts flow onto paper, and then trim them down once your thinking is fully fleshed out.

What does this have to do with reducing your word count? It means that word count reduction (particularly, the techniques I’ll cover below) is something you do once you’ve wrapped up your writing, not while you write . Accordingly, all the steps I’ll propose here are to be applied after the fact.

Right, let’s get into it. Follow these 4 steps (in this order) to strategically reduce your word count without losing the “meat” of your assignment/dissertation.

Step 1: Audit for purely descriptive content.

Broadly speaking, content can fall into one of two categories – descriptive or analytical.  Simply put, descriptive content eludes to the “what”, whereas analytical content describes the impact and consequence of the event/factor/situation – in other words, the “so what”. The table below highlights some of the differences between the two:

Ideally, you should try to keep your discussion analytical, rather than descriptive ( read more about this here ). There’s always be a need for some descriptive content, but ideally, this should be limited to only that content which forms the foundation for analytical content. Therefore, the first step of word count reduction is to audit for descriptive content which does not lead to analytical content . In other words, content which is purely descriptive, and is not required to get to the “so what?” content.

Read through your dissertation/thesis/assignment and trim out all content that doesn’t make the analytical cut , or doesn’t form a foundation for analysis. This is your first target – be aggressive with your trimming. Descriptive writing is pure fat and will not earn you marks – kill it!

Step 2: Audit for content which does not contribute towards answering your research question(s).

One of the reasons that it’s so important to set unambiguous research questions in your introduction is that this practice allows you to ringfence the focus of your work. In other words, it helps you to narrow the discussion to only that which is most relevant.

That said, as you write, you will invariably produce a fair deal of content that does not contribute towards your research questions . You’ll naturally digress into an interesting but irrelevant discussion about A, B and C – this might be very intellectually satisfying, but it doesn’t contribute to answering your research question. Therefore, this sort of content is your next target. Re-read your document from start to finish through the lens of your research questions or objectives. That which does not in some way contribute to answering the research question(s) or achieving the objective(s) must go .

Step 3: Audit for overly-detailed section summaries.

A good piece of academic writing should always feature summary paragraphs that link the end of one section/chapter to the beginning of the next. They should do this by summarising the key points of the former to the direction and purpose of the latter. For example:

“In this section, the analysis revealed that the key contributors to the issue included A, B and C. Accordingly, these factors will be analysed in the next chapter.”

By stating this link very clearly, you help the reader (marker) to understand your argument (which is, after all, completely new to them), which in turn helps you earn marks. Therefore, these summary sections are important. However, they can become wordy and repetitive, and you should, therefore, audit them.

Make sure that they are summarising only the absolute highlights of your argument and providing a clear, well-justified link to the next section. Don’t restate your entire chapter. The example above is what you should aim for, namely:

• Key observations/insights/highlights – followed by
• Logical link to next section

If you are extremely over word count, you may even consider removing these sections altogether. After all, it is better to remove summary content than core content. This should, however, be an absolute last resort as doing so can seriously reduce the overall flow of your document and blur the “golden thread” of your argument(s).

Step 4: Audit for wordy, bloated discussion.

This is the easiest of the four steps, and typically what most students look for when trying to reduce word count – but it usually has a comparatively minor impact. Therefore, I’m positioning it as the last step.

Naturally, your dissertation, thesis or assignment document will contain sections which are just plain wordy. This is a result of “writing as thinking” (whether you agree with the approach or not!). Therefore, the last step is to audit for sentences and paragraphs which are just plain wordy and rewrite them more concisely.

Some common trimming opportunities:

• Adjectives and adverbs – although these are sometimes necessary when developing your arguments, they are often just bloat contributors. Additionally, they can create an emotive, subjective tone, which is typically not encouraged in academic writing (where objectivity is essential).
• The word “that” – oftentimes, a sentence can communicate the same point without the inclusion of the word “that”. Use Word’s find function (Ctrl+F) to search for “that” and check where it can be omitted.
• Spaces around mathematical operators – if you’re copying numbers from Excel, chances are there are spaces between mathematical operators which can be removed. For example, p < 0.05 (3 words) can be reduced to p<0.05 (1 word).
• Abbreviate/acronymise repetitive phrases/names – if you’re repeatedly referring to a person(s) or organisation(s) that have multi-word names, create acronyms for them and replace all instances with the acronymised version. For example, “Blue Basket Enterprises” (3 words) can be replaced with “BBE” (1 word). Make sure you introduce the acronym early in the document and consider presenting a list of abbreviations. A word of warning – don’t overuse this tactic, as too many acronyms can make it difficult for the reader to understand what’s going on!

Wrapping up.

There you have it – four steps to reduce your word count without losing your core arguments. To recap, you need to:

• Audit for descriptive (rather than analytical) content.
• Audit for content which doesn’t link to the research question(s)/aim(s).
• Audit for overly detailed section summaries.
• Audit for general wordiness and bloat.

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85 Heartfelt Thank-You Card Messages and Words of Appreciation

A handwritten note is so much more meaningful than a generic store-bought card.

Thank-you messages for gifts

Thank-you messages for wedding presents, birthday thank-you messages, graduation thank-you messages, thank-you messages for help given.

While the etiquette is clear on the necessity of thank-you cards, what goes inside can be a bit trickier. Sure, you can always buy one at any card store, with the sentiment still being very sweet, but a personalized message really goes the extra mile to show someone you cherish their effort, time and ultimately, their sweet gesture.

What is the best thank-you message?

While the best message to write in any kind of card is always a personalized one, we all need a little inspiration sometimes. Start with some of these sentiments and then add an element that makes it your own.

Maybe that's a memory you share from the party where you received a gift, an inside joke from a vacation you went on together or how you plan to use a monetary gift. Whatever it is, don't forget to seal it with love. And while it's best to send thank-you cards as soon as you can after a birthday, wedding , special event or meaningful favor, there's no expiration date on gratitude. Whenever you get to it, they'll appreciate the thought.

• I couldn't have picked out a better gift for myself if I tried.
• I am touched you remembered me.
• Your gift really made me smile.
• I'll think of you every time I use your gift.
• Every time I look at your gift, I'll think of our friendship.
• You didn't have to, but I'm sure glad you did!
• Your presence is my present, but I love this one too. Thank you!
• Thank you for the meaningful present.
• How did you know your gift was just what I needed?
• Receiving your thoughtful present really made my day.
• You know me so well! Thanks for the gift.
• You're the best gift I could ask for, but this one is pretty great too.
• I'll cherish your present always, just like I will our relationship.
• You hit it out of the park again, slugger!
• Finding your present in my mailbox meant so much. Thanks!
• Grateful AF.
• You're so sweet, and so is this gift.

• Thank you for celebrating this milestone with us.
• We're so appreciative to have friends/family like you!
• We can't wait to use [insert gift] in our lives together.
• We appreciate the miles traveled to attend our celebration, and can't thank you enough for being here. It means the world to us.
• We appreciate you coming to celebrate with us.
• Thank you for being a part of our special day.
• Our wedding was so special, and your presence made it even better.
• Thank you for helping us start our life together.
• Your generosity is only outdone by your kindness. Thank you.
• We are so touched by your generous gift.
• We're blessed to have friends like you who are really family.
• We knew you were a great friend, but we didn't realize you were a dancing queen!
• Thank you for making the trip to celebrate our wedding. We appreciate it.
• It means so much that you welcomed me into the family with open arms. Thank you.
• Your marriage is truly #goals for us! Thanks for being such a great example.
• We appreciate all of the time and effort you put in to make our wedding such a success.
• Thank you for being a bridesmaid — hope I wasn't too much of a bridezilla!
• I'd have been lost up there without you. Thanks for being my groomsman.
• Thanks for being you so we could be us.

• Thank you for thinking of me on my special day.
• Another year older, another year wiser, another year I'm so grateful for you.
• Thank you for making my birthday so special!
• Thank you for making me feel so loved on my birthday!
• Getting older is a pleasure with you by my side.
• I'm overwhelmed with love and gratitude for all the birthday wishes. Thank you, from the bottom of my heart.
• You really bring the party! Thanks for dancing the night away.
• Thanks for the best birthday gift ever — of always being older than me.
• Waking up to your birthday text made my whole day.
• Your birthday messages made me feel like royalty. Thanks!
• People like you make every year special.
• I'm so blessed we could spend my special day together. Thanks for being there.
• It means the world that you took the time out of your busy schedule to spend some time with me. Thank you!
• Thanks for being one of the people who knew me when (and for sticking around all these years!)
• You made what can be a tough day so much lighter. Thank you.
• If I have to get older, at least I can spend more time with people like you.

• I'm thankful to have you in my corner as I take this next step.
• I wouldn't be where I am without your help along the way.
• Thank you for being such a great friend and mentor to me. It means a lot.
• Thanks for the thoughtful gift to help start me on my next phase of life.
• I wouldn't have made it this far without you. Thank you for your support.
• It means so much that you were there to celebrate my graduation.
• Seeing you in the crowd made graduating that much sweeter. Thanks for being there!
• You've always been one of my biggest cheerleaders. Thank you for your support.
• I believe in myself because you believed in me first. Thank you.
• Thanks for celebrating this achievement with me.
• Thank you for being the teacher who made me want to come to class.
• I never thought I'd like math/science/English/gym, but you made it fun. Thanks for all you do!
• It's teachers like you who make school a blast. Thanks for all of your hard work for students like me!
• Thank you for being there as I start my next chapter.
• Going off to college is a big step, but you helped me feel ready.
• Thanks for always believing in me.
• It's such a gift that you've always been there for my milestones, and especially this one.

• I am so grateful for your generosity and willingness to lend a hand. You've made a positive impact on my life.
• I don't know where we'd be without you. Thank you for your help.
• Thank you for being my rock.
• You're my port in a storm. Thank you from the bottom of my heart.
• Thanks for always putting up with me. It means more than you know.
• You showed up just when I needed a shoulder to lean on, and it means so much to me.
• There aren't enough words to express what your support means.
• Thank you for always being the person I can count on.
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What we learn about Kafka from his uncensored diaries

On the centenary of his death, a new English translation of the great writer’s journals reveals some surprising details

A fter his death on 3 June 1924, a letter was found in Franz Kafka’s office in Prague addressed to Max Brod. “Dear Max, My last request: Everything I leave behind me ... in the way of diaries, manuscripts, letters (my own and others’), sketches and so on, to be burned unread.”

His friend did not honour Kafka’s wishes. “Brod was unshakably convinced of their immeasurable value to contemporary and future humanity, and he was right,” says Ross Benjamin , whose new translation of the Czech writer’s diaries is published in this centenary year of Kafka’s death.

Two months after Kafka died, Brod signed an agreement to publish his friend’s novels. The Trial came out in in April 1925, The Castle in 1926 and Amerika in 1927. The title of the last of these was Brod’s not Kafka’s: in a 1915 diary entry, Kafka had called the novel Der Verschollene (The Missing Person).

Brod later edited a bowdlerised edition of Kafka’s diaries that, for the best part of a century, has been the basis of German editions and the English translation which, overseen by Hannah Arendt, appeared in 1949. Brod removed passages with homoerotic undertones, put a blue pencil through passages about brothel visits, excised unkind descriptions of Kafka’s fiancee, and elided slurs on those still living, not least Brod himself.

“Kafka’s worldwide reception was shaped by a misrepresentation of what he had actually written,” writes Benjamin in his translator’s preface.

Instead, he reveals Kafka warts and all – as a sexual, troubled, sometimes self-loathing, literary experimenter – and a man more knowingly compromised than Brod thought it proper for his readers to meet.

Here are some of the fresh details that can add to our understanding of the author of Metamorphosis.

Dabbling in nudism

During a stay at a nudist sanatorium, Kafka notes that he stands out among the naked men by keeping his swimming trunks on. “I’m known as the man with the swimming trunks”. Finally, he ditched even those in order to be sketched, writing an entry that Brod trimmed: “Served as a model for Dr Schiller. Without swimming trunks. Exhibitionist experience.” Such modesty, Benjamin surmises, might have been because of shyness, or to do with being circumcised, but not because of the thesis advanced in Alan Bennett’s play Kafka’s Dick, that he had a small penis. Benjamin says: “He writes a lot about his body and his discomfort with his body (unusually tall for the time period, not an ounce of fat, etc) but not about his penis.”

Homoerotic observations

At the same nudist sanatorium, Kafka described “2 beautiful Swedish boys with long legs, which are so formed and taut that one could really only run one’s tongue along them”. Brod rendered the passage thus: “Two handsome Swedish boys with long legs.” And then there is this, Kafka’s description of a fellow train passenger, that Brod saw fit to delete: “His apparently sizeable member makes a large bulge in his pants [ie trousers].” For all that, it’s not yet the moment to dust off those “Uncensored diaries reveal gay Kafka” headlines, counsels Benjamin: “Perhaps the most that such passages tell us is that Kafka was capable of admiring and – at least imaginatively – desiring male bodies.”

Brothel talk

During one visit, Kafka noted a girl by the door, “whose scowling face is Spanish, whose putting her hands on her hips is Spanish and who stretches in a bodice-like dress of prophylactic silk. Hair runs thickly from her navel to her private parts.” Brod omitted the last sentence, which perhaps says more about his than Kafka’s erotic compunctions.

In a later entry, Kafka is among congregants at Prague’s Altneu synagogue on the evening of Yom Kippur when he notices the family of the owner of the brothel he visited a few days earlier. Brod’s editing of this entry – losing the name of the brothel – distorts Kafka’s meaning. “Where Kafka unflinchingly implicated himself in the impurity and false piety he found in the synagogue, “ says Benjamin, “the retouched text portrays Kafka was judging the other congregants from a loftier, less compromised position.”

Internalised antisemitism

Between 1911 and 1912, Kafka attended more than 20 performances by a travelling Yiddish theatre troupe, befriending one of the actors, Jizchak Löwy. In this, Kafka stood out against the prejudice of assimilated German-speaking Jewish bourgeoisie like his father towards impoverished, Yiddish-speaking Jews from the east. One diary entry Brod excised reads: “Löwy – My father about him: He who lies down in bed with dogs gets up with bugs.” Benjamin points out that such antisemitic tropes to do with hygiene, insect infection not to mention comparisons with animals, resurface in Kafka’s fiction. Hence Gregor Samsa waking up as a giant insect in Metamorphosis.

Brod cut another entry in which Kafka implicates himself in his father’s prejudices “L. confessed his gonorrhoea to me; then my hair touched his when I leaned toward his head, I grew frightened due to at least the possibility of lice.”

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Contempt for his fiancee

“If F. has the same repugnance for me as I do, then a marriage is impossible,” wrote Kafka in an entry Benjamin has reinstated. The woman in question, Felice Bauer was twice engaged to Kafka before he, suffering symptoms from the tuberculosis that would kill him, broke it off with her in 1917. Brod kept many disobliging diary entries about Bauer, such as this one: “Bony, empty face that wore its emptiness openly. Bare throat. A blouse thrown on. Looked very domestic in her dress although, as it turned out, she by no means was. (I alienate myself from her a little by inspecting her so closely ...) Almost broken nose. Blonde, somewhat straight, unattractive hair, strong chin.” However, he cut one passage in which Kafka said she looked like a maid.

Workplace ennui

One day while working at the Accident Insurance Institute, Kafka found himself struggling to find a word for a bureaucratic report. In the diary he wrote: “At last I have the word ‘stigmatise’ and the sentence that goes with it, but still hold everything in my mouth with a feeling of disgust and shame as if it were raw meat, cut out of my own flesh (so much effort has it cost me). At last I say it, but retain the great horror that everything in me is ready for a literary work and such a work would be a heavenly dissolution and a real coming alive for me, while here in the office for the sake of so wretched a document I must rob a body capable of such happiness of a piece of its flesh as being like robbing his body of a piece of its flesh.”

What is Kafka up to in this suppressed passage? “He’s self-dramatising, perhaps with some degree of comic hyperbole,” says Benjamin, “and at the same time elaborating on an image that becomes part of his literary repertoire, the poetics of (often tortured and butchered) corporeality we find throughout his work.”

The literary process

Brod removed Kafka’s first great short story, The Judgment, from the diaries. This tale reverses the natural order by having a toothless, decrepit father throwing off his bedclothes and sentencing his son to death. Benjamin reinstates the story, which now sits alongside an entry expressing Kafka’s elation at writing it in a single sitting on 22 September 1912. It represented for him “the total opening of body and soul,” in which “the story evolved as a true birth, covered with filth and slime.”

Where Brod was convinced the function of a diary was therapeutic, involving the expulsion of the intolerable on to paper (“When you keep a diary you usually put down only what is oppressive or irritating,” he wrote in his postscript). Benjamin reckons Kafka was doing something more literary. It was “one of the places where he transformed what he called “the tremendous world I have in my head” into literature.

Brod’s vanity

“Although I have used the blue pencil in the case of attacks on people still alive, I have not considered this sort of censorship necessary in the little that Kafka has to say against myself,” wrote Brod in his postscript to his edition of the diaries. But a passage reinstated by Benjamin reveals otherwise. Kafka noted that a Berlin reviewer called the novelist Franz Werfel “far more significant” than Brod, and that Brod “had to strike out this sentence before he brought the review to the Prager Tagblatt [a Prague daily newspaper] to have it reprinted.” None of this appears in Brod’s edition.

Finally, I asked Ross Benjamin what he would have done if he had been Max Brod. He says he wouldn’t have burned anything either, and adds that Kafka had put his great friend in “a terrible bind”. “He knew the friend he was instructing to do this was the person least likely to be able to bring himself to do it,” says Benjamin. “From the time they met as university students, Brod had recognised his genius, championed his work, prodded him to publish against his own resistance, and been instrumental in the publication and promotion of his work while he was alive. And so giving Brod this task could be seen as a crowning act of ambivalence by the genius of ambivalence we know Kafka to have been.” Just possibly, Kafka made his request knowing it would go unhonoured.

• Franz Kafka
• Autobiography and memoir

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