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Research in the Teaching of English ( RTE ) is a broad-based, multidisciplinary journal composed of original research articles and short scholarly essays on a wide range of topics significant to those concerned with the teaching and learning of languages and literacies around the world, both in and beyond schools and universities.

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Basic research in English language teaching

Research is an inherently human trait! Human beings are naturally inquisitive.

We are always trying to 1) figure out how something works, 2) why something went wrong, or 3) what might happen if we tried something a certain way. It’s in our DNA, and we can’t help it! In teaching a language, our inquisitive nature manifests everyday when we investigate how the language works, how to use the best teaching techniques, or how to understand why things we’ve done in the classroom may not have gone as planned. This is research in its purest, most basic form and in essence, we are all “researchers”; we all have discovered something important in our language teaching classrooms and we all have had something valuable to share with our colleagues. The problem is sometimes teachers hear “research” and they say, “Oh no, that’s not for me.” “That’s too complicated.” “That’s for university professors.” I’ve heard some of these statements with my very own ears, and they’re simply not true! Research is accessible to everyone. This post will define in broad terms what role research in a language classroom plays, how our research can inform our teaching practice and lastly what different avenues teachers can take to share their work.

What is research and why do it?

To begin I’d like to clarify that there is “Research” (capital “R”), and then there’s “research” (lowercase “r”). “Research” as concerned with scientists and applied linguists involves a very meticulous and rigorous set of procedures aimed at presenting a study’s findings (that are deemed reliable and valid) to an academic audience. This is highly specialized and requires a great degree of training. It tends to be very theoretical but can also have some practical implications/applications in the language classroom. Then there’s “research”, inquiries that originate from a teacher based on his/her observations and that he/she investigates further in order to draw some logical conclusions. These findings may not necessarily be presented to an academic audience (though they very well may; it’s really up to the teacher how far he/she pursues public dissemination of the results), but are rather intended to help the teacher make informed, evidence-based decisions about how to more effectively run his/her class.

We will be more concerned with “research” for this short post and we will regard it broadly as involving: “1) question(s) to be answered, 2) systematic collection of data, 3) analysis of data [and] 4) answer(s) to the question(s)” (Smith & Rebodello, 2018, p.16). One common research method utilized in language teaching that you might have heard of is “action research”, defined as “systematically collecting data on your everyday practice and analyzing it in order to come to some decisions about what your future practice should be” (Wallace, 1998, pg. 4). In essence, both research definitions explain that you as a teacher reflect on and observe what’s happening in your classroom, record information to serve as evidence, analyze it with the goal of answering questions that you have come up with and finally think about how those results might help you modify your current teaching practices. Because we don’t have a lot of space to go into the procedural details of action research, I highly suggest you read 1) “A Handbook for Exploratory Action Research” by Richard Smith and Paula Rebolledo (courtesy of our very own here at Teaching English!), and 2) Action Research for Language Teachers by Michael Wallace. They are really fantastic books which give teachers a strong foundation in basic research and provide practical examples of how teachers go about effectively investigating language matters in their classrooms.

My own practical example

I’ll quickly give you a practical example of how I performed an action research study at a medical university I used to work for in Saudi Arabia. As a supervisor of the writing program, I had quite a lot of complaints from students, parents, and teachers alike that the pace of our curriculum was too demanding: that we were asking students to do too much too soon. After the first semester of academic writing, we were requiring that learners use secondary sources, which many students clearly struggled with. Intuitively, I could sense that we were on the wrong track but didn’t have any measurable data to support or confirm my intuition. I decided to design a questionnaire to be given to first year, second year, and post graduate students studying in our writing program, and the questions sought to ascertain 1) how much English writing practice had they had before joining university and 2) how much writing had they done in their own language (Arabic). The results of the questionnaire were shocking; on average not only had they not done much academic writing in English, but they hadn’t done much in their own native language either!

Upon analyzing the results, I presented them to our writing administrators calling for a major revision in our curriculum. If students aren’t very proficient in writing academic English (let alone writing academically in their own language) before joining us, then it was a bit taxing to ask them to jump too soon into secondary source use, a skill that requires a much higher level of writing proficiency. Based on the results of that study, we made major revisions to our curriculum and solved some critical issues for our students. After presenting the results to the writing administrators, I called for a general assembly for all the teachers to give a presentation on the rationale for the simple study and its findings. The results and the ensuing curricular changes were well received at the meeting, and the writing courses ran quite smoothly after the changes were implemented. Thus, the action research process entailed the surfacing of the problem of students’ writing, designing a questionnaire to obtain data, recording and analyzing data, and making suggestions to help improve the program. From my action research, I was not only able to tweak the curriculum nationwide, but in my classroom, I became much more sensitive to students’ writing needs and created many more opportunities for feedback and practice to help develop their writing skills. That wouldn’t have been possible without a study and conclusive data.

Where do we go from here?

As teachers, you have the same research tools at your disposal. If you notice a particular activity isn’t working, or there’s a common linguistic problem shared by your learners, or you’re interested in the efficacy of a new teaching idea, do some research! Get permission to conduct your research from a senior administrator and he/she will probably be very interested in your teaching/learning inquiry and your willingness to improve your teaching. After all, performing research and sharing it with others is an excellent way to professionally develop. Once you’ve gotten the approval, conduct the project in a systematic way making sure you gather documented evidence. After collecting the data, analyze it and look for answers. When you have completed this stage, it’s important to share your new knowledge, and there are many ways to do so. You can form a WhatsApp research group with your colleagues to discuss the results of projects that you’re all involved in, form a research committee in your department and schedule regular workshops, call a meeting and make a formal presentation to the teaching staff, contribute to a schoolwide newsletter, or submit your work (in a highly formalized fashion expecting painstaking hours of revision and critique!) as a manuscript for publication in an academic journal. Whatever format you choose, dissemination of your work is important because chances are other people might be experiencing the same issues that you are facing in the classroom. Presenting your work in a public space helps promote dialogue and discussion about important classroom matters, matters that probably concern many others in your field. At the end of the day, don’t forget that your teaching experiences in the classroom matter and they need to be heard!

References:

Smith, R., & Rebolledo, P. (2018). A Handbook for Exploratory Action Research. London: British Council. Available at https://goo.gl/iWDR5m.

Wallace, M. J. (1998). Action Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge University Press.

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• Published: 13 May 2021

A meta-analysis on educational technology in English language teaching

• Jafar Rahmati 1 ,
• Siros Izadpanah   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2061-8110 1 &
• Ali Shahnavaz 2  

Language Testing in Asia volume  11 , Article number:  7 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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As more various types of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) programs have been incorporated into language classrooms over the recent decades, it has become more important to uncover whether, to what extent, and under which moderator variables CALL can be yield more effective outcomes than traditional language instruction. The issue of education is one of the most important materials addressed by technology. Instead, meta-analysis is a statistical and quantitative method that leads us to a general conclusion by integrating the results of different researches. In this study, researchers worked on the impact of educational technology in English language teaching by studying 67 articles and theses (from 1000 studies that were relevant in title and abstract). All articles and theses were included from 2009 to 2020 and 7 articles were excluded from this study due to insufficient information. Furthermore, two instruments, SPSS (mainly its sub-branch Kruskal-Wallis test) and CMA were used to calculate and evaluate data in this research. The total effect size calculated for studies under both fixed and random models was statistically significant and also the study of effects by year of publication, instruments used in research and research methods showed that their effect size was significant. Teaching English with the help of technology has an effective effect size and has shown the success of this technology in language learning.

Introduction

Due to the rapid advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the world, there is growing attention to combine technologies into the classrooms to prepare learners to meet the needs of a progressively technological-dependent culture (Bond). The presence of technology and its constant advances have been disclosed into society by shifting the way how people cooperate with technology itself and through technology devices (Hollands & Escueta, 2020 ; Gonzalez-Acevedo, 2016 ). Warni, Aziz, and Febriawan ( 2018 ) believe that technology allows students to study independently and cooperate with their peers. This is possible because technology inspires students to reflect and analyze where these two capabilities are at the basics of developing autonomy. Since the 1960s, educational technologists have tried to make this image become a reality through emerging programs based on computer-assisted instruction (CAI) to drill, train, and test students (Andone & Frydenberg, 2019 ). According to Xiao ( 2019 ), every educator must utterly think about, update concepts, be courageous in innovation, let advanced science and technology assist college English education, and familiarize multimedia technology with a large amount of information, closeness and interactivity into college English teaching. Many educational researchers believe that computer-assisted language learning (CALL) would prove to be effective because it would decrease educational costs and increase learning outcomes in the long period (Atabek, 2020 ; Oz, Demirezen, & Pourfeiz, 2015 ).

Research in English language teaching sometimes contradicts differences in educational measures, situations, measurement instruments, and research methods that make it difficult for the researcher to easily compare the findings (Ozkale & Koc, 2020 ).

The disagreement between the results means that there is no acceptable answer to guide policymakers, and there is always an endless demand for re-research. There is a danger that the sponsors of social and educational research would conclude that this research is unproductive and unscientific. In addition, reviewing the sources of empirical research is usually not helpful, and because it depends so much on the opinion, judgment, preferences, and tendencies of the reviewers, conflicting interpretations of a piece of evidence are not uncommon.

However, examining the effectiveness of CALL is not easy for a number of reasons. First, the effect of any CALL program on learning outcomes is some way related to its uses. A specific CALL program may have great educational potential not revealed until it is used properly. Hence, evaluating the effectiveness of the CALL in language education is evaluating its uses rather than the CALL program itself. Second, the effectiveness of CALL is affected by some other moderator variables such as the learners, tasks, the educational setting conditions, and the assessment instruments. Third, CALL can be used either in isolation, as the sole instrument to convey language knowledge to the students, or in combination with traditional, face-to-face teaching methods (Sadeghi & Dousti, 2013 ). In addition to the above obstacles, no individual study by itself can show whether CALL programs are actually effective or not. In most countries, the use of educational technology is a headway and a national movement, and many organizations and educational institutions have been created in order to properly use educational technology and find better and more complete ways and techniques.

General objectives of the article: The role of educational technology in teaching English in Iran

Literature review

• Educational technology

An accurate understanding of the definition, subject, and scope of educational technology depends largely on the root meaning of the word technology. The word is derived from the word technology in Greek, meaning systematically performing art or profession. The first part of this word (technologia) is a combination of performing art and a technique involving knowledge of the meaning of the principles and the ability to achieve the desired results. In other words, logos mean practical things like knowing and doing. The word root means reasoning, explanation, principle, and ratiocination. So technology means the rational application of knowledge. The word consists of two words “technique” and “logic.” “Technique” means skillfully doing any work and “logic” is equivalent to the “knowing” suffix and means “science and knowledge.” Technology can, therefore, be regarded as methodology or knowledge and science in subtle ways of doing things. The second meaning is what the word “technology” is mostly used to express (Faradanesh, 2001 ).

Concept of educational technology

There are many definitions of educational technology, each referring to its various aspects. Before the application of technology in its new sense, planners helped improve the teaching and learning outcomes of audiovisual cases and devices. Thus, it can be concluded that the contributions of this branch are summarized from education to the use of purely educational items. But Brown ( 1972 ) has defined educational technology differently: Educational technology goes beyond the use of instruments. Educational technology is thus more than just a set of components (Ipek & Ziatdinov, 2018 ). It is a systematic way of designing, executing, and evaluating the whole process of research and learning to use specific goals, utilizing research findings in psychology and human communication, and employing a combination of human and non-human resources to create more effective learning, more reliable, and more deeply. In-depth attention to the above definition leads the reader to several basic conclusions:

The first conclusion to be drawn from the first part of the definition is that educational technology is not just about the use of educational instruments, but the broader scope of the use of educational instruments and the use of educational materials as part of it.

As educational technology is considered to be a systematic way or method, so it is more like an empire than its constituent parts because they are actions and reactions. Because the action, reaction, or interaction between its constituents lead to effects and results that are greater than the sum of its constituent elements.

Educational technology uses scientific findings such as psychology and the humanities to design and implement the whole process of teaching and learning.

Educational technology employs a good mix of human and non-human resources. In other words, unlike the use of educational materials or audio-visual training in which the use of material instruments is concerned, in technology, human resources are appropriately used.

The most recent definition agreed by educational technology experts, The American Association of Educational Communication & Technology (AECT) stated that educational technology is the theory and practice of designing, producing, using, and evaluating learning processes and resources (Spector & Yuen, 2016 ). Caffarela and Fly ( 1992 ) define this as considering that in any field of science philosophical issues such as epistemological epistemology and methodology are raised and that experts in different disciplines present theories in that field.

Application of educational technology in English language teaching

The application of educational technology in English language teaching includes any possible means and information that can be used in language teaching. It deals with language teaching instruments such as television, language labs, and a variety of designed media. In other words, the use of educational technology in language teaching is the same folk concept of educational technology as the use of audiovisual devices, monitors, and computer keyboards. The public domain of its audiovisual equipment consists of two distinct parts: the hardware and the software. The hardware talking part deals with physical and real equipment, such as projectors, sound recorders, TV sets, microcomputers, etc., and the software part includes many items used in connection with such equipment and devices like slide, audiotapes, videotapes of computer programs, written languages, and more (Ahdian, 2007 ); (Xu, Banerjee, Ramirez, Zhu, & Wijekumar, 2019 ).

Research in the field of education is sometimes contradictory. Differences in educational measures, situations, measuring tools, and research methods make it difficult for the researcher to compare the findings (Rai'i, Farzaneh, & Delavar, 2013 ). The contradiction between the results leads to no acceptable answer to be a guidance for policy makers (Talan, 2021 ). It also means that there is always an endless demand for research and re-research. There is a risk that research sponsors may conclude that this research is confusing, unproductive, and unscientific (Asgharpour, 2006 ).

Considering the research done in the field of language learning with the help of technology, it can be seen that there are a lot of disagreements about the success rate of teaching English with the help of technology. Some researchers such as Sung, Cheng and Liu ( 2016 ) and Lee ( 2010 ) are its defenders, while other researchers such as Lipsey and Wilson ( 2001 ), Norris and Ortega ( 2000 ), and Oswald and Plonsky ( 2010 ) have expressed doubts about its success.

Proponents of using technology for language learning, giving the learner freedom of action, access to a variety of language content, ease of access and its inherent attractiveness, opponents of factors such as lack of infrastructure, lack of software and hardware to especially in developing countries, students and teachers are not familiar with this technology, teachers do not master technology to produce appropriate educational content, superficial and unrealistic interactions in existing software, too much emphasis on the use of multimedia, heavy volume Content for language learners, lack of appropriate feedback and finally receiving superficial and unrealistic feedback as reasons for their opposition to using technology for language learning. These contradictory reasons led us to perform meta-analysis to determine the effectiveness of technology-assisted language learning and, in general, whether it was successful or not. These reasons became contradictory in order to determine the effectiveness of language learning through meta-analysis with the help of technology and to reach a general conclusion whether it was successful or not.

Research methods

Considering that the purpose of this research was to describe, analyze, and combine the studies presented in the field of educational technology in English language teaching based on research; the method of this research was a meta-analysis. Meta-analysis is a set of statistical methods that are performed in order to combine the results of independent experimental and correlation studies that have the same research questions on a single topic, and leads to a single estimate and result. Unlike traditional research methods, a meta-analysis uses statistical summaries of individual studies as research data.

Based on the main assumption of this method, each study provided different estimates of the underlying relationships in society. Therefore, by combining the results of these studies, a more accurate view of these relationships could be provided, which was provided by estimating individual studies. Meta-analysis research was applied type and was among the few pieces of research. The method used to collect data in this research was the library.

General objective subgroups: variables

Hypothesis 1 — There is a significant difference between the years of publication in research on the application of technology in English language teaching.

Hypothesis 2 — The research method used in the research has been used in the field of application of educational technology in English language teaching.

Hypothesis 3 — Research tools have been used in the application of educational technology in English language teaching.

Hypothesis 4 — There is a significant difference between the effect size of different statistical methods in research in the field of technology application in English language teaching.

Hypothesis 5 — There is a significant difference between the size of the work based on the gender of the sample in research on the application of technology through English language teaching.

Eligibility criteria and exclusion criteria

In this research, 67 articles or theses out of 1000 articles or theses which were related to technology in English language teaching in Iranian cites, like Tehran, Shahr-e- Qods, Yasouj, Shahrood, Mazandaran, Bandar Abbas, Alborz, Shahrekord, Ahvaz, Qeshm, Guilan, Semnan, and Chabahar, were randomly chosen from Iran Doc, google scholar, and science direct websites.

It is important to mention that 7 out of 67 articles and theses were ignored in this thesis based on the table that has been mentioned (Additional file 1 : Appendix A). Topics in selected articles were completely consistent and had a relatively high and appropriate subject similarity for meta-analysis were from the years between 2009 and 2020 (Additional file 1 : Appendix B). Conditions were detected and meta-analysis tests had been performed on them. It should be noted that in the meta-analysis method, there is no specific limit on the number of studies.

Method of data collection

To perform meta-analysis, the specifications of all theses in the field of educational technology in English language teaching, which are the year of publication, sampling method, statistical method, research method, and gender of the sample were studied. These data were then used in analysis, syntheses, and comparison.

Instruments

Meta-analysis is the statistical method which was used in this study. The SPSS (Sciences Statistical Package for the Social) software (SPSS Statistics 26) that researchers examined the frequency and statistical significance. The research hypotheses were also tested by SPSS software. CMA 2 software (Comprehensive Meta-Analysis version 2) was used to calculate the effect size for each study, the overall size effect, and the size of the discriminant effect to test their statistical significance in this research.

In addition, the research hypotheses were tested using SPSS software and the Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test. The effect size in this r was calculated using the Hex method.

The Egger regression method has also been used to evaluate the homogeneity of the studies. The advantage of this method compared to other tests is that it is stronger. This method uses real effect size methods for prediction.

Data analysis

Part 1: descriptive analysis, description of general characteristics of the studied samples.

Descriptive information about the year of publication of the studies was examined in this study.

As can be seen in Table 1 , the highest percentage is related to research published during the years 2015 to 2017 with a rate of 51.7% and the lowest percentage is related to research published in the years 2018 to 2020 with a rate of 6.7 percentage.

Descriptive information about the research methods used in the studies reviewed in this study

As can be seen in Table 2 , the highest percentage is related to the quasi-experimental research method with 36.7% and the lowest percentage is related to the qualitative research method with 3.3%.

Descriptive information about the instruments used in the studies examined in this study

As can be seen in Table 3 , for the instruments used, the highest percentage is related to the Questionnaire instrument with 37% and the lowest percentage is related to the Observations instrument with a rate of 3.3%.

Descriptive information about the statistical method used in the studies examined in this study

As can be seen in Table 4 , the highest percentage is related to the method of using pre- and post-tests with 56.7% and the lowest percentage is related to the statistical method of ANOVA with 1.7%.

Descriptive information about the sex of the sample in the studies

As can be seen in Table 5 , for the sample gender, the highest percentage is related to mixed-gender with a rate of 48% and the lowest percentage is related to female gender with a rate of 20%.

Homogeneity of studies

In order to check the homogeneity of the studies, the Eger regression test is used and the results of this test are summarized in the following table:

As can be seen in Table 6 , due to the value of Sig, which is greater than 0.05, the assumption of homogeneity of studies at an error level of 0.05% is accepted.

The following Fig.  1 is used to determine whether the initial studies are biased and their impact on data analysis.

Funnel diagram shape the size of each study with the effect size accuracy

If the initial studies do not have a diffusion bias, they should be distributed symmetrically around the average effect size, as shown in the diagram above.

Overall effect size

Before examining the effect size separately for the variables in this study, the overall effect size is calculated in two modes: a model with random effects and a model with fixed effects, and the results are recorded in the table below.

It should be noted that due to the homogeneity of the initial studies in this study, the model with fixed effects is more efficient than the model with random effects.

As can be seen in Table 7 , considering that the sig value for both models is less than 0.01, it can be accepted that the total effect size in both models is significant with random effects and fixed effects at the error level of one percent.

Effect size by year of publication

The following table records the results related to the effect size by year of publication of studies in both model modes with random effects and fixed effects.

According to the Sig values obtained in Table 8 , the size of the effects in all the studied years is significant in both types of models with fixed effects and random effects.

The size of the work is used separately according to the research method

In the table below, the results related to the size of the effect are recorded separately by the research method used in the studies in both models with random effects and fixed effects.

According to the Sig values obtained in Table 9 , the size of the effects in all research methods used in the studies under study in both types of models with fixed effects and random effects are significant.

Effect size by the instrument used

In the table below, the results related to the size of the effect by instruments used in the studies are recorded in both model modes with random effects and with fixed effects.

According to the Sig values obtained in Table 10 , the size of the effects in all instruments used in the studies under study in both types of models with fixed effects and random effects are significant.

The size of the work is separated by statistical methods

In the table below, the results related to the effect size are recorded separately by the statistical methods used in the studies in both models with random effects and with fixed effects.

According to the Sig values obtained in Table 11 , the size of the effects in all statistical methods used in the studies in both types of models with fixed effects and random effects, except the random effects model in the case where the statistical instrument is used Qualitative Have been meaningful.

Effect size by sample gender

In the table below, the results related to the effect size by sample gender in both models with random effects and fixed effects are recorded.

According to the Sig values obtained in Table 12 , the size of the effects on the sex of the sample in both types of models with fixed effects and random effects are significant.

Part II: Inferential analysis

Hypothesis 1.

There is no significant difference between the size of the effect of years of the publication on research in the application of educational technology in English language teaching.

To test the above hypothesis, the Kruskal-Wallis test was used and the results of this test are recorded in the following tables:

As can be seen in Table 13 , considering the value of Sig = 0.151, which is greater than 0.05, the assumption of zero, i.e. the assumption that the size of the work is the same according to the year of publication is not rejected at the level of 5% error.

The effect of years of publication in research in the field of technology application in English language teaching is not significantly different.

Hypothesis 2

There is no significant difference between the size of the work and the research method used. Research conducted in the field of technology application in English language teaching.

To test the above hypothesis, the Kruskal-Wallis test was used and the results of this test are recorded in the following table:

As can be seen in Table 14 , considering the value of Sig = 0.302, which is greater than 0.05, the null hypothesis, i.e. the assumption that the size of the work is the same, is not rejected at the 5% error level, so researchers can say: There is no significant difference between the size of the work and the research method used in the field of technology application in English language teaching.

Hypothesis 3

There is no significant difference between the size of the work and the instruments used in research in the field of technology application in English language teaching.

To test the above hypothesis, Kruskal-Wallis test was used and the results of this test are recorded in the following table:

As can be seen in Table 15 , considering the value of Sig = 0.830, which is greater than 0.05, the null hypothesis, i.e. the assumption that the size of the work is the same, is not rejected at the 5% error level, so researchers can say: There is no significant difference between the size of the work and the instruments used in research in the field of technology application in English language teaching.

Hypothesis 4

There is no significant difference between the size of the work according to the statistical method used in research in the field of technology application in English language teaching.

To test the above hypothesis, Kruskal-Wallis test was used and the results of this test are recorded in the following tables:

As can be seen in Table 16 , considering the value of Sig = 0.814, which is greater than 0.05, the null hypothesis, i.e. the assumption that the size of the work is the same, is not rejected at the 5% error level, so researchers can say: There is no significant difference between the size of the work according to the statistical method used in research in the field of technology application in English language teaching.

Hypothesis 5

There is no significant difference between the size of the work by gender of the sample in research in the field of technology application through English language teaching.

As can be seen in Table 17 , considering the value of Sig = 0.819, which is greater than 0.05, the null hypothesis, i.e. the assumption which the size of the work is the same, is not rejected at the 5% error level, so researchers can say: There is no significant difference between the size of the work by gender of the sample in research in the field of technology application through English language teaching.

In this part, researchers describe the collected results in general and discuss the statistical results obtained. The present study includes 67 studies out of 1000 theses and articles which 7 of them were excluded from this study due to a lack of sufficient information ( Appendix A ).

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of educational technology on English language teaching. The optimal research method to achieve this goal was meta-analysis. In this method, “each research” was a unit of study, furthermore, the amount of effect size was calculated for each research in order to obtain the effectiveness of each research.

Our results indicate that technology applications have a large effect (1.68 and 0.91, fixed effect model and random effect model respectively) on English language teaching. This proposes that the use of technology is more effective than traditional teaching methods without technology for English language teaching quality.

Overall effects of educational technology on English language teaching

The result of a medium-sized overall positive effect of educational technology on English language teaching confirmed that the use of a computer, telegram, mobile, laptop devices, and software could facilitate language learning. These results were consistent with other research findings regarding the effects of different devices and software on English language teaching.

Related to the first research question: Year of publication

This research question was in line with Sung, Yang, and Lee ( 2017 ) and Chauhan ( 2017 ), which both had the same experimental results show that their meta-analysis was not substantially affected by publication bias. The most obvious finding to emerge from this research question was that years of publication did not have a significant result in this research.

Based on the fact, the year of publication was selected for research as a variable; if years are considered differently, that is, for example, the year 2009 is assumed alone, they are meaningful. They also have the same feature for the year of publication until 2020. However, based on the research question of how much the effect of the year of publication affects educational technology, it should be noted that this variable is not recommended for future research because it changes every time based on advances in technology and different methods for research. Considering the year of publication, it will not have a significant effect as a whole on the effect size of the work.

Related to the second research question: research method

It is in line with Farzaneh Shakki ( 2015 ). There is no significant difference between the effect size by the research method used and the research conducted in the field of technology application in the English language teaching.

In fact, the research method as a whole depends on the researcher and the type of research that is being done. In this research, we conclude that if we want to consider the research methods one by one we can claim that they all have a significant effect but when we want to consider all of them relative to each other, they do not have a significant effect. Therefore, this research shows us that the required research methods or resources required as well as different goals can be variable, so it depends on the researcher in what circumstances, in what environment and with what tools they can choose the research method. Of course, a single research method may not be used in an article, and several types can be used.

Related to the third research question: instruments

It was in line with Fazeli ( 2016 ). It was not in line with Pourtayebi ( 2015 ), Alinejad ( 2015 ), Sadeqi ( 2015 ), Rastegar ( 2014 ), Shahkooei ( 2016 ), and Parinaz ( 2010 ). There is no significant difference between the effect size and the instruments used in research in the field of technology application in English language teaching

As we have seen, among the number of theses and articles we reviewed, a variety of instruments were used. In the meantime, the questionnaire was used more than other instruments, but this does not mean that this instrument is superior to others in research instruments. In this study, in each of the articles and theses, one or more instruments were used, which were significant, but in general, they were not significant in comparison to each other. This means that we cannot say which tool is better than other instruments so it depends on the researcher which instrument to choose over the research.

Related to the fourth research question: statistical method

It was not in line with Shahkooei ( 2016 ). There is no significant difference between the size of the work according to the statistical method used in research in the field of technology application in English language teaching. Although the number of statistical methods used in these studies was different, in the ranking, they did not have a significant difference.

To check the quantitative research data, the use of statistical tests is mandatory. A statistical method is necessary to use for each research. Reviewing all statistical tests can be a good guide for analyzing data in an article. Meanwhile, it may not always be enough to use a test.

Statistical methods are one of the practical ways to identify problems and provide solutions to managerial, social, and psychological problems, etc. that, if implemented correctly, can provide real data for our research.

In other words, there may be different ways of doing research or how we can collect our data to prove or answer questions. At this point, having high analytical power, problem-solving ability. And sufficient experience can help you to know the correct method of research. Because it directly uses people’s opinions, it can solve society’s problems, and these studies are often very practical and can be cited.

Related to the fifth research question: gender

It was in line with Alipour ( 2017 ), Sadeqi ( 2015 ), Nateghi ( 2018 ), Dayani ( 2014 ), Ghazavi ( 2017 ), and Aliakbari ( 2013 ). It was not in line with Mohammadi ( 2014 ), Alashti ( 2013 ), AsgharHeidari ( 2014 ), and Nakhaei ( 2017 ) found the result of the study that the attitudes of English teachers or students regarding their gender towards the use of the Internet, mobile or other devices were positive and high.

According to the statistical part of this study, the participants were mixed in most of the articles, but in some of them, exclusively female participants or in some other male participants were used to conduct the research. Based on the findings, we conclude that there is not much difference between men being superior to women or vice versa.

Based on the availability of technology in education, educational technology has caused many changes in the field that meet the needs of students in different ways. With the provision of software that teaches students with special needs, the appropriate educational equipment is designed to make learning easier for the individual.

With the use of technology, the concept of education is changing for both students and teachers to progress. Therefore, the introduction of technology in education is very important.

Research limitations

The present meta-analysis, like many others, has its limitations and forces the researcher to interpret the findings with extreme caution.

Lack of access to some articles and dissertations that did not receive a response from the authors despite sending an email.

Suggestion for further study

Due to the limitations that researchers applied in this research, 67 theses and articles were selected from different cities of Iran that had a topic related to the subject of this research, but it should be noted that due to development and progress in recent years, the importance of this thesis is observed. It is better to select researches that have been published in reputable publications all over the world, in addition to this, it is suggested to work on other various variables.

A meta-analysis of research on the application of technology in English language teaching, which was published in valid journals in this field and examined, showed that the application of information technology in this field has an acceptable impact factor.

In this section, the overall findings of the current study were presented. According to the studied variables, we conclude that the five variables studied and researched, according to their statistical information in this study, did not have a significant effect size. And in response to the overall purpose of the article, how much technology can affect English language teaching, it can be concluded that, initially, compared to the variable of the year, 2017 to 2020, the size of the work was more representative than previous years, so technology has been effective. Other variables, such as tools, research methods, statistical methods, and gender, have had a smaller effect than size that we can ignore.

The results showed that all chosen variables in this study, considering every unique thesis or article, were significant, but as the whole consideration of each variable to 60 theses and articles, they were not significant.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Information and communication technology

Computer-assisted language learning

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Department of English Language Teaching, Zanjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Zanjan, Iran

Jafar Rahmati & Siros Izadpanah

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Abbassi, 2015 , Ardebili, 2013 , Bozorgmanesh, 2013 , Dousti, 2012 , Ebrahimi, 2014 , EbrahimiSeraji, 2016 , Esferjani, 2017 , Esmaili, 2012 , Ezzatian, 2013 , Fard, 2016 , Farhesh, 2012 , Farshadnia, 2010 , Ghaziyani, 2017 , Hassanzadeh, 2010 , Inanloo, 2017 , Javdani, 2017 , Kashani, 2015 , KhademianHashemi, 2014 , Khalilabad, 2016 , Khalili, 2013 , Khazaee, 2017 , Letafati, 2013 , Li, 2010 , Mardian, 2014 , Najafi, 2013 , Nami, 2020 , Noghani, 2015 , Noori, 2014 , Parisa, 2017 , Paslar, 2017 , Poorkhalil, 2016 , Pour, 2015 , Rafei, 2017 , Rajabi, 2016 , Raye-Ahmadi, 2014 , Razavi, 2016 , Salimi, 2016 , Shafaghiha, 2016 , Shafati, 2013 , Shargh, 2010 , Zakeri, 2018 , Zanussi, 2015 , Zarat-ehsan, 2015 , Zhang & Liu, 2019.

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Rahmati, J., Izadpanah, S. & Shahnavaz, A. A meta-analysis on educational technology in English language teaching. Lang Test Asia 11 , 7 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-021-00121-w

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Why Research Questions?

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Check out these sample lists of research questions. Notice how the same core questions are useful to guide your exploration into a variety of topics.

For a more complete list of research questions check out Developing Research Questions: Some Examples .

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Now that you've done your background reading and know the basics about your topic and what you want to focus on, create some research questions to help you develop the flow of your paper.

Why research questions

Think of your research questions as a grocery list designed to guide you through a huge “storehouse” of information.

This list will allow you to efficiently locate and retrieve the most relevant knowledge possible to support your thesis, prevent you from getting off track as you sift through large quantities of information, and even help keep you organized as you begin writing.

Your list of questions may change and/or expand as your research progresses.

Good academic communication should include  an introduction in which your topic and thesis is clearly defined,  an analysis of your topic, and a clear conclusion .

Start out by introducing your topic , communicating to your audience why the topic is important, and providing enough background information to allow your audience to understand the analysis that is about to take place. Your introduction is also the logical place to embed your thesis.

Before you begin writing your research questions, you'll want to do a little background reading  to begin learning something about your topic. 

Examples of defining/introductory questions:

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• What are the different types of ____________?

All academic research demands analysis . Some projects lend themselves well to a cause/effect structure ("What caused hip-hop to emerge and what are some of the effects it's had on American culture?), while other assignments require a pro/con format ("What are the positive aspects of stem cell research? What are some of the negative implications?). Some projects can easily conform to both modes.

Examples of analytical/body questions:

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What are the “pro” arguments about_______________?

What are the “con” arguments about ______________?

How can I refute arguments about ______________?

What is being done about ______________?

Your conclusion allows you to demonstrate to your instructor that you have synthesized the information you found and clearly answered your thesis question (informative projects) or effectively proven your thesis statement (persuasive/argumentative assignments).

Examples of concluding questions:

• What do I think should be done about  ________________?
• Based on my research what do I think about  ________________ and why?

If you think of your focus as a single, overriding question guiding the exploration of your topic, you can think of your thesis statement as an answer to that question.

Your thesis:

• Defines your point of view on your topic
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• Is often only fully developed toward the end of your research process  

Here are some examples that show you the transition from Topics to Guiding Questions to Thesis Statements

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Language Teacher Research Methods

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• Manka M. Varghese 5 &
• I-Chen Huang 6  

Part of the book series: Encyclopedia of Language and Education ((ELE))

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Research methods and approaches to study language teachers have been aligned with theories underpinning language teacher education. Earlier views on teaching were of a seamless relationship with one’s professional training, and thus, studies of second language classrooms primarily used quasiexperimental methods and observation schemes in order to identify the effectiveness of one’s pedagogical practice. This behaviorist model of teaching was critiqued due to its insufficient attention on teachers’ mental lives and actions; therefore, a qualitative approach that highlights the role of teachers in interaction with students and their environment has prevailed more recently. Qualitative data collection strategies (e.g., fieldnotes, interviews, reflective writings, or stimulated recall) aim to make tacit teachers’ cognitive processes visible and provide a descriptive account of their practices. Ensuing methods were primarily narrative and based in teacher research. These inquiries not only allowed teachers to examine their own classrooms, but helped them transform themselves at a personal and sociopolitical level. Nevertheless, both (1) how to understand and view language teacher knowledge and (2) how to conceptualize language teacher learning, present methodological challenges in studying these phenomena. A pressing issue is how to connect language teaching with learning outcomes. Future research will use mixed-methods to examine multiple teaching variables and their effects on students’ achievement, and will also adopt a critical approach to understand language teachers and teaching, such as studying and understanding language teacher identity.

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Varghese, M.M., Huang, IC. (2017). Language Teacher Research Methods. In: King, K., Lai, YJ., May, S. (eds) Research Methods in Language and Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02249-9_38

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100 Excellent English Research Topics and Ideas

Table of Contents

Are you confused about what topic to choose for English research? Don’t worry. When it comes to English, there are no boundaries to the subjects you can research. Moreover, the English research paper topic you pick should focus on answering a question based on your investigation. Usually, selecting a fascinating English research title that has the power to attract an audience and demonstrate your academic skills might be challenging. Therefore, in this blog, we have published a list of 100 excellent English research topics and ideas suggested by our team of experts. Additionally, we have also shared how to choose a good English research topic to get started.

If you have difficulty identifying a suitable study topic, explore this blog and get amazing ideas for English research.

Know How to Select a Perfect English Research Topic

It is important to possess the necessary knowledge to identify a topic for English research. In case, you struggle to choose a topic for your English research paper, follow these steps.

• First, select a subject that interests you.
• After doing a thorough background investigation, generate numerous English research ideas based on your interests.
• List the different keywords that will help you concentrate on the main idea.
• Examine a variety of perspectives on the topic you have chosen. Specifically, ask essential questions like what, who, why, who, and when to achieve this.
• Outline the content’s structure depending on how you want it to appear and the questions you answered.
• Pay close attention to the research paper’s length and due date.
• Confirm that your topic meets all of your professor’s research guidelines and requirements.

Note that the research topic you choose will only be good if it appeals to both you and your audience. It is recommended that you choose a subject that is familiar to you and can support your research with adequate sources. So keep these in mind while you brainstorm ideas and topics for your English research paper.

Read More – Learn and Understand the Common English Techniques

List of the Best English Research Topics

English is a broad subject and so it contains several research topics to focus on. Especially, for English research, you may choose any topic that is related to categories such as drugs, politics, technology, drugs, religion, English literature, gender discrimination, and others.

If you are unsure what topic to choose for your English research paper, make use of the list published below. In the list, you will get 100 engaging English research questions, titles, and ideas on various themes.

Also read: Learn About Different Language Features in English

Simple English Research Topics

• Examine the impact of social media on mental health.
• Discuss the importance of symbolism in poetry.
• Examine the role of social capital in community development.
• Discuss the causes and effects of the Great Depression.
• Explain how to enhance racial relations.
• Conduct a literary analysis of ‘The Monk’ written by Matthew Lewis.
• Examine the risks associated with organic food consumption.
• Discuss the importance of imagination in poetry writing.
• Explore the role of digital communication in learning the English language.
• Discuss the effect of the mother tongue on learning the English language.
• Explore the future of renewable energy.
• Discuss the cultural impact of superhero movies in society.
• Explore the importance of storytelling in human communication.
• Explain how mental illness is portrayed in contemporary literature.
• Discuss the psychology of motivation and goal-setting.

Interesting English Research Ideas

• Analyze the effects of climate change on agriculture.
• Focus on the representation of women in literature.
• Investigate the role of AI in education.
• Explore the role of women in historical events and movements.
• Analyze the impact of books on political issues.
• Examine the correlation between illegal immigration and terrorism.
• Analyze the impact of the English language on other cultures.
• Discuss romantic philosophy in Walt Whitman’s poetry.
• Suggest the best methods to improve speaking attributes.
• Explore how pronunciation varies in various learning cultures.
• Explain the psychology of decision-making.
• Focus on the Cultural Revolution in China.
• Explain how the popular media represents race and ethnicity.
• Examine the social effects of child work.
• Focus on English language acquisition difficulties.

Outstanding English Research Paper Topics

• Focus on the gender stereotypes in the workplace.
• Analyze the influence of foreshadowing in Gothic literature.
• Examine the effect of income inequality on social mobility.
• Analyze different film techniques.
• Examine the effects of terrorism on business.
• Focus on the evolution of marriage in contemporary culture.
• Discuss the risks of weight training for women.
• Focus on obstacles in modern English literature.
• Investigate the credibility of digital certification.
• Explain how to build interview skills.
• Discuss the use of animation and special effects in modern cinema.
• Take a look at the rise of communism and the Russian Revolution.
• Analyze the psychological and sociological effects of virtual reality technology.
• Explain how dietary misconceptions are hurting health.
• Investigate mercy killing incidents in the USA.

Amazing English Research Topics

• Analyze the ethical implications of artificial intelligence.
• Examine the significance of cryptography in modern society.
• Investigate the impact of the Industrial Revolution on society and culture.
• Discuss the influence of film noir on modern cinema.
• Analyze the impact of texting and mobile devices.
• Examine the negative effects of online dating apps.
• Analyze the effects of the civil rights movement.
• Discuss the Montessori Method of education.
• Explore the role of kinesics in communication.
• Analyze the impact of audiobooks in enhancing learning abilities.
• Focus on the representation of historical events and figures in films.
• Examine the impact of the Age of Exploration on world history.
• Analyze the evolution of science fiction as a literary genre.
• Take a look at the way of life in 18 th -century London.
• Focus on the advantages of studying abroad.

Awesome English Research Topics

• Take a look at the role of education in reducing poverty.
• Focus on the theme of identity in Postcolonial literature.
• Examine the causes and effects of the French Revolution.
• Explore the significance of music in films.
• Take a look at the place of technology in economics.
• Examine the adverse impact of doing improper exercises.
• Discuss the correlation between literature and psychology.
• Discuss the legal consequences of plagiarism in academic writing.
• Examine the scope of digital marketing for small businesses.
• Explain how to learn time management skills.

Engaging Topics for English Research

• Analyze the impact of globalization on cultural identity.
• Explore the role of religion in literature.
• Focus on the rise and fall of the Roman Empire.
• Examine the correlation between music and emotions.
• Focus on the modern literary allegories of the Bible.
• Analyze the influence of Europe on global fashion.
• Take a look at stream-of-consciousness writing style.
• Explain how to develop positivity in college students.
• Interpret American English drama.
• Focus on positive learning techniques.

Top English Research Ideas

• Explore the role of arts and culture in building strong communities.
• Examine the impact of war on literature and culture.
• Discuss the Holocaust’s legacy in modern society.
• Focus on the evolution of the fashion industry.
• Examine the negative aspects of a democratic government.
• Discuss the consequences of bioterrorism.
• Take a look at feminist perspectives in English literature.
• Explore the role of leadership in handling real-world issues.
• Analyze the impact of the internet on students’ psychology.
• Examine the effects of tobacco advertising.

Also read: Top 12 Longest Words in the English Language

Popular English Research Topics

• Examine the correlation between language and thought.
• Analyze the effect of cryptocurrency on financial markets.
• Explore the impact of the Cold War on International relations.
• Explain how technology affects health management.
• Analyze the significance of digitalized medical records.
• Analyze the effects of the commercialization of sports.
• Examine the impact of language on society’s development.
• Explain how to boost English communication skills for international students.
• Examine active listening skills.
• Analyze the ethical use of stem cells.

All the above-recommended ideas will aid you in coming up with a brilliant English research paper. If you need help with English research paper topic selection, writing, and proofreading, call us immediately.

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

A systematic review of empirical studies incorporating english movies as pedagogic aids in english language classroom provisionally accepted.

• 1 Department of English, School of Social Sciences and Languages, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India., India
• 2 Research Scholar, Department of English, School of Social Sciences and Languages, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India., India
• 3 Department of English, School of Social Sciences and Languages, VIT University, India

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

The use of movie as an audio-visual multimodal tool has been extensively researched, and the studies prove that they play a vital role in enhancing communicative competence. Incorporating authentic materials like movies, television series, podcasts, social media, etc. into language learning serves as a valuable resource for the learners, for it exposes them to both official and vernacular language. The current study aims to systematically analyse the preceding studies that conjoined English movies into the curriculum to teach English. It also examines and evaluates the empirical research that various researchers conducted from 2000 to 2023. The articles were primarily sourced from prominent academic databases such as ProQuest, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied in screening the 921 sources, of which 23 empirical studies were eligible for the review as a result of a three-stage data extraction process as shown in the "Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses" (PRISMA) chart. The extraction of data from the review encompasses an overview of the empirical studies, methodologies, participants, and interventions. The extracts were systematically analysed using the software's End Note and Covidence. The analysis of the existing literature and experimental data substantiates that teaching and learning English as a second or foreign language using movies as teaching aids exhibit promising prospects for enhancing English language proficiency. The findings of the study reveal different genres of movies that aid the facilitator in producing effective instruction materials with clearly defined objectives and guided activities. It is also observed that the learners have a positive experience with long-term learning benefits.

Keywords: EndNote, Covidence, Audio-visual multimodal aids, Communicative competence, Systematic review, Teaching Supplements

Received: 13 Feb 2024; Accepted: 16 May 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 K and S.N.S. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Dr. Gandhimathi S.N.S, Department of English, School of Social Sciences and Languages, VIT University, Vellore, India

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Challenges and opportunities of English as the medium of instruction in diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh: a mixed-methods study

• Anna Williams 1 ,
• Jennifer R. Stevens 2 ,
• Rondi Anderson 3 &
• Malin Bogren 4  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  523 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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English is generally recognized as the international language of science and most research on evidence-based medicine is produced in English. While Bangla is the dominant language in Bangladesh, public midwifery degree programs use English as the medium of instruction (EMI). This enables faculty and student access to the latest evidence-based midwifery content, which is essential for provision of quality care later. Yet, it also poses a barrier, as limited English mastery among students and faculty limits both teaching and learning.

This mixed-methods study investigates the challenges and opportunities associated with the implementation of EMI in the context of diploma midwifery education in Bangladesh. Surveys were sent to principals at 38 public midwifery education institutions, and 14 English instructors at those schools. Additionally, ten key informant interviews were held with select knowledgeable stakeholders with key themes identified.

Surveys found that English instructors are primarily guest lecturers, trained in general or business English, without a standardized curriculum or functional English language laboratories. Three themes were identified in the key informant interviews. First, in addition to students’ challenges with English, faculty mastery of English presented challenges as well. Second, language labs were poorly maintained, often non-functional, and lacked faculty. Third, an alternative education model, such as the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curriculum,  has potential to strengthen English competencies within midwifery schools.

Conclusions

ESP, which teaches English for application in a specific discipline, is one option available in Bangladesh for midwifery education. Native language instruction and the middle ground of multilingualism are also useful options. Although a major undertaking, investing in an ESP model and translation of technical midwifery content into relevant mother tongues may provide faster and more complete learning. In addition, a tiered system of requirements for English competencies tied to higher levels of midwifery education could build bridges to students to help them access global evidence-based care resources. Higher levels might emphasize English more heavily, while the diploma level would follow a multilingualism approach, teach using an ESP curriculum, and have complementary emphasis on the mother tongue.

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Introduction

As the international language of science, English holds an important position in the education of healthcare professionals. Globally, most scientific papers are published in English. In many non-native English-speaking countries, English is used as the language of instruction in higher education [ 1 ]. The dominant status held by the English language in the sciences is largely considered to increase global access to scientific information by unifying the scientific community under a single lingua franca [ 2 ].

In Bangladesh, where the mother tongue is Bangla and midwifery diploma programs are taught in English, knowledge of English facilitates student and instructor access to global, continuously updated evidence-based practice guidance. This includes basic and scientific texts, media-based instructional materials (including on life-saving skills), professional journals, and proceedings of medical conferences. Many of these resources are available for free online, which can be particularly useful in healthcare settings that have not integrated evidence-based practice.

In addition to opportunity though, English instruction also creates several challenges. Weak student and faculty English competency may impede midwifery education quality in Bangladesh. Globally, literature has linked limited instructor competency in the language of instruction with reduced depth, nuance, and accuracy in conveying subject matter content [ 3 ]. This can lead to the perpetuation of patterns of care in misalignment with global evidence. In addition, students’ native language proficiency in their topic of study can decline when instruction is in English, limiting native language communication between colleagues on the job later on [ 4 , 5 ].

In this paper, we examine the current status of English language instruction within public diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh. Midwifery students are not required to demonstrate a certain skill level in English to enter the program. However, they are provided with English classes in the program. Midwifery course materials are in English, while—for ease and practicality—teaching aids and verbal classroom instruction are provided in Bangla. Following graduation, midwifery students must pass a national licensing exam given in English to practice. Upon passing, some new midwives are deployed as public employees and are posted to sub-district health facilities where English is not used by either providers or clients. Others will seek employment as part of non-governmental organization (NGO) projects where English competency can be of value for interacting with global communities, and for participating in NGO-specific on-the-job learning opportunities. The mix of both challenge and opportunity in this context is complex.

Our analysis examines the reasons for the identified English competency gaps within midwifery programs, and potential solutions. We synthesize the findings and discuss solutions in the context of the global literature. Finally, we present a set of viable options for strengthening English competencies among midwifery faculty and students to enable better quality teaching and greater learning comprehension among students.

Study design

We employed a mixed-methods study design [ 6 ] in order to assess the quality of English instruction within education programs, and options for its improvement. Data collection consisted of two surveys of education institutes, a web-search of available English programs in Bangladesh, and key informant interviews. Both surveys followed a structured questionnaire with a combination of open- and closed-ended questions and were designed by the authors. One survey targeted the 38 institute principals and the other targeted 14 of the institutes’ 38 English instructors (those for whom contact information was shared). The web-search focused on generating a list of available English programs in Bangladesh that had viable models that could be tapped into to strengthen English competencies among midwifery faculty and students. Key informant interviews were unstructured and intended to substantiate and deepen understanding of the survey and web-search findings.

No minimum requirements exist for students’ English competencies upon entry into midwifery diploma programs. Students enter directly from higher secondary school (12th standard) and complete the midwifery program over a period of three years. Most students come from modest economic backgrounds having completed their primary and secondary education in Bangla. While English instruction is part of students’ secondary education, skill attainment is low, and assessment standards are not in place to ensure student mastery. To join the program, midwifery students are required to pass a multi-subject entrance exam that includes a component on English competency. However, as no minimum English standard must be met, the exam does not screen out potential midwifery students. Scoring, for instance, is not broken down by subject. This makes it possible to answer zero questions correctly in up to three of the subjects, including English, and pass the exam.

Processes/data collection

Prior to the first survey, principals were contacted by UNFPA with information about the survey and all provided verbal consent to participate. The survey of principals collected general information about the resources available for English instruction at the institutes. It was a nine-item questionnaire with a mix of Yes/No, multiple choice and write-in questions. Specific measures of interest were whether and how many English instructors the institutes had, instructors’ hiring criteria, whether institutes had language labs and if they were in use, and principals’ views on the need for English courses and their ideal mode of delivery (e.g., in-person, online, or a combination). This survey also gathered contact information of institute English instructors. These measures were chosen as they were intended to provide a high-level picture of institutes’ English resources such as faculty availability and qualifications, and use of language labs. To ensure questions were appropriately framed, a pilot test was conducted with two institute principals and small adjustments were subsequently made. Responses were shared via an electronic form sent by email and were used to inform the second survey as well as the key informant interviews. Of the 38 principals, 36 completed the survey.

The second survey, targeting English instructors, gathered information on instructors’ type of employment (e.g., institute faculty or adjunct lecturers); length of employment; student academic focus (e.g., midwifery or nursing); hours of English instruction provided as part of the midwifery diploma program; whether a standard English curriculum was used and if it was tailored toward the healthcare profession; use of digital content in teaching; education and experience in English teaching; and their views on student barriers to learning English. These measures were chosen to provide a basic criterion for assessing quality of English instruction, materials and resources available to students. For instance, instructors’ status as faculty would indicate a stronger degree of integration and belonging to the institute midwifery program than a guest lecturer status which allows for part time instruction with little job security. In addition, use of a standard, professionally developed English curriculum and integration of digital content into classroom learning would be indicative of higher quality than learning materials developed informally by instructors themselves without use of listening content by native speakers in classrooms. The survey was piloted with two English instructors. Based on their feedback, minor adjustments were made to one question, and it was determined that responses were best gathered by phone due to instructors’ limited internet access. Of the 14 instructors contacted, 11 were reached and provided survey responses by phone.

The web-search gathered information on available English language instruction programs for adults in Bangladesh, and the viability of tapping into any of them to improve English competency among midwifery students and faculty. Keywords Bangladesh  +  English courses , English training , English classes , study English and learn English were typed into Google’s search platform. Eleven English language instruction programs were identified. Following this, each program was contacted either by phone or email and further detail about the program’s offerings was collected.

Unstructured key informant interviews were carried out with select knowledgeable individuals to substantiate and enhance the credibility of the survey and web-search findings. Three in-country expert English language instructors and four managers of English language teaching programs were interviewed. In addition, interviews were held with three national-level stakeholders knowledgeable about work to make functional technologically advanced English language laboratories that had been installed at many of the training institutes. Question prompts included queries such as, ‘In your experience, what are the major barriers to Bangla-medium educated students studying in English at the university level?’, ‘What effective methods or curricula are you aware of for improving student English to an appropriate competency level for successful learning in English?’, and, ‘What options do you see for the language lab/s being used, either in their originally intended capacity or otherwise?’

Data analysis

All data were analyzed by the lead researcher. Survey data were entered into a master Excel file and grouped descriptively to highlight trends and outliers, and ultimately enable a clear description of the structure and basic quality attributes (e.g., instructors’ education, hours of English instruction, and curriculum development resources used). Web-search findings were compiled in a second Excel file with columns distinguishing whether they taught general English (often aimed at preparing students for international standard exams), Business English, or English for Specific Purposes (ESP). This enabled separation of standalone English courses taught by individual instructors as part of vocational or academic programs of study in other fields, and programs with an exclusive focus on English language acquisition. Key informant interviews were summarized in a standard notes format using Word. An inductive process of content analysis was carried out, in which content categories were identified and structured to create coherent meaning [ 7 ]. From this, the key overall findings and larger themes that grew from the initial survey and web-search results were drawn out.

The surveys (Tables  1 and 2 ) found that English instructors are primarily long-term male guest lecturers employed at each institute for more than two years. All principal respondents indicated that there is a need for English instruction—18 of the 19 reported that this is best done through a combination of in-person and computer-based instruction. Ten institutes reported that they have an English language lab, but none were used as such. The other institutes did not have language labs. The reported reasons for the labs not being in use were a lack of trained staff to operate them and some components of the technology not being installed or working properly. The findings from the instructors’ survey indicated that English instructors typically develop their own learning materials and teach general English without tailoring content to healthcare contexts. Only two mentioned using a standard textbook to guide their instruction and one described consulting a range of English textbooks to develop learning content. None reported using online or other digital tools for language instruction in their classrooms. Most instructors had an advanced degree (i.e., master’s degree) in English, and seven had received training in teaching English. Interviews with instructors also revealed that they themselves did not have mastery of English, as communication barriers in speaking over the phone appeared consistently across 10 of the 11 instructor respondents.

The web-search and related follow up interviews found that most English instruction programs (10 out of the 11) were designed for teaching general English and/or business English. The majority were offered through private entities aiming to reach individuals intending to study abroad, access employment that required English, or improve their ability to navigate business endeavors in English. One program, developed by the British Council, had flexibility to tailor its structure and some of its content to the needs of midwifery students. However, this was limited in that a significant portion of the content that would be used was developed for global audiences and thus not tailored to a Bangladeshi audience or to any specific discipline. One of the university English programs offered a promising ESP model tailored to midwifery students. It was designed by BRAC University’s Institute of Language for the university’s private midwifery training program.

Three themes emerged from the other key informant interviews (Table  3 ). The first was that, in addition to students’ challenges with English, faculty mastery of English presented challenges as well. Of the 34 faculty members intending to participate in the 2019–2020 cohort for the Dalarna master’s degree, half did not pass the prerequisite English exam. Ultimately, simultaneous English-Bangla translation was necessary for close to half of the faculty to enable their participation in the master’s program. English language limitations also precluded one faculty member from participating in an international PhD program in midwifery.

The second theme highlighted the language labs’ lack of usability. The language labs consisted of computers, an interactive whiteboard, audio-visual equipment, and associated software to allow for individualized direct interactions between teacher and student. However, due to the lack of appropriately trained staff to manage, care for and use the language lab equipment, the investment required to make the labs functional appeared to outweigh the learning advantages doing so would provide. Interviews revealed that work was being done, supported by a donor agency, on just one language lab, to explore whether it could be made functional. The work was described as costly and challenging, and required purchasing a software license from abroad, thus likely being impractical to apply to the other labs and sustain over multiple years.

The third theme was around the ESP curriculum model. The program developers had employed evidence-informed thinking to develop the ESP learning content and consulted student midwives on their learning preferences. Due to the student input, at least 80% of the content was designed to directly relate to the practice of midwifery in Bangladesh, while the remaining 10–20% references globally relevant content. This balance was struck based on students’ expressed interest in having some exposure to English usage outside of Bangladesh for their personal interest. For conversation practice, the modules integrated realistic scenarios of midwives interacting with doctors, nurses and patients. Also built into written activities were exercises where students were prompted to describe relevant health topics they are concurrently studying in their health, science or clinical classes. Given the midwifery students’ educational backgrounds and intended placements in rural parts of Bangladesh, an ESP curriculum model appeared to be the most beneficial existing program to pursue tapping into to strengthen English competencies within midwifery programs. This was because the content would likely be more accessible to students than a general English course by having vocabulary, activities and examples directly relevant to the midwifery profession.

The study findings demonstrate key weaknesses in the current model of English instruction taught in public midwifery programs. Notably, the quantitative findings revealed that some English instructors do not have training in teaching English, and none used standard curricula or online resources to structure and enhance their classroom content. In addition, weak mastery of English among midwifery faculty was identified in the qualitative data, which calls into question faculty’s ability to fully understand and accurately convey content from English learning materials. Global literature indicates that this is not a unique situation. Many healthcare faculty and students in low-resource settings, in fact, are faced with delivering and acquiring knowledge in a language they have not sufficiently mastered [ 8 ]. As a significant barrier to knowledge and skill acquisition for evidence-based care, this requires more attention from global midwifery educators [ 9 ].

Also holding back students’ English development is the finding from both the quantitative and qualitative data that none of the high-tech language labs were being used as intended. This indicates a misalignment with the investment against the reality of the resources at the institutes to use them. While setting up the costly language labs appears to have been a large investment with little to no return, it does demonstrate that strengthening English language instruction in post-secondary public education settings is a priority that the Bangladesh government is willing to invest in. However, scaling up access to an ESP curriculum model tailored to future midwifery practitioners in Bangladesh may be a more worthwhile investment than language labs [ 10 ]. 

The ESP approach teaches English for application in a specific discipline. It does this by using vocabulary, examples, demonstrations, scenarios and practice activities that are directly related to the context and professions those studying English live and work (or are preparing to work) in. One way ESP has been described, attributed to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), is, “ESP should properly be seen not as any particular language product but as an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning” [ 11 ]. It is proposed by linguistic education researchers as a viable model for strengthening language mastery and subject matter comprehension in EMI university contexts [ 12 ].

Though it did not arise as a finding, reviewing the literature highlighted that Bangla language instruction may be an additional, potentially viable option. Linguistic research has long shown that students learn more thoroughly and efficiently in their mother tongue [ 12 ]. Another perhaps more desirable option may be multilingualism, which entails recognizing native languages as complementary in EMI classrooms, and using them through verbal instruction and supplemental course materials. Kirkpatrick, a leading scholar of EMI in Asia, suggests that multilingualism be formally integrated into EMI university settings [ 13 ]. This approach is supported by evidence showing that the amount of native language support students need for optimal learning is inversely proportional to their degree of English proficiency [ 14 ].

Ultimately, despite the language related learning limitations identified in this study, and the opportunities presented by native language and multilingualism approaches, there remains a fundamental need for members of the midwifery profession in Bangladesh to use up-to-date guidance on evidence-based midwifery care [ 11 ]. Doing that currently requires English language competence. Perhaps a tiered system of requirements for English competencies that are tied to diploma, Bachelor’s, Master’s and PhD midwifery programs could build bridges for more advanced students to access global resources. Higher academic levels might emphasize English more heavily, while the diploma level could follow a multilingualism approach—teaching using an ESP curriculum and integrating Bangla strategically to support optimal knowledge acquisition for future practice in rural facilities. Ideally, scores on a standard English competency exam would be used to assess students’ language competencies prior to entrance in English-based programs and that this would require more stringent English skill development prior to entering a midwifery program.

Methodological considerations

One of the limitations of this study is that it relied on self-reports and observation, rather than tested language and subject matter competencies. Its strengths though are in the relatively large number of education institutes that participated in the study, and the breadth of knowledge about faculty and student subject matter expertise among study co-authors. It was recognized that the lead researcher might be biased toward pre-determined perceptions of English competencies being a barrier to teaching and learning held by the lead institution (UNFPA). It was also recognized that due to the inherent power imbalance between researcher and participants, the manner of gathering data and engaging with stakeholders may contribute to confirmation bias, with respondents primarily sharing what they anticipated the researcher wished to hear (e.g., that English needed strengthening and the lead agency should take action to support the strengthening). The researcher thus engaged with participants independently of UNFPA and employed reflexivity by designing and carrying out the surveys to remotely collect standard data from institutes, as well as casting a wide net across institutes to increase broad representation. In addition, while institutes were informed that the surveys were gathering information about the English instruction within the institutes, no information was shared about potential new support to institutes. Finally, the researcher validated and gathered further details on the relevant information identified in the surveys through key informant interviews, which were held with stakeholders independent of UNFPA.

Adapting and scaling up the existing ESP modules found in this study, and integrating Bangla where it can enhance subject-matter learning, may be a useful way to help midwifery students and faculty improve their knowledge, skills, and critical thinking related to the field of midwifery. Given the educational backgrounds and likely work locations of most midwives in Bangladesh and many other LMICs, practitioners may want to consider investing in more opportunities for local midwives to teach and learn in their mother tongue. This type of investment would ideally be paired with a tiered system in which more advanced English competencies are required at higher-levels of education to ensure integration of global, evidence-based approaches into local standards of care.

Declarations.

Data availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Bangladesh Rehabilitation Assistance Committee

English medium instruction

English for Specific Purposes

Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

United Nations Population Fund

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge Farida Begum, Rabeya Basri, and Pronita Raha for their contributions to data collection for this assessment.

This project under which this study was carried out was funded by funded by the Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office.

Open access funding provided by University of Gothenburg.

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Anna Williams

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Jennifer R. Stevens

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Rondi Anderson

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Authors contributions in the development of this paper were as follows: AW- Concept, acquisition, drafting, revision, analysis, interpretation. JRS- Concept, revision. RA- Concept, analysis MB- Revision, analysis, interpretationAll authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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This study was part of a larger project in Bangladesh approved by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) with project ID UZJ31. The MOHFW project approval allows data collection of this type, that is carried out as part of routine program monitoring and improvement, including informed verbal consent for surveys and key informant interviews.

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Williams, A., Stevens, J., Anderson, R. et al. Challenges and opportunities of English as the medium of instruction in diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh: a mixed-methods study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 523 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05499-8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05499-8

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Study shows lack of trust among Hispanics in local English-language news organizations

The study focused on the Raleigh-Durham community and specifically sought to discover what barriers non-English speakers face in accessing news.

Since you’re visiting Poynter’s website, I’ll assume you’ve heard this before: America’s local news ecosystem is in crisis. 

Across the country, local newspapers are closing down . This trend has prompted researchers to identify a growing number of news deserts, or communities that have little access to essential local information. A declining local press harms democracy: According to the American Journalism Project , it increases polarization, reduces voter turnout and decreases accountability for local leaders. 

Yet, lost in these conversations is an analysis of whom the remaining local papers actually serve. With reporting often published in English, many of those papers are inaccessible to recent immigrants and communities that speak English as a second language. These people live in what Emma Murphy, editorial intern at the progressive magazine American Prospect, calls “ linguistic news deserts ,” or places where the existence of a local paper does not guarantee in-language coverage of local events. 

Where do these communities turn for news instead? 

While working last fall as a Poynter-Google News Initiative misinformation student fellow for WRAL-TV in North Carolina, I sought to answer this question for the largest language minority group in the state: Hispanic communities.

Our questions

Specifically, we wanted to understand: 

• where Hispanic residents in Raleigh-Durham got their local news, 
• how much they trust those sources, 
• what barriers they face accessing local news, 
• and what solutions they might have for improving the accessibility of local coverage. 

The need for accessible in-language news was exemplified by an anecdote shared by one of the community leaders I interviewed for this project:

“When COVID happened, (North Carolina) was pushing for these COVID vaccine drives. … They had Spanish speakers, and they had them ready and available … and no one showed up. And they were like, ‘Well, we’re putting this out in the (News & Observer) and WRAL.’ Well, they’re not watching that. So as soon as (the) Spanish news station ran it, they were flooded, because they went to where they are.”

Without a newspaper in their first or preferred language, many minority communities struggle to access essential local news from traditional media outlets, including information about vaccine clinics, or extreme weather warnings . WRAL-TV sought to understand how they could improve the reach of their coverage for these communities. 

We created two surveys — one in English and one in Spanish — consisting of questions that would help us study these topics. After standing in front of grocery stores, hanging up flyers in restaurants with my friends, and networking through community organizations, we received 26 responses over about a month and a half. We supplemented our findings with interviews with two community leaders whose experience working in local journalism and with community members strengthened our analysis. 

Our findings

Consistent with national research on the news consumption habits of Latino communities , our survey revealed that local Hispanic residents rely predominantly on social media for news, followed by television and websites. Sparse translation, coupled with inadequate representation, creates barriers to news access and may drive distrust in English-language news organizations for Hispanics.

Discussing translation, respondents lamented that there are few attempts at translation of local news into Spanish. When it is translated, the translations are often sensationalist and inaccurate. As one respondent summarized:

“ The American media does little to address the realities that affect Hispanic families. There is not enough translation and, sadly, many attempts lack quality because they translate very poorly and I end up uninformed.”

This lack of quality translation, coupled with a lack of holistic representation, pushes community members away from traditional media outlets for news. Community members also felt as if most English-language coverage of their community was negative, focusing on crime rather than community activities and businesses. Again, these limitations may undermine community trust in English news outlets in North Carolina. 

Spanish speakers are more trusting of Spanish-language news, and some research finds that community members who receive their news from ethnic media outlets — outlets covering underrepresented communities like the Hispanic community — are more likely to trust Spanish-language journalists. 

In comparison, researchers found no increase in trust for English-language reporters when community members watched mainstream outlets for news. As such, a lack of representation and translation may reduce trust in local news. 

However, we found that Hispanic residents in the Raleigh-Durham area still trust traditional news sources like websites, newspapers and television more than social media for news. This suggests that barriers to accessibility — namely, inadequate translation — may drive community members to use social media for news, despite feeling as though social media news is untrustworthy. Further, community members cited fact-checks as the least trusted news source, and many community members do not know what they are. 

Implications

Given that Hispanic communities are more likely to be exposed to false political information , these findings have important implications for news and fact-checking organizations seeking to promote their content to these communities.

First, the survey results suggest that English local news content and fact-checking by North Carolina outlets are failing to reach portions of the local community. Given that mis- and disinformation proliferate on social media often used by Hispanics for news, it is especially important that these organizations work to make their content visible and accessible to these communities. 

Toward that end, community members provided a myriad of suggestions. First, translation must be improved, overseen by at least one bilingual reporter. The advent of artificial intelligence can assist in translation, but absent human supervision, mistakes can be made. At Gizmodo en Español, the Spanish-language version of Gizmodo, a technology news site , an AI error left part of an article entirely in English, for example. 

However, it is important to remember that the Hispanic community is a large diaspora, with regional differences in language use and cultural norms. As such, one bilingual reporter will not adequately represent all groups, despite improving the reach of local coverage. 

Next, coverage of minority communities should be holistic, rather than focused on issues the outlet feels may be relevant to that group. Community members in Raleigh-Durham said that local English-language coverage often overemphasizes immigration and crime in their coverage of Hispanic communities, rather than covering community achievements and businesses, for example. Based on an Oxford study that found that misrepresentation of minority communities in media undermines trust in those outlets, I suspect that well-rounded coverage could improve community trust in local news outlets. 

Finally, news outlets that cannot afford to substantially increase their coverage and/or translation should partner with existing ethnic media organizations and amplify their coverage. In North Carolina, QuéPasa Media Network Raleigh , La Noticia , Enlace NC , and La Conexión all provide essential local coverage for Hispanic community members. Yet, these outlets face many of the same revenue-raising challenges as other local papers. As such, English local papers should strive to supplement and support these ethnic media outlets. 

Further research needed

While these findings are important, they’re limited in their applicability: Our sample was not representative of the local Hispanic population. Further research is also needed to understand the news consumption patterns of the various ethnic groups that form the Hispanic diaspora. 

Nevertheless, this study provides important insights into the ways in which existing local news organizations in North Carolina and beyond can provide respite to linguistic news deserts. Given the vast linguistic and cultural diversity of the United States, it is essential that local newspapers provide accessible content for as many of its potential readers as it can. Future research should continue to examine ways that local papers can better serve the diverse American electorate. 

Chloe Nguyen, an alumnus of Duke University, was a Poynter-Google News Initiative misinformation fellow with WRAL News in North Carolina in the fall of 2023. At Duke she was an Alice M. Baldwin Scholar and a Nakayama Public Service Scholar, and currently is a George J. Mitchell Scholar.

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