marine pollution effects essay

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Marine pollution.

Marine pollution is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.

Biology, Ecology, Earth Science, Oceanography

Loading ...

Learning materials

Instructional links.

• Marine Pollution (Google Doc)

Marine pollution is a growing problem in today’s world. Our ocean is being flooded with two main types of pollution: chemicals and trash.

Chemical contamination, or nutrient pollution, is concerning for health, environmental, and economic reasons. This type of pollution occurs when human activities, notably the use of fertilizer on farms, lead to the runoff of chemicals into waterways that ultimately flow into the ocean. The increased concentration of chemicals, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, in the coastal ocean promotes the growth of algal blooms , which can be toxic to wildlife and harmful to humans. The negative effects on health and the environment caused by algal blooms hurt local fishing and tourism industries.

Marine trash encompasses all manufactured products—most of them plastic —that end up in the ocean. Littering, storm winds, and poor waste management all contribute to the accumulation of this debris , 80 percent of which comes from sources on land. Common types of marine debris include various plastic items like shopping bags and beverage bottles, along with cigarette butts, bottle caps, food wrappers, and fishing gear. Plastic waste is particularly problematic as a pollutant because it is so long-lasting. Plastic items can take hundreds of years to decompose.

This trash poses dangers to both humans and animals. Fish become tangled and injured in the debris , and some animals mistake items like plastic bags for food and eat them. Small organisms feed on tiny bits of broken-down plastic , called micro plastic , and absorb the chemicals from the plastic into their tissues. Micro plastics are less than five millimeters (0.2 inches) in diameter and have been detected in a range of marine species, including plankton and whales. When small organisms that consume micro plastics are eaten by larger animals, the toxic chemicals then become part of their tissues. In this way, the micro plastic pollution migrates up the food chain , eventually becoming part of the food that humans eat.

Solutions for marine pollution include prevention and cleanup. Disposable and single-use plastic is abundantly used in today’s society, from shopping bags to shipping packaging to plastic bottles. Changing society’s approach to plastic use will be a long and economically challenging process. Cleanup, in contrast, may be impossible for some items. Many types of debris (including some plastics ) do not float, so they are lost deep in the ocean. Plastics that do float tend to collect in large “patches” in ocean gyres. The Pacific Garbage Patch is one example of such a collection, with plastics and micro plastics floating on and below the surface of swirling ocean currents between California and Hawaii in an area of about 1.6 million square kilometers (617,763 square miles), although its size is not fixed. These patches are less like islands of trash and, as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration says, more like flecks of micro plastic pepper swirling around an ocean soup. Even some promising solutions are inadequate for combating marine pollution. So-called “ biodegradable ” plastics often break down only at temperatures higher than will ever be reached in the ocean.

Nonetheless, many countries are taking action. According to a 2018 report from the United Nations, more than sixty countries have enacted regulations to limit or ban the use of disposable plastic items. The National Geographic Society is making this content available under a Creative Commons CC-BY-NC-SA license . The License excludes the National Geographic Logo (meaning the words National Geographic + the Yellow Border Logo) and any images that are included as part of each content piece. For clarity the Logo and images may not be removed, altered, or changed in any way.

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Production Managers

Program specialists, last updated.

February 22, 2024

User Permissions

For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.

If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.

Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service .

Interactives

Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.

Related Resources

No Results Found

Ocean plastic pollution an overview: data and statistics

09 May 2022

https://oceanliteracy.unesco.org/plastic-pollution-ocean/

Plastic is one of the most enduring materials man has created. Nowadays, we all know that it can take hundreds of years for plastic to degrade, and research is showing that it is possible that it does not even fully degrade, but becomes what we call microplastic .

Microplastics are tiny particles of plastic that can be eaten by marine animals and end up in their bodies and tissues, entering the food chain and leading to disastrous consequences for the health of our planet and all its inhabitants.

Even if human beings are becoming more and more aware of the hazards this material poses to life, the presence of plastic in our ocean is continually increasing, and plastic pollution is still one of the main causes of marine species extinction , health problems for human beings and animals alike, and the destruction of our ecosystems.

In this article, we will look at ocean plastic pollution and lay out the data and statistics you need to understand the daunting issue we are facing. Most importantly, we will also look at what we can do as individuals and as part of our society to prevent plastic pollution and save our planet.

Let’s start!

Plastic Pollution in the Ocean: Where does it come from?

It is clear that plastic pollution is one of the most pressing environmental issues we are currently facing, but how did it come to be? Moreover, where does all the plastic in the ocean come from?

Plastics produced from fossil fuels are just over a century old , but they revolutionized our life completely. It allowed the invention of many life-saving devices and the implementation of new technologies that changed the course of history.

However, the great advantages plastic offered led to a throwaway trend that made us discover plastic’s dark side: the threat it poses to our environment and life.

The majority of plastic pollution in the ocean is caused by littering : we buy or use disposable plastic items (food wrappings, plastic bags, razors, bottles, etc.) and do not dispose of them properly, which cause them to end up in the waterways and eventually in the ocean.

Yet, not all-plastic waste in the ocean is an effect of littering: many plastics and microplastics are the product of improper manufacturing processes and about 20% of the ocean’s plastic pollution comes from industrial fishing.

Plastic Pollution: Key Facts

• Plastic waste makes up 80% of all marine pollution and around 8 to 10 million metric tons of plastic end up in the ocean each year.
• Research states that, by 2050, plastic will likely outweigh all fish in the sea.
• In the last ten years, we have produced more plastic products than in the previous century.
• The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) has stated that basically 100% of all plastics human beings have ever created are still in existence.
• Plastic generally takes between 500-1000 years to degrade. Even then, it becomes microplastics, without fully degrading.
• Currently, there are about 50-75 trillion pieces of plastic and microplastics in the ocean.
• This plastic either breaks down into microplastic particles (see below), or floats around and ends up forming garbage patches.

Garbage Patches in the Ocean

Most of the plastic we find in the ocean comes from land: it flows downstream through rivers all the way to the sea. At first, it may stay in coastal waters, but it can soon be picked up by rotating ocean currents , called gyres, and transported literally anywhere in the world.

According to National Geographic, scientists found plastic coming from Russia, the United States, Europe, South America, Japan, and China on Henderson Island , an uninhabited isolated atoll halfway between Chile and New Zealand.

Usually, marine plastic debris groups up in what we call garbage patches, plastic accumulation areas, in the center of the ocean’s gyres. The biggest is the Great Pacific garbage patch , located between Hawaii and California.

Consequences

Today, plastic production and use is still at its highest, but the data on recycling are not at all promising: only about 10% of the plastic we produce is currently being recycled . The rest is either incinerated, causing air pollution, or it ends up in our oceans and environment.

Harm to Wildlife

Plastic pollution in the ocean has a devastating impact on marine life and ecosystems. The most obvious one being the damage plastic items cause to animals when they come into contact with or ingest them, which include suffocation, entanglement, laceration, infections and internal injuries.

17% of the species affected by the presence of plastic in the ocean are on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species.

Yet, there are more problems related to plastic: floating plastic items can help transport invasive species, which leads to threats for marine ecosystems , biodiversity and the food web.

Harm to Human Beings

As we explained above, microplastics have now become part of the food chain and have been found everywhere: in drinking water, salt, beer and in the soil where we grow our vegetables.

Plastic materials are carcinogenic and can affect the body’s endocrine system, causing developmental, neurological, reproductive and immune disorders. Another health hazard is given by toxic contaminants that often accumulate on plastic’s surface, and are then transferred to humans through the consumption of seafood.

Climate Change

Plastic pollution and climate change are two sides of the same coin : plastic production, as it is created from fossil fuels, highly contributes to the climate crisis.

Moreover, as we already mentioned, when plastic waste is incinerated, it releases carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere, increasing emissions and worsening global warming.

Economic effects

According to research, the yearly economic costs of plastic in the ocean are estimated to be between $6-19bn USD. These costs are given by its impact on tourism, fisheries and aquaculture, and (governmental) cleanups.

Images of Plastic Pollution in the Ocean

Here, we have decided to show you some recent images of plastic pollution in the ocean.

This will help you comprehend the magnitude of the threat that plastic pollution in the ocean poses to our planet and life, as we know it, and hopefully help you develop a deeper awareness of what is going on.

Why it is Vital to Prevent Plastic Pollution

Plastic pollution is undoubtedly an issue that requires worldwide cooperation. Its consequences affect the whole planet and its inhabitants: it threatens ocean health , the health of marine species, food safety and quality, human health , coastal tourism, and contributes to climate change.

Reducing the presence of plastic in our oceans will not only allow us to save marine species and ecosystems, but will improve our overall health and that of the environment in general, helping us fight climate change and working towards a more sustainable future .

How to Stop Plastic Pollution in the Ocean

It is quite hard to retrieve plastic from the ocean once it has entered it. New technologies allow us to catch larger marine debris, but small plastic items and microplastics are virtually impossible to reach, especially when they are deep in the ocean.

Therefore, many scientists and conservationists have declared that the best solution is to prevent plastic waste from entering rivers and seas in the first place.

This could be accomplished with the improvement of our waste management systems and the implementation of recycling . In addition, it is essential to reconsider the design and usage of disposable packaging , and the reduction in manufacturing of unnecessary single-use plastics.

What Can We Do

There are many ways to keep plastic out of the ocean ! Here are some strategies you can adopt and share with your community:

• Reduce plastic use Think about all the plastic items you use in your daily life. Can you even count them all? Being more aware of the way you use plastic is a great starting point to reduce plastic waste.

We know, habits are hard to change, but even a small individual commitment can make a difference especially when talking about the single-use plastics we mentioned earlier which, according to data from the European Parliament, are responsible for 49% of all marine pollution.

Here are some new habits you can take inspiration from:

• Swap plastic bags for reusable ones, made of cloth or fiber.
• Reduce the use of disposable plastic cups, plates, cutlery and bottles. For example, bring your own reusable bottle to work and a reusable coffee cup for your morning take-away!)
• Buy food and cleaning products in bulk to avoid useless plastic wrappings. Nowadays, there are plenty of options to choose from, and many supermarkets let you fill your own jars/bags.
• Choose metal or glass food containers and storage options instead of plastic ones.
• Avoid buying and using cosmetics that contain plastic microspheres or microbeads.
• Participate in (or organize!) a cleanup

If you live by a sea or river, you can volunteer to pick up litter in your local community, thus remove plastics from the waterways and preventing them from getting to the ocean in the first place. There are many organizations you can join, or simply do it on the weekend with your friends and family. Every little helps!

• Support the right legislation

Of course, it is essential to change our individual behaviors and habits, but unfortunately, this is not sufficient to prevent and stop ocean plastic pollution. It is also essential that you support legislation that aims at reducing the use and production of plastic, improve recycling facilities and better manage waste in general.

• Support research and organizations

One of the main weapons we can use to stop ocean pollution is research. By deepening our knowledge of the effects of the issue, we can start implementing better policies for all.

There are many NGOs and non-profit that rely on donations to develop their projects and research for reducing and eliminating plastic from the ocean. Here are some examples:

• Oceanic Society
• Plastic Pollution Coalition
• Plastic Soup Foundation

Sylvia Earle, marine biologist, said: “It is the worst of times but it is the best of times because we still have a chance.” So, let us make the best of this chance; we can all make choices to protect our planet, it is not too late!

https://www.itsafishthing.com/plastic-in-the-ocean/

https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/plastic-planet-how-tiny-plastic-particles-are-polluting-our-soil

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/plastic-pollution

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/marinedebris/plastics-in-the-ocean.html

https://theoceancleanup.com/

https://www.iberdrola.com/sustainability/plastic-in-the-ocean

https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/how-does-plastic-end-ocean

https://www.oceanicsociety.org/resources/7-ways-to-reduce-ocean-plastic-pollution-today/

Building a New Ocean Literacy Approach Based on a Simulated Dive in a Submarine: A Multisensory Workshop to Bring the Deep Sea Closer to People

World ocean review 6 the arctic and antarctic –extreme, climatically crucial and in crisis, summary report- blue aholics leaving only bubbles out there.

An official website of the United States government

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

• Education home
• About NOAA Education
• NOAA in your backyard: Alaska
• NOAA in your backyard: Caribbean
• NOAA in your backyard: Central
• NOAA in your backyard: Great Lakes
• NOAA in your backyard: Gulf of Mexico
• NOAA in your backyard: Mid-Atlantic
• NOAA in your backyard: Northeast
• NOAA in your backyard: Northwest
• NOAA in your backyard: Pacific Islands
• NOAA in your backyard: Southeast
• NOAA in your backyard: Southwest
• Educational mailing lists
• Oct-Dec 2023
• Jul-Sep 2023
• Apr-Jun 2023
• Jan-Mar 2023
• NOAA Sea to Sky: Education resource database
• Ocean acidification
• Ocean currents
• Ocean floor features

Ocean pollution and marine debris

• El Niño and La Niña
• Space weather
• Weather observations
• Weather systems & patterns
• Carbon cycle
• Changing seasons
• Climate change impacts
• Climate data monitoring
• Aquatic food webs
• Coral reef ecosystems
• Fisheries and seafood
• Life in an estuary
• Marine mammals
• Sea turtles
• Great Lakes ecoregion
• Water cycle
• Watersheds, flooding, and pollution
• Data resources for educators
• Education at home
• Elementary resources
• Hands-on science activities
• Special topics
• Conference resources
• About the education resource collections
• Conservation Service Corp Act Direct Hiring Authority
• Educator opportunities
• Grants & networks
• News and stories

Each year, billions of pounds of trash and other pollutants enter the ocean.

Keep exploring

Find even more resources on ocean pollution and marine debris  in our searchable resource database.

Sanctuaries resource collection: Marine debris

Each year, billions of pounds of trash and other pollutants enter the ocean. Where does this pollution come from? Where does it go? Some of the debris ends up on our beaches, washed in with the waves and tides. Some debris sinks, some is eaten by marine animals that mistake it for food, and some accumulates in ocean gyres . Other forms of pollution that impact the health of the ocean come from sources like oil spills or from accumulation of many dispersed sources, such as fertilizer from our yards.

Litter such as plastic detergent bottles, crates, buoys, combs, and water bottles blanket Kanapou Bay, on the Island of Kaho’olawe in Hawaii. This region is a hot-spot for marine debris accumulation. (Image credit: NOAA)

Where does pollution come from?

The majority of pollutants that make their way into the ocean come from human activities along the coastlines and far inland. One of the biggest sources of pollution is nonpoint source pollution , which occurs as a result of runoff . Nonpoint source pollution can come from many sources, like septic tanks, vehicles, farms, livestock ranches, and timber harvest areas. Pollution that comes from a single source, like an oil or chemical spill, is known as point source pollution . Point source pollution events often have large impacts, but fortunately, they occur less often. Discharge from faulty or damaged factories or water treatment systems is also considered point source pollution.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are chemicals created by humans that are notorious for being resistant to biodegradation and have been found in ground, surface, and drinking water. Makayla Neldner, a 2022 Hollings scholar, spent her summer internship at NOAA’s Hollings Marine Lab in Charleston, South Carolina, researching how two PFAS compounds affected the life cycle of larval grass shrimp ( Palaemon pugio ).

Nutrients and algal blooms: Too much of a good thing?

Sometimes it is not the type of material, but its concentration that determines whether a substance is a pollutant. For example, the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus are essential elements for plant growth. However, if they are too abundant in a body of water, they can stimulate an overgrowth of algae, triggering an event called an algal bloom . Harmful algal blooms (HABs) , also known as “ red tides ,” grow rapidly and produce toxic effects that can affect marine life and sometimes even humans. Excess nutrients entering a body of water, either through natural or human activities, can also result in hypoxia or dead zones . When large amounts of algae sink and decompose in the water, the decomposition process consumes oxygen and depletes the supply available to healthy marine life. Many of the marine species that live in these areas either die or, if they are mobile (such as fish), leave the area.

Using ecological forecasting , NOAA is able to predict changes in ecosystems in response to HABs and other environmental drivers. These forecasts provide information about how people, economies, and communities may be affected. For example, the Harmful Algal Bloom Monitoring System developed by NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science provides information to the public and local authorities to help decide whether beaches need to be closed temporarily to protect public health.

Researchers at the St. Jones Reserve, a component of the Delaware National Estuarine Research Reserve, observed trash in songbird nests around the reserve’s visitor center. Hollings scholar Eleanor Meng studied whether this trash occurred more frequently in nests near the visitor center compared to nests further away.

Marine debris

Marine debris is a persistent pollution problem that reaches throughout the entire ocean and Great Lakes. Our ocean and waterways are polluted with a wide variety of marine debris, ranging from tiny microplastics , smaller than 5 mm, to derelict fishing gear and abandoned vessels. Worldwide, hundreds of marine species have been negatively impacted by marine debris, which can harm or kill an animal when it is ingested or they become entangled, and can threaten the habitats they depend on. Marine debris can also interfere with navigation safety and potentially pose a threat to human health.

All marine debris comes from people with a majority of it originating on land and entering the ocean and Great Lakes through littering, poor waste management practices, storm water discharge, and extreme natural events such as tsunamis and hurricanes. Some debris, such as derelict fishing gear , can also come from ocean-based sources. This lost or abandoned gear is a major problem because it can continue to capture and kill wildlife, damage sensitive habitats, and even compete with and damage active fishing gear.

Local, national, and international efforts are needed to address this environmental problem. The Save our Seas Act of 2018 amends and reauthorizes the Marine Debris Act to promote international action, authorize cleanup and response actions, and increase coordination among federal agencies on this topic.

Garbage patches: What and where are they?

Garbage patches are large areas of the ocean where trash, fishing gear, and other marine debris collects. The term “garbage patch” is a misleading nickname, making many believe that garbage patches are "islands of trash" that are visible from afar. These areas are actually made up of debris ranging in size, from microplastics to large bundles of derelict fishing gear.

These patches are formed by large, rotating ocean currents called gyres that pull debris into one location, often to the gyre’s center. There are five gyres in the ocean : one in the Indian Ocean, two in the Atlantic Ocean, and two in the Pacific Ocean. Garbage patches of varying sizes are located in each gyre. Due to winds and currents, garbage patches are constantly changing size and shape. The debris making up the garbage patches can be found from the surface of the ocean all the way to the ocean floor .

A group of teens from Mystic Aquarium received funding from NOAA and the North American Association for Environmental Education to lead an action project in their local community. The team chose to work with a non-profit organization to implement a project that focused on raising awareness on plastic pollution and recycling a common type of plastic used on boats.

The impact of marine pollution on seafood

Heavy metals and other contaminants can accumulate in seafood, making it harmful for humans to consume. Microplastics can be ingested by fish and other species that filter their food out of the water. With more than one-third of the shellfish-growing waters of the United States adversely affected by coastal pollution, it’s important for NOAA and it’s partners to study the impacts of microplastics and harmful contaminants in seafood. There is ongoing research around the country focusing on the potential risk to wildlife and humans from debris exposure and ingestion. NOAA monitors seafood contamination and provides safety tips through the Sustainable Seafood portal .

The B’more Conscious environmental fun festival at the National Aquarium focused on blue crab populations in Baltimore, plastic pollution and microplastics, eutrophication and food waste, and the urbanization of Baltimore City. 

EDUCATION CONNECTION

Whether humans live near the coasts or far inland, they are a part of the problem — and the solution — to ocean pollution. Through this collection of resources and information, students can be informed of the types of pollution harming our ocean, and learn about actions they can take to prevent further pollution no matter where they live. The NOAA Marine Debris Program provides many educational resources for educators, students, families, and adults to help better understand this global issue.

Emulsified oil washes ashore after the MV Braer , a U.S.-owned oil tanker, ran aground in hurricane-force winds off the Shetland Islands. The 1993 spill emptied 93,366 short tons (84,700 metric tons) of oil into the North Sea.

Ocean Threats

These types of human interference present the biggest threat to oceans.

Human activities are threatening the health of the world's oceans. More than 80 percent of marine pollution comes from land-based activities. From coral bleaching to sea level rise, entire marine ecosystems are rapidly changing.

Global warming is causing alterations in ocean chemistry and many oceanic processes, and it is threatening many species of marine animals that cannot cope with higher temperatures. Overfishing is a serious problem in many parts of the world. Conservationists advocate creating expansive marine reserves to protect the biodiversity of the oceans.

• Global warming is causing sea levels to rise , threatening coastal population centers.
• Many pesticides and nutrients used in agriculture end up in the coastal waters, resulting in oxygen depletion that kills marine plants and shellfish.
• Factories and industrial plants discharge sewage and other runoff into the oceans.
• Oil spills pollute the oceans, though U.S. water-sewage treatment plants discharge twice as much oil each year as tanker spills.
• Air pollution is responsible for almost one-third of the toxic contaminants and nutrients that enter coastal areas and oceans.
• Invasive species such as poisonous algae, cholera, and countless plants and animals have entered harbor waters and disrupted the ecological balance.
• The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that 31.4 percent of fish stocks are either fished to capacity or overfished.
• Establish marine parks to protect biodiversity.
• Reduce destructive fishing practices such as trawling.
• Minimize the use of military sonar that can harm or kill whales and other marine mammals.
• Help fishers to maintain their livelihoods by incorporating conservation efforts.
• Install measures to reduce the amount of fish caught accidentally.

FREE BONUS ISSUE

Related topics.

• WATER POLLUTION
• CLIMATE CHANGE
• MARINE BIODIVERSITY
• FISHING INDUSTRY
• SUSTAINABILITY

You May Also Like

These creatures of the 'twilight zone' are vital to our oceans

What is aquaculture? It may be the solution to overfishing.

The world's biggest marine reserve seems to be doing its job

Coral reefs in the Philippines are some of the world’s most vibrant—but in peril

Can Portuguese sardines make a comeback?

• Perpetual Planet
• Environment
• History & Culture
• Paid Content

History & Culture

• Mind, Body, Wonder
• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Your US State Privacy Rights
• Children's Online Privacy Policy
• Interest-Based Ads
• About Nielsen Measurement
• Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information
• Nat Geo Home
• Attend a Live Event
• Book a Trip
• Inspire Your Kids
• Shop Nat Geo
• Visit the D.C. Museum
• Learn About Our Impact
• Support Our Mission
• Advertise With Us
• Customer Service
• Renew Subscription
• Manage Your Subscription
• Work at Nat Geo
• Sign Up for Our Newsletters
• Contribute to Protect the Planet

Copyright © 1996-2015 National Geographic Society Copyright © 2015-2024 National Geographic Partners, LLC. All rights reserved

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Published: 10 June 2021

Ending marine pollution

Nature Sustainability volume  4 ,  page 459 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

6509 Accesses

21 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Environmental impact
• Ocean sciences
• Scientific community and society
• Sustainability

Scientific evidence sheds light on the extent, source and type of litter in the oceans, as well as on the limited efforts to clean it up so far. As we rely on healthy oceans for our future, it’s time to act.

Well into 2021, most countries around the world continue to battle with the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. On 11–13 June, the G7 leading democracies (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom and United States, plus the European Union) are set to meet in Cornwall, United Kingdom, to help win the fight against the pandemic and discuss how to build a more prosperous future for all. A lot has been said about the need to shape sound recovery policies centred on health and sustainability and collaborations have emerged over the course of the past year to inform decision makers on what, and how, to innovate in order to bounce forward sustainably . The G7 countries have a unique opportunity to listen to science and lead the efforts of the global community in pursuit of innovative policies that can build a more sustainable development trajectory across the globe.

Against this backdrop, the International Programme on the State of the Ocean ( IPSO ) virtually convened marine scientists from different countries to work out a plan of action to ensure a sustainable ocean future. The scientists wrote a statement known as ‘Seven asks for the G7’ to request that priority is given to the protection of the oceans in the pandemic recovery plans that are to be discussed at the summit in Cornwall.

Mounting scientific evidence of the severe impacts of human actions on the ocean environment, and the associated societal and economic implications of those impacts, leaves everyone with no doubt about the risk of inaction. Politicians around the world have to step up efforts now.

One of the seven ‘asks’ from the IPSO convening is about ocean pollution. Although public awareness of the problem has grown rapidly over the past years, with several reports in the media , policy makers need comprehensive and reliable data about the actual magnitude and nature of the problem in order to intervene. In an article by Morales-Caselles and colleagues in Nature Sustainability , the authors conduct a substantial effort to harmonize worldwide aquatic litter inventories. The harmonized data show that ocean litter globally is dominated by plastics from take-out food, followed by fishing gear — a stark sign of how human activities, and in particular our food habits, impact the oceans. The experts are also able to show how litter is trapped in near-shore areas with land-sourced plastic reaching the open ocean mostly as small fragments. In another article by González-Fernández and co-authors, using a unique database of riverine floating macrolitter across Europe, the authors estimate that 307–925 million litter items — 82% of which is plastic — are transferred from Europe to the ocean annually. They also find that a major portion of the total litter loading is transferred through small rivers, streams and coastal run-off. This result clearly urges countries in Europe to increase efforts to keep rivers pollution-free. Overall, both papers suggest that waste management alone won’t be enough — consumption habits do play a key role in the fight against ocean litter.

Innovative solutions — to prevent, monitor and clean (PMC) marine litter — are necessary to restore healthy oceans and maintain their well-being over time. And again, little is known about how many of these solutions have been developed and implemented, and to what extent they have been effective as information is scattered across platforms and not easily accessible. In a global analysis by Bellou and colleagues, also in Nature Sustainability , the researchers identify 177 PMC solutions and find that 106 of them address monitoring; 33 address prevention (mostly via wastewater treatment); only 30 address cleaning. They also find an inconsistent use of litter size terms across the various developers, which required a harmonization effort to assess the type of litter addressed — results show that 137 of the solutions targeted macrolitter. Overall, only few solutions reached technical readiness and no solution was validated for efficiency and environmental impacts.

Policy makers alongside industry innovators, non-governmental organizations and citizens have a long way to go to address and reverse the trend of ocean pollution. The G7 summit could set the agenda for change — we expect that those influencing players will not shy away from the scientists’ call for action on the oceans.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Ending marine pollution. Nat Sustain 4 , 459 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00734-2

Download citation

Published : 10 June 2021

Issue Date : June 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00734-2

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Anthropocene newsletter — what matters in anthropocene research, free to your inbox weekly.

• News & Events
• Eastern and Southern Africa
• Eastern Europe and Central Asia
• Mediterranean
• Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean
• North America
• South America
• West and Central Africa
• IUCN Academy
• IUCN Contributions for Nature
• IUCN Library
• IUCN Red List of Threatened Species TM
• IUCN Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas
• IUCN World Heritage Outlook
• IUCN Leaders Forum
• Protected Planet
• Union Portal (login required)
• IUCN Engage (login required)
• Commission portal (login required)

Data, analysis, convening and action.

• Open Project Portal
• SCIENCE-LED APPROACH
• INFORMING POLICY
• SUPPORTING CONSERVATION ACTION
• GEF AND GCF IMPLEMENTATION
• IUCN CONVENING
• IUCN ACADEMY

The world’s largest and most diverse environmental network.

CORE COMPONENTS

• Expert Commissions
• Secretariat and Director General
• IUCN Council

• IUCN WORLD CONSERVATION CONGRESS
• REGIONAL CONSERVATION FORA
• CONTRIBUTIONS FOR NATURE
• IUCN ENGAGE (LOGIN REQUIRED)

IUCN tools, publications and other resources.

Get involved

Marine plastic pollution

• Over 400 million tons of plastic are produced every year for use in a wide variety of applications.
• At least 14 million tons of plastic end up in the ocean every year, and plastic makes up  80% of all marine debris found from surface waters to deep-sea sediments.
• Marine species ingest or are entangled by plastic debris , which causes severe injuries and death.
• Plastic pollution threatens food safety and quality, human health, coastal tourism, and contributes to climate change .
• There is an urgent need to explore new and existing legally binding agreements to address marine plastic pollution.

November 2021

What is the issue ? 

Plastic is a synthetic organic polymer made from petroleum with properties ideally suited for a wide variety of applications including: packaging, building and construction, household and sports equipment, vehicles, electronics and agriculture. Over 400 million tons of plastic are produced every year, half of which is used to create single-use items such as shopping bags, cups and straws. If discarded improperly, plastic waste can harm the environment and biodiversity.

At least 14 million tons of plastic end up in the ocean every year . Plastic debris is currently the most abundant type of litter in the ocean, making up 80% of all marine debris found from surface waters to deep-sea sediments . Plastic is found on the shorelines of every continent, with more plastic waste found near popular tourist destinations and densely populated areas.

The main sources of plastic debris found in the ocean are land-based , coming from urban and stormwater runoff, sewer overflows, littering, inadequate waste disposal and management, industrial activities, tyre abrasion, construction and illegal dumping. Ocean-based plastic pollution originates primarily from the fishing industry, nautical activities and aquaculture.

Under the influence of solar UV radiation, wind, currents and other natural factors, plastic breaks down into small particles called microplastics (particles smaller than 5 mm) or nanoplastics (particles smaller than 100 nm). The small size makes them easy for marine life to ingest accidentally.

Many countries lack the infrastructure to prevent plastic pollution such as: sanitary landfills; incineration facilities; recycling capacity and circular economy infrastructure; proper management and disposal of waste systems. This leads to ‘plastic leakage’ into rivers and the ocean. The legal and illegal global trade of plastic waste may also damage ecosystems , where waste management systems are not sufficient to contain plastic waste.

Plastic pollution is found in all areas of the ocean and in marine organisms.

Why is it important ?

Plastic pollution is a widespread problem affecting the marine environment. It threatens ocean health, the health of marine species, food safety and quality, human health, coastal tourism, and contributes to climate change.

Impacts on marine ecosystems

The most visible impacts of plastic debris are the ingestion, suffocation and entanglement of hundreds of marine species. Marine wildlife such as seabirds, whales, fish and turtles mistake plastic waste for prey; most then die of starvation as their stomachs become filled with plastic. They also suffer from lacerations, infections, reduced ability to swim, and internal injuries. Floating plastics also help transport invasive marine species, thereby threatening marine biodiversity and the food web.

Impacts on food and human health

Microplastics have been found in tap water, beer, salt and are present in all samples collected in the world’s oceans, including the Arctic. Several chemicals used in the production of plastic materials are known to be carcinogenic and to interfere with the body’s endocrine system, causing developmental, reproductive, neurological, and immune disorders in both humans and wildlife. Recently, microplastics were found in human placentas but more research is needed to determine if this is a widespread problem.

Toxic contaminants also accumulate on the surface of plastic as a result of prolonged exposure to seawater. When marine organisms ingest plastic debris, these contaminants enter their digestive systems, and over time accumulate in the food web. The transfer of contaminants between marine species and humans through consumption of seafood has been identified as a health hazard, and research is ongoing.

Impacts on tourism

Plastic waste damages the aesthetic value of tourist destinations, leading to decreased income from tourism. It also generates major economic costs related to the cleaning and maintenance of the sites. The build-up of plastic litter on beaches can have a negative impact on a country’s economy, wildlife, and the physical and psychological wellbeing of people.

Impacts on climate change

Plastic production contributes to climate change. If plastic waste is incinerated, it releases carbon dioxide and methane (from landfills) into the atmosphere, thereby increasing emissions.

The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development calls for action to ‘Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources’ (Goal 14) and ‘By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, particularly from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution’ (Target 14.1).

What can be done?

Efforts should be made to adhere to and strengthen existing international legislative frameworks that address marine plastic pollution. The most important are the 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter (the London Convention), the 1996 Protocol to the London Convention (the London Protocol) and the 1978 Protocol to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).

Regional and national governments should also explore national legislative frameworks on Extended Producer Responsibility . These are emerging as innovative, low-cost solutions, as are policies to promote circular economies.

Governments, research institutions and industries need to work collaboratively to redesign products , and rethink their use and disposal to reduce microplastic waste from pellets, synthetic textiles and tyres. Consumers and society must shift to more sustainable consumption patterns . This will require solutions which go beyond waste management and consider the whole lifecycle of plastic products; from design to infrastructure, and household use.

More funding for research and innovation should be made available to provide policymakers, manufacturers and consumers with the evidence needed to implement technological, behavioural and policy solutions to address marine plastic pollution.

Methodologies to identify, measure and address marine plastic pollution sources and plastic leakage are available, including from IUCN.

More information

• Twitter: @IUCN_Plastics

Related content

Decision 14/8 of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) established the definition and criteria…

In this brief, IUCN presents its proposal for a specific article on “Biodiversity Aspects” in…

Sign up for an IUCN newsletter

• Skip to main content
• Skip to secondary menu
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to footer

Study Today

Largest Compilation of Structured Essays and Exams

Essay on Marine Pollution : Causes, Effects & Solutions

February 2, 2021 by Study Mentor Leave a Comment

Table of Contents

What is Marine pollution?

Marine pollution can be defined as the contamination of marine water, mainly big seas and oceans with pollutants and contaminants like industrial effluents, oil spills from huge vessels, chemical displacements, chemical spills, sewage etc.

Plastics, garbage, litter etc that we throw into our waste baskets ultimately end up in far off oceans, also contributing to marine pollution.

In general, pollution can be defined as any physical, chemical or biological agent that tends to contaminate the air, water and soil of an environment.

It has the ability to transform/toxicate the basic elemental components that degrade the natural balance of the ecosystem.

Pollution can be of various types, air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, radioactive pollution etc. Aquatic pollution can be categorized into marine pollution and fresh water pollution.

Due to uncontrolled developmental activities, urbanization and various anthropogenic activities, there is dumping of hazardous waste directly or indirectly into marine waters.

Most of this dumping happens without our knowledge and thus directly or indirectly, we are responsible for the hordes of waste and dirt that set sail on far off ocean waters.

Sources of Marine pollution

• One of the biggest sources of marine pollution is the oil spill due to collision of oil tanks.
• A considerable amount of runoff from the excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers in fields is the second largest contributor to marine pollution.
• Oil exploration and shipping industries are also one of the major contributing factors of marine pollution. This, coupled with transportation of large amounts of crude oil from one place to another often results in marine pollution.
• Thermal power plants release huge quantities of hot water in bulk which in turn leads to thermal shocks and loss of insulation in aquatic animals.
• Natural processes like volcanic activity, tremors, and cyclones play a catastrophic role in accidental spillage of petroleum and oil.

We have for sure visited seas and oceans and admired nature and its beauty. The scenic waters, the boundless beauty of nature sure catches our attention when we visit a place tucked in the lap of nature.

Amidst all this, we even crib about the dirt that keeps sailing on ocean waters. Unknowingly, we ourselves are responsible for the throw of such dirt that is afloat on sea and ocean waters.

The garbage that we throw into collection points at home gets segregated at appropriate units and the wet wastes go into the dumping ground.

The rest of the dry waste heap is dumped at places in the outskirts of cities. With the forces of nature, they are gradually taken too far off, unknown places which ultimately land in sea and ocean waters.

This is what we find sailing on beaches, seas and oceans. If we are unable to see the dirt on waters, we can imagine how choking they must be to the marine life inside the sea water.

Let us remind ourselves that there is a world of life inside the marine waters, some of which we know and majority of which we don’t know.

The life under marine waters seems mysterious at the same time curious for the exploitative minds. We have been talking about how pollution causes disturbance to the ecology on land.

We have hardly thought about the creatures underwater.

If we dwell further into this topic, we would find that the life under ocean is very beautiful, at the same time threatened by man-made factors, killing and choking them to death.

Marine life was undisturbed till a certain time ago when oil spills became a normal thing, the spill of chemical wastes into big oceans was just another thing and there were no special attachments to it.

Hence we find the marine life disturbed by a whole lot of factors such as oil spills, chemical interferences, sewage contributions etc. These specific causes pollute the marine waters, thus causing huge damage to marine life.

Other Essays on Pollution

• Essay on Pollution
• Essay on Marine Pollution
• Essay on Land Pollution
• Essay on Soil Pollution
• Essay on Radioactive Pollution
• Essay on Water Pollution
• Essay on Anti Pollution
• Essay on Noise Pollution
• Essay on Air Pollution
• Essay on Environmental Pollution

Effects of Marine pollution

• Natural pH of the water body is altered; therefore it does not support the aquatic flora and fauna.
• There is a reduction in the Dissolved oxygen in the aquatic system, causing asphyxiation.
• Aquatic fauna is suffocated as the hydrocarbons in oils clog the gills and other structures of fish.
• There is widespread contamination of commercial fish. When the spillage is over a large area, it creates a thin film on the sea surface called oil slick. It contaminates the internal organs of creatures and thus causes food poisoning upon consumption.
• Deteriorates the aesthetic value by water fouling and algal bloom.
• Loss of biological diversity and destabilization of food chains and food webs.

Let us just imagine that there has been an oil spill from a huge vessel and by the time the authorities wake up to the spill, it has already spread far and wide.

Since oil cannot dissolve in water, the surface of the water is seen colored badly with the spread of oil. The marine life under the spilled area is highly under threat.

The natural composition and constituents of water has totally changed and there is hardly any way the natural balance of marine water can be restored.

Nature takes its time to restore the natural balance of the good waters, so a significant damage has thus set in.

If we were given a glass of water mixed with cooking oil to swallow, would we be able to do it, I wonder.

It’s just not possible because the penetration of oil particles into water molecules alters the constituent composition of water and makes it an altogether different mixture.

So, water mixed with oil becomes a varied mixture, not rendering its natural efficacy.

Just a drop of such water kept on our tongue gives us such a bad feeling.

So, we should be able to understand how difficult marine life under such unfit waters should be living with. In short, marine life, once toxicated with chemical elements loses its natural beauty and it takes many years to restore the natural life balance again.

Solutions for marine pollution

• We can adhere to the 3R policy that is reuse, reduce and recycle our resources to reduce consumption and waste management.
• Organize a cleanup spree with awareness campaigns to highlight the importance of a clean healthy environment.
• Substituting jute bags over plastic bags.
• Consciously, reducing in the overall ecological and carbon print by carpooling, cycling, turning off the lights and fans when not in use.
• Commonly used method for an oil spillage is skimming; it is because the density of oil is lighter than the density of water because of which they can be easily separated.
• Usage of absorbents, natural absorbents like sponges can soak the contaminants leaving the area pollutant free.

We cannot avoid huge oil spills, because most of these incidences occur after taking enough precautions while transporting oil in vessels from one region to another.

We should at least take preventive measures and work towards reducing pollution in areas that we can achieve less toxicity and less contamination.

Such measures may include proper waste management systems, recycling of waste water for purposes like gardening, washing cars, etc.

Instead of channeling all wastes ultimately towards the oceans, we must give a thought to the life under waters too.

If we bring in a supported approach, a scientifically incubated approach that will drift away the accumulation of wastes away from marine waters, we would be successful in providing a second life to aquatic and marine creatures.

As per article 51-A, it is the duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife.

The more we try to understand the functioning of such complex systems, the more we come to realize that these systems are systemic in nature and are interrelated and interdependent on each other’s components.

Reader Interactions

Leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Top Trending Essays in March 2021

• Essay on my School
• Summer Season
• My favourite teacher
• World heritage day quotes
• my family speech
• importance of trees essay
• autobiography of a pen
• honesty is the best policy essay
• essay on building a great india
• my favourite book essay
• essay on caa
• my favourite player
• autobiography of a river
• farewell speech for class 10 by class 9
• essay my favourite teacher 200 words
• internet influence on kids essay
• my favourite cartoon character

Brilliantly

Content & links.

Verified by Sur.ly

Essay for Students

• Essay for Class 1 to 5 Students

Scholarships for Students

• Class 1 Students Scholarship
• Class 2 Students Scholarship
• Class 3 Students Scholarship
• Class 4 Students Scholarship
• Class 5 students Scholarship
• Class 6 Students Scholarship
• Class 7 students Scholarship
• Class 8 Students Scholarship
• Class 9 Students Scholarship
• Class 10 Students Scholarship
• Class 11 Students Scholarship
• Class 12 Students Scholarship

STAY CONNECTED

• About Study Today
• Privacy Policy
• Terms & Conditions

Scholarships

• Apj Abdul Kalam Scholarship
• Ashirwad Scholarship
• Bihar Scholarship
• Canara Bank Scholarship
• Colgate Scholarship
• Dr Ambedkar Scholarship
• E District Scholarship
• Epass Karnataka Scholarship
• Fair And Lovely Scholarship
• Floridas John Mckay Scholarship
• Inspire Scholarship
• Jio Scholarship
• Karnataka Minority Scholarship
• Lic Scholarship
• Maulana Azad Scholarship
• Medhavi Scholarship
• Minority Scholarship
• Moma Scholarship
• Mp Scholarship
• Muslim Minority Scholarship
• Nsp Scholarship
• Oasis Scholarship
• Obc Scholarship
• Odisha Scholarship
• Pfms Scholarship
• Post Matric Scholarship
• Pre Matric Scholarship
• Prerana Scholarship
• Prime Minister Scholarship
• Rajasthan Scholarship
• Santoor Scholarship
• Sitaram Jindal Scholarship
• Ssp Scholarship
• Swami Vivekananda Scholarship
• Ts Epass Scholarship
• Up Scholarship
• Vidhyasaarathi Scholarship
• Wbmdfc Scholarship
• West Bengal Minority Scholarship
• Click Here Now!!

Mobile Number

Have you Burn Crackers this Diwali ? Yes No

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection

Cleaner seas: reducing marine pollution

Kathryn a. willis.

1 Centre for Marine Sociology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS Australia

2 CSIRO Oceans & Atmosphere, Hobart, TAS Australia

5 School of Social Sciences, College of Arts, Law and Education, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS Australia

Catarina Serra-Gonçalves

3 Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS Australia

Kelsey Richardson

Qamar a. schuyler, halfdan pedersen.

8 Pikkoritta Consult, Aasiaat, Greenland

Kelli Anderson

4 Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Fisheries and Aquaculture, University of Tasmania, Newnham, TAS Australia

Jonathan S. Stark

7 Australian Antarctic Division, Hobart, TAS Australia

Joanna Vince

Britta d. hardesty, chris wilcox, barbara f. nowak, jennifer l. lavers, jayson m. semmens, dean greeno.

6 School of Creative Arts and Media, College of Arts, Law and Education, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS Australia

Catriona MacLeod

Nunnoq p. o. frederiksen.

9 The PISUNA Project, Qeqertalik Municipality, Attu, Greenland

10 Snowchange Cooperative, Selkie, Finland

Peter S. Puskic

Associated data.

In the age of the Anthropocene, the ocean has typically been viewed as a sink for pollution. Pollution is varied, ranging from human-made plastics and pharmaceutical compounds, to human-altered abiotic factors, such as sediment and nutrient runoff. As global population, wealth and resource consumption continue to grow, so too does the amount of potential pollution produced. This presents us with a grand challenge which requires interdisciplinary knowledge to solve. There is sufficient data on the human health, social, economic, and environmental risks of marine pollution, resulting in increased awareness and motivation to address this global challenge, however a significant lag exists when implementing strategies to address this issue. This review draws upon the expertise of 17 experts from the fields of social sciences, marine science, visual arts, and Traditional and First Nations Knowledge Holders to present two futures; the Business-As-Usual, based on current trends and observations of growing marine pollution, and a More Sustainable Future, which imagines what our ocean could look like if we implemented current knowledge and technologies. We identify priority actions that governments, industry and consumers can implement at pollution sources, vectors and sinks, over the next decade to reduce marine pollution and steer us towards the More Sustainable Future.

Graphic abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11160-021-09674-8.

Introduction

The ocean has historically been a sink for pollution, leaving modern society with significant ocean pollution legacy issues to manage (Elliott and Elliott 2013 ; O'Shea et al. 2018 ). People continue to pollute the ocean at increasing rates creating further damage to marine ecosystems. This results in detrimental impacts on livelihoods, food security, marine navigation, wildlife and well-being, among others (Krushelnytska 2018 ; Lebreton and Andrady 2019 ; Nichols 2014 ; Seitzinger et al. 2002 ). As pollution presents a multitude of stressors for ocean life, it cannot be explored in isolation (Khan et al., 2018 ). Thus, global coordinated efforts are essential to manage the current and future state of the ocean and to minimise further damage from pollution (Krushelnytska 2018 ; Macleod et al. 2016 ; O'Brien et al. 2019 ; Williams et al. 2015 ). Efforts are also needed to tackle key questions, such as how do pollutants function in different environments, and interact with each other?

Pollution can be broadly defined as any natural or human-derived substance or energy that is introduced into the environment by humans and that can have a detrimental effect on living organisms and natural environments (UNEP 1982 ). Pollutants, including light and sound in addition to the more commonly recognised forms, can enter the marine environment from a multitude of sources and transport mechanisms (Carroll et al. 2017 ; Depledge et al. 2010 ; Longcore and Rich 2004 ; Williams et al. 2015 ). These may include long range atmospheric movement (Amunsen et al. 1992 ) and transport from inland waterways (Lebreton et al. 2017 ).

Current pollutant concentrations in the marine environment are expected to continue increasing with growth in both global population and product production. For example, global plastic production increased by 13 million tonnes in a single year (PlasticsEurope 2018 ), with rising oceanic plastic linked to such trends (Wilcox et al. 2020 ). Pharmaceutical pollution is predicted to increase with population growth, resulting in a greater range of chemicals entering the ocean through stormwater drains and rivers (Bernhardt et al. 2017 ; Rzymski et al. 2017 ). Additionally, each year new chemical compounds are produced whose impacts on the marine environment are untested (Landrigan et al. 2018 ).

Marine pollution harms organisms throughout the food-web in diverse ways. Trace amounts of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in organisms have the capacity to cause physiological harm (Capaldo et al. 2018 ; Hoffman et al. 2011 ; Salamat et al. 2014 ) and alter behaviours (Brodin et al. 2014 ; Mattsson et al. 2017 ). Artificial lights along coasts at night can disrupt organism navigation, predation and vertical migration (Depledge et al. 2010 ). Pharmaceutical pollutants, such as contraceptive drugs, have induced reproductive failure and sex changes in a range of fish species (Lange et al. 2011 ; Nash et al. 2004 ). Furthermore, some pollutants also have the capacity to bioaccumulate, which means they may become more concentrated in higher trophic marine species (Bustamante et al. 1998 ; Eagles-Smith et al. 2009 ).

Pollution also poses a huge economic risk. Typically, the majority of consequences from pollution disproportionately impact poorer nations who have less resources to manage and remediate these impacts (Alario and Freudenburg 2010 ; Beaumont et al. 2019 ; Golden et al. 2016 ; Landrigan et al. 2018 ). Marine pollution can negatively impact coastal tourism (Jang et al. 2014 ), waterfront real estate (Ofiara and Seneca 2006 ), shipping (Moore 2018 ) and fisheries (Hong et al. 2017 ; Uhrin 2016 ). Contamination of seafood poses a perceived risk to human health, but also results in a significant financial cost for producers and communities (Ofiara and Seneca 2006 ; White et al. 2000 ). Additionally, current remediation strategies for most pollutants in marine and coastal ecosystems are costly, time consuming and may not prove viable in global contexts (Ryan and Jewitt 1996 ; Smith et al. 1997 ; Uhrin 2016 ).

Reducing marine pollution is a global challenge that needs to be addressed for the health of the ocean and the communities and industries it supports. The United Nations proposed and adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) designed to guide future developments and intended to be achieved by 2030. It has flagged the reduction of marine pollution as a key issue underpinning the achievement of SDG 14, Life Under Water, with target 14.1 defined as “prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution” by 2025 (United Nations General Assembly 2015 ). In the UN Decade of Ocean Science (2021–2030), one of the six ocean outcomes relates specifically to the identification and reduction of marine pollution (A Clean Ocean; UN DOS SD). The task of reducing marine pollution is daunting—the ocean is so vast that cleaning it seems almost impossible. However, effective management of pollution at its source is a successful way to reduce it and protect the ocean (DeGeorges et al. 2010 ; Rochman 2016 ; Simmonds et al. 2014 ; Zhu et al. 2008 ). Strategies, implemented locally, nationally and globally, to prevent, or considerably reduce pollution inputs in combination with removing pollutants from the marine environment (Sherman and van Sebille 2016 ) will allow healthy ocean life and processes to continue into the future. However, such strategies need to be implemented on a collective global scale, and target pollution at key intervals from their creation to their use and disposal.

To help explain how society can most effectively address pollution sources and clean the ocean, we depict two different future seas scenarios by 2030. The first is a Business-As-Usual scenario, where society continues to adhere to current management and global trends. The second is a technically achievable, more sustainable future that is congruent with the SDGs, and where society actively take actions and adopt sustainable solutions. We then explore pollution in three ‘zones’ of action; at the source(s), along the way, and at sink, in the context of river or estuarine systems, as water-transported pollution is commonly associated with urban centres alongside river systems (Alongi and McKinnon 2005 ; Lebreton et al. 2017 ; Lohmann et al. 2012 ; Seitzinger and Mayorga 2016 ).

As a group of interdisciplinary scientists, with expertise in marine pollution, we participated in the Future Seas project ( www.FutureSeas2030.org ), which identified marine pollution as one of 12 grand challenges, and followed the method outlined in Nash et al. ( 2021 ). The process involved a structured discussion to explore the direction of marine social-ecological systems over the course of the UN Decade of Ocean Science, specific to marine pollution. The discussion resulted in developing two alternate future scenarios of marine pollution, a ‘Business-As-Usual’ future that is the current trajectory based on published evidence, and a ‘more sustainable’ future that is technically achievable using existing and emerging knowledge and is consistent with the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. To ensure a wide range of world views were present in the future scenarios, Indigenous Leaders and Traditional Knowledge Holders from around the world came together and presented their views, experiences and identified their priorities to remove and reduce marine pollution (Nash et al. 2021 ; Fischer et al. 2020 ).

We defined the scope of our paper by identifying key pollutant sources, types and drivers of marine pollution (Table ​ (Table1 1 for pollutant sources and types; see " Future Narratives " below). We then developed a list of feasible actions that could drive the current state of the ocean towards a cleaner, more sustainable future (Supplementary Table 1). From these actions we deliberated as a group and identified ten actions that have high potential to be implemented within the next decade and significantly reduce marine pollution (Fig.  1 ). The linkages between our ten priority actions and the SDGs are outlined in Supplementary Table 2.

A list of the three major sources of marine pollution and examples of the key types of pollution from each

source considered in our future scenarios. * denotes a pollutant that is outside the scope of this paper

Ten actions that can substantially reduce the amount of pollution entering the marine environment. Actions are placed along the system where they could have the greatest impact at reducing pollution: at the

source of the pollutant (at the source), once the pollutant is released (along the way), once the pollutant has entered the ocean (at the sink) or at multiple points along the system (bottom arrow). * indicates actions that could be successfully implemented well before the next decade to significantly reduce pollution

Future narratives

We identified three broad sources of marine pollution: land-based industry, sea-based industry, and municipal-based sources and the most significant types of pollution characteristic of each source (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). We framed our two contrasting future scenarios (Business-As-Usual and a technically feasible sustainable future), around these pollutants and their sources (Table ​ (Table2). 2 ). In addition to these future narratives, we reflect on the present impacts that pollution is currently having on the livelihoods and cultures of First Nations peoples and Traditional Knowledge Holders. We include the narratives of the palawa pakana people, from lutruwita/Tasmania (Table ​ (Table3), 3 ), and the Greenlandic Inuit people (Table ​ (Table4 4 ).

The method resulted in two futures, which focus on pollutants outlined in Table ​ Table1. 1 . The two futures are told here in a narrative format. The Business-As-Usual (BAU) future has been informed by current trends and predictions in marine pollution. The technically feasible sustainable future imagines what the future may be like should we implement the actions outlined in this paper

In lutruwita (Tasmania), Marineer Shell ( Phasianotrochus rutilus ) necklace making is a palawa pakana traditional practice that has continued over thousands of years. Shell-necklaces were once crafted as jewellery and used for trade purposes. King, Queen and standard marineers were not just palawa nicknames handed down through generations, status was allocated to each of the marineer species and the resulting necklaces. Necklaces were reflective of the status allocated to the owner from the creator, and clan as a whole. Here, Elder and shell-necklace maker, Lola Greeno, shares her account of the current impacts of pollution on her art and culture. (Photo credit: Dean Greeno)

Pollution disproportionally impacts first nations people. To the Inuit Greenland peoples, pollution from the Outer World presents a vast array of challenges. Documented here is a firsthand account of some types of pollutants in Greenland and impacts these have on Inuit communities. We have the capacity to influence pollution impacts on a local scale, but we require political efforts, legislation, and global change to make positive impacts in communities and environments in need. (Photo credit: Jonathan Stark)

We identified three key drivers that will substantially contribute to an increasingly polluted ocean if no actions are taken to intervene; societal behaviours, equity and access to technologies, and governance and policy. Alternatively, these pollution drivers can be viewed as opportunities to implement strategic measures that shift the trajectory from a polluted marine environment to a healthier marine environment. Below we highlight how current societal behaviours, lack of implementation of technological advancements, and ocean governance and policy making contribute to an increasingly polluted ocean and drive society towards a BAU future (Table ​ (Table2). 2 ). Importantly, we discuss how changes in these behaviours, and improvements in technologies and governance can lead to reduced marine pollution, ultimately driving a cleaner, more sustainable ocean for the future.

Societal behaviour

Societal behaviours that drive increasing pollution in the world’s ocean.

A consumer culture that prioritizes linear production and consumption of cheap, single-use materials and products over circular product design and use (such as, reusable products or products that are made from recycled material), ultimately drives the increased creation of materials. Current production culture is often aligned with little consideration for the socioeconomic and environmental externalities associated with the pollution that is generated from a product’s creation to its disposal (Foltete et al. 2011 ; Schnurr et al. 2018 ). Without a dedicated management strategy for the fate of products after they have met their varying, often single-use objectives, these materials will enter and accumulate in the surrounding environment as pollution (Krushelnytska 2018 ; Sun et al. 2012 ). Three examples of unsustainable social behaviours that lead to products and materials ending up as marine pollution are: (1) the design and creation of products that are inherently polluting. For example, agricultural chemicals or microplastics and chemicals in personal care and cosmetic products. (2) social behaviours that normalize and encourage consumption of single-use products and materials. For example, individually wrapped vegetables or take-away food containers. (3) low awareness of the impacts and consequences and therefore the normalization of polluting behaviours. For example, noise generation by ships at sea (Hildebrand 2009 ) or the large application of fertilizers to agricultural products (Sun et al. 2012 ).

Shifting societal behaviours towards sustainable production and consumption

A cleaner ocean with reduced pollution will require a shift in production practices across a wide array of industries, as well as a shift in consumer behaviour. Presently, consumers and industry alike are seeking science-based information to inform decision making (Englehardt 1994 ; Vergragt et al. 2016 ). Consumers have the power to demand change from industries through purchasing power and social license to operate (Saeed et al. 2019 ). Policymakers have the power to enforce change from industries through regulations and reporting. Aligning the values between producers, consumers and policymakers will ensure best practices of sustainable consumption and production are adopted (Huntington 2017 ; Moktadir et al. 2018 ; Mont and Plepys 2008 ). Improved understanding of the full life cycle of costs, consequences (including internalised externalities, such as the polluter-pays-principle (Schwartz 2018 )), materials used, and pollution potential of products could substantially shift the trajectory in both production and consumerism towards cleaner, more sustainable seas (Grappi et al. 2017 ; Liu et al. 2016 ; Lorek and Spangenberg 2014 ; Sun et al. 2012 ). For example, economic policy instruments (Abbott and Sumaila 2019 ), production transparency (Joakim Larsson and Fick 2009 ), recirculation of materials (Michael 1998 ; Sharma and Henriques 2005 ), and changes in supply-chains (Ouardighi et al. 2016 ) are some of the ways production and consumerism could become more sustainable and result in a cleaner ocean.

Equity and access to technologies

Inequitable access to available technologies.

Despite major advancements in technology and innovation for waste management, much of the current waste infrastructure implemented around the world is outdated, underutilised, or abandoned. This is particularly the case for rapidly developing countries with large populations who have not had access to waste reduction and mitigation technologies and systems employed in upper income countries (Velis 2014 ; Wilson et al. 2015 ). The informal recycling sector (IRS) performs the critical waste management role in many of the world’s most populous countries.

Harnessing technologies for today and the future

Arguably, in today’s world we see an unprecedented number and types of technological advances stemming from but not limited to seismic exploration (Malehmir et al. 2012 ), resource mining (Jennings and Revill 2007 ; Kampmann et al. 2018 ; Parker et al. 2016 ), product movement (Goodchild and Toy 2018 ; Tournadre 2014 ) and product manufacturing (Bennett 2013 ; Mahalik and Nambiar 2010 ). Applying long term vision rather than short term economic gain could include supporting technologies and innovations that provide substantial improvements over Business-As-Usual. For example, supporting businesses or industries that improve recyclability of products (Umeda et al. 2013 ; Yang et al. 2014 ), utilize waste (Korhonen et al. 2018 ; Pan et al. 2015 ), reduce noise (Simmonds et al. 2014 ), and increase overall production efficiency will substantially increase the health of the global ocean. Efforts should be made wherever possible to maintain current waste management infrastructure where proven and effective, in addition to ensuring reliance and durability of new technologies and innovations for improved lifespan and end of life product management. Consumer demand, taxation, and incentives will play a necessary roll to ensure the appropriate technologies are adopted (Ando and Freitas 2011 ; Krass et al. 2013 ).

Governance and policy

Lack of ocean governance and policy making.

The governance arrangements that address marine pollution on global, regional, and national levels are complex and multifaceted. Success requires hard-to-achieve integrated responses. In addition to the equity challenges discussed in Alexander et al. ( 2020 ) which highlight the need for reduced inequity to improve the susatinability of the marine enviornemnt, we highlight that land-based waste is the largest contributor to marine pollution and therefore requires governance and policies that focus on pollution at the source. Current regulations, laws and policies do not always reflect or address the grand challenge of reducing marine pollution at the source. The ocean has traditionally been governed through sectoral approaches such as fisheries, tourism, offshore oil and mining. Unfortunately, this sector approach has caused policy overlap, conflict, inefficiencies and inconsistencies regarding marine pollution governance (Haward 2018 ; Vince and Hardesty 2016 ). Although production, manufacturing, and polluting may largely take place under geo-political boundaries, pollution in the high seas is often hard to assign to a country of origin. This makes identifying and convicting polluters very difficult (Urbina 2019 ). For example, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) has been criticised as ineffective in reducing marine pollution, largely due to the lack of easily monitoring, identifying and convicting offenders (Henderson 2001 ; Mattson 2006 ).

Harnessing ocean governance and policy

Binding domestic policies and international agreements are regulatory levers that can drive change at local, community, state, federal and international scales (Vince and Hardesty 2018 ). The UN Law of the Sea Convention Part XII (articles 192–237) is dedicated to the protection and preservation of the marine environment and marine pollution is addressed in article 194. It also sets out the responsibilities of states and necessary measures they need to undertake to minimise pollution their own and other jurisdictions. While the Law of the Sea recognises the differences between sea-based and land-based pollution, it does not address the type of pollutants and technical rules in detail. Voluntary measures including MARPOL 73/78 (IMO 1978 ), United Nations Environment Assembly resolutions (UNEA 2019 ) and the FAO voluntary guidelines for the marking of fishing gear (FAO 2019 ), already exist in an attempt to reduce specific components of marine pollution. However, the health of marine ecosystems would benefit from multilateral international or regional agreements that minimise the production of items or the use of processes that result in high levels of marine ecosystem harm. For example, international regulation for underwater sound (McCarthy 2004 ), policies to reduce waste emissions (Nie 2012 ) and the polluter pays principle (Gaines 1991 ) are policies and agreements that could minimise pollutants entering the marine ecosystem. Global and regional governance can create a favourable context for national policy action. Policies that adapt to shifts in climate and are guided by science and indigenous knowledge could be more likely to succeed (Ban et al. 2020 ).

Actions to achieve a more sustainable future

The grand challenge of reducing ocean pollution can seem overwhelming. However, there are myriad actions, interventions and activities which are highly feasible to implement within the next decade to rapidly reduce the quantity of pollution entering the ocean. Implementing these actions requires collaboration among policymakers, industry, and consumers alike. To reduce pollution from sea-based industries, land-based industries and municipal-based pollutants (Table ​ (Table1), 1 ), we encourage the global community to consider three ‘zones’ of action or areas to implement change: at the source(s), along the way/along the supply chain, and at sinks (Fig.  1 ). It is important to highlight that action cannot be implemented at any one zone only. For example, repeated clean ups at the sink may reduce pollution in an area for a time, but will not stem the flow of pollutants. Rather, action at all three zones is required if rapid, effective reductions of ocean pollution are to occur.

Actions at the source(s)

Reducing pollution at its multitude of sources is the most effective way to reduce and prevent marine pollution. This is true for land-based industry pollutants, sea-based industry pollutants and municipal-based pollutants. An example for each includes; reduction in fertilizer leading to less agricultural runoff in coastal waters (Bennett et al. 2001 ), changes in packaging materials may see reductions in production on a per item basis, and a lowered frequency and timing of seismic blasting would result in a decrease in underwater noise pollution at the source. The benefits of acting at the source are powerful: if a pollutant is not developed or used initially, it cannot enter the marine environment. Action can occur at the source using various approaches such as; prevention of contaminants, outreach campaigns, introduction of bans (or prohibitions) and incentives and the replacement of technologies and products for less impactful alternatives (Fig.  1 ). However, achieving public support abrupt and major changes can be difficult and time consuming. Such changes may meet resistance (e.g. stopping or changing seismic testing) and there are other factors beyond marine pollution that must be considered (e.g. health and safety of coastal lighting in communities may be considered more important than impacts of light pollution on nearby marine ecosystems). Actions such as outreach and education campaigns (Supplementary Table 2) will be an important pathway to achieve public support.

Actions along the way

Reducing marine pollution along the way requires implementation of approaches aimed at reducing pollution once it has been released from the source and is in transit to the marine environment (Fig.  1 ). Acting along the way does provide the opportunity to target particular pollutants (point-source pollution) which can be particularly effective in reducing those pollutants. While municipal-based pollutants can be reduced ‘along the way’ using infrastructure such as gross pollutant traps (GPTs) and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), some pollution such as light or sound may be more difficult to minimize or reduce in such a manner. WWTPs can successfully capture excess nutrients, pharmaceuticals and litter that are transported through sewerage and wastewater systems. However, pollution management ‘ en route ’ means there is both more production and more likelihood of leakage to the environment. In addition, infrastructure that captures pollution is often expensive, requires ongoing maintenance (and hence funding support), and if not managed properly, can become physically blocked, or result in increased risk to human health and the broader environment (e.g. flooding during heavy rainfall events). When considering management opportunities and risks for both land and sea-based pollution, the approaches required may be quite different, yielding unique challenges and opportunities for resolution in each (Alexander et al. 2020 ).

Actions at the sinks

Acting at sinks essentially requires pollution removal (Fig.  1 ). This approach is the most challenging, most expensive, and least likely to yield positive outcomes. The ocean encompasses more than 70% of the earth’s surface and extends to depths beyond ten kilometres. Hence it is a vast area for pollutants to disperse and economically and logistically prohibitive to clean completely. However, in some situations collecting pollutants and cleaning the marine environment is most viable option and there are examples of success. For example, some positive steps to remediate excess nutrients include integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (Buck et al. 2018 ). ‘Net Your Problem’ is a recycling program for fishers to dispose of derelict fishing gear ( www.netyourproblem.com ). Municipal-based and sea-based industry pollutants are often reduced through clean-up events. For example, large oils spills often require community volunteers to remove and clean oil from coastal environments and wildlife. Such activities provide increased awareness of marine pollution issues, and if data are recorded, can provide a baseline or benchmark against which to compare change. To address pollution at sinks requires us to prioritise efforts towards areas with high acclamations of pollution, (e.g., oil spills). Repeated removal or cleaning is unlikely to yield long term results, without managing the pollution upstream –whether along the route or at the source.

To achieve the More Sustainable Future, and significantly reduce pollution (thereby achieving the SGD targets in Supplementary Table 2), society must take ongoing action now and continue this movement beyond 2030. Prioritising the prevention of pollutants from their sources, using bans and incentives, outreach and education, and replacement technologies, is one of the most important steps that can be taken to shift towards a more sustainable future. Without addressing pollution from the source, current and future efforts will continue to remediate rather than mitigate the damage pollution causes to the ocean and organisms within. For pollutants that are not currently feasible to reduce at the source, collection of pollutants before they reach the ocean should be prioritised. For example, wastewater treatment plants and gross pollutant traps located at point-source locations such as stormwater and wastewater drains are feasible methods for reducing pollutants before they reach the ocean. Actions at the sink should target areas where the maximum effort per quantity of pollution can be recovered from the ocean. For example, prompt clean-up responses to large pollution events such as oil spills or flooding events and targeting clean-ups at beaches and coastal waters with large accumulations of plastic pollution.

These priority actions are not the perfect solution, but they are great examples of what can be and is feasibly done to manage marine pollution. Each action is at risk of failing to shift to a cleaner ocean without the support from governments, industries, and individuals across the whole system (from the source to the sink). Governments and individuals need to push for legislation that is binding and support sustainable practices and products. Effective methods for policing also need to be established in partnership with the binding legislation. Regardless of which zone are addressed, our actions on sea and coastal country must be guided by Indigenous knowledge and science (Fischer et al., 2020 ; Mustonen (in prep).

We recognise the major global disruptions which have occurred in 2020, particularly the COVID-19 pandemic. The futures presented here were developed prior to this outbreak and therefore do not consider the effects of this situation on global pollution trends. In many ways, this situation allows us to consider a ‘reset’ in global trajectory as discussed by Nash et al. ( 2021 ). Our sustainable future scenario may be considered a very real goal to achieve in the coming decade.

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Acknowledgements

We thank Lola, Rex and Vanessa Greeno for sharing their knowledge of the impacts of pollution on their art and culture. Thank you to Animate Your Science, JB Creative Services and Annie Gatenby for assistance with the graphical aspects of this project. Thank you to Rupert the Boxer puppy for deciding authorship order. This paper is part of the ‘Future Seas’ initiative ( www.FutureSeas2030.org ), hosted by the Centre for Marine Socioecology at the University of Tasmania. This initiative delivers a series of journal articles addressing key challenges for the UN International Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021-2030. The general concepts and methods applied in many of these papers were developed in large collaborative workshops involving more participants than listed as co-authors here, and we are grateful for their collective input. Funding for Future Seas was provided by the Centre for Marine Socioecology, IMAS, MENZIES and the College of Arts, Law and Education, the College of Science and Engineering at UTAS, and Snowchange from Finland. We acknowledge support from a Research Enhancement Program grant from the DVCR Office at UTAS. Thank you to Camilla Novaglio for providing an internal project review of an earlier draft, and to guest editor Rob Stephenson, editor-in-chief Jan Strugnell and two anonymous reviewers, for improving the manuscript. We acknowledge and pay respect to the traditional owners and custodians of sea country all around the world, and recognise their collective wisdom and knowledge of our ocean and coasts.

Author contributions

P.S. Puskic and K. Willis share equal lead authorship on this paper. All authors wrote sections of this manuscript and contributed to concept design and paper discussions. N.F and H.P. wrote the narratives for Table ​ Table4. 4 . D.G. wrote Table ​ Table3. 3 . All authors provided edits and feedback to earlier drafts.

Declarations

The authors declare no conflict of interest. This work is original and has not been submitted for publication anywhere else.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

P.S. Puskic and K.A. Willis share equal lead authorship on this paper.

• Abbott JK, Sumaila UR. Reducing marine plastic pollution: policy insights from economics. Rev Env Econ Policy. 2019; 13 :327–336. doi: 10.1093/reep/rez007. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Alario MV, Freudenburg WR. Environmental risks and environmental justice, or how titanic risks are not so titanic after all. Sociol Inquiry. 2010; 80 :500–512. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-682X.2010.00344.x. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Alexander KA, Fleming A, Bax N, et al. (2020) Equity of our future oceans: outcomes and practice in marine science research. Authorea pre-print . December 10, 2020 10.22541/au.160761569.97952359/v1
• Alongi DM, McKinnon AD. The cycling and fate of terrestrially-derived sediments and nutrients in the coastal zone of the Great Barrier Reef shelf. Mar Pollut Bull. 2005; 51 :239–252. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.10.033. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Amunsen CE, Hanssen JE, Semb A, Steinnes E. Long-range atmospheric transport of trace elements to southern Norway. Atmos Environ, Part A. 1992; 26 :1309–1324. doi: 10.1016/0960-1686(92)90391-W. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ando AW, Freitas LPC. Consumer demand for green stormwater management technology in an urban setting: the case of Chicago rain barrels. Water Resour Res. 2011 doi: 10.1029/2011wr011070. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ban NC, Wilson E, Neasloss D. Historical and contemporary indigenous marine conservation strategies in the North Pacific Conservation biology: the journal of the Society for. Conserv Biol. 2020; 34 :5–14. doi: 10.1111/cobi.13432. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Beaumont NJ, et al. Global ecological, social and economic impacts of marine plastic. Marine Pollut Bulletin. 2019; 142 :189–195. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.03.022. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bennett D. Tracking the trends in manufacturing technology management. J Manuf Technol Manag. 2013; 24 :5–8. doi: 10.1108/17410381311287454. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bennett EM, Carpenter SR, Caraco NF. Human impact on erodable phosphorus and eutrophication: a global perspective: increasing accumulation of phosphorus in soil threatens rivers, lakes, and coastal oceans with eutrophication. Bioscience. 2001; 51 :227–234. doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0227:HIOEPA]2.0.CO;2. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bernhardt ES, Rosi EJ, Gessner MO. Synthetic chemicals as agents of global change. Front Ecol Environ. 2017; 15 :84–90. doi: 10.1002/fee.1450. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brodin T, Piovano S, Fick J, Klaminder J, Heynen M, Jonsson M. Ecological effects of pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems—impacts through behavioural alterations. Phil Trans R Soc B: Biol Sci. 2014; 369 :20130580. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0580. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Buck B, Troell M, Krause G, Angel D, Grote B, Chopin T. State of the art and challenges for offshore integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) Front Mar Sci. 2018; 5 :165. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2018.00165. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bustamante P, Caurant F, Fowler SW, Miramand P. Cephalopods as a vector for the transfer of cadmium to top marine predators in the north-east Atlantic Ocean. Sci Total Environ. 1998; 220 :71–80. doi: 10.1016/S0048-9697(98)00250-2. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Capaldo A, et al. Effects of environmental cocaine concentrations on the skeletal muscle of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) Sci Total Environ. 2018; 640–641 :862–873. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.357. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Carroll AG, Przeslawski R, Duncan A, Gunning M, Bruce B. A critical review of the potential impacts of marine seismic surveys on fish & invertebrates. Mar Pollut Bull. 2017; 114 :9–24. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.038. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• DeGeorges A, Goreau TJ, Reilly B. Land-Sourced Pollution with an Emphasis on Domestic Sewage: Lessons from the Caribbean and Implications for Coastal Development on Indian Ocean and Pacific Coral Reefs. Sustainability. 2010; 2 :2919–2949. doi: 10.3390/su2092919. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Depledge MH, Godard-Codding CAJ, Bowen RE. Light pollution in the sea. Mar Pollut Bull. 2010; 60 :1383–1385. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.08.002. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eagles-Smith CA, Ackerman JT, De La Cruz SE, Takekawa JY. Mercury bioaccumulation and risk to three waterbird foraging guilds is influenced by foraging ecology and breeding stage. Environ Pollut. 2009; 157 :1993–2002. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2009.03.030. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Elliott JE, Elliott KH. Tracking Marine Pollution. Science. 2013; 340 :556–558. doi: 10.1126/science.1235197. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Englehardt JD. Identifying promising pollution-prevention technologies. J Environ Eng. 1994; 120 :513–526. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1994)120:3(513). [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• FAO (2019) Voluntary guidelines on the marking of fishing gear. Directives volontaires sur le marquage des engins de pêche. Directrices voluntarias sobre el marcado de las artes de pesca. Rome/Roma. 88 pp. Licence/Licencia: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO
• Fischer M, Maxwell K, Fredriksen PO (Nunnoq), Pedersen H, Greeno D, Jones R, Blair JG, Hugu S, Mustonenäki E & Mustonen K. (2020) Empowering her guardians to nurture our oceans future. Authorea 10.22541/au.160391058.89181791/v1
• Foltete AS, et al. Environmental impact of sunscreen nanomaterials: ecotoxicity and genotoxicity of altered TiO2 nanocomposites on Vicia faba. Environ Pollut. 2011; 159 :2515–2522. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2011.06.020. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gaines SE. The polluter-pays principle: from economic equity to environmental ethos. Tex Int'l LJ. 1991; 26 :463. [ Google Scholar ]
• Golden CD, et al. Nutrition: fall in fish catch threatens human health. Nature. 2016; 534 :317–320. doi: 10.1038/534317a. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Goodchild A, Toy J. Delivery by drone: an evaluation of unmanned aerial vehicle technology in reducing CO2 emissions in the delivery service industry. Transportation Res Part D Transport Environ. 2018; 61 :58–67. doi: 10.1016/j.trd.2017.02.017. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grappi S, Romani S, Barbarossa C. Fashion without pollution: how consumers evaluate brands after an NGO campaign aimed at reducing toxic chemicals in the fashion industry. J Clean Prod. 2017; 149 :1164–1173. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.183. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Haward M. Plastic Pollution of the World’s Seas and Oceans as a Contemporary Challenge in Ocean Governance. Nat Commun. 2018; 9 :1–3. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-03104-3. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Henderson JR. A pre- and post-MARPOL Annex V summary of Hawaiian monk seal entanglements and marine debris accumulation in the northwestern Hawaiian islands, 1982–1998) Mar Pollut Bull. 2001; 42 :584–589. doi: 10.1016/s0025-326x(00)00204-6. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hildebrand JA. Anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient noise in the ocean. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 2009; 395 :5–20. doi: 10.3354/meps08353. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hoffman DJ, Eagles-Smith CA, Ackerman JT, Adelsbach TL, Stebbins KR. Oxidative stress response of Forster's terns ( Sterna forsteri ) and Caspian terns ( Hydroprogne caspia ) to mercury and selenium bioaccumulation in liver, kidney, and brain. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2011; 30 :920–929. doi: 10.1002/etc.459. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hong S, Lee J, Lim S. Navigational threats by derelict fishing gear to navy ships in the Korean seas. Mar Pollut Bull. 2017; 119 :100–105. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.04.006. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Huntington T (2017) Development of a best practice framework for the management of fishing gear, Part 2: Best practice framework for the management of fishing gear. p 1 – 58, Global Ghost Gear Initiative, USA. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b987b8689c172e29293593f/t/5bb64b578165f5891b931a6b/1538673498329/wap_gear_bp_framework_part_2_mm_lk-2017.10.23.pdf
• IMO (1978) International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78). International Maritime Organisation, London, England. https://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Prevention-of-Pollution-from-Ships-(MARPOL).aspx
• Jang YC, Hong S, Lee J, Lee MJ, Shim WJ. Estimation of lost tourism revenue in Geoje Island from the 2011 marine debris pollution event in South Korea. Mar Pollut Bull. 2014; 81 :49–54. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.02.021. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jennings S, Revill AS. The role of gear technologists in supporting an ecosystem approach to fisheries. ICES J Mar Sci. 2007; 64 :1525–1534. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fsm104. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Joakim Larsson DG, Fick J. Transparency throughout the production chain—a way to reduce pollution from the manufacturing of pharmaceuticals? Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2009; 53 :161–163. doi: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2009.01.008. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kampmann P, Christensen L, Fritsche M, Gaudig C, Hanff H, Hildebrandt M, Kirchner F (2018) How AI and robotics can support marine mining. Paper presented at the Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, USA, 2018/4/30/
• Khan FR. Ecotoxicology in the Anthropocene: are we listening to nature's scream? Environ Sci Technol. 2018; 52 (18):10227–10229. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04534. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Korhonen J, Honkasalo A, Seppälä J. Circular Economy: the concept and its limitations. Ecol Econ. 2018; 143 :37–46. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.06.041. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Krass D, Nedorezov T, Ovchinnikov A. Environmental taxes and the choice of green technology. Prod Oper Manag. 2013; 22 :1035–1055. doi: 10.1111/poms.12023. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Krushelnytska O. Solving Marine Pollution: Successful models to reduce wastewater, agricultural runoff, and marine litter (English) Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group; 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
• Landrigan PJ, et al. The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. The Lancet. 2018; 391 :462–512. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32345-0. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lange A, Paull GC, Hamilton PB, Iguchi T, Tyler CR. Implications of persistent exposure to treated wastewater effluent for breeding in wild roach ( Rutilus rutilus ) populations. Environ Sci Technol. 2011; 45 :1673–1679. doi: 10.1021/es103232q. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lebreton L, Andrady A. Future Scenarios of Global Plastic Waste Generation and Disposal. Palgrave Commun. 2019; 5 :6. doi: 10.1057/s41599-018-0212-7. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lebreton LC, van der Zwet J, Damsteeg J-W, Slat B, Andrady A, Reisser J. River plastic emissions to the world's oceans Nature. Communications. 2017; 8 :5611. doi: 10.1038/ncomms15611. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu W, Oosterveer P, Spaargaren G. Promoting sustainable consumption in China: a conceptual framework and research review. J Clean Prod. 2016; 134 :13–21. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.124. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lohmann R, Klanova J, Kukucka P, Yonis S, Bollinger K. PCBs and OCPs on a East-to-West transect: the importance of major currents and net volatilization for PCBs in the Atlantic Ocean. Environ Sci Technol. 2012; 46 :10471–10479. doi: 10.1021/es203459e. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Longcore T, Rich C. Ecological light pollution. Front Ecol Environ. 2004; 2 :191–198. doi: 10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0191:Elp]2.0.Co;2. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lorek S, Spangenberg JH. Sustainable consumption within a sustainable economy – beyond green growth and green economies. J Clean Product. 2014; 63 :33–44. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.08.045. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Macleod CK, Eriksen RS, Chase Z, Apitz SE. Chemical pollutants in the marine environment: causes, effects, and challenges. In: Solan M, Whiteley N, editors. Stressors in the Marine Environment. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mahalik NP, Nambiar AN. Trends in food packaging and manufacturing systems and technology. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2010; 21 :117–128. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2009.12.006. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Malehmir A, et al. Seismic methods in mineral exploration and mine planning: a general overview of past and present case histories and a look into the future. Geophysics. 2012; 77 :WC173–WC190. doi: 10.1190/geo2012-0028.1. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mattson G. MARPOL 73/78 and Annex I: an assessment of it effectiveness. J Int Wildlife Law Policy. 2006; 9 (2):175–194. doi: 10.1080/13880290600728195. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mattsson K, Johnson EV, Malmendal A, Linse S, Hansson LA, Cedervall T. Brain Damage and Behavioural Disorders in Fish Induced by Plastic Nanoparticles Delivered through the Food Chain. Sci Rep. 2017; 7 :11452. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-10813-0. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McCarthy E. International Regulation of Underwater Sound. US, New York: Springer; 2004. [ Google Scholar ]
• Michael JA. Recycling, international trade, and the distribution of pollution: the effect of increased U.S. paper recycling on U.S. import demand for Canadian paper. J Agric Appl Econ. 1998; 30 :217–223. doi: 10.1017/S107407080000818X. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moktadir MA, Rahman T, Rahman MH, Ali SM, Paul SK. Drivers to sustainable manufacturing practices and circular economy: a perspective of leather industries in Bangladesh. J Clean Prod. 2018; 174 :1366–1380. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.063. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mont O, Plepys A. Sustainable consumption progress: should we be proud or alarmed? J Clean Prod. 2008; 16 :531–537. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.01.009. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moore P (2018) Moore on Pricing: The cost of ocean pollution. Logistics Management. https://www.logisticsmgmt.com/article/moore_on_pricing_the_cost_of_ocean_pollution . Accessed 17/01/2020
• Mustonen T, Maxwell KH, Mustonen K, et al. Who is the ocean? Preface to the future seas 2030 special issue. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries. 2021 doi: 10.1007/s11160-021-09655-x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nash JP, et al. Long-term exposure to environmental concentrations of the pharmaceutical ethynylestradiol causes reproductive failure in fish. Environ Health Perspect. 2004; 112 :1725–1733. doi: 10.1289/ehp.7209. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nash KL, Alexander KA, Melbourne-Thomas J, Novaglio C, Sbrocchi C, Villanueva C, Pecl GT. Developing achievable alternate futures for key challenges during the UN decade of ocean science for sustainable development. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries. 2021 doi: 10.1007/s11160-020-09629-5. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nichols WJ. Blue Mind Little. London: Brown Book Group; 2014. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nie P-y. A monopoly with pollution emissions. J Environ Planning Manag. 2012; 55 :705–711. doi: 10.1080/09640568.2011.622742. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Brien AL, Dafforn KA, Chariton AA, Johnston EL, Mayer-Pinto M. After decades of stressor research in urban estuarine ecosystems the focus is still on single stressors: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Sci Total Environ. 2019; 684 :753–764. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.131. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ofiara DD, Seneca JJ. Biological effects and subsequent economic effects and losses from marine pollution and degradations in marine environments: Implications from the literature. Mar Pollut Bull. 2006; 52 :844–864. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.02.022. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Shea FT, Cundy AB, Spencer KL. The contaminant legacy from historic coastal landfills and their potential as sources of diffuse pollution. Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 128 :446–455. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.12.047. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ouardighi FE, Sim JE, Kim B. Pollution accumulation and abatement policy in a supply chain. Eur J Oper Res. 2016; 248 :982–996. doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2015.08.009. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pan S-Y, Du MA, Huang IT, Liu IH, Chang EE, Chiang P-C. Strategies on implementation of waste-to-energy (WTE) supply chain for circular economy system: a review. J Clean Prod. 2015; 108 :409–421. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.124. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Parker R, Bayne K, Clinton PW (2016) Robotics in forestry NZ Journal of Forestry 60:9
• PlasticsEurope (2018) Plastics Europe - The facts 2018: An analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data. PlasticsEurope, Brussels, Belgium, https://www.plasticseurope.org/en/focus-areas/strategy-plastics
• Rochman CM. Strategies for reducing ocean plastic debris should be diverse and guided by science. Environ Res Lett. 2016; 11 :041001. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/041001. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ryan PG, Jewitt D. Cleaning beaches: sweeping the rubbish under the carpet. S Afr J Sci. 1996; 92 :275–276. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rzymski P, Drewek A, Klimaszyk P (2017) Pharmaceutical pollution of aquatic environment: an emerging and enormous challenge 17:97 10.1515/limre-2017-0010
• Saeed BB, Afsar B, Hafeez S, Khan I, Tahir M, Afridi MA. Promoting employee's proenvironmental behavior through green human resource management practices. Corp Soc Responsib Environ Manag. 2019; 26 :424–438. doi: 10.1002/csr.1694. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Salamat N, Etemadi-Deylami E, Movahedinia A, Mohammadi Y. Heavy metals in selected tissues and histopathological changes in liver and kidney of common moorhen ( Gallinula chloropus ) from Anzali Wetland, the south Caspian Sea. Iran Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2014; 110 :298–307. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.09.011. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schnurr REJ, et al. Reducing marine pollution from single-use plastics (SUPs): a review. Marine Pollut Bulletin. 2018; 137 :157–171. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.10.001. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Seitzinger SP, Kroeze C, Bouwman AF, Caraco N, Dentener F, Styles RV. Global patterns of dissolved inorganic and particulate nitrogen inputs to coastal systems: recent conditions and future projections. Estuaries. 2002; 25 :640–655. doi: 10.1007/bf02804897. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Seitzinger SP, Mayorga E (2016) Chapter 7.3: Nutrient inputs from river systems to coastal waters. In: IOC-UNESCO and UNEP (2016) Large Marine Ecosystems: Status and Trends . United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, pp 179–195
• Sharma S, Henriques I. Stakeholder influences on sustainability practices in the Canadian forest products industry. Strateg Manag J. 2005; 26 :159–180. doi: 10.1002/smj.439. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sherman P, van Sebille E. Modeling marine surface microplastic transport to assess optimal removal locations. Environ Res Lett. 2016; 11 :014006. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/11/1/014006. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Simmonds MP, Dolman SJ, Jasny M, Parsons ECM, Weilgart L, Wright AJ, Leaper R. Marine noise pollution - increasing recognition but need for more practical action. J Ocean Technol. 2014; 9 :71–90. [ Google Scholar ]
• Smith VK, Zhang X, Palmquist RB. Marine debris, beach quality, and non-market values. Environ Resour Econ. 1997; 10 :223–247. doi: 10.1023/A:1026465413899. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sun B, Zhang L, Yang L, Zhang F, Norse D, Zhu Z. Agricultural non-point source pollution in China: causes and mitigation measures. Ambio. 2012; 41 :370–379. doi: 10.1007/s13280-012-0249-6. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• The polluter-pays principle. In Elgar Encyclopedia of Environmental Law , Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. 10.4337/9781785365669.VI.20
• Tournadre J. Anthropogenic pressure on the open ocean: the growth of ship traffic revealed by altimeter data analysis. Geophys Res Lett. 2014; 41 :7924–7932. doi: 10.1002/2014gl061786. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Uhrin AV. Tropical cyclones, derelict traps, and the future of the Florida Keys commercial spiny lobster fishery. Marine Policy. 2016; 69 :84–91. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2016.04.009. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Umeda Y, Fukushige S, Mizuno T, Matsuyama Y. Generating design alternatives for increasing recyclability of products. CIRP Ann. 2013; 62 :135–138. doi: 10.1016/j.cirp.2013.03.060. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• UNEA (2019) Resolutions adopted by the United Nations Environment Assembly adopted on 15 March 2019. UNEP,. http://web.unep.org/environmentassembly/proceedings-report-ministerial-declaration-resolutions-and-decisions .
• UNEP UNEP (1982) Marine pollution. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 25
• United Nations General Assembly U (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development vol A/RES/70/1
• Urbina I. The Outlaw Ocean: Crime and Survival in the Last Untames Frontier. London, UK: The Bodley Head & Vintage Publishing; 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
• Velis CA (2014) Global recycling markets - plastic waste: A story for one player – China. Report prepared by FUELogy and formatted by D-waste on behalf of International Solid Waste Association - Globalisation and Waste Management Task Force. ISWA, Vienna, September 2014
• Vergragt PJ, Dendler L, de Jong M, Matus K. Transitions to sustainable consumption and production in cities. J Clean Prod. 2016; 134 :1–12. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.05.050. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vince J, Hardesty B Swimming in plastic soup: governance solutions to the marine debris problem. Australian Political Studies Association Conference, 26 – 28 September, University of New South Wales, 2016
• Vince J, Hardesty BD. Governance solutions to the tragedy of the commons that marine plastics have become. Front Mar Sci. 2018; 5 :214. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2018.00214. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• White AT, Vogt HP, Arin T. Philippine coral reefs under threat: the economic losses caused by reef destruction. Mar Pollut Bull. 2000; 40 :598–605. doi: 10.1016/S0025-326X(00)00022-9. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wilcox C, Hardesty BD, Law KL. Abundance of floating plastic particles is increasing in the western North Atlantic Ocean. Environ Sci Technol. 2020; 54 :790–796. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.9b04812. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Williams R, et al. Impacts of anthropogenic noise on marine life: publication patterns, new discoveries, and future directions in research and management. Ocean Coastal Manag. 2015; 115 :17–24. doi: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.05.021. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wilson DC et al. (2015) Global Waste Management Outlook. UNEP, Vienna, Austria
• Yang Q, Yu S, Jiang D. A modular method of developing an eco-product family considering the reusability and recyclability of customer products. J Clean Prod. 2014; 64 :254–265. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.07.030. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhu W, Graney J, Salvage K. Land-Use Impact on water pollution: elevated pollutant input and reduced pollutant retention. J Contemp Water Res Edu. 2008; 138 :15–21. doi: 10.1111/j.1936-704X.2008.00004.x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Marine Pollution and the Anthropogenic Effects Upon It Essay

It is a common scientific belief that life started in the oceans. The ocean is also the largest habitants and home to a large number of organisms. Over the years, the ocean has been exposed to a lot of pollution. Marine pollution denotes the introduction of harmful materials or chemicals in our oceans which may disrupt the marine ecosystem, cause other harmful effects to marine life or change the chemical properties of the water. This pollution may be from natural processes or as a result of human activities. Marine pollution from natural process mainly involves the deposition of materials in the ocean during volcanic activities.

Marine pollution has however been attributed to human activities. During the beginning of the industrial revolution, most people believed that since the oceans comprised a very large area, they had unlimited ability to disperse and dilute pollutants thus it was impossible for marine pollution to occur (Garrison, 2009). This belief led man to use the ocean as a dump site. Nuclear materials, chemicals, and other man made waste all found their way to the ocean. By the time people started noticing, a lot of pollution had occurred and a problem had started developing.

Marine pollution due to human activities mainly occurs in the form of direct discharge into the ocean, atmospheric pollution and runoff due to rain (Ahnert & Borowski, 2000). Direct discharge occurs when harmful materials are directly introduced (dumped) into the ocean. Oil spills, dumping of radioactive waste and sewage into the ocean are but some of the few ways direct discharge occurs. Oil spills have become one of the modern means of direct pollution.

The 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill and the recent Deep Horizon incident in the Gulf of Mexico resulted in the largest oil spills in U.S. history (Robertson, 2010). Oil spills not only introduced chemicals into the ocean but also formed a layer restricting the flow of oxygen into the ocean thereby killing a lot of marine wildlife. Dumping of sewage into the oceans occurs all over the world slowly changing the PH of the oceans as well as changing the chemical composition of the water.

Surface runoff has also been one of the major routes of marine pollution. Materials collected from land are introduced into rivers during rainy seasons and find their way into our oceans. Fertilizers, plastic debris and waste from paved roads are just but examples introduced into the oceans through surface runoff (Garrison, 2009). Fertilizers introduce chemicals such as nitrogen that result in algae blooms responsible for low oxygen content in the oceans.

Plastic debris is non-biodegradable and can last for a very long time in the ocean. The final means of marine pollution is through atmospheric pollution. Air pollution caused by introduction of chemicals into the atmosphere results in acid rain thereby adding chemicals into the ocean thus changing the chemical composition of the ocean (Ahnert & Borowski, 2000).

Marine pollution has become one of the major concerns in the modern world. Man has realized that the oceans are a precious resource and it is our responsibility to maintain this resource as well as to ensure sustainability. Marine pollution can be solved through the institution of international laws banning deposition of harmful materials into the ocean (Grigg & Kiwala, 1970). Another means of curbing this pollution is by stopping agricultural activities on river banks and restricting deep sea mining and oil extraction.

The steps taken to control air pollution is a positive step in the right direction but more has to be done to stop air pollution such as reducing carbon waste from automobiles, and seeking alternative energy sources and reducing the use of fossil fuels. The oceans are the source of life and they may be the reason life ends on earth. It is our responsibility to ensure that we rectify what we have caused and protect our precious resource.

Ahnert, A., & Borowski, C. (2000). Environmental risk assessment of anthropogenic activity in the deep sea. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Stress & Recovery , 7(4), 299. Web.

Garrison, T. (2009). Essentials of Oceanography (5 th ed.) Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Web.

Grigg, W. and Kiwala, R. (1970). Some ecological effects of discharged wastes on marine life. California Department of Fish and Game, vol 56: 145-155. Web.

Robertson, C. (2010). Estimates Suggest Spill Is Biggest in U.S. History . The New York Times . Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, March 12). Marine Pollution and the Anthropogenic Effects Upon It. https://ivypanda.com/essays/marine-pollution-and-the-anthropogenic-effects-upon-it/

"Marine Pollution and the Anthropogenic Effects Upon It." IvyPanda , 12 Mar. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/marine-pollution-and-the-anthropogenic-effects-upon-it/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Marine Pollution and the Anthropogenic Effects Upon It'. 12 March.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Marine Pollution and the Anthropogenic Effects Upon It." March 12, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/marine-pollution-and-the-anthropogenic-effects-upon-it/.

1. IvyPanda . "Marine Pollution and the Anthropogenic Effects Upon It." March 12, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/marine-pollution-and-the-anthropogenic-effects-upon-it/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Marine Pollution and the Anthropogenic Effects Upon It." March 12, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/marine-pollution-and-the-anthropogenic-effects-upon-it/.

• Anthropogenic Climate Change
• Impacts of acidic deposition
• Acid Deposition in Atmospheric Processes
• Anthropogenic Climate Change and Policy Problems
• Pollution Problem: Sewage Spills in San Jose
• Acid Deposition in New England
• Space Debris Problem
• Sewage and Urban Run-Offs
• Erosion and Deposition
• Production Externalities: Negative and Positive Aspects
• Nuclear Energy and Its Risks
• The Ocean Pollution Problem Overview
• Water Yield Re-Estimation From the Catchment Due to Bushfire
• Global Population Innovation and Sustainability

Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Ocean Pollution — Ocean Pollution: A Threat to Marine Ecosystems

Ocean Pollution: a Threat to Marine Ecosystems

• Categories: Ocean Pollution Water Pollution

About this sample

Words: 574 |

Published: Mar 16, 2024

Words: 574 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Dr Jacklynne

Verified writer

• Expert in: Environment

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

2 pages / 1164 words

5 pages / 2087 words

2 pages / 786 words

2 pages / 840 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Ocean Pollution

Marine ecosystems are incredibly important for the health of our planet, providing essential services such as oxygen production, carbon sequestration, and food resources. However, these ecosystems are facing a grave threat in [...]

The pressing issue of marine plastic pollution has emerged as a significant environmental challenge that demands immediate attention on a global scale. The oceans, which cover more than 70% of the Earth's surface, are facing an [...]

Logan, S. (2022). Ocean Acidification: The Other Carbon Dioxide Problem. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Zachos, J. C. (2001). Trend, Rhythm, and Randomness: Nonlinearity in Sediment Geochemistry and [...]

Orr, J. C., Fabry, V. J., Aumont, O., Bopp, L., Doney, S. C., Feely, R. A., ... & Yool, A. (2005). Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms. Nature, 437(7059), [...]

The oceans, the lifeblood of our planet, are facing an unprecedented crisis at the hands of human activity. Among the myriad threats to marine ecosystems, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) stands out as a stark symbol of [...]

The world's oceans, covering over 70% of our planet's surface, are not only a source of immense natural beauty but also a vital component of the Earth's life support system. They regulate our climate, provide sustenance for [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

Home / Essay Samples / Environment / Ocean Pollution / Causes And Effects Of Ocean Pollution  

Causes And Effects Of Ocean Pollution  

• Category: Science , Environment
• Topic: Ocean , Ocean Pollution , Pollution

Pages: 3 (1185 words)

Views: 2532

• Downloads: -->

--> ⚠️ Remember: This essay was written and uploaded by an--> click here.

Found a great essay sample but want a unique one?

are ready to help you with your essay

You won’t be charged yet!

Natural Disasters Essays

Plastic Bags Essays

Tornado Essays

Summer Essays

Water Conservation Essays

Related Essays

We are glad that you like it, but you cannot copy from our website. Just insert your email and this sample will be sent to you.

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service  and  Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Your essay sample has been sent.

In fact, there is a way to get an original essay! Turn to our writers and order a plagiarism-free paper.

samplius.com uses cookies to offer you the best service possible.By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .--> -->