causes of the world war one essay

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World History Project - Origins to the Present

Course: world history project - origins to the present   >   unit 7, read: what caused the first world war.

• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Britain and World War I
• WATCH: Britain and World War I
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Southeast Asia and World War I
• WATCH: Southeast Asia and World War I
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: The Middle East and World War I
• WATCH: The Middle East and World War I
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: How World War I Started
• WATCH: How World War I Started
• READ: The First World War as a Global War
• READ: World War I — A Total War
• READ: The Mexican Revolution
• READ: The Power of One — The Russian Revolution
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Armenian Genocide
• WATCH: Armenian Genocide
• READ: Capitalism and World War I
• World War 1

First read: preview and skimming for gist

Second read: key ideas and understanding content.

• Who killed Franz Ferdinand? Why did they kill him?
• How did the European alliance system help start the war?
• How did imperialism help start the war?
• Why does the author argue that industrialization made the war inevitable once preparations were started?
• How might the First World War have happened on accident?

Third read: evaluating and corroborating

• This article gives several examples of how transformations in the nineteenth century led to the war. Things like nationalism (communities frame), industrialization (production and distribution frame), and outdated diplomatic technology (networks frame) are blamed for the war. Can you think of any transformations during the nineteenth century that might have helped prevent war?

What Caused the First World War?

World war why, one shot: the assassination of archduke franz ferdinand, deeper trends: help me help you help me, accidental war: missed the memo, hit the target.

• Yes, these terms can get confusing. Nationalism was introduced to you as the idea that a state should govern itself, and not have some empire as its boss. But at some point, that feeling that you should get to govern yourself can turn into the idea that you are better than other nations, and becomes a kind of extreme patriotism. We call that nationalism as well. As we will see, nationalism is a pretty flexible thing, and it can be used for lots of different purposes.
• Top map by Joe Mabel, CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_German_Empire_-_1914.PNG
• Bottom map by Andrew0921, CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:British_Empire_in_1914.png

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5 Key Causes of World War I

Illustration by Hugo Lin. ThoughtCo.

• M.A., History, University of Florida
• B.A., History, University of Florida

World War I, known as the "war to end all wars," occurred between July 1914 and November 11, 1918. By the end of the war, over 17 million people had been killed, including over 100,000 American troops. The causes of the war are infinitely more complicated than a simple timeline of events, and they are still debated and discussed to this day.

However, the list below provides an overview of the most frequently cited events that led to war. These include a combination of mutual defense alliances, imperialistic rivalries, the rise of militarism, fervent nationalism, and the immediate catalyst—the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

Watch Now: 5 Causes of World War I

Mutual defense alliances.

Countries throughout the world have always made mutual defense agreements with their neighbors, treaties that could pull them into battle. These treaties meant that if one country was attacked, the allied countries were bound to defend them. Before World War 1 began, the following alliances existed:

• Russia and Serbia
• Germany and Austria-Hungary
• France and Russia
• Britain, France, and Belgium
• Japan and Britain

When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia got involved to defend Serbia. Germany, seeing that Russia was mobilizing, declared war on Russia. France was then drawn in against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Germany attacked France by marching through Belgium pulling Britain into war. Then Japan entered the war to support its British allies. Later, Italy and the United States would enter on the side of the Allies (Britain, France, Russia, etc.).

Imperialism

Imperialism  is when a country increases its power and wealth by bringing additional territories under its control, usually without outright colonizing or resettling them. Before World War I, several European countries had made competing imperialistic claims in Africa and parts of Asia, making them points of contention. Because of the raw materials these areas could provide, tensions around which country had the right to exploit these areas ran high. The increasing competition and desire for greater empires led to an increase in confrontation that helped push the world into World War I.

As the world entered the 20th century, an arms race had begun, primarily over the number of each country's warships, and the increasing size of their armies—countries began training more and more of their young men to be prepared for battle. The warships themselves increased in size, number of guns, speed, method of propulsion, and quality armor, beginning in 1906 with Britain's HMS Dreadnought . Dreadnought   was soon out-classed as the Royal Navy and Kaiserliche Marine quickly expanded their ranks with increasingly modern and powerful warships. 

By 1914 , Germany had nearly 100 warships and 2 million trained soldiers. Great Britain and Germany both greatly increased their navies during this time. Further, in Germany and Russia particularly, the military establishment began to have a greater influence on public policy. This increase in militarism helped push the countries involved into war.

Nationalism

Much of the origin of the war was based on the desire of the Slavic peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina to no longer be part of Austria-Hungary but instead be part of Serbia. This specific essentially nationalistic and ethnic revolt led directly to the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand , which was the event that tipped the scales to war.

But more generally, nationalism in many of the countries throughout Europe contributed not only to the beginning but to the extension of the war across Europe and into Asia. As each country tried to prove its dominance and power, the war became more complicated and prolonged.

Immediate Cause: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The immediate cause of World War I that made the aforementioned items come into play (alliances, imperialism, militarism, and nationalism) was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand  of Austria-Hungary. In June 1914, a Serbian-nationalist terrorist group called the Black Hand sent groups to assassinate the Archduke. Their first attempt failed when a driver avoided a grenade thrown at their car. However, later that day a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip shot the Archduke and his wife while they were driving through Sarajevo, Bosnia, which was part of Austria-Hungary. They died of their wounds.

The assassination was in protest of Austria-Hungary having control of this region: Serbia wanted to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The assassination of Ferdinand led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia. When Russia began to mobilize to defend its alliance with Serbia, Germany declared war on Russia. Thus began the expansion of the war to include all those involved in the mutual defense alliances.

The War to End All Wars

World War I saw a change in warfare, from the hand-to-hand style of older wars to the inclusion of weapons that used technology and removed the individual from close combat. The war had extremely high casualties over 17 million dead and 20 million injured. The face of warfare would never be the same again.

In 1914, British author H.G. Wells published his book "The War That Will End War," discussing the change in warfare and coining the phrase that would eventually become synonymous with World War I.

• The Balkans
• Causes of World War I and the Rise of Germany
• The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, 1914
• World War I Timeline From 1914 to 1919
• The Causes and War Aims of World War One
• Biography of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria
• World War I Timeline: 1914, The War Begins
• World War I Introduction and Overview
• The Major Alliances of World War I
• World War 1: A Short Timeline Pre-1914
• World War I: Opening Campaigns
• The Fourteen Points of Woodrow Wilson's Plan for Peace
• The First Battle of the Marne
• Key Historical Figures of World War I
• The Countries Involved in World War I

First World War: Causes and Effects Essay

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Introduction

The causes of world war one, the effects of the war.

World War one seems like an ancient history with many cases of compelling wars to many people, but amazingly, it became known as the Great War because of influence it caused. It took place across European colonies and their surrounding seas between August 1914 and December 1918 (Tuchman, 2004). Almost sixty million troops mobilized for the war ended up in crippling situations.

For instance, more than eight million died and over thirty million people injured in the struggle. The war considerably evolved with the economic, political, cultural and social nature of Europe. Nations from the other continents also joined the war making it worse than it was.

Over a long period, most countries in Europe made joint defense treaties that would help them in battle if the need arose. This was for defense purposes. For instance, Russia linked with Serbia, Germany with Austria-Hungary, France with Russia, and Japan with Britain (Tuchman, 2004).

The war started with the declaration of war on Serbia by Austria-Hungary. This later led to the entry of countries allied to Serbia into the war so as to protect their partners.

Imperialism is another factor that led to the First World War. Many European countries found expansion of their territories enticing.

Before World War One, most European countries considered parts of Asia and Africa as their property because they were highly productive. European nations ended up in confrontations among themselves due to their desire for more wealth from Africa and Asia. This geared the whole world into war afterwards.

Competition to produce more weapons compared to other countries also contributed to the beginning of World War One. Many of the European nations established themselves well in terms of military capacity and eventually sought for war to prove their competence.

Desire for nationalism by the Serbians also played a crucial role in fueling the war. Failure to come to an agreement about Bosnia and Herzegovina led the countries to war. Both countries wanted to prove their supremacy.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife in Austria-Hungary sparked the war. Tuchman (2004) reveals that the Serbians assassinated Ferdinand in Sarajevo in June 1914 while protesting to the control of Sarajevo by Austria-Hungary. The assassination led to war between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. This led to mobilization of Russian troops in preparation for war.

The already prepared Germany immediately joined the war against Russia and France. On the other hand, Russians declared war on Austria and Germany. The invasion of the neutral Belgium by Germany triggered Britain to declare war against Germans.

Earlier, Britain had promised to defend Belgium against any attack. The British entered France with the intention of stopping the advancement of Germany. This intensified the enmity among the countries involved (Tuchman, 2004).

Tuchman (2004) argues that the French together with their weak allies held off the fighting in Paris and adopted trench warfare. The French had decided to defend themselves from the trenches instead of attacking. This eventually gave them the victory.

Although The British had the largest number of fleet in the world by the end of 1914, they could not end the First World War. The Germans had acquired a well-equipped fleet. This helped them advance the war to 1915. However, many countries participating in the war began to prepare for withdrawal from the conflict. The war had changed the social roles in many of the countries involved.

For instance, women in Britain performed duties initially considered masculine so as to increase their income (Tuchman, 2004). In the Western Front, the innovated gas weapons killed many people. In the Eastern Front, Bulgaria joined Austria-Hungary as the central power leading to more attacks in Serbia and Russia. Italy too joined the war and fought with the allied forces.

The British seized German ports in 1916. This led to severe shortage of food in Germany. The shortages encountered by the Germans led to food riots in many of the German towns. The Germans eventually adopted submarine warfare. With the help of this new tactic, they targeted Lusitania, one of the ships from America.

This led to the loss of many lives, including a hundred Americans, prompting America to join the war. On 1stJuly the same year, over twenty thousand people died and forty thousand injured. However, in the month of May the same year, the British managed to cripple the German fleet and eventually take control of the sea (Tuchman, 2004).

The year 1917 marked a remarkable change in Germany. Attempts to convince Mexico to invade the United States proved futile. Germany eventually lost due to lack of sufficient aid from their already worn-out allies. Towards the end of 1918, British food reserves became exhausted. This reduced the intensity of the warfare against Germans. It was in this same year that they established “Women Army Auxiliary Corps”.

It placed women on the forefront in the battlefield for the first time. On the Western Front, the Germans weakness eventually led to their defeat. The war came to an end. The British eventually emerged the superior nation among all the European nations.

The signing of the Treaty of Versailles on twenty eighth June 1919 between the Allied powers and Germany officially ended the war. Other treaties signed later contributed to the enforcement of peace among nations involved in the war (Tuchman, 2004).

First World War outlined the beginning of the modern era; it had an immense impact on the economic and political status of many countries. European countries crippled their economies while struggling to manufacture superior weapons. The Old Russian Empire replaced by a socialist system led to loss of millions of people.

The known Austro-Hungarian Empire and old Holy Roman Empire became extinct. The drawing of Middle East and Europe maps led to conflicts in the present time. The League of Nations formed later contributed significantly in solving international conflicts.

In Britain, a class system arose demarcating the lower class from the advantaged class whereas, in France the number of men significantly reduced (Tuchman, 2004). This led to sharing of the day to day tasks between men and women. First World War also caused the merger of cultures among nations. Poets and authors portray this well. Many people also ended up adopting the western culture and neglecting their own.

In conclusion, the First World War led to the loss of many lives. These included soldiers and innocent citizens of the countries at war. The First World War also led to extensive destruction of property. The infrastructure and buildings in many towns crumbled. It contributed to displacement of people from their homes. Many people eventually lost their land.

The loss of land and displacement of people has substantially contributed to the current conflicts among communities and nations. However, the First World War paved way to the establishment of organizations that ensured that peace prevailed in the world. It also led to the advancement of science and technology. It led to the realization that women too could perform masculine tasks.

Tuchman, W. B. (2004). The Guns of August : New York: Random House Publishing Group.

• First World War Issues and Causes
• First World War: German and Austrian Policies' Response
• World War I Causes by Ethnic Problems in Austro-Hungary
• Was the birthplace of Canada at Vimy Rigde
• United States and World War I
• Why Europe Went to War
• WWI-War: Revolution, and Reconstruction
• World War I Technology
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• The Main Causes of WW1

World War One  (also known as the First World War or the Great War) was arguably the most significant event of the 20th century, leading to geopolitical maps being redrawn, new nations emerging, and  communism  and  fascism  rising across  Europe . However, the causes are as important as the results, as they reveal key details about the conflict and its place in history. Therefore, investigating the contributing factors that led to the First World War is a worthwhile endeavor.

The Assassination Of The Archduke Franz Ferdinand

In 1878, following the end of the Russo-Turkish War, the Austro-Hungarian Empire occupied the previously  Ottoman -controlled  Bosnia-Herzegovina . The Empire then formally annexed Bosnia in 1908, prompting anger from the numerous different ethnic groups in the region. Serbian nationalists were particularly incensed by this incursion. Thus, with the Archduke of Austria-Hungary Franz Ferdinand scheduled to visit the capital of Sarajevo in June 1914, Young Bosnia, a particularly militant Serbian nationalist group, planned an assassination.

On June 28, at about 10:00 a.m. Nedeljko Čabrinović threw a grenade at the Archduke's motorcade, damaging the vehicles and injuring the politician. About an hour later, Gavrilo Princip, after getting lost and seemingly missing his opportunity to carry out the assassination, stumbled across the motorcade. Princip proceeded to shoot Ferdinand and his wife, killing them both and setting off a chain reaction that  resulted in Europe going to war.  

Understanding the event that started the Great War is crucial. But, comprehending  why  it was the spark plug is even more important. In other words, how did a conflict that began in the Balkans escalate into a global affair? Analyzing some longer-term factors explains why this occurred.

In 1882, motivated by anti-Russian and anti-French sentiments,  Germany , Austria-Hungary, and  Italy  formed the Triple Alliance. This alliance was made so that if one of them was attacked, the other two needed to provide military support. The French and Russians followed this with their own agreement in 1894, evolving into the Triple Entente by 1907--a three-way military alliance between the  United Kingdom ,  France , and  Russia .

Despite emerging out of a desire for stability, these alliances contributed to the exact opposite. Indeed, following the assassination of the Archduke, Austria-Hungary declared war on  Serbia . Russia, a Serbian ally, then declared war on Austria-Hungary. Being part of the Triple Alliance, Germany was obligated to go to war with Russia, which then brought in the United Kingdom and France. In short, alliances were largely responsible for a regional conflict snowballing into a general European war, as they made military involvement obligatory if one's ally was attacked.

Militarism 

The late 1800s also saw increased militarism. Perhaps the most obvious example of this was the Anglo-German naval arms race. By the 1870s, Britain had the largest navy in Europe. Feeling threatened,  Kaiser Wilhelm II  began to build up Germany's maritime force. This prompted even more naval investments by the UK, leading to the creation of the Dreadnought--a new ship that far outclassed any others in Europe. It soon became clear that no matter what Germany did, its navy could not match that of the British. Nonetheless, tensions caused by such militarism undeniably contributed to the general fear of a prospective European war. Moreover, these improvements in military technologies ensured that any future conflict would be enormously destructive. 

Imperialism/Colonialism

At the 1884 Berlin Conference,  Africa  was divided between the major European powers, the most notable of which were Britain, France, and  Belgium . Despite this diplomacy, difficulties arose. For instance, Germany, not having a particularly strong foothold in Africa, wanted to weaken France's position on the continent. Therefore, on March 31, 1905, Kaiser Wilhelm II visited French-controlled  Morocco , touring the city of Tangier and declaring his support for Moroccan independence. Shortly afterward, the Moroccan Sultan rejected a series of French policies. This became known as the First Moroccan Crisis. While Germany did agree to stop interfering in French colonial business following the Algeciras Conference, the crisis resulted in a deepening of alliances, with Austria-Hungary coming to Germany's defense and Britain supporting France. In short, these imperial and colonial affairs increased divisions between the Entente and the Central Powers, contributing to a geopolitical atmosphere that made war possible.

Nationalism

In 1871, Germany and Italy unified, signifying the rise of  nationalism  across Europe. This change contributed to the perception of politics as a battle between people or races rather than political leaders, posing an existential threat to multiethnic empires like the Austria-Hungary Empire comprising Germans,  Hungarians ,  Czechs ,  Serbians ,  Croatians ,  Poles , Ruthenians, and  Romanians . Furthermore, no one group in this Empire made up the majority of the population. All this meant that the Empire was a powder keg, with different nationalities vying for power. As demonstrated by Serbian nationalists assassinating Franz Ferdinand, these often violent sentiments directly led to World War One.

The Great War occurred due to a multitude of factors. The most direct cause was the assassination of Austria-Hungary's Archduke on June 28, 1914. However, the deeper roots can be traced to alliances, militarism, imperialism, and nationalism. These elements thus culminated in one of the deadliest conflicts in world history. 

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World War I Battles: Timeline

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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Connection — Unveiling the Causes and Consequences of World War I

Unveiling The Causes and Consequences of World War I

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The Complex Legacy of Kaiser Wilhelm II in World War i

This essay about Kaiser Wilhelm II during World War I provides a nuanced exploration of his complex role in the conflict. It examines Wilhelm’s authoritarianism, militarism, and diplomatic blunders, shedding light on his impact on the escalation of tensions in Europe. While he is often portrayed as a warmonger, the essay argues that Wilhelm’s actions were influenced by a combination of personal insecurities and geopolitical ambitions. Despite his symbolic role during the war, his rhetoric and pursuit of total victory prolonged the conflict. The essay concludes by highlighting the ongoing debate over Wilhelm’s legacy and the importance of understanding the complexities of history.

How it works

Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany remains one of the most enigmatic figures of the twentieth century, his reign coinciding with one of the most tumultuous periods in human history. As the leader of Germany during World War I, his decisions and demeanor played a significant role in shaping the conflict and its aftermath. However, understanding Wilhelm’s impact requires a nuanced examination that goes beyond simplistic portrayals of him as either a warmonger or a victim of circumstance.

Born into the House of Hohenzollern in 1859, Wilhelm ascended to the German throne in 1888 following the death of his father, Kaiser Frederick III.

His reign was characterized by a potent mixture of authoritarianism, militarism, and a fervent belief in Germany’s destiny as a global power. Under his rule, Germany embarked on a path of rapid industrialization and military expansion, challenging the established order in Europe.

Wilhelm’s foreign policy, often marked by diplomatic blunders and provocations, significantly contributed to the escalation of tensions in the years leading up to World War I. His aggressive naval build-up and support for Austria-Hungary during the July Crisis of 1914 exacerbated the already fragile balance of power in Europe. While it is tempting to portray Wilhelm as the architect of war, the reality is more complex. His actions were influenced by a combination of personal insecurities, geopolitical ambitions, and the dynamics of European politics.

During the war itself, Wilhelm’s role was largely symbolic, as military decision-making rested with his generals and the civilian government. Nevertheless, his bombastic rhetoric and insistence on pursuing total victory prolonged the conflict and deepened the suffering of millions. His abdication in November 1918, following Germany’s defeat, marked the end of the Hohenzollern monarchy and the beginning of a new era in German history.

In the decades that followed, Wilhelm’s legacy underwent a process of reassessment and reinterpretation. In Germany, he was often vilified as the epitome of Prussian militarism and blamed for the country’s defeat and subsequent humiliation. However, some historians have sought to challenge this narrative, highlighting Wilhelm’s role as a product of his time and the complexities of the political landscape he inhabited.

Today, Kaiser Wilhelm II remains a controversial figure, his legacy subject to ongoing debate and scrutiny. While he undoubtedly played a significant role in shaping the course of World War I, reducing his impact to a single narrative does a disservice to the complexity of history. By examining Wilhelm’s reign in all its nuances, we gain a deeper understanding of the forces that shaped the twentieth century and continue to resonate in the present day.

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AP interview: Divisions among the world’s powerful nations are undermining UN efforts to end crises

FILE - Jean-Pierre Lacroix, U.N. under-secretary-general for peace operations, speaks at the U.N. Peacekeeping ministerial meeting at the Accra International Conference Center in Ghana, Dec. 6, 2023. Lacroix said in an interview with The Associated Press that deep divisions, especially among the world’s most powerful nations, have significantly undermined what the United Nations can do to help nations move from conflict to peace. (AP Photo/Misper Apawu, File)

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UNITED NATIONS (AP) — Deep divisions especially among the world’s most powerful nations have significantly undermined what the United Nations can do to help nations move from conflict to peace, the U.N. peacekeeping chief said.

Jean-Pierre Lacroix told The Associated Press in an interview that these divisions – most notably between the U.S. and the West on one side and Russia and often China on the other -- don’t only affect peacekeeping but everything the United Nations does in trying to promote peace and security.

The result is that in some cases the rivalry can lead to the presence of U.N. peacekeepers being questioned by the parties to the conflict -- or even asked to leave, as happened in Mali and is happening in Congo, he said.

Twenty years ago, Lacroix said, a united international community pushed in the same direction as the United Nations to restore peace to East Timor, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Cambodia.

“But we don’t have that anymore,” he said ahead of the International Day of U.N. Peacekeepers on Wednesday.

“Yes, we still have a U.N. presence in many different crisis situations, but we don’t have the same united, committed push of the membership to advance those political agreements between the parties,” he said. “And sometimes, those agreements just unravel or they stagnate and create frustration.”

Four years ago, the United Nations had approximately 110,000 peacekeepers deployed in 13 missions around the world. Today, there are about 80,000 military and civilians in 11 peacekeeping operations.

At the same time, as Switzerland’s U.N. ambassador told the Security Council last week, there are over 120 armed conflicts around the world and millions of people are suffering.

What actions could really make a difference? “It’s a million-dollar question,” Lacroix said.

In many situations today, he said, multiple foreign countries are intervening on behalf of their own interests.

He pointed to the Central African Republic, Somalia, Sudan, Libya and Mali as examples, adding “the list is long and expanding.”

Last July, U.N. Secretary-General Antonio Guterres said the post-Cold War period is over, and the world is moving toward a new multipolar era already marked by the highest level of geopolitical tensions and major power competition in decades.

He warned that these divisions are undermining the cornerstone of the United Nations – having all countries work together to solve global challenges. And he outlined his “New Agenda for Peace” to address the new threats facing the world, stressing the importance of multilateralism.

Lacroix said in many crises where peacekeepers are involved, the U.N. is seeing an increasing influence of the drivers of conflict that are not properly addressed -- inequality, poverty, the impact of climate change and transnational criminal activities.

The undersecretary-general for peace operations said much more needs to be done to address the drivers of conflict as well as terrorism, and this can only be done multilaterally with countries working together.

“The more division we have, the more we’re incapable to address crises, then the more challenging it is to deal effectively with those pressing global challenges,” Lacroix said.

In outlining his “New Agenda for Peace” last year, Guterres said that while peacekeepers have saved millions of lives, “longstanding unresolved conflicts, driven by complex domestic, geopolitical and transnational factors, and a persistent mismatch between mandates and resources, have exposed its limitations.”

Put bluntly, he said, “peacekeeping operations cannot succeed when there is no peace to keep.”

The secretary-general’s proposed peace agenda urges nations to move toward “nimble, adaptable” peacekeeping models with exit strategies, and to support “peace enforcement action by regional and sub-regional organizations” that are mandated by the Security Council, paid for by U.N. member states, and backed by political efforts to promote peace.

It will be high on the agenda at the “Summit of the Future” Guterres has invited world leaders to at September’s annual gathering. The summit is aimed at trying to repair what Guterres has called “a great fracture” among nations and promote the United Nations’ founding objective after World War II – to bring nations together and save future generations from war.

Lacroix said there seems to be a consensus that the drivers of conflict are global threats, but other challenges also need to be on the table as the U.N. contemplates peace operations in the future.

“How do we deal with the new technologies that can be enablers of conflict?” he said, pointing to digital technology and artificial intelligence that promote fake news and disinformation.

The United Nations has no standing military force, and its peacekeepers who wear distinctive blue berets or helmets are contributed by member nations.

“We will never have a mandate to do peace enforcement, which is another name for war,” Lacroix said. “And we would never find troop contributing countries to do that because it’s a very different proposition.”

He stressed this doesn’t mean U.N. peacekeeping is being replaced. Rather, it means there should be other models like the arrangement the U.N. now has with the African Union. In December, the Security Council adopted a resolution to consider African Union requests for U.N. member nations to fund African-led peace support operations – a key AU goal.

Richard Gowan, U.N. director for the International Crisis Group, his colleague Daniel Forti and African legal scholar Solomon Dersso presented an assessment of U.N. peace operations to a U.N. police retreat in February which concluded they are “in a period of change with no clear end in sight.”

“In contrast to the early 2000s, when the Security Council treated blue helmet operations as a `go to’ response to many civil wars,” they said, “we have entered a period in which the Security Council, regional organizations and individual states are turning to a wide range of alternative security options to deal with new crises.”

The three analysts said the options range from regional peace enforcement missions, as the African Union has carried out in Somalia, to bilateral deployments by one country, like Russia in Mali, and mercenary forces such as Russia’s Wagner Group which is reportedly still operating in Mali, the Central African Republic and elsewhere in Africa.

“We need to have a greater variety of options to address crises,” Lacroix said.

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Biden says Netanyahu could be prolonging Gaza war for political aims

U.S. President Joe Biden said Israeli leader Benjamin Netanyahu may be stalling on ending the war in Gaza for political reasons, according to an interview with Time magazine released on Tuesday.

Ukraine-Russia war latest: Russia could be ready to attack NATO in three years, Norway warns

NATO only has two to three years to prepare before Russia regains its ability to launch a conventional attack on the alliance, Norway's top general has said.

Tuesday 4 June 2024 15:55, UK

• The big picture: Everything you need to know about the war right now
• Russia could be ready to attack NATO in three years, Norway warns
• Baby among seven civilians injured in overnight missile strike
• Navalny's mother and supporters visit grave on his birthday  
• Live reporting by Guy Birchall

Manufacturers and distributors need to improve compliance with Russia-related sanctions, US Deputy Treasury Secretary Wally Adeyemo has said.

American companies in particular need to pay more attention to their supply chains to ensure they are not complicit with Russia's evasion of sanctions over Ukraine, Mr Adeyemo said in an interview with CNBC.

He said manufacturers of microelectronics and machine tools especially needed to step up compliance to help cut off supplies of "dual use" goods to Russia, including from Chinese producers. 

Freight forwarders and distributors need to do the same and financial institutions need to look at their relationships with small and medium-sized banks in "countries of concern" because Moscow is looking for ways around US sanctions, Adeyemo said.

Volodymyr Zelenskyy's chief of staff has said that using Western weapons to strike inside Russia was a vital decision that would impact Moscow's tactical aviation and its offensive ability in border regions. 

"This will impact the conduct of the war, planning of counteroffensive actions, and will weaken Russians' abilities to use their forces in the border areas," Andriy Yermak said on Telegram. 

Russia has said the move would mark an escalation to the conflict and has threatened war with NATO if Western weapons are used in its airspace.

By  Ivor Bennett , Moscow correspondent

Dozens of Alexei Navalny supporters have visited his grave to lay flowers and pay tribute to the late Kremlin critic on what would have been his 48th birthday. 

The opposition leader died at an Arctic prison colony in February, prompting outrage from Western governments.

Nearly four months on, his family say the cause of his death remains unexplained.

His widow Yulia Navalnaya has accused Vladimir Putin of ordering his murder, and last week his allies called for additional sanctions to punish the Russian president's inner circle.

The Kremlin has repeatedly denied any involvement in his death. According to his death certificate, he died of natural causes.

Navalny's mother, Lyudmila, as well as his mother-in-law Alla Abrosimova, were among those who gathered at his grave in the Borisovskoye cemetery in southeast Moscow today.

Video posted by SOTAvision on the social media platform Telegram shows a memorial service led by Dmitry Safronov, a priest who was previously banned from clerical duties by the Russian Orthodox Church for presiding over a similar service in March, which marked 40 days since the activist's death.

According to the independent Novaya Gazeta newspaper, three police officers were on duty near the cemetery but they did not make any arrests.

Having been convicted of multiple charges, ranging from fraud to extremism, Navalny was serving sentences totalling more than 30 years when he died.

His Anti-Corruption Foundation (FBK) is outlawed in Russia, and has been accused by the authorities of having links to the CIA.

What remains of his team now operates in exile.

Polish farmers have resumed their protest blockade at the Ukrainian border crossing due to agricultural imports from the country.

Farmers in Poland have staged sporadic demonstrations at the border since last autumn.

The demonstrators are blocking trucks from leaving Ukraine.

Cargo vehicles heading to Ukraine are allowed to enter by 12 trucks per 12 hours and by four trucks with humanitarian aid per hour, the Ukrainian Border Guard Service said.

Other vehicles are continuing as usual.

"Representatives of Polish farmers demand reduced imports of Ukrainian crops to Polish territory from Ukraine," the Border Guard Service said.

Disputes over crop imports have strained the relationship between Warsaw and Kyiv, with both countries being major agricultural producers.

Polish farmers have complained that Ukrainian products create uneven competition, particularly since the EU lifted tariffs in 2022.

Poland banned the import of several products from Ukraine, including grain, corn, and rapeseed, in 2023.

In our last post, we brought you news that Microsoft had made allegations in the New York Times that Russia was targeting the upcoming Olympics with a disinformation campaign.

Moscow has now branded those accusations "absolute slander", with Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov saying there is no substance to them.

Russia is widely accused of having waged disinformation campaigns over the years, often targeting elections in the United States, Europe and Britain.

Moscow has always denied it uses disinformation to influence public opinion. 

The Paris Olympics are being targeted by a Russian-linked disinformation campaign, according to the New York Times.

Since last summer, efforts have been under way by a hacker group named Storm-1679, the paper reports.

The campaign "began in earnest" when a documentary was released with a doctored International Olympic Committee (IOC) logo, along with an AI-powered impersonation of Tom Cruise's voice.

The hackers "are trying to cultivate an anticipation of violence", said Clint Watts, the head of Microsoft's Digital Threat Analysis Centre.

"They want people to be fearful of going to the Olympics."

Storm-1679 makes around three to eight disinformation videos a week, Mr Watts told the newspaper, many of which appear as if they come from media outlets such as the BBC or Al Jazeera.

Both Russia and Belarus have been banned from competing in the Olympics over the war in Ukraine, but some athletes from those countries will be allowed to compete as "neutral athletes", the IOC announced in March.

The Paris games will take place between 26 July and 11 August.

The Kremlin has said the peace talks set to take place in Switzerland this month are "absurd" as Russia isn't invited.

Moscow claimed it was understandable that some countries were declining to take part in the summit on Ukraine this month because the gathering lacked clear goals.

Ukraine says more than 100 countries and organisations have agreed to take part in the summit on 15-16 June.

The summit, which will take place at an Alpine resort near Lucerne, is intended to create a framework for lasting peace and a roadmap for Russia's eventual participation in the process.

Kyiv decided against inviting Russia because it does not trust Moscow.

China, which has grown closer to Russia after Western sanctions brought in since the invasion of Ukraine, has also said it won't be attending.

Poland has claimed Belarus and its ally Russia are behind a recent surge in migrants from the former Soviet state into the European Union.

The number of attempted illegal border crossings from Belarus into Poland has shot up in recent months from only a handful to almost 400 a day, Polish officials say.

Poland's border guards have also described increasingly aggressive behaviour by some migrants on the Belarusian side of the border, posting online videos of some throwing rocks, logs and even burning wood at Polish troops.

There have been cases of soldiers and guards ending up in hospital, and some have needed stitches after being stabbed or cut by knife-wielding assailants. 

Last Tuesday, near the village of Dubicze Cerkiewne, officials said a migrant reached between the bars of the 16-foot-high barrier and stabbed a soldier in the ribs. 

The government in Warsaw sees the new push at the border as an orchestrated attempt by Russia and Belarus to fuel anti-migrant sentiment, which could in turn boost far-right parties in the EU parliamentary vote. 

"We are not dealing with [just] any asylum seekers here, we are dealing with a coordinated, very efficient - on many levels - operation to break the Polish border and attempts to destabilise the country,"  Donald Tusk, the Polish prime minister, said last week while visiting troops at the border.

Ukraine's use of Western-supplied weapons to strike targets in Russia will not "contribute to escalation", German Chancellor Olaf Scholz has said.

Germany has long opposed lifting the ban on Ukraine's use of Western weapons to target Russia, but changed course last month.

A German government spokesperson told Deutsche Welle on 31 May that Ukraine could use German-supplied weapons to hit legitimate targets in Russia. 

Berlin's defence minister Boris Pistorius later clarified that the decision applied to the area around Kharkiv, which has recently become the target of a heavy Russian offensive.

"We are certain that it will not contribute to an escalation because, as Joe Biden has also described, it is only a matter of being able to defend a large city like Kharkiv," Mr Scholz said.

In the past, Chancellor Scholz has cited a fear of escalation as among the principal reasons for limiting Germany's support for Ukraine.

"I think it is clear to everyone that this must be possible. Under international law, this has always been possible anyway," he added.

General Eirik Kristoffersen's comments are the latest in a series of warnings from Western leaders and defence officials about the threat from Moscow and the alliance's current lack of preparedness.

"At one point someone said it'll take 10 years, but I think we're back to less than 10 years because of the industrial base that is now running in Russia," General Kristoffersen said.

"It will take some time, which gives us a window now for the next two to three years to rebuild our forces, to rebuild our stocks at the same time as we are supporting Ukraine."

Norway has been a member of NATO since its foundation in 1949.

The Scandinavian nation has increased its defence spending since the beginning of the war in Ukraine and aims to meet the 2% of GDP threshold in 2024, with a further increase of 2.7% of GDP targeted by 2030.

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Experts say Israel used U.S.-made bomb in deadly Rafah strike

Weapons experts identified the fragments as an SDB GBU-39, a 250-pound small-diameter precision bomb.

Four weapons experts said the Israeli military used a U.S.-made precision bomb in a strike that killed at least 45 people in southern Gaza on Sunday, after reviewing visual evidence provided to The Washington Post.

The fragments of an SDB GBU-39, a 250-pound small-diameter precision munition, were found near the site of the strike on an encampment in Rafah, where witnesses described the sounds of planes overhead and successive explosions “shaking the entire city.”

Israel said the attack was a “targeted” strike against two Hamas militants, conducted using “the smallest munition” Israeli fighter jets can use. It said that the fire that broke out at the camp was “unexpected and unintended,” and that it was investigating the possibility that secondary explosions ignited the blaze.

The findings do not contradict Israel’s assertion that it used a small munition, weapons experts said. Israel said it used munitions containing “17 kilos of explosive material,” a weight consistent with the size of a warhead used with a GBU-39, according to Trevor Ball, a former explosive ordnance disposal technician for the U.S. Army.

Secretary of State Antony Blinken said Wednesday that the United States couldn’t confirm what weapons were used or how they were used in the strike. Speaking to reporters, Blinken called the attack “horrific” and said anyone who has seen images of it has been affected on a “basic human level.”

The United States has been “very clear with Israel,” Blinken said, on the need to “immediately investigate and interrogate exactly what happened.” When asked if the strike will affect U.S. military assistance to Israel, he said Washington will “await the results” of Israel’s investigation.

“Munitions like the GBU-39 are often selected specifically to minimize the chance of harm to civilians or civilian objects,” said N.R. Jenzen-Jones, director of Armament Research Services. Regardless, he said, “with any targeted strike — and especially any strike being conducted in close proximity to civilians — a robust collateral damage estimation procedure is required.”

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More than 36,000 Palestinians have been killed in the war, according to the Gaza Health Ministry, which does not distinguish between civilians and combatants but says the majority of the casualties are women and children. Israel launched its campaign after Hamas militants stormed Israeli communities near the border and killed about 1,200 people in October.

Images of the fragments, taken by Palestinian journalist Alam Sadeq on Monday, showed the cage code, or five-character sequence used to identify vendors that sell weapons to the U.S. government. The “81873” designation links the fragment to Woodward HRT, a weapons components manufacturer registered in Valencia, Calif.

Sadeq’s video and images were verified and geolocated by The Post. He traveled to Rafah from nearby Khan Younis early Monday to document the aftermath of the strike. As he walked through the wreckage, he noticed a boy sitting on the ground examining the remnants of an electronic board.

“He told me that this piece was inside his tent,” Sadeq said. “I knew that this missile was used for bombing.”

The United States supplied Israel with 1,000 precision guided bombs in 2023, according to an arms transfer database maintained by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.

The Biden administration has not halted transfers of this munition over the course of the war. Last month, the State Department approved a transfer of more than 1,000 GBU-39/B small-diameter bombs with containers on the same day that Israeli forces bombed a convoy of World Central Kitchen aid workers in Gaza, killing seven.

The attack late Sunday struck near a logistics base for the U.N. Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian refugees, destroying at least four tin structures used as shelters for the displaced, according to satellite imagery from Monday provided by Planet Labs. More than a dozen tent-like structures were also visible between the tin buildings and the U.N. warehouse, a distance of about 500 feet, in images before and after the strike.

Tal al-Sultan tent camp after

and before IDF’s strike

Makeshift accommodation

(visible in satellite from early January)

Approx. 130 ft.

Makeshift tents

Area of detail

Source: Planet Labs PBC

SAMUEL GRANADOS / THE WASHINGTON POST

Tal al-Sultan tent camp

Before and after IDF’s strike

AREA OF DETAIL

T el al- S ultan

c r o ssi n g

Over the past eight months, hundreds of thousands of Palestinians sought refuge in Rafah as Israel’s offensive pummeled the northern part of the Gaza Strip . The city swelled with the displaced, who set up tent encampments on the streets, in empty lots and on sand dunes near the sea.

It is unclear how many people were still at the camp Sunday when the strike hit. After Israel seized the Rafah border crossing earlier this month, nearly 1 million people fled the city, fearing a wider incursion.

Wes J. Bryant, a former U.S. military targeting professional, said “small-diameter bombs are great for collateral damage mitigation when you don’t actually drop them near tents with families.”

The Israeli military has stressed that the strike took place outside a designated “humanitarian zone,” but the Israel Defense Forces had not issued evacuation orders for this specific block of the Tal al-Sultan neighborhood before the strike.

“There was a civilian encampment and the civilians within it must remain protected,” Bryant said, adding that the U.S. military would have required senior command approval for a strike on the camp.

“Our collateral damage analysis would likely have placed civilians within the effects radius of the strike regardless, and so we most likely would not have struck at that location,” he said.

An Israeli military spokesman reached Wednesday said he could not comment further on the munition used or what measures were taken to prevent civilian casualties.

John Kirby, spokesman for the National Security Council, said Wednesday that the United States “did not have any more granularity” on what caused the explosion and subsequent fire.

Speaking to reporters at a virtual briefing, Kirby said that if it was true Israel used precision guided weapons, “that would certainly indicate a desire to be more deliberate and more precise in their targeting.”

Sadeq said he encountered horrific scenes in the aftermath of the strike, including charred corpses, blood-spattered bread and a man searching for his cousin’s head. He held a girl’s brain in one hand and a bag full of body parts in the other.

The smell of death was “everywhere,” he said.

Brown and Kelly reported from Washington, Fahim from Istanbul and Hudson from Chisinau, Moldova. Missy Ryan in Washington contributed to this report.

Israel-Gaza war

The Israel-Gaza war has gone on for six months, and tensions have spilled into the surrounding region .

The war: On Oct. 7, Hamas militants launched an unprecedented cross-border attack on Israel that included the taking of civilian hostages at a music festival . (See photos and videos of how the deadly assault unfolded ). Israel declared war on Hamas in response, launching a ground invasion that fueled the biggest displacement in the region since Israel’s creation in 1948 .

Gaza crisis: In the Gaza Strip, Israel has waged one of this century’s most destructive wars , killing tens of thousands and plunging at least half of the population into “ famine-like conditions. ” For months, Israel has resisted pressure from Western allies to allow more humanitarian aid into the enclave .

U.S. involvement: Despite tensions between Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and some U.S. politicians , including President Biden, the United States supports Israel with weapons , funds aid packages , and has vetoed or abstained from the United Nations’ cease-fire resolutions.

History: The roots of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and mistrust are deep and complex, predating the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 . Read more on the history of the Gaza Strip .