evaluating sources for a research paper

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Evaluating Sources
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Importance of Evaluating Sources

Evaluating the authority, usefulness, and reliability of resources is a crucial step in conducting a review of the literature that effectively covers pertinent research and, thereby, demonstrates to the reader that you know what you're talking about. The process of evaluating scholarly materials also enhances your general skills and ability to:

• Seek out alternative points of view and differing perspectives,
• Identify possible bias in the work of others,
• Distinguish between fact, fiction, and opinion,
• Develop and strengthen your ability to distinguish between relevant and non-relevant content,
• Draw cogent, well thought out conclusions, and
• Synthesize information, extracting meaning through a deliberate process of interpretation and analysis.

Black, Thomas R. Evaluating Social Science Research: An Introduction . London: Sage, 1993.

Strategies for Critically Evaluating Sources

The act of thinking critically about the validity and reliability of a research resource generally involves asking yourself a series of questions about the quality of both the item and the content of that item.

Evaluating the Source

Inquiring about the Author What are the author's credentials, such as, institutional affiliation [where he or she works], educational background, past writings, or experience? Is the book or article written on a topic in the author's area of expertise? Has your instructor mentioned this author? Have you seen the author's name cited in other sources or bibliographies? Is the author associated with a reputable institution or organization? What are the basic values or goals of that organization or institution? Inquiring about the Date of Publication When was the source published? Is the source current or out-of-date for your topic? Inquiring about the Edition or Revision Is this a first edition of this publication or not? Further editions usually indicate a source has been revised and updated to reflect changes in knowledge, to include prior omissions, and to better harmonize the contents with the intended needs of its readers. If you are using a web source, do the pages indicate last revision dates? Inquiring about the Publisher Note the publisher. If the source is published by a university press, it is likely to be scholarly. Although the fact that a publisher is reputable does not necessarily guarantee quality, it does show that the publisher has a high regard for the source being published [their reputation as an academic publisher relies on it]. Inquiring about the Title of Journal Is this a scholarly or a popular journal? This distinction is important because it indicates different levels of complexity in conveying ideas and the intended readership.

Evaluating the Content

Intended Audience What type of audience is the author addressing? Is the publication aimed at a specialized or a general audience? Is this source too elementary, too technical, too advanced, or just right for your needs? Objectivity Is the information covered considered to be fact, opinion, or propaganda? It is not always easy to separate fact from opinion. Facts can usually be verified; opinions, though they may be based on factual information, evolve from the interpretation of facts. Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it questionable and unsupported by evidence? Note errors or omissions. Are the ideas and arguments advanced more or less in line with other works you have read on the same topic? Coverage Does the work update or clarify prior knowledge, substantiate other materials you have read, or add new information? Does it extensively or only marginally cover your topic? Does it provide a balanced perspective? If the item in question does not meet this criteria, you should review enough sources to obtain a variety of viewpoints. Writing Style Is the publication organized logically? Are the main points clearly presented? Do you find the text easy to read, or is it stilted or choppy? Is the author's argument repetitive? Evaluative Reviews In the case of books, locate critical reviews of the work in a database such as ProQuest Multiple . Is the review positive? Is the book under review considered a valuable contribution to the field? Do reviewers agree on the value or attributes of the book or are there strong differences of opinion? Does the reviewer mention other books that might be better? If so, locate these sources for more information on your topic.

Brand-Gruwela, Saskia and Marc Stadtlerb. “Solving Information-based Problems: Evaluating Sources and Information.” Learning and Instruction 2 (April 2011): 175-179; Barzilaia, Sarit and Anat Zohara. “Epistemic Thinking in Action: Evaluating and Integrating Online Sources.” Cognition and Instruction 30 (2012): 39-85; Critical Thinking. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra; Evaluating Sources. Lakeland Library Research Guides. Lakeland Community College; Evaluating Sources. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Evaluating Print Sources. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Evaluation During Reading. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Walraven, Amber, Saskia Brand-Gruwel, and Henny P.A. Boshuizen. “How Students Evaluate Information and Sources When Searching the World Wide Web for Information.” Computers and Education 52 (January 2009): 234–246

Strategies for Critically Evaluating Web Content

Web Content Requires Additional Methods of Evaluation

A report from the Stanford University Graduate School of Education found that students evaluating information that flows across social media channels or retrieved from online search engines like Google or Bing, have difficulty distinguishing advertisements from news articles or how to identity where the content came from. In general, the principles that guide your evaluation of print materials are the same that apply to evaluating online resources. However, unlike print materials that have certain features that help determine their scholarly integrity, the interactive and multimedia dynamics of online sources requires additional attention to the content in order to obtain confidence that what you are viewing is valid and credible.

Additional things to look for when considering using an online resource:

• Source of the content is stated -- determine whether the content is original or borrowed, quoted, or imported from elsewhere. Note that content imported from another source via RSS feed can be difficult to identify, as this material can be incorporated into other content on the page without being appropriately labeled.
• Don't be fooled by an attractive, professional-looking presentation -- just because a site looks professional doesn't mean that it is. However, poorly organized web page designs or poorly written content is easy to recognize and can be a signal that you should carefully scrutinize the site's content.
• Site is currently being maintained -- check for last posting dates or last revised dates. Most scholarly websites show a date when the content was last posted or revised. Note that, if no date is indicated, this does not mean its content is invalid. However, it may indicate that the content is out-of-date and does not reflect current information about the topic.
• Links are relevant and appropriate, and are in working order -- a site with a lot of broken links is an indication of neglect and out-of-date content.
• Clearly states authorship -- if a site is produced anonymously, you cannot verify the legitimacy of its creator. Note that an author of a site can be either be a person or an organization.
• The site includes contact information -- if you have questions about the site, contact information is an important indicator that the site is well-maintained.
• Domain location in the site address (URL) is relevant to the focus of the material [e.g., .edu for educational or research materials; .org for non-profit organizations; .gov for government sites; .com for business sites]. Note that the domain is not necessarily a primary indicator of site content. For example, some authors post their content on blog or wiki platforms hosted by companies with .com addresses. Also note that the tilde (~) in the URL usually indicates a personal page.

Evaluating Internet Information. Online Library Learning Center. University of Georgia; Evaluating Internet Sources: A Library Resource Guide. Olsen Library. Northern Michigan University; Evaluating Sources. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Evaluating Web Sites. Teaching and Learning Services, University of Maryland Libraries; Ostenson, Jonathan. “Skeptics on the Internet: Teaching Students to Read Critically.” The English Journal 98 (May, 2009): 54-59; Stanford History Education Group. "Evaluating Information: The Cornerstone of Civic Online Reasoning." Stanford, CA: Graduate School of Education, 2016; Writing from Sources: Evaluating Web Sources. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College.

Detecting Bias

Bias, whether done intentionally or not, occurs when a statement reflects a partiality, preference, or prejudice for or against an object, person, place, or idea. Listed below are problems to look for when determining if the source is biased.

• Availability Bias -- this is a tendency for people to overestimate probabilities of events related to memorable or dramatic occurrences [e.g., after 9/11, people took vacation by traveling by car rather than airplane even though, statistically, car travel is much more dangerous]. This form of bias in a research study can take the form of an example used to support author’s argument or the design a case study focused around a particular event. Unless the purpose of the study is to illuminate new understanding around a memorable or dramatic occurrence, be critical of studies that use this type of measurement to examine a research problem. A seemingly mundane or uneventful occurrence can be just as valid in developing solutions to a problem or advancing new knowledge.
• Distortion or Stretching of the Facts -- this refers to the act of making issues, problems, or arguments appear more extreme by using misinformation or exaggerated and/or imprecise language to describe research outcomes [e.g., “Everyone agreed the policy was a complete disaster.” Who's everyone? How was data gathered to come to this conclusion? And, how does one specifically define something as a "disaster"? Is there sufficient evidence to support such a broad statement?]. Look for declarative statements that lack appropriate reference to supporting evidence or are follow up with detailed analysis.
• Flawed Research Design -- bias can enter the narrative as a result of a poorly designed study; this may include a claim or generalization about the findings based upon too small a sample, manipulating statistics, omitting contrary conclusions from other studies, or failing to recognize negative results [results that do not support the hypothesis].
• Lack of Citations -- it is acceptable to issue a broad declarative statement if it is clearly supported and linked to evidence from your study [e.g., "Testimony during Congressional hearings shows that the Department of Education is reluctant to act so teachers must do so"]. This problem refers to statements or information presented as fact that does not include proper citation to a source or to sources that support the researcher's position, or that are not statements explicitly framed as the author's opinion.
• Misquoting a Source -- this is when an author rewords, paraphrases, or manipulates a statement, the information about a source is incomplete, or a quote is presented in such a way that it misleads or conveys a false impression. This is important when paraphrasing another author. If you cannot adequate summarize a specific statement, finding, or recommendation, use a direct quote to avoid any ambiguity.
• Persuasive or Inflammatory Language -- using words and phrases intended to elicit a positive or negative response from the reader or that leads the reader to arrive at a specific conclusion [e.g., referring to one group in an armed conflict as “terrorists” and the other group as “peace-loving”].
• Selective Facts -- taking information out of context or selectively choosing information that only supports the argument while omitting the overall context or vital supporting evidence.
• Measurement Error: this results from problems with the process by which data was gathered, such as, the use of leading questions that influence the response rate or that are biased toward what respondents believe is socially desirable because most people want to present themselves favorably. The only way to assess bias in these cases is to have access to the survey instrument used to gather data.
• Sample Size: increasing the number of a sample, for example the number of people interviewed, does not necessarily decrease bias, but look to see if the sample used is representative of the population under study to ensure that any generalizations or conclusions from the interpretation of the data is valid.
• Undercoverage: this refers to the method of data gathering that is a result of non-response to a survey because some subjects do not have the opportunity to participate. In looking at data, be sure to understand the percentage of non-responses to a survey or groups of people who were not included.
• Voluntary Response: this bias occurs when respondents to a survey are self-selected, resulting in an overrepresentation of individuals who have strong opinions [e.g., data from a radio call-in show]. Be an especially critical reader of web-based surveys about controversial topics if the author(s) have not indicated how they interpreted thew data from voluntary surveys.

NOTE:   The act of determining bias in scholarly research is also an act of constant self-reflection. Everyone has biases. Therefore, it is important that you minimize the influence of your own biases by approaching the assessment of another person's research introspectively and with a degree of self-awareness.

ANOTHER NOTE:   The idea of bias often carries negative connotations, even though the meaning of the term is not defined in that context. Be sure when you are evaluating a source that you do not automatically reject it as invalid if you detect bias. One way to do this is to substitute the idea of bias with the idea of perspective. Ask yourself, what type of perspective does this source bring to the investigation of the research problem? As Lesh points out, the goal of research is to engage with multiple sources for the purpose of acquiring multiple perspectives about the topic. As long as the source is rooted in fact-based evidence, you should not reject it as being biased, but rather, consider it as a potential source of perspective about the research problem.

"Availability Bias, Source Bias, and Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis." In Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings. 3rd Edition. (London: SAGE Publications, 2015), pp. 513-551; "Bias." In Key Concepts in Social Research . Geoff Payne and Judy Payne. (London: SAGE Publications, 2004), pp. 28-31; Evaluating Sources. Lakeland Library Research Guides. Lakeland Community College; Fischer, Fritz. "Teaching Trump in the History Classroom." Journal of American History 108 (March 2022): 772-778; Lesh, Bruce A. “Why Won’t You Just Tell Us the Answer?” Teaching Historical Thinking in Grades 7-12 . Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers, 2017; Podsakoff, Philip M. et al. “Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies.” Journal of Applied Psychology 88 (October 2003): 879-903; Stereotypes and Biased Language. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University ; Bias in Survey Sampling. Stat Trek Online Tutorials; What is Availability Bias? InnovateUs.net.

Writing Tip

The CRAPP Test

This stands for Currency, Relevance, Accuracy, Authority, and Purpose. It is an apronym developed within the field of librarianship as short-hand for remembering the essential actions associated with effectively assessing the usefulness of a source in relation to the research problem you are investigating. Each word relates to a set of questions you should ask yourself when determining the validity of a source. These are:

• When was the information published or posted online?
• Has the information been revised or updated?
• Does your topic require current information, or will older sources also support your study?
• Are the links functional?
• Does the information relate to your topic or address your research question(s)?
• Who is the intended audience?
• Is the information at an appropriate level (i.e., not too elementary or advanced for your needs)?
• Have you looked at a variety of sources before determining this is one you will use?
• Would you be comfortable citing this source in your research paper?
• Who is the author, publisher, source, or sponsor?
• What are the author's credentials or organizational affiliations?
• Is there evidence of the author's qualifications to write about the topic?
• Is there contact information, such as a publisher or email address?
• Des the URL reveal anything about the author or source [e.g., .com .edu .gov .org .net, etc.]?
• Where does the information come from?
• Is the information supported by evidence?
• Has the information been reviewed by an editor or peer reviewed?
• Can you verify any of the information in another source or from personal knowledge?
• Does the language or narrative tone appear objective and unbiased?
• Are there spelling, grammar, or typographical errors?
• What is the purpose of the information, i.e., is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain, or persuade?
• Do the author(s) explain why the information has been studied?
• Is the information fact, opinion, or propaganda?
• Does the point of view appear objective and impartial?
• Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional, or personal biases?

As described above, a thorough evaluation of sources can encompass more than this basic model. Nevertheless, if you remember anything about how to evaluate a source as you conduct a literature review, remember this approach. The CCRAP Test applied to any source produced in any format [e.g., text, online, statistical, multimedia].

CRAPP Test.net; Evaluating Information: Applying the CRAPP Tes t, Meriam Library. California State University, Chico; Esparrago-Kalidas, Adeva Jane. "The Effectiveness of CRAAP Test in Evaluating Credibility of Sources." International Journal of TESOL & Education 1 (2021): 1-14;  Liu, Grace. "Moving Up the Ladder of Source Assessment: Expanding the CRAAP Test with Critical Thinking and Metacognition." College & Research Libraries News 82 (2021): 75; Muis, Krista Renee, Courtney A. Denton, and Adam Dubé. "Identifying CRAAP on the Internet: A Source Evaluation Intervention." Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 9 (July 2022): 239-265.

• << Previous: Content Alert Services
• Next: Primary Sources >>
• Last Updated: Apr 11, 2024 1:27 PM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

• Utility Menu

fa3d988da6f218669ec27d6b6019a0cd

A publication of the harvard college writing program.

Harvard Guide to Using Sources 

• The Honor Code
• Evaluating Sources

From the many volumes and electronic resources that you have access to through the Harvard library system to the many resources available on the Web, finding information has never been easier. But at times, the sheer volume of information available to you can be overwhelming: How will you know which sources to rely on? How will you decide which sources are appropriate for a particular assignment? How can you determine if the data on a website is trustworthy? What's the difference between what a peer-reviewed journal offers and what a website like Wikipedia offers ?

Although the most useful sources for a given assignment will depend on the assignment itself, as well as on the kinds of sources generally relied upon in your field of study, there are some universal rules that will help you decide whether to use a source. Once you determine whether a source is worth looking at, you'll still need to figure out what you will do with it in your paper ,  how to cite the information and ideas you draw from it, and how to avoid plagiarism . When you write for an academic audience, you are responsible for making sure that any information you provide and any ideas you cite come from sources that are both reliable and appropriate for your assignment. The most reliable sources are those that have been vetted by scholars in the field—articles published in peer-reviewed journals and books published by academic publishers.

No matter what you're working on, keep in mind that not all sources are appropriate for your project; just because someone has written something down doesn't mean it is a reliable source. Before you decide to rely on a source, you should evaluate the source and decide whether it is appropriate to use in your paper. You should always determine the qualifications of the author, the purpose of the source (that is, in what context it was created), the scope of the source (what it covers and in what depth), and, where relevant, the currency of the source.

• Locating Sources
• Evaluating Journal Articles
• Evaluating Web Sources
• Evaluating Online Media Content
• What’s Wrong with Wikipedia?
• Making Decisions Based on Your Discipline
• Integrating Sources

PDFs for This Section

• Using sources
• Online Library and Citation Tools

• Library Home
• Research Guides

Writing a Research Paper

• Evaluate Sources

Library Research Guide

• Choose Your Topic
• Organize Your Information
• Draft Your Paper
• Revise, Review, Refine

How Will This Help Me?

Evaluating your sources will help you:

• Determine the credibility of information
• Rule out questionable information
• Check for bias in your sources

In general, websites are hosted in domains that tell you what type of site it is.

• .com = commercial
• .net = network provider
• .org = organization
• .edu = education
• .mil = military
• .gov = U.S. government

Commercial sites want to persuade you to buy something, and organizations may want to persuade you to see an issue from a particular viewpoint. 

Useful information can be found on all kinds of sites, but you must consider carefully whether the source is useful for your purpose and for your audience.

Content Farms

Content farms are websites that exist to host ads. They post about popular web searches to try to drive traffic to their sites. They are rarely good sources for research.

• Web’s “Content Farms” Grow Audiences For Ads This article by Zoe Chace at National Public Radio describes the ways How To sites try to drive more traffic to their sites to see the ads they host.

Fact Checking

Fact checking can help you verify the reliability of a source. The following sites may not have all the answers, but they can help you look into the sources for statements made in U.S. politics.

• FactCheck.org This site monitors the accuracy of statements made in speeches, debates, interviews, and more and links to sources so readers can see the information for themselves. The site is a project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania.
• PolitiFact This resource evaluates the accuracy of statements made by elected officials, lobbyists, and special interest groups and provides sources for their evaluations. PolitiFact is currently run by the nonprofit Poynter Institute for Media Studies.

Evaluate Sources With the Big 5 Criteria

The Big 5 Criteria can help you evaluate your sources for credibility:

• Currency: Check the publication date and determine whether it is sufficiently current for your topic.
• Coverage (relevance): Consider whether the source is relevant to your research and whether it covers the topic adequately for your needs.
• Authority: Discover the credentials of the authors of the source and determine their level of expertise and knowledge about the subject.
• Accuracy: Consider whether the source presents accurate information and whether you can verify that information. 
• Objectivity (purpose): Think about the author's purpose in creating the source and consider how that affects its usefulness to your research. 

Evaluate Sources With the CRAAP Test

Another way to evaluate your sources is the CRAAP Test, which means evaluating the following qualities of your sources:

This video (2:17) from Western Libraries explains the CRAAP Test. 

Video transcript

Evaluating Sources ( Western Libraries ) CC BY-NC-ND 3.0

Evaluate Websites

Evaluating websites follows the same process as for other sources, but finding the information you need to make an assessment can be more challenging with websites. The following guidelines can help you decide if a website is a good choice for a source for your paper. 

• Currency . A useful site is updated regularly and lets visitors know when content was published on the site. Can you tell when the site was last updated? Can you see when the content you need was added? Does the site show signs of not being maintained (broken links, out-of-date information, etc.)?
• Relevance . Think about the target audience for the site. Is it appropriate for you or your paper's audience?
• Authority . Look for an About Us link or something similar to learn about the site's creator. The more you know about the credentials and mission of a site's creators, as well as their sources of information, the better idea you will have about the site's quality. 
• Accuracy. Does the site present references or links to the sources of information it presents? Can you locate these sources so that you can read and interpret the information yourself?
• Purpose. Consider the reason why the site was created. Can you detect any bias? Does the site use emotional language? Is the site trying to persuade you about something? 

Identify Political Perspective

News outlets, think tanks, organizations, and individual authors can present information from a particular political perspective. Consider this fact to help determine whether sources are useful for your paper. 

Check a news outlet's website, usually under About Us or Contact Us , for information about their reporters and authors. For example, USA Today has the USA Today Reporter Index , and the LA Times has an Editorial & Newsroom Contacts . Reading a profile or bio for a reporter or looking at other articles by the author may tell you whether that person favors a particular viewpoint. 

If a particular organization is mentioned in an article, learn more about the organization to identify potential biases. Think tanks and other associations usually exist for a reason. Searching news articles about the organization can help you determine their political leaning. 

Bias is not always bad, but you must be aware of it. Knowing the perspective of a source helps contextualize the information presented. 

• << Previous: Databases
• Next: Organize Your Information >>
• Last Updated: Feb 27, 2024 1:56 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.k-state.edu/writingresearchpaper

K-State Libraries

1117 Mid-Campus Drive North, Manhattan, KS 66506

785-532-3014 | [email protected]

• Statements and Disclosures
• Accessibility
• © Kansas State University

Research Paper: A step-by-step guide: 7. Evaluating Sources

• 1. Getting Started
• 2. Topic Ideas
• 3. Thesis Statement & Outline
• 4. Appropriate Sources
• 5. Search Techniques
• 6. Taking Notes & Documenting Sources
• 7. Evaluating Sources
• 8. Citations & Plagiarism
• 9. Writing Your Research Paper

Evaluation Criteria

It's very important to evaluate the materials you find to make sure they are appropriate for a research paper.  It's not enough that the information is relevant; it must also be credible.  You will want to find more than enough resources, so that you can pick and choose the best for your paper.   Here are some helpful criteria you can apply to the information you find:

C urrency :

• When was the information published?
• Is the source out-of-date for the topic? 
• Are there new discoveries or important events since the publication date?

R elevancy:

• How is the information related to your argument? 
• Is the information too advanced or too simple? 
• Is the audience focus appropriate for a research paper? 
• Are there better sources elsewhere?

A uthority :

• Who is the author? 
• What is the author's credential in the related field? 
• Is the publisher well-known in the field? 
• Did the information go through the peer-review process or some kind of fact-checking?

A ccuracy :

• Can the information be verified? 
• Are sources cited? 
• Is the information factual or opinion based?
• Is the information biased? 
• Is the information free of grammatical or spelling errors?
• What is the motive of providing the information: to inform? to sell? to persuade? to entertain?
• Does the author or publisher make their intentions clear? Who is the intended audience?

Evaluating Web Sources

Most web pages are not fact-checked or anything like that, so it's especially important to evaluate information you find on the web.  Many articles on websites are fine for information, and many others are distorted or made up.  Check out our media evaluation guide for tips on evaluating what you see on social media, news sites, blogs, and so on.

This three-part video series, in which university students, historians, and pro fact-checkers go head-to-head in checking out online information, is also helpful.

• << Previous: 6. Taking Notes & Documenting Sources
• Next: 8. Citations & Plagiarism >>
• Last Updated: Apr 18, 2023 12:12 PM
• URL: https://butte.libguides.com/ResearchPaper

Evaluating Sources Help Guide

Introduction to evaluation, why does it matter, how to evaluate (craap test), where to find information, frequently asked questions, something missing.

• Scholarly vs. Popular
• Primary vs. Secondary
• Using Internet Sources

Before you incorporate research material into your assignment, it’s important to think critically about each source. Whether it’s a scholarly article, tweet, or story from a magazine, you should determine if that source is true and useful for your research. Even if the article is trustworthy and verifiable, that doesn’t mean it’s a good source for your specific needs.

This guide will show you how to successfully evaluate your sources before you use them in your assignments.

Why does it matter if you evaluate a source?

First, it’s important to show that you thought critically about the material you found. Second, it shows that you read the research and are not just padding your paper with quotes you haven’t reviewed.

Scholarly writing builds off of existing academic work. When you evaluate your sources and incorporate them into your assignments, you’re adding your voice to a conversation. Evaluating sources shows that you have original thoughts and ideas that contribute to existing scholarship.

There are numerous ways to evaluate sources, but one of our favorites is asking if the information is CRAAP. If the source passes the CRAAP test, it’s a good thing.

CRAAP is a checklist of questions you can use to review the information and author of a resource. CRAAP stands for:

While it's useful to think generally on these different aspects of a source, you can also use this CRAAP Test Rubric for more specific guidance in evaluating a source's merits.

Use these questions to help you evaluate resources.

Current: The timeliness of the information.

• When was the information published or posted?
• Has the information been revised or updated?
• Is the information current or out-of date for your topic?
• Are the links functional (if a web source)?

Relevance: The importance of the information for your needs.

• Does the information relate to your topic or answer your question?
• Who is the intended audience?
• Is the information at an appropriate level (i.e. not too elementary or advanced for your needs)?
• Have you looked at a variety of sources before determining this is one you will use?
• Would you be comfortable using this source for a research paper?

Authority: The source of the information.

• Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor?
• What are the author's credentials or organizational affiliations?
• Is the author qualified to write on the topic?
• Is there contact information, such as a publisher or email address?
• Does the URL reveal anything about the author or source? examples: .com .edu .gov .org .net

Accuracy: The reliability, truthfulness, and correctness of the content.

• Where does the information come from?
• Is the information supported by evidence?
• Has the information been reviewed or refereed?
• Can you verify any of the information in another source or from personal knowledge?
• Does the language or tone seem unbiased and free of emotion?
• Are there spelling, grammar or typographical errors?

Purpose: The reason the information exists.

• What is the purpose of the information? Is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain or persuade?
• Do the authors/sponsors make their intentions or purpose clear?
• Is the information fact, opinion or propaganda?
• Does the point of view appear objective and impartial?
• Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional or personal biases?

Download a printable copy of the CRAAP Test below. 

When you’re evaluating sources, where do you find the information you need to determine if the resource is reliable or not?

First, you can ask the following questions:

• Who is the author? Look up the author to see if their biography and previous work show if they’re an expert.
• Who is the intended audience? Is the resource written for other scholars or is it directed to the general public?
• Do they show their work through citations and including original research? Check for in-text citations, footnotes, appendices, and bibliographies.
• Is it edited? As you read, pay attention for typos and grammar. An academic or scholarly source will be edited to remove these errors.

If you’re evaluating an article :

• Is the journal peer-reviewed? Peer-review is a process where other scholars in the field review the writer’s work for accuracy. You can find this out by looking up the journal title (here you can try Google) and seeing their process for selecting and including articles. This is also a filter you can select when searching library-provided resources.
• Is the journal scholarly? If the journal is published through a university or professional organization, it’s more likely to be scholarly. (You can learn more about scholarly versus popular articles elsewhere in this guide.)

If you’re evaluating a book :

• Check the publication information page. This is usually located on the back of the title page and can tell you who published the book, when it was published, and may even include details from the Library of Congress.
• It used to be that publishing a book was a very formalized process - you’d always have an editor and a publisher.. But recently, self-publishing has become accessible and vanity presses have become more common. Once again, googling the publisher can help you determine if they are a well established publishing house or a place where anyone can self-publish

If you’re evaluating a website :

• Read the About page to help you learn about who created and maintains the website. This can help you determine authorship, purpose, and bias. This page may also show the author or creator’s credentials.
• What is the URL? Websites that may be appropriate for academic use usually end in .edu, .org, or .gov. That doesn’t guarantee that they’re appropriate for your research needs, but it can help you find out if they are.
• Is there a date? Check to see if there is a date of publication or last updated date at the top or bottom of the page. If you’re using a news website, the date might be included near the title or author’s name.
• Is there contact information? Academic websites - like those created by universities, think tanks, and research institutions - will always show you how to contact the author or creator. This information is usually on an About or Contact Us page. It can also be included at the bottom of the website.

What are scholarly (peer reviewed) journal articles ?

Scholarly articles are written by recognized experts in their field. The articles are then reviewed by peers who determine if the information in the article is true, verifiable, and, in the case of science, repeatable. These articles share information based on original research and experimentation. They usually focus on one specific academic subject.

What does my professor mean when they say use “scholarly sources”?

This often means scholarly peer reviewed journal articles, but scholarly sources are not limited to articles. Books can also be considered scholarly sources if the information has been verified and reviewed by academic editors. Always check what kind of sources your professor wants you to use. Some require peer reviewed others do not.

What is peer review?

This is a process that articles go through before they are published in academic journals. When an article is submitted to a journal, the editor sends that article out to other academics and experts in that field. They read the item to evaluate the information and research. If the peers approve, the article may be published. Reviewers can also ask for any issues with the research or article to be addressed before it is published

Are all journal articles peer-reviewed?

No. While most academic journals require peer review, not every journal does. That is why you’ll see the “peer review” or “scholarly” filter in our databases. When you check that box, it removes articles from journals that do not use peer review.

Is everything in a scholarly journal a peer-reviewed article?

No. Many journals also include book reviews. These will usually begin with the citation information and price for the book they are reviewing. Book reviews don’t go through peer review.

What are the signs an article (or book) is scholarly?

There are few ways you can tell if an article or book is scholarly. Here are some characteristics to look for:

• Written by experts for professionals or academics
• Based on original research
• Contains extensive in-text citations, footnotes, and/or bibliographies
• Includes documentation of the research such as appendices or charts and graphs of research results
• The publisher requires peer review
• The journal has no or few advertisements (and the advertisements are for scholarly material)

Is a textbook a scholarly source?

Most textbooks are not considered to be scholarly sources. While textbooks do contain academic content, they are considered to be teaching resources.

The library is always open to adding missing content to our guides. We are happy to add new links, information, and resources you may be aware of. Please email us at [email protected] to share any links or information you would like to see us include.

• Next: Scholarly vs. Popular >>

[email protected] 202-274-6120

Facebook Twitter Instagram YouTube

News alert: UC Berkeley has announced its next university librarian

Secondary menu

• Log in to your Library account
• Hours and Maps
• Connect from Off Campus
• UC Berkeley Home

Search form

Research 101.

• Research 101 Workshops
• Getting Started
• Finding Sources
• Peer Review
• Evaluating Sources
• Organizing Research
• For Instructors + GSIs

Quick Guide to Source Evaluation

When you encounter  any  kind of source, consider:

• Authority  - Who is the author? What is their point of view? 
• Purpose  - Why was the source created? Who is the intended audience?
• Publication & format  - Where was it published? In what medium?
• Relevance  - How is it relevant to your research? What is its scope?
• Date of publication  - When was it written? Has it been updated?
• Documentation  - Did they cite their sources? Who did they cite?

For a deeper dive on source evaluation, see our Evaluating Resources Guide .

Critical Source Evaluation

Directed by Karly Stark. Written & narrated by Jen Brown. Editorial & directorial contributions from Gisèle Tanasse.

Quick Summary

• Types of sources (0:28)
• Author and intended audiences of sources (1:40)
• Diversifying your sources with community, experiential voices (2:23)
• Time-saving research tips (2:46)
• << Previous: Peer Review
• Next: Organizing Research >>
• Last Updated: Mar 12, 2024 12:01 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.berkeley.edu/research101

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Evaluating Sources: Introduction

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Evaluating sources of information is an important step in any research activity. This section provides information on evaluating bibliographic citations, aspects of evaluation, reading evaluation, print vs. online sources, and evaluating Internet sources.

Evaluating sources means recognizing whether the information you read and include in your research is credible. Despite the large amount of information available, both in print and online, not all of it is valid, useful, or accurate. Evaluating sources of information that you might include in your writing is an important step in any research process.

When writing research papers, not only will you be searching for information, but you will be evaluating the sources for credibility. You have to decide where to look, how to recognize credible sources, and how to cross-check your information. Learning how to evaluate effectively is a skill you need both for your course papers and for your life.

In this section

Assessing and Evaluating Sources

Learning how to evaluate sources can save valuable time in the research process and increase the effectiveness of your papers. This guide introduces you to the things experienced researchers consider when evaluating their sources.

Consider a Source's Purpose and Audience

Understanding the purpose and audience of a source will help determine its usefulness for your research project. A general reference source in a library serves a much different purpose than an editorial in a newspaper, an advertisement in a magazine, or a website providing information about a product or service.

Similarly, sources targeting an audience of experts in a particular field contain different kinds of information than those written for a general audience.

Those written for technical experts assume an audience with a great deal of background knowledge. Typically, these sources skip general treatments of a topic in favor of detailed discussions tailored to experts.

In contrast, sources written for general audiences provide background information for their readers.

Consider a Source's Author(s)

Writers use sources for a variety of purposes: to support a point, to illustrate a range of positions on an issue and to show that they are not alone in their opinions, to name a few. With rare exceptions (such as when you are illustrating divergent opinions), the authors you cite should be reliable and trustworthy. Prioritizing peer-reviewed sources when conducting research is a good way to ensure credibility.

A Note on Field Sources: When conducting field research, you are actually selecting the sources (or "authors") of your information. In the case of an interview, for example, a selected "authority" provides you with specific data and informed opinions on your subject. Similarly, in a study or questionnaire a group of people act as the source/author within a particular setting or environment that you intend to observe.

Similarly, but in a more general sense, you select a group of people to which you intend to distribute a questionnaire or a particular setting or environment that you intend to observe.

Who is the Author? What are His or Her Credentials?

Check the library catalog also to see if the author you are considering is listed in any specialized reference works such as Who's Who, Contemporary Authors or American Men and Women of Science .

Inclusion in reference works such as these does not necessarily guarantee their trustworthiness, but it will provide you with a more informed idea of the author's background.

When your source is a weekly newsmagazine like Time, Newsweek, or U.S. News & World Report, the author is likely to be a reporter. Though weekly news magazines do occasionally feature articles by experts, and all have solid reputations for careful fact-checking and presenting fair ranges of opinion, be aware that the opinions of editors may be present as well.

When obtaining information from certain online sources, it may be difficult to find and evaluate the author's credentials. If they are not provided, consider emailing the author with a formal inquiry.

When in doubt, carefully consider whether using a particular author's information is worthwhile. Weigh the pros and cons. Ultimately, the best measure of someone's authority is whether their work meets the standards and critical demands of other recognized authorities. Ask your instructor and other knowledgeable experts on campus what they know about the author.

What are the Author's Professional Affiliations?

Expect differences in opinion among leaders of various political parties or types of organizations. An editorial about preserving wetlands written by the president of the Sierra Club will be a lot different than one written by a lobbyist for a real estate organization.

Although it's rare to find a complete listing of an author's affiliations, many periodicals, both in print and online, provide brief descriptions of an article or column's author. Check these descriptions for clues about an author's affiliations.

If you are interested in learning more about them, consider searching online. Many authors have personal homepages on which they list information about themselves, their educational background, professional experience, and personal interests.

What are the Author's Biases?

Every author holds opinions that affect his or her discussion of an issue, opinions that you as a reader must try to recognize and understand. Even the most seemingly factual report, such as an encyclopedia article, can carry an understated or implied judgment. Such judgments reflect an author's bias or preference for one side of an issue over another.

As you evaluate a source, consider whether the author's bias affects his or her presentation of information and opinions. Ask whether this results in one side of an issue being treated more favorably than another. To explore an author's biases, you must ask where his or her allegiances lie. Is the bias hidden or stated? Ask yourself if you need to look for a balancing viewpoint or approach?

Just because an author has a strong bias does not mean that he or she has written something invalid. Accurate data is accurate data. However, in the interest of being prepared to fend off attacks from those who want to challenge your analysis or argument, it is best if you recognize early on what biases an author might hold.

What if a Source does not identify its Author?

When an author's identity is withheld, as is occasionally the case with newspaper articles and elsewhere online, try to identify the sponsoring company or publisher and proceed from there. An organization can be examined for quality and credibility, just like an individual author.

If you're working with a print source that does not list an author, consider the nature of the publication: is it a nationally respected newspaper or a supermarket tabloid? Is it a brochure or pamphlet published by an organization recognized as a leader in its field? Bias and factuality will vary based on both the nature of the publication and the organization behind it.

Consider a Source's Publishing Bias

As you evaluate a source, consider its publisher. The person, organization, government agency, or corporation that prints or electronically distributes a source plays an important role in shaping its content. Like authors, publishers usually have a bias about a particular topic or issue.

A corporate publisher, such as Microsoft, will present its own products and services more favorably than those of its competitors because the main goal of a corporation is always to make profits. Similarly, political organizations, such as the Democratic Party or the National Rifle Association, will publish sources that contain information in support of policies favored by their respective organization.

Information gathered online and from periodicals are most likely to reflect a publisher's bias.

Strategies for Evaluating a Website

To learn more about the publisher of a website, try to locate its disclaimers. Look for their "site information" or "about" links and examine them carefully. If you are visiting a website sponsored by an organization or agency, find out where their mission statement is located and examine it carefully as well.

Of course, there are a multitude of different kinds of websites online including social media, forums, news sites, and so many others. You should adjust your criteria for evaluating a website based on what its intended use and audience are.

Here are some questions you might ask when evaluating a website:

• Was the site created for particular commercial purposes, such as selling a product or service?
• Is the site devoted to a particular political cause or causes?
• Is the site developed by a particular organization or government agency?
• If you are reading a newsgroup or mailing list, is it a general interest group or one devoted to a particular cause?
• If you are reading a book, what does the name of the publisher tell you about the intended audience?
• Is this publisher known for publishing works in a specific field with a specific political agenda?
• If you are reading a periodical, does it have a predictable point of view? The Nation, a magazine of commentary from a left-leaning political point of view, is likely to give you a different picture of the world from that found in the National Review, edited by conservative William F. Buckley, Jr.

Strategies for Evaluating a Periodical

To learn more about the publisher of a periodical, take a moment to skim through it and note the following:

• Editorials - An editorial sets forth views held by the editors and publishers of a particular magazine and they make no pretense of being impartial. Often, they are located in the front section and, since the author's names are on the masthead, near the table of contents, they may not even be signed. If you find an editorial commenting on an issue with which you are familiar, you may discover the bias of the magazine's publisher.
• Featured Columnists - Generally, though not always, the job of a columnist depends on his or her ability to voice opinions congenial to those held by the magazine's editors and publishers. When a dissenting columnist is hired, it is to provide an opposing view. Examining a magazine's feature columns, and the authors who write them, will provide you with valuable insight regarding a publisher's biases and sense of fair play.
• Lead Stories - The lead story in a magazine is usually the one placed most prominently in a given issue and its cover will often reflect the particular slant a publisher favors. Skimming the first and last few paragraphs of a lead story will often reveal the writer's overall message. You can then make a decision regarding whether or not to read the entire article.
• Letters to the Editor - The level of education and intelligence of a magazine's readers can often be deduced by the letters written to its editor, but the political positions of the magazine's publisher are not always decipherable from them, since many, such as Time, strive to offer space for the airing of a diversity of opinions.
• Advertisements - Ads are an excellent guide to a magazine's audience. To whom are its editors trying to appeal? The many ads for office copiers, delivery services, hotels, and corporations in Newsweek, for instance, reveal that the magazine's appeal is to well-educated professionals.

Consider a Source's Publication Medium

As a researcher, you may find that your sources are published in a variety of mediums; for instance, print sources, electronic sources, and field sources.

Questions to Ask about Print Sources

• Is the source relevant to your research project? Is it related to your argumentative claim? Does the table of contents in a book indicate its relevance? Does an article contain an abstract that summarizes its contents?
• What is the purpose of the publication? Is it to sell a product or service? Is it to inform? Is it to publish new research? Is it to shape opinion about a particular issue or cause?
• Who is the author of your source? Is information provided about the author's credentials and profession? Is the author an expert on the topic? Does the author's stance on the topic appear to influence information in the source?
• What can you tell about the publisher? Is the publisher a nationally respected newspaper, such as the New York Times, the Washington Post, or Newsweek? Is the publisher a major publishing corporation, such as Bedford/St. Martins or Houghton Mifflin? Is the source found in an academic or professional journal, such as College English or the New England Journal of Medicine?
• Are your chosen sources documented? Is the information consistent with that found in other print, electronic and field sources?
• How specialized is your source's information? Does it provide a broad overview of an issue? Does it focus on a narrow topic using highly specialized jargon? Will your audience be able to understand key terms from the source? Do you understand the key ideas in the source?
• What is the date of publication? Is the information contained in the document current? Does it need to be? Depending on your topic, it may not.

Questions to Ask about Electronic Sources

• Is the source relevant to your research project? Is it related to your argumentative claim?
• Who is the author of your source? If your source is a webpage, is any information provided about the author? Is an email address provided so that you might contact the author?
• Are the sources of information provided on the website, newsgroup, or forum provided? Is the information you found consistent with proven information found in print sources and on other websites?
• If you're evaluating a website that’s sponsored by an organization, government agency, or corporation, what do you know about the sponsor? Is a bias clearly evident in the material provided on the site? Is this a commercial site whose goal is to sell a product or service? Is this a site that pushes a particular issue or political agenda?
• What do you know about the purpose of your online source? Is a FAQ (frequently asked questions) page available? Is it clear from the site’s content whether or not there is a general bias present?
• How specialized is the information in the source? Does the source provide a broad overview of an issue? Does it focus on a narrow topic using highly specialized jargon? Will your audience be able to understand key terms from the source? Do you understand the key ideas in the source?
• Can you tell when the website was published? Can you determine whether it has been updated recently? Is the information published on the site current or out of date?

Questions to Ask about Field Sources

• Does your source seem biased or prejudiced? If so, is this bias or prejudice so strong that you have to discount some of the information?
• Have you compared different people's opinions or accounts? In general, the more viewpoints, the better.
• Does the information from your source agree with published accounts in print or Internet sources? If not, can you think of a good reason why this would be so?
• Is any of your evidence hearsay, one person telling you the thoughts of another or telling you about comments or actions that he or she hasn't witnessed? If so, can you support or discount your source's view by comparing it with other evidence?
• If an interviewee or questionnaire respondent has told you about past events, has time possibly distorted his or her memory?
• If you have tried to question a random sampling of people, do you feel that they are truly representative? If you have tried to question everyone in a group, have you been thorough enough?
• Have you identified the time, place, and participants in your field research?
• Do you have access to the source? Can you find the time to visit or contact the source to obtain the information you are seeking?
• Have you obtained permission to use information from someone you've interviewed, surveyed, or observed? Have you asked them whether you can use their names in your paper or whether they would prefer that you protect their confidentiality?

Consider a Source's Publication Date

It's very important that the information and evidence you are planning on presenting come from sources that are as reliable, up-to-date and relevant as possible.

Information regarding the most recent discoveries, technical advances and developments in all fields of endeavor are published on a regular basis and you should include them in your research.

If you cite twenty-year-old sources regarding procedures for treating AIDS, for instance, your research would not include the latest findings and treatments in that field. Your information would be dated and not necessarily valid.

When using older materials, do so when their value has held up over time or your research paper specifically calls for the inclusion of an historical perspective.

Consider a Source's Degree of Specialization

Some sources are considered to be general; that is, they are written for a general-interest audience. Newspapers and popular magazines typically provide general information about a topic or issue. In contrast, highly specialized publications are written for specific, specialized audiences such as microbiologists, mortgage bankers, or auto mechanics.

General sources can be helpful as you begin your research, but as your project develops you may need the deeper authority of specialized sources to provide the latest information on your topic. Keep in mind when using extremely specialized works that you may get people in over their heads. Be sure to explain information that your audience needs to understand if they are to grasp the conclusions you arrive at in your paper.

Consider a Source's Role in Your Research

For some papers it may be appropriate to cite an article in a popular magazine, and for others it may be necessary to cite the research findings published in the scholarly journal on which the magazine article was based. So, why use one source over another?

You must consider what role the source will play in your paper. Ask yourself, is the information it contains useful for your purposes as a writer? Does the source contain strong quotations or hard facts that would be effective in your final paper? Is it relevant, in terms of the subject matter and in the way it tackles it?

Remember, what you're looking for is the best possible sources for your particular paper. Ask yourself not only "Will this do?" but "Will something else be better?"

Consider, as well, how using this source in your paper will affect the future direction of your research. Does it contain information that challenges your assumptions about the topic? Does it present any strong evidence against your position that you must then counter or refute with opposing evidence?

Does it suggest a new direction that might be more interesting? Your research project will probably grow and change as you learn more about it. It's wise to check in with yourself now and again to make sure you have a clear direction and if it's the same as you began with, or completely new.

Finally, consider whether a source is directly relevant to your research question. It's surprisingly easy to get sidetracked by a persuasive book, article, or website on a topic that is only slightly connected to the direction of your research.

Consider a Source's Origins: Are they Primary or Secondary?

A primary source is a firsthand account written by an eyewitness or a participant. It contains raw data and immediate impressions. For example, primary sources for a large fire caused by a gas leak would include the statements of victims and witnesses, the article written by a journalist who was at the scene, and the report of the fire chief in charge of putting out the blaze.

A secondary source is an analysis of the information contained in one or more primary sources. For example, a second journalist, using the article on the large fire and gas leak as background for a story on industrial accidents, or a historian using the same for a book on urban life in the twentieth century are secondary sources.

For most research papers, both primary and secondary sources will be used. Secondary sources are no less trustworthy than firsthand reports. Remember, eyewitnesses can be prejudiced, self-serving, or simply less informed than a later writer who has synthesized many eyewitness accounts.

In writing a history paper on the attitudes of American social workers toward World War I, you might quote a primary source: Jane Addams, founder of Chicago's Hull House, who was a pacifist. If you relied only on Addams' words alone, however, your reader might get the idea that social workers were unanimously opposed to the war effort. To put Addams' views into perspective, you'd also want to include secondary sources, showing that most of her peers did not identify with pacifism and publicly disagreed with her.

When you find yourself repeatedly citing a fact or source, as quoted in someone else's analysis, it might be wise to go to the primary source from which it came. For example, statistics are often used by both sides arguing an issue-often it's only the interpretation that differs. You might find it useful to go back to the original research (the publication of which is a primary source) and learn where the facts end and the interpretation begins.

Consider a Source's Evidence: Is it Accurate & Balanced?

The evidence provided by a source (its information, opinions, and ideas) will tell you a great deal about its reliability and usefulness. As you evaluate a source, consider whether the evidence is carefully put together, complete and up to date.

Consider the thesis, if any, and whether it is supported or defended by the presentation of credible evidence. Ask whether the argument or analysis is convincing. If the source seems slipshod, or leaves several important questions unanswered, you might do better to look for another source.

To evaluate the evidence in a source, ask yourself the following questions:

• What is the author's main point?
• How much and what kind of evidence supports that point?
• How persuasive is the evidence? Does it support your argument?
• Is there any questionable or misleading logic/reasoning?
• Can you offer credible arguments contrary to the evidence?

Working with Field Sources: When working in the field, ask similar questions to those already mentioned regarding the evidence provided and the credibility of its sources. Ask yourself:

• When interviewing someone or attending a public lecture, are the responses provided to your questions consistent with those provided to others?
• Does the speaker or person being interviewed provide corroborative evidence supporting the claims being made?
• When analyzing the results of a questionnaire, are the respondent's answers consistent, serious, and honest?
• When you observe a particular event or setting, do the people involved know that they are being observed? People often change their behavior in those circumstances.

Additional Resources

Chamberlain University Press - ' Evaluating Sources '

John Hopkins: Sheridan Libraries - ‘ Evaluating Information ’

Purdue OWL - ‘ Evaluating Digital Sources ’

Purdue OWL - ‘ Evaluating Sources: General Guidelines ’

University of Maryland Libraries - ‘ Evaluating Websites ’

USC Libraries - ‘ Evaluating Sources ’

Palmquist, Mike, Peter Connor & Andrea Bennett. (2022). Evaluating Sources. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=15

Step By Step Research Guide

• Developing Your Topic
• Search Strategies
• Find Your Sources This link opens in a new window
• Evaluating Your Sources
• Using Your Sources
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Citing Your Sources This link opens in a new window
• Writing Help This link opens in a new window

Evaluating Resources

• Types of Sources
• Evaluate Sources
• Evaluate Online Resources
• Understanding Misinformation

There are three main types of sources: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary.

Primary Sources are:first-hand, original accounts or raw data/evidence that provides direct evidence about a topic from the source of origin

Secondary Sources interpret, analyze, or synthesize primary sources and are at least one step removed from the original source

Tertiary Sources synthesize and compile information from primary and secondary sources and are helpful for getting an overview or introduction to a topic

It's common to use a combination of these three sources - tertiary to get an overview, secondary for in-depth analysis, and primary for actual evidence. The balance depends on the research need.

The infographic and tutorial below provide more in-depth explanations and examples of these sources.

This infographic comes from the library of UC San Diego

Evaluating the materials you find is important to ensure they are suitable for a research paper. It's not enough that the information is relevant; it must also be credible and reliable. You'll want to find more sources than you need, so you can selectively choose the best ones for your paper. Here are some helpful criteria to apply when assessing the information you find:

• When was the information published or last updated?
• Is the source outdated for your topic?
• Have there been new discoveries or important events since publication that could impact the information?
• How quickly does research move in the field you are researching?
• How does the information relate to your argument or research question?
• Is the content too advanced or too basic for your needs?
• Is the intended audience appropriate for a research paper?
• Might there be better, more relevant sources available elsewhere?
• Who is the author? What are their credentials related to the topic?
• Is the publisher reputable and well-known in the subject field?
• Did the information go through a peer-review or fact-checking process?
• Can you verify the information from other trusted sources?
• Are sources properly cited to support the claims made?
• Is it factual information or opinion-based content?
• Does the information show signs of bias?
• Are there grammatical or spelling errors that raise doubts about quality?
• What is the underlying reason the information was provided - to inform, sell, persuade, or entertain?
• Does the author/publisher clearly state their intentions and intended audience?

Thoroughly evaluating each source against these criteria will help ensure you are using appropriate, high-quality materials in your research paper.

The tutoriasl below will go into this process in more depth and give you some helpful tips to use while evaluating sources.

It is important to evaluate any source you plan on using, this includes website. The below handout will walk you through an evaluation framework called RADAR while the tutorial will provide you with more information and tips for evaluating web resources.

• RADAR Evaluation Framework Guide This handout will help you to understand use the RADAR framework for evaluating your resources.

Misinformation is an ever growing concern when it comes to research, It is important to be aware of and to understand misinformation when you find it. The tutorial below will show you how to recognize misinformation when you run into it while doing your research.

• << Previous: Find Your Sources
• Next: Using Your Sources >>
• Last Updated: Mar 18, 2024 11:57 AM
• URL: https://library.harrisburgu.edu/research

Pasco-Hernando State College

Finding and Evaluating Sources (Critical Analysis)

• Traditional Sources
• Electronic Library Resources
• Internet Sources
• Synthesizing Information from Sources
• MLA Documentation
• APA Documentation
• Writing a Research Paper

Related Pages

• The Writing Process
• Proving the Thesis - General Principles
• Proving the Thesis - Logic
• Proving the Thesis - Logical Fallacies and Appeals

Fi nding Sources

Identify the research question.

Before you can start research, you must first identify the research question. Your instructor will either assign a specific research question or a research topic.

If you are assigned a question or can select from a list of questions, it is easy to identify your question. You can start with  focused  research looking for sources that would help to answer the question. Don’t select a source by the title. It is critical that you read through possible sources to see if they will help with the question. For example, if your question asks whether pesticides in foods are harmful, don’t just select any source that has to do with pesticides. There are pesticide issues with the environment, for example, that have nothing to do with this question.

If you are assigned a topic, you will start with  exploratory  research. Exploratory research is where you explore various aspects of the topic and after learning something about it, you focus on a particular question of your choice. This is called narrowing the topic. Then, your research becomes focused research on that particular question.

Either way, before doing research for a research paper, you must identify a research question. The research question is critical since all of the content of the research essay follows from the question.

Primary and Secondary Sources

A primary source is where the author is presenting his or her own information either based on professional knowledge or research. This is the best type of source to use when conducting research.

A secondary source is where the author is reporting information presented from other people. This means that there could be a misunderstanding or misinterpretation or the information, and it is not considered as reliable as primary sources.

Traditional Sources, Electronic Library Resources, and Internet Sources

Traditional sources are tangible sources as existed before the Internet: books, newspapers, magazines, film, interviews,  works of art, and so on. Then with the Internet, a new source of information has become available in the website. In addition, many traditional sources have been collected and made available online. Electronic Library Resources (available to PHSC students through a link in Canvas) provides many originally hard-print sources electronically.

Evaluating Sources

General considerations.

It is important to first make sure you understand your assignment as to how many sources are required and any restrictions on where they may be from.  There might be a requirement to use at least one type of specific source such as a book, article from a journal, magazine, or newspaper, or page from a website. 

Don't simply select a source by the title. You must review to be sure the content will help answer the question. For example, if your research question or topic is about how the moon affects earth's tides, the source must have information on that specific area. Some articles on the moon might talk about space exploration or its geography or its climate, none of which will help with a paper about tides.

Once you have screened for appropriateness, the content should be reviewed for reading level. If the paper is too technical, it may not be understandable enough to work with. You should be able to understand it and make notes on the main points.

Then, a closer look is needed.  

Critical Analysis

The term critical doesn't always mean finding the problems or being judgmental.  A movie critic, for example, reviews a movie for strengths and weaknesses. We have to be critics ourselves when we review our own writing and when we review information for our papers. We shouldn't just believe everything we see, hear, or read. We have to be particularly careful when that information comes from a purportedly legitimate source. We generally think that documentaries have true and accurate information, but sometimes they don't present all viewpoints or are biased towards one.  Here are a number of considerations:

• credibility  – is the source believable?; is the source created by a person or organization that knows about the subject matter.  Determining credibility of online sources can be a challenge since it is not always clear who created or published what we are looking at. If a person is named as author, is that person a professional in the field?
• facts  – does the source include the truth; is information based on evidence
• opinion  –  is the content a personal evaluation of the author and not necessarily based on specific, accurate, or credible evidence?
• evidence  – is there support such as examples, statistics, descriptions, comparisons, and illustrations; evidence is also called proof, support, or supporting evidence.  
• bias and slanted language  – is there a  preference for one side over the other; is there slanted language which is language shows a bias or preference for one position over another.
• tone  – what is the tone?  Words can be used to create a feeling such as a happy tone or sarcastic tone or angry tone. Tone can be used to persuade.
• stereotype  – the generalization that a person or situation in a certain category has certain attributes such as because a person is old, he or she is a bad drive. Stereotyping is faulty logic.
• preconceived ideas  – ideas that we already have; in doing research, it is very important to look for sources that present all of the perspectives on a question, not just those that prove what we think we know.
• logic  – evidence should be evaluated for logic; does the evidence have any logical fallacies.  
• valid argument  – is the argument valid? A valid argument is based on logical analysis of information, but if the information is not accurate, the conclusion is not necessarily true.
• sound argument  – an argument based on a syllogism that has accurate major and minor premises. An argument can be sound, but it is not necessarily true since the information on which it is based may not be accurate.
• Toulmin Logic  – a form of logic that uses claim, grounds, and warrant for analyzing the logic of an argument.
• logical fallacies (flawed logic) – faulty logic; includes sweeping generalization, argument to the person (ad hominem), non sequitur, either/or fallacy, begging the question, and bandwagon argument.  
• appeals  – use of language to sway the reader by appealing to emotions, logic, or ethics. 
• Printer-friendly version

Research Skills for Students

• The Research Question
• Books and reference works
• Journals and journal articles
• Law - key reference sources
• Scholarly, Popular, and Professional Sources
• Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources
• Sources and Information Needs
• Creating a Search Strategy
• Databases by function
• Databases by subject or discipline
• Databases by provider
• Evaluating Sources
• Current Opinion in Cell Biology
• Academic Integrity
• Using Endnote
• Library Workshops & Tutorials
• Master the University of Galway Library Catalogue

Thinking Critically About Sources

• Relevance and Credibility
• Making Inferences

This section teaches how to identify relevant  and credible  sources that you have most likely turned up on the Web and on your results pages of the library catalog, Google Scholar, and specialized databases. Relevant, credible sources will meet the information needs of your of your research project.

In order to evaluate a source, you have to answer two questions about it:

• Is this source relevant  to my research question?
• Is this a credible  source– a source my audience and I should be able to believe?

You will probably find it helpful to determine relevance  before  credibility because no matter how credible a source is, if it's not relevant to your research question it's useful to you for the project you are working on!

Making Inferences: Good Enough for Your Purpose?

Sources should always be evaluated relative to your purpose – why you’re looking for information. But because there often aren’t clear-cut answers when you evaluate sources,  most of the time it is inferences – educated guesses from available clues –  that you have to make about whether to use information from particular sources.

Your information needs will dictate:

• What kind of information will help.
• How serious you consider the consequences of making a mistake by using information that turns out to be inaccurate. When the consequences aren’t very serious, it’s easier to decide a source and its information are good enough for your purpose. Of course, there’s a lot to be said for always having accurate information, regardless.
• How hard you’re willing to work to get the credible, timely information that suits your purpose. (What you’re learning here will make it easier.)

Thus, your standards for relevance and credibility may vary, depending on whether you need, say,:

• Information about a personal health problem.
• An image you can use on a poster.
• Evidence to win a bet with a rival in the dorm.
• Dates and times a movie is showing locally.
• A game to have fun with.
• Evidence for your argument in a term paper.

For your research assignments or a health problem, the consequences may be great if you use information that is not relevant or not credible.

Evaluating for Relevance

Relevant sources are those that pertain to your research question. You’ll be able to figure that out fairly quickly by reading or skimming particular parts of sources and maybe jotting down little tables that help you keep track. We’ll show you how below, including where to look in specific kinds of sources and what questions to ask yourself as you do.

One thing to consider early on as you make inferences about relevancy is the effect that timeliness, or a source’s currency, should have on deciding whether a source is relevant.  Your research question will determine that.

For instance, if your research question is about the life sciences, you probably should consider only the most recent sources relevant because the life sciences are changing so quickly. There is a good chance that anything but the most recent sources may be out of date. So aim for sources no more than 5 years old. (An example discipline that calls for even newer sources is computer security.)

But suppose your research question is about the Edo Period in Japan (1603-1868) or about Robert Falcon Scott, who explored the Antarctic from 1901-1913. In these cases, an item from 1918 might be just as useful as an item from 2018 (although new information may have been found in the 100 year gap). But something from 1899 about Antarctica or from 1597 about Japan would NOT be current enough for these research questions.

These example research questions also give you two more clues about how to treat the timeliness or currency of sources as you consider relevance:

• Because of how long ago they lived or occurred, it would be unusual for many sources on Robert Scott or the Edo Period to have been published very recently. So, unlike sources for the life sciences, whether a source is very recent should probably not determine its relevancy to those research questions.
• Primary sources might be considered especially relevant to all three research questions. Life science journal articles that provide research findings for the first time count as primary sources. And primary sources (such as Scott’s diaries and expedition photographs, as well as paintings, literature, clothing, and household items from the Edo Period) go a long way to explain faraway people and times. (See  Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources .)

• Looking to Evaluate Relevance

The information in the tabs to the right tells where to look and what questions to ask yourself to assess three kinds of sources’ relevancy to your research question: websites, articles, and books.  Whatever you do, don’t stop evaluating a source after looking only a website’s name or the title of another source.

Save time by looking in particular places in sources for information that will help you figure out whether the source is relevant to your research project. Much of our advice here comes from “Speedy Reading” in  The Craft of Research , second edition, by Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb, and Joseph Williams, 2003, pp. 108-109.

On a  website , check the name of the website and its articles for clues that they contain material relevant to your research question. Consider whether time should have an impact on what information can be considered relevant. If so, skim any dates, datelines, What’s New pages, and press releases to see whether any website content works with the time considerations you need. Page creation or revision dates that you find can also help.

Skim any site map and index on the website for key words related to your research question. Try the key words of your research question in the search box. Do you see enough content about your keywords to make you think parts of the website could be helpful?

For an  article , think about the title. Does it have anything to do with your research question? Consider whether time should have an impact on what sources can be considered relevant. If so, is the publication date within your parameters? Also skim the abstract to see whether the article works with the time considerations you need. For instance, if there is a time period in your research question, does the article address the same time period or was it created in that time period?

Look at the abstract and section headings in the article to locate the problem or question that the article addresses, its solution, and the outline of the article’s argument for its main claim. Can those help answer your research question? Do they make it seem the article will give you information about what others have written about your research question? Do they offer a description of the situation surrounding your research question?

Do the article’s introduction and conclusion sections help you answer your research question and/or offer a description of the situation surrounding your question so you can explain in your final product why the question is important? Check whether the bibliography contains keywords related to your research question. Do the sources cited by the bibliography pertain to your research question?

For a  book , check whether the title indicates the book could be about your research question. Consider whether time should have an impact on what sources can be considered relevant. If so, is the publication date or copyright date (usually listed in the library catalog or on the back of the book’s title page) too early or late for any time constraints in your research question? Maybe it is just right. Also skim some of the preface and introduction to see whether the book works with the time considerations you need.

For help answering your research question, skim the book’s table of contents and any summary chapters to locate the problem or question that the book addresses, its solution, and the broad outline of the book’s argument for its main claim. Do they also give you information about what others have written about your research question? Do they offer a description of the situation surrounding your research question? Look for your key words in the bibliography. Do the sources cited pertain to your research question? Skim the index for topics with the most page references. Do the topics with the most page references pertain to your research question?

Evaluating for Credibility

• A Source's Neighbourhood
• Author and Publisher
• Degrees of Bias
• Recognition from Others
• Thoroughness

Once you've evaluating a source for relevancy, you are ready to evaluate it for credibility.

What are the clues for inferring a source’s credibility? Let’s start with evaluating websites, since we all do so much of our research online. But we’ll also include where to find clues relevant to sources in other formats when they differ from what’s good to use with websites. Looking at specific places in the sources will mean you don’t have to read all of every resource to determine its worth to you.

And remember, the more you take these steps, the faster it goes because always examining your sources becomes second nature.

What Used to Help

It used to be easier to draw conclusions about an information source’s credibility, depending on whether it was a print source or a web source. We knew we had to be more careful about information on the web–simply because all the filters that promoted accuracy involved in the print publishing process were absent from most web publishing. After all, it takes very little money, skill, and responsible intent to put content on the web, compared with what has to be done to convince print publishers that your content is accurate and that they will make money by printing it.

However, many publishers who once provided only print materials have now turned to the web and have brought along their rigorous standards for accuracy. Among them are the publishers of government, university, and scholarly (peer-reviewed) journal websites. Sites for U.S. mainline news organizations also strive for accuracy rather than persuasion–because they know their readers have traditionally expected it. All in all, more websites now take appropriate care for accuracy than what used to be true on the web.

Nonetheless, it still remains very easy and inexpensive to publish on the web without any of the filters associated with print. So we all still need the critical thinking skills you’ll learn here to determine whether websites’ information is credible enough to suit your purpose.

5 Factors to Consider

Evaluating a website for credibility means considering the five factors below in relation to your purpose for the information. These factors are what you should gather clues about and use to decide whether a site is right for your purpose.

• The source’s neighborhood on the web.
• Author and/or publisher’s background.
• The degree of bias.
• Recognition from others.
• Thoroughness of the content.

How many factors you consider at any one time depends on your purpose when seeking information. In other words, you’ll consider all five factors when you’re looking for information for a research project or other high-stakes situation where making mistakes have serious consequences. But you might consider only the first three factors at other times.

To understand this concept and begin to use it, imagine that all the sites on the web constitute a community. Just like in a geographical community, there are neighborhoods in which individual sites hang out.

Thinking about what neighborhood a source is in on the web can help you decide whether the site is credible and suits your purpose.

Viewing the web as community. Image source: John Atkinson,  Wrong Hands

Audio: Neighbourhoods on the Web

Listen to the audio clip (or read the text version) to hear how intuitive this concept is.

Listen to Audio     |       View Text Version

Clues About a Website's  Neighbourhood

On a website, check pages labeled About Us, About This Site, Mission, Site Index, and Site Map, if available. (If such pages or similarly labeled ones don’t exist, it may be a sign that the site may be less trustworthy.)

Ask yourself these questions to gather clues that will help you decide what neighborhood you’re in:

• Is the site selling products and/or services (even if there are articles and other useful information, too)?  Perhaps it’s a retail, service center, or corporate site.
• Are there membership applications and requests for contributions of money or time anywhere on the site?  They’re usually a sign that you’re on a site that promotes particular ideas or behavior – in other words, they’re in the advocacy neighborhood.
• Do postings, articles, reports, and/or policy papers give a one-sided view or multiple views on issues, people, and events?  If they’re one-sided, the site is probably a commercial site or in the advocacy group neighborhood. If the information is even-handed and includes different sides of an issue, the site is more likely to be on the library/museum, school, or mainline news side of town. Sites there usually provide information designed to educate rather than persuade. Newspapers online or in print usually do have editorial pages, however. But labeling opinions as such helps keep mainline news sources in the newsstand neighborhood and out of the advocacy neighborhood.

You’ll always want to know who’s providing the information for a website or other source. Do they have the education, training, or other experience that make you think they are authorities on the subject covered? Or do they just have opinions?

The more you know about the author and/or publisher, the more confidence you can have in your decision for or against using content from that source.

Authors and publishers can be individuals or organizations, including companies. (Web masters  put things on the site but do not usually decide what goes on all but the smallest websites. They often just carry out others’ decisions.)

Sites that do not identify an author or publisher are generally considered less credible for many purposes, including for term papers and other high-stakes projects. The same is true for sources in other formats.

Clues About an Author or Publisher's Background

If they’re available, first take a look at pages called such things as About This Site, About Us, or Our Team first.  But you may need to browse around a site further to determine its author. Look for a link labeled with anything that seems like it would lead you to the author. Other sources, like books, usually have a few sentences about the author on the back cover or on the flap inside the back cover.

You may find the publisher’s name next to the copyright symbol, ©, at the bottom of at least some pages on a site. In books the identity of the publisher is traditionally on the back of the title page.

Sometimes it helps to look for whether a site belongs to a single person or to a reputable organization.  Because many colleges and universities offer blog space to their faculty, staff, and students that uses the university’s web domain, this evaluation can require deeper analysis than just looking at the address. Personal blogs may not reflect the official views of an organization or meet the standards of formal publication.

In a similar manner, a tilde symbol (~) preceding a directory name in the site address indicates that the page is in a “personal” directory on the server and is not an official publication of that organization. For example, you could tell that Jones’ web page was not an official publication of XYZ University if his site’s address was: http://www.XYZuniversity.edu/~jones/page.html. The tilde indicates it’s just a personal web page—in the Residences, not Schools, neighborhood of the web.

Unless you find information about the author to the contrary, such blogs and sites should not automatically be considered to have as much authority as content that is officially part of the university’s site. Or you may find that the author has a good academic reputation and is using their blog or website to share resources he or she authored and even published elsewhere. That would nudge him or her toward the Schools neighborhood.

Probably all sources exhibit some bias, simply because it’s impossible for their authors to avoid letting their life experience and education have an effect on their decisions about what is relevant to put on the site and what to say about it.

But that kind of unavoidable bias is very different from a wholesale effort to shape the message so the site (or other source) amounts to a persuasive advertisement for something important to the author.

Even if the effort is not as strong as a wholesale effort, authors can find many—sometimes subtle—ways to shape communication until it loses its integrity. Such communication is too persuasive, meaning the author has sacrificed its value as information in order to persuade.

While sifting through all the web messages for the ones that suit your purpose, you’ll have to pay attention to both what’s on the sites and in your own mind.

That’s because one of the things that gets in the way of identifying evidence of bias on websites is our own biases. Sometimes the things that look most correct to us are the ones that play to our own biases.

Clues About Bias

Review the website or other source and look for evidence that the site exhibits more or less bias. The factors below provide some clues.

Unbiased:  This source’s information is not drastically different from coverage of the topic elsewhere. Information and opinion about the topic don’t seem to come out of nowhere. It doesn’t seem as though information has been shaped to fit.

Biased:  Compared to what you’ve found in other sources covering the same topic, this content seems to omit a lot of information about the topic, emphasize vastly different aspects of it, and/or contain stereotypes or overly simplified information. Everything seems to fit the site’s theme, even though you know there are various ways to look at the issue(s).

Citing Sources

Unbiased:  The source links to any earlier news or documents it refers to.

Biased:  The source refers to earlier news or documents, but does not link to the news report or document itself.

Unbiased:  Statements are supported by evidence and documentation.

Biased:  There is little evidence and documentation presented, just assertions that seem intended to persuade by themselves.

Vested Interest

Unbiased:  There is no overt evidence that the author will benefit from whichever way the topic is decided.

Biased:  The author seems to have a “vested interest” in the topic. For instance, if the site asks for contributions, the author probably will benefit if contributions are made. Or, perhaps the author may get to continue his or her job if the topic that the website promotes gets decided in a particular way.

Imperative Language

Unbiased:  Statements are made without strong emphasis and without provocative twists. There aren’t many exclamation points.

Biased:  There are many strongly worded assertions. There are a lot of exclamation points.

Multiple Viewpoints

Unbiased: Both pro and con viewpoints are provided about controversial issues.

Biased:  Only one version of  the truth  is presented about controversial issues.

Checking to see whether others have linked to a website or tagged or cited it lets you know who else on the web recognizes the value of the site’s content. Reader comments and ratings can also be informative about some sites you may be evaluating, such as blogs.

If your source is a print book, the blurbs on the front or back cover give you information from authors, experts, or other well-known people who were willing to praise the book and/or author. The same kind of “mini-reviews” may be available on the publisher’s website. You can also look for reviews of the book or other source by using Google and Google Scholar.

Those links, tags, bookmarks, citations, and positive reader comments and ratings are evidence that other authors consider the site exemplary. Book reviews, of course, may be either positive or negative.

Exactly which individuals and organizations are doing the linking, tagging, citing, rating, and commenting may also be important to you. There may be some company you’d rather your site not keep! Or, maybe the sites that link to the one you’re evaluating may help solidify your positive feelings about the site.

Don’t let an absence of links, tags, citations, ratings, and comments damn the site in your evaluation. Perhaps it’s just not well-known to other authors. The lack of them should just mean this factor can’t add any positive or negative weight to your eventual decision to use the site—it’s a neutral.

Citation as Recognition

In scholarly work in particular, assessing how much a work like an article has been cited can provide clues about the quality of the work. Here are some ways to check on the citations of a piece of work.

For articles published in scholarly journals, you can use Google Scholar to enter the title of the article in quotes. In the results list, find the article you’re evaluating. (Many articles have similar titles.) Look for the number of citations in the lower left of the listing for your article. If you want more information on the authors who have done the citing, click on the citation number for a clickable list of articles or papers and get the names of authors to look up at the end of the articles or with a search engine. (This is a good way to discover more articles about your topic, too.)

You can also search in specialized databases like Web of Science or Scopus (search for either in the  Library Catalogue ) 

Figuring out whether a website or other source is suitable for your purpose also means looking at how thoroughly it covers your topic

You can evaluate thoroughness in relation to other sources on the same topic. Compare your source to how other sources cover the material, checking for missing topics or perspectives.

Clues About Thoroughness

Click around a site to get some idea of how thoroughly it covers the topic. If the source you are evaluating is a print resource, read the introduction and conclusion and also the table of contents to get a glimpse of what it covers. Look at the index to see what subject is covered with the most pages. Is it thorough enough to meet your information need?

• << Previous: Databases by provider
• Next: Citing & Referencing >>
• Last Updated: Jan 25, 2024 5:02 PM
• URL: https://libguides.library.universityofgalway.ie/research-skills

The Library proactively supports and enhances the learning, teaching, and research activities of the University. The Library acts as a catalyst for your success as University of Galway’s hub for scholarly information discovery, sharing, and publication.

Library University of Galway University Road, Galway, Ireland T. +353 91 493399

Get Directions Send Us an Email

Twitter Facebook Instagram YouTube Blog RSS -->

• Skip to main content
• Skip to ChatBot Assistant
• Academic Writing
• What is a Research Paper?
• Steps in Writing a Research Paper
• Critical Reading and Writing
• Punctuation
• Writing Exercises
• ELL/ESL Resources

Evaluating Sources to Answer a Research Question

You will want your research paper to be respected and credible. Therefore, after you identify sources relevant to your research, you need to determine whether they can help answer your research question .

There are four questions to ask when evaluating sources:

• How well does the source answer the research question?
• Is the information provided by an expert?
• Is the source valid?
• Is there a variety of sources?

How Well Does the Source Answer the Research Question?

To determine whether printed or online published material provides appropriate information for you, review its table of contents, indexes, photographs, captions, and diagrams, and read the first sentence of every paragraph, searching for words, names, concepts, or images related to your research.

Is the Information Provided by an Expert?

To support your research's legitimacy, you will want your sources to be experts who have considerable experience and training in an area and whose informed opinion can substantiate (or differ with) your point of view. (Just because a person is associated with a situation or idea does not make him or her an expert; for example, if you are researching medical waste, any person who works in a hospital is not necessarily an expert.)

Is the Source Valid?

• Is the information presented objectively and without bias? (Do you accept a claim from the National Association of Tobacco Growers that nicotine is not an addictive drug?)
• Do the authors let you know their sources of information? Be wary when "an informed source" is quoted without telling the reader who that source is.
• Do the authors explain their research methods as well as results?
• Is the research current, if the topic demands it? If you're writing a paper on nuclear waste disposal, a report written in 1952 is not valid.

If you are not able to view this video, you can try the original version on YouTube or contact [email protected] .

Is There a Variety of Sources?

Identify the range of expert perspectives, conclusions, opinions, and approaches to your topic so you don't promote or rely too heavily on one source or point of view.

For example, if you are comparing the leadership styles of Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee, don't cite five books by Bruce Catton, or use six sources on Lee and only two on Grant.

Need Assistance?

If you would like assistance with any type of writing assignment, learning coaches are available to assist you. Please contact Academic Support by emailing [email protected].

Questions or feedback about SUNY Empire's Writing Support?

Contact us at [email protected] .

Smart Cookies

They're not just in our classes – they help power our website. Cookies and similar tools allow us to better understand the experience of our visitors. By continuing to use this website, you consent to SUNY Empire State University's usage of cookies and similar technologies in accordance with the university's Privacy Notice and Cookies Policy .

MUED 8112: Introduction to Research Methods and Design in Arts Education

Evaluating sources for credibility: which ones are right for your research.

Not all sources are created equal - especially when it comes to advanced research.  Finding the right sources for your specific topic is crucial for writing a scholarly, trustworthy dissertation, term paper, or even a program note. Here are some ideas for questions to ask yourself as you're evaluating the sources you find and deciding whether or not to use them for your research:

How did I find it - Google? The Libraries catalog? A Libraries database? Remember: Just because I found something through google, that doesn’t mean it’s automatically credible or not credible - I just need to evaluate it!

Can I or can’t I trust the info I find in this source? What do I know about the author/publisher? Do I trust their authority on this topic?

Is it peer reviewed? If not, is it credible?

• What kind of useful keywords or ideas can I draw from it to inform additional searches for resources?

Remember: Evaluating sources early in the process can help to ensure that you're working with the best and most trustworthy information!

2-minute intro to evaluating sources using the CRAAP test (Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, Purpose)

• Tutorial: What does it mean to be a scholarly source?

• Recognize a scholarly (versus a popular) source
• Understand how a scholarly source differs from other types of sources

A quick overview of peer review: How do you know which sources to trust?

The most scholarly sources are those that are peer reviewed . This means that the source (like a book or a journal article – the concept of peer review doesn’t apply to recordings, podcasts, newspaper articles, and several other types of sources commonly used in music research) has gone through a process of being reviewed by experts on the topic prior to its publication, and those experts provided comments to help the author improve the source. Ultimately, the experts gave the source their stamp of approval, so you know it’s trustworthy.

For more information heck out this 3 minute video from North Carolina State University that discusses the peer review process:

How to limit your search results to peer-reviewed sources

Several of the Libraries databases linked from this guide (like RILM) and the Libraries catalog provide options to limit to “Scholarly” or “Peer-Reviewed” sources.

• Here's what this looks like in RILM :

Remember: Not all sources are peer reviewed. For example, newspaper articles are only reviewed by the editor of the paper, and podcasts aren’t vetted by a panel of experts before they’re released. But just because a source isn’t peer reviewed, that doesn’t mean it’s untrustworthy or that you shouldn't use it! Just make sure you get a sense of the author’s credibility/authority before trusting the information it provides. Can you find the author’s bio? Do they cite other trustworthy sources in their bibliography? These factors may help to indicate whether the source is credible. Also, be sure to check with your instructor about whether or not you have permission to use a source that's not peer reviewed for your project!

• Tutorial: How scholarly research gets published in peer-reviewed journals and where to find it all

• Recognize how scholarly research articles come to be published in peer-reviewed journals
• Use a library database to access it all

Now that you've found some sources, how can you know if they're right for your research?

Once you've gathered sources, how can you figure out if they'll be relevant to your research? Here are some tips for skimming sources:

• Check the table of contents:  If your source is a book with individual chapters or sections, explore the table of contents and look at the titles of individual sections. Do the chapter/section titles seem relevant to the topic you're researching?  
• Skim the index:  If the item has an index (these most often found in books), skim the topics that are included in it. Do any of them align with your keywords or seem like they would be helpful for finding info about your thesis statement?  
• Read the abstract:  You'll often find abstracts, which provide an overview of the entire source's contents, included with journal articles (look for abstracts in article databases like RILM and in the records for individual items in the Libraries catalog). Does the abstract align with your research interests?  
• Look at the introduction and conclusion: Your  source's introduction and conclusion may be a single paragraph at the beginning and end, or these may each constitute an entire chapter. The introduction will tell you what the source is about, and the conclusion will summarize the author's findings. Is the information shared there relevant to your topic?   
• Review topic sentences:  Skim the topic sentences of paragraphs, sections, and/or chapters. Are they related to your area of interest?  
• Explore the bibliography:  Does the author cite a lot of reputable-looking sources in their bibliography? This can be a great way to evaluate a source for credibility and authority. TIP: Mining a bibliography of a helpful source can also be an excellent way to find relevant sources for your own research!
• << Previous: Some general search strategies
• Next: Avoiding plagiarism and citing your sources is key >>

Organizing Academic Research Papers: Evaluating Sources

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

Importance of Evaluating Sources

Evaluating the authority, usefulness, and reliability of resources is a crucial step in developing a literature review that effectively covers pertinent research as well as demonstrating to the reader that you know what you're talking about. The process of evaluating scholarly research also enhances your general skills and ability to:

• Seek out alternate points of view and differing perspectives,
• Identify possible bias in the work of others,
• Distinguish between fact, fiction, and opinion,
• Develop and strengthen your ability to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant content,
• Draw cogent, well thought out conclusions, and
• Synthesize information, extracting meaning through interpretation and analysis.

Strategies for Critically Evaluating Sources

The act of thinking critically about the validity and reliability of a research resource generally involves asking yourself a series of questions about the quality of both the item and the content of that item.

Evaluating the Source

Inquiring about the Author What are the author's credentials--institutional affiliation (where he or she works), educational background, past writings, or experience? Is the book or article written on a topic in the author's area of expertise? Has your instructor mentioned this author? Have you seen the author's name cited in other sources or bibliographies? Is the author associated with a reputable institution or organization? What are the basic values or goals of the organization or institution? Inquiring about the Date of Publication When was the source published? Is the source current or out-of-date for your topic? Inquiring about the Edition or Revision Is this a first edition of this publication or not? Further editions indicate a source has been revised and updated to reflect changes in knowledge, include omissions, and harmonize with the intended needs of its readers. If you are using a Web source, do the pages indicate revision dates? Inquiring about the Publisher Note the publisher. If the source is published by a university press, it is likely to be scholarly. Although the fact that the publisher is reputable does not necessarily guarantee quality, it does show that the publisher may have high regard for the source being published. Inquiring about the Title of Journal Is this a scholarly or a popular journal? This distinction is important because it indicates different levels of complexity in conveying ideas.

Evaluating the Content

Intended Audience What type of audience is the author addressing? Is the publication aimed at a specialized or a general audience? Is this source too elementary, too technical, too advanced, or just right for your needs? Objectivity Is the information covered fact, opinion, or propaganda? It is not always easy to separate fact from opinion. Facts can usually be verified; opinions, though they may be based on factual information, evolve from the interpretation of facts. Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it questionable and unsupported by evidence? Note errors or omissions. Are the ideas and arguments advanced more or less in line with other works you have read on the same topic? Coverage Does the work update other sources, substantiate other materials you have read, or add new information? Does it extensively or marginally cover your topic? You should explore enough sources to obtain a variety of viewpoints. Writing Style Is the publication organized logically? Are the main points clearly presented? Do you find the text easy to read, or is it stilted or choppy? Is the author's argument repetitive? Evaluative Reviews In the case of books, locate critical reviews of work in a database. Is the review positive? Is the book under review considered a valuable contribution to the field? Do the various reviewers agree on the value or attributes of the book or has are there strong differences of opinion? Does the reviewer mention other books that might be better? If so, locate these sources for more information on your topic.

Critical Thinking. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra; Evaluating Sources . Lakeland Library Research Guides. Lakeland Community College; Evaluating Sources . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Evaluating Print Sources . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Evaluation During Reading . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.  

Strategies for Critically Evaluating Web Content

Web Content Requires Additional Methods of Evaluation The principles that guide your of evaluation books, journal articles, reports, and other print materials also applies to web resources. However, the interactive and multimedia dynamics of web-based content increases the level of assessment you must apply in order to ensure that you are viewing a valid source of information.

Additional things to look for when considering using a web-based resource include:

• Source of the content is stated -- whether original or borrowed, quoted, or imported from elsewhere. Note that content imported from another source via RSS feed can be difficult to identify, as this material can blend in with other content on the page without being appropriately labeled.
• Don't be fooled by an attractive, professional-looking presentation -- just because a site looks professional doesn't mean that it is. However, poorly organized or written web page designs are easy to recognize and can be a signal that you should carefully scrutinize the material.
• Site is currently being maintained -- check for posting or editing dates.
• Links are relevant and appropriate, and are in working order -- a site with a lot of broken links is an indication of neglect and out-of-date content.
• The site includes contact information -- if a site is produced anonymously, you cannot verify the legitimacy of its creator.
• Domain location in the site address (URL) is relevant to the focus of the material [e.g., .edu for educational or research materials; .org for profit or non-profit organizations; .gov for government sites]. Note that the domain is not necessarily a primary indicator of site content. For example, some authors post their content on blog or wiki platforms hosted by companies with .com addresses. Note as well that the tilde (~) usually indicates a personal page.

Evaluating Internet Information . Online Library Learning Center. University of Georgia; Evaluating Internet Sources: A Library Resource Guide . Olsen Library. Northern Michigan University; Evaluating Sources . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Writing from Sources: Evaluating Web Sources . The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College.

Detecting Author Bias

Bias, whether done intentionally or not, is when a statement reflects a partiality, preference, or prejudice for or against an object, person, place, or idea. Listed below are issues to look for when determining if the source is biased in some way.

• Distortion or Stretching the Facts -- making issues, problems, or arguments appear more extreme by using misinformation or exaggerated and/or imprecise language to describe research outcomes [e.g., “Everyone agreed the policy was a complete disaster.” Who's everyone? And, how does one specifically define something as a disaster? Is there sufficient evidence to support such a broad statement?].
• Flawed Research Design -- bias can enter the narrative as a result of a poorly designed study; this may include a claim or generalization about the findings based upon too small a sample, manipulating statistics, or failing to report contrary conclusions from other studies.
• Lack of Citations -- refers to broad, declarative statements or information presented as fact that does not include proper citation to a source or to sources that support the researcher's position, or that such statements are not explicitly framed as the author's opinion.
• Misquoting a Source -- this is when an author rewords, paraphrases, or manipulates a statement, the information about a source is incomplete, or a quote is presented in such a way that it misleads or conveys a false impression.
• Persuasive or Inflammatory Language -- using words and phrases intended to elicit a positive or negative response from the reader or that leads the reader to arrive at a specific conclusion [e.g., referring to one side in a conflict as “terrorists” and the other side as “peace-loving”].
• Selective Facts -- taking information out of context or selectively data-picking only information that supports the argument while leaving the rest out.

NOTE:   The act of determining bias in scholarly research is also an act of constant self-reflection. Everyone has biases. Therefore, it's important that you minimize the influence of your own biases by approaching the assessment of another person's research introspectively and with a degree of self-awareness.

Evaluating Sources . Lakeland Library Research Guides. Lakeland Community College; Stereotypes and Biased Language . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

• << Previous: Content Alert Services
• Next: Primary Sources >>
• Last Updated: Jul 18, 2023 11:58 AM
• URL: https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803
• QuickSearch
• Library Catalog
• Databases A-Z
• Publication Finder
• Course Reserves
• Citation Linker
• Digital Commons
• Our Website

Research Support

• Ask a Librarian
• Appointments
• Interlibrary Loan (ILL)
• Research Guides
• Databases by Subject
• Citation Help

Using the Library

• Reserve a Group Study Room
• Renew Books
• Honors Study Rooms
• Off-Campus Access
• Library Policies
• Library Technology

User Information

• Grad Students
• Online Students
• COVID-19 Updates
• Staff Directory
• News & Announcements
• Library Newsletter

My Accounts

• Interlibrary Loan
• Staff Site Login

FIND US ON  

•   [email protected]

Evaluating Sources

Ask a librarian, source evaluation rubric.

This rubric can help you determine if a source is a "good" source; one that is reliable to use in your research or paper. It can help you weed out "bad" sources and defend your "good" sources to your instructor.

• C.R.A.A.P.O Source Evaluation Rubric NOTE: You may need to download the PDF to fill in the form fields electronically.

How to use this Rubric:

• Enter information about the source at the top of the page, i.e. title, url, author, dates
• For each line, starting with Currency, read each box from left to right and choose the one that matches your source the best
• Enter the column number, 1-4 that corresponds to the box that matches your source the best in the right hand column
• Once every line has a number, tally the numbers in the right hand column and write the score at the bottom of the page

The score you tally is out of 24 total points. You must determine what is the lowest score you will accept.

An acceptable score for a source to be used in a research paper for college is between 20 to 24.

The C.R.A.A.P. Test was created by Sarah Blakeslee (University of California at Chico, Meriam Library). With her permission, this content was based off her  original text  with some modification.

• << Previous: Purpose & Objectivity
• Next: What About Websites? >>

• Privacy Policy

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Evaluating Research – Process, Examples and Methods

Evaluating Research – Process, Examples and Methods

Table of Contents

Evaluating Research

Definition:

Evaluating Research refers to the process of assessing the quality, credibility, and relevance of a research study or project. This involves examining the methods, data, and results of the research in order to determine its validity, reliability, and usefulness. Evaluating research can be done by both experts and non-experts in the field, and involves critical thinking, analysis, and interpretation of the research findings.

Research Evaluating Process

The process of evaluating research typically involves the following steps:

Identify the Research Question

The first step in evaluating research is to identify the research question or problem that the study is addressing. This will help you to determine whether the study is relevant to your needs.

Assess the Study Design

The study design refers to the methodology used to conduct the research. You should assess whether the study design is appropriate for the research question and whether it is likely to produce reliable and valid results.

Evaluate the Sample

The sample refers to the group of participants or subjects who are included in the study. You should evaluate whether the sample size is adequate and whether the participants are representative of the population under study.

Review the Data Collection Methods

You should review the data collection methods used in the study to ensure that they are valid and reliable. This includes assessing the measures used to collect data and the procedures used to collect data.

Examine the Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis refers to the methods used to analyze the data. You should examine whether the statistical analysis is appropriate for the research question and whether it is likely to produce valid and reliable results.

Assess the Conclusions

You should evaluate whether the data support the conclusions drawn from the study and whether they are relevant to the research question.

Consider the Limitations

Finally, you should consider the limitations of the study, including any potential biases or confounding factors that may have influenced the results.

Evaluating Research Methods

Evaluating Research Methods are as follows:

• Peer review: Peer review is a process where experts in the field review a study before it is published. This helps ensure that the study is accurate, valid, and relevant to the field.
• Critical appraisal : Critical appraisal involves systematically evaluating a study based on specific criteria. This helps assess the quality of the study and the reliability of the findings.
• Replication : Replication involves repeating a study to test the validity and reliability of the findings. This can help identify any errors or biases in the original study.
• Meta-analysis : Meta-analysis is a statistical method that combines the results of multiple studies to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic. This can help identify patterns or inconsistencies across studies.
• Consultation with experts : Consulting with experts in the field can provide valuable insights into the quality and relevance of a study. Experts can also help identify potential limitations or biases in the study.
• Review of funding sources: Examining the funding sources of a study can help identify any potential conflicts of interest or biases that may have influenced the study design or interpretation of results.

Example of Evaluating Research

Example of Evaluating Research sample for students:

Title of the Study: The Effects of Social Media Use on Mental Health among College Students

Sample Size: 500 college students

Sampling Technique : Convenience sampling

• Sample Size: The sample size of 500 college students is a moderate sample size, which could be considered representative of the college student population. However, it would be more representative if the sample size was larger, or if a random sampling technique was used.
• Sampling Technique : Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique, which means that the sample may not be representative of the population. This technique may introduce bias into the study since the participants are self-selected and may not be representative of the entire college student population. Therefore, the results of this study may not be generalizable to other populations.
• Participant Characteristics: The study does not provide any information about the demographic characteristics of the participants, such as age, gender, race, or socioeconomic status. This information is important because social media use and mental health may vary among different demographic groups.
• Data Collection Method: The study used a self-administered survey to collect data. Self-administered surveys may be subject to response bias and may not accurately reflect participants’ actual behaviors and experiences.
• Data Analysis: The study used descriptive statistics and regression analysis to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics provide a summary of the data, while regression analysis is used to examine the relationship between two or more variables. However, the study did not provide information about the statistical significance of the results or the effect sizes.

Overall, while the study provides some insights into the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students, the use of a convenience sampling technique and the lack of information about participant characteristics limit the generalizability of the findings. In addition, the use of self-administered surveys may introduce bias into the study, and the lack of information about the statistical significance of the results limits the interpretation of the findings.

Note*: Above mentioned example is just a sample for students. Do not copy and paste directly into your assignment. Kindly do your own research for academic purposes.

Applications of Evaluating Research

Here are some of the applications of evaluating research:

• Identifying reliable sources : By evaluating research, researchers, students, and other professionals can identify the most reliable sources of information to use in their work. They can determine the quality of research studies, including the methodology, sample size, data analysis, and conclusions.
• Validating findings: Evaluating research can help to validate findings from previous studies. By examining the methodology and results of a study, researchers can determine if the findings are reliable and if they can be used to inform future research.
• Identifying knowledge gaps: Evaluating research can also help to identify gaps in current knowledge. By examining the existing literature on a topic, researchers can determine areas where more research is needed, and they can design studies to address these gaps.
• Improving research quality : Evaluating research can help to improve the quality of future research. By examining the strengths and weaknesses of previous studies, researchers can design better studies and avoid common pitfalls.
• Informing policy and decision-making : Evaluating research is crucial in informing policy and decision-making in many fields. By examining the evidence base for a particular issue, policymakers can make informed decisions that are supported by the best available evidence.
• Enhancing education : Evaluating research is essential in enhancing education. Educators can use research findings to improve teaching methods, curriculum development, and student outcomes.

Purpose of Evaluating Research

Here are some of the key purposes of evaluating research:

• Determine the reliability and validity of research findings : By evaluating research, researchers can determine the quality of the study design, data collection, and analysis. They can determine whether the findings are reliable, valid, and generalizable to other populations.
• Identify the strengths and weaknesses of research studies: Evaluating research helps to identify the strengths and weaknesses of research studies, including potential biases, confounding factors, and limitations. This information can help researchers to design better studies in the future.
• Inform evidence-based decision-making: Evaluating research is crucial in informing evidence-based decision-making in many fields, including healthcare, education, and public policy. Policymakers, educators, and clinicians rely on research evidence to make informed decisions.
• Identify research gaps : By evaluating research, researchers can identify gaps in the existing literature and design studies to address these gaps. This process can help to advance knowledge and improve the quality of research in a particular field.
• Ensure research ethics and integrity : Evaluating research helps to ensure that research studies are conducted ethically and with integrity. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines to protect the welfare and rights of study participants and to maintain the trust of the public.

Characteristics Evaluating Research

Characteristics Evaluating Research are as follows:

• Research question/hypothesis: A good research question or hypothesis should be clear, concise, and well-defined. It should address a significant problem or issue in the field and be grounded in relevant theory or prior research.
• Study design: The research design should be appropriate for answering the research question and be clearly described in the study. The study design should also minimize bias and confounding variables.
• Sampling : The sample should be representative of the population of interest and the sampling method should be appropriate for the research question and study design.
• Data collection : The data collection methods should be reliable and valid, and the data should be accurately recorded and analyzed.
• Results : The results should be presented clearly and accurately, and the statistical analysis should be appropriate for the research question and study design.
• Interpretation of results : The interpretation of the results should be based on the data and not influenced by personal biases or preconceptions.
• Generalizability: The study findings should be generalizable to the population of interest and relevant to other settings or contexts.
• Contribution to the field : The study should make a significant contribution to the field and advance our understanding of the research question or issue.

Advantages of Evaluating Research

Evaluating research has several advantages, including:

• Ensuring accuracy and validity : By evaluating research, we can ensure that the research is accurate, valid, and reliable. This ensures that the findings are trustworthy and can be used to inform decision-making.
• Identifying gaps in knowledge : Evaluating research can help identify gaps in knowledge and areas where further research is needed. This can guide future research and help build a stronger evidence base.
• Promoting critical thinking: Evaluating research requires critical thinking skills, which can be applied in other areas of life. By evaluating research, individuals can develop their critical thinking skills and become more discerning consumers of information.
• Improving the quality of research : Evaluating research can help improve the quality of research by identifying areas where improvements can be made. This can lead to more rigorous research methods and better-quality research.
• Informing decision-making: By evaluating research, we can make informed decisions based on the evidence. This is particularly important in fields such as medicine and public health, where decisions can have significant consequences.
• Advancing the field : Evaluating research can help advance the field by identifying new research questions and areas of inquiry. This can lead to the development of new theories and the refinement of existing ones.

Limitations of Evaluating Research

Limitations of Evaluating Research are as follows:

• Time-consuming: Evaluating research can be time-consuming, particularly if the study is complex or requires specialized knowledge. This can be a barrier for individuals who are not experts in the field or who have limited time.
• Subjectivity : Evaluating research can be subjective, as different individuals may have different interpretations of the same study. This can lead to inconsistencies in the evaluation process and make it difficult to compare studies.
• Limited generalizability: The findings of a study may not be generalizable to other populations or contexts. This limits the usefulness of the study and may make it difficult to apply the findings to other settings.
• Publication bias: Research that does not find significant results may be less likely to be published, which can create a bias in the published literature. This can limit the amount of information available for evaluation.
• Lack of transparency: Some studies may not provide enough detail about their methods or results, making it difficult to evaluate their quality or validity.
• Funding bias : Research funded by particular organizations or industries may be biased towards the interests of the funder. This can influence the study design, methods, and interpretation of results.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Institutional Review Board – Application Sample...

Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing...

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Working with sources

How to Find Sources | Scholarly Articles, Books, Etc.

Published on June 13, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

It’s important to know how to find relevant sources when writing a  research paper , literature review , or systematic review .

The types of sources you need will depend on the stage you are at in the research process , but all sources that you use should be credible , up to date, and relevant to your research topic.

There are three main places to look for sources to use in your research:

Research databases

• Your institution’s library
• Other online resources

Table of contents

Library resources, other online sources, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about finding sources.

You can search for scholarly sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar . These provide a range of search functions that can help you to find the most relevant sources.

If you are searching for a specific article or book, include the title or the author’s name. Alternatively, if you’re just looking for sources related to your research problem , you can search using keywords. In this case, it’s important to have a clear understanding of the scope of your project and of the most relevant keywords.

Databases can be general (interdisciplinary) or subject-specific.

• You can use subject-specific databases to ensure that the results are relevant to your field.
• When using a general database or search engine, you can still filter results by selecting specific subjects or disciplines.

Example: JSTOR discipline search filter

Check the table below to find a database that’s relevant to your research.

Google Scholar

To get started, you might also try Google Scholar , an academic search engine that can help you find relevant books and articles. Its “Cited by” function lets you see the number of times a source has been cited. This can tell you something about a source’s credibility and importance to the field.

Example: Google Scholar “Cited by” function

Boolean operators

Boolean operators can also help to narrow or expand your search.

Boolean operators are words and symbols like AND , OR , and NOT that you can use to include or exclude keywords to refine your results. For example, a search for “Nietzsche NOT nihilism” will provide results that include the word “Nietzsche” but exclude results that contain the word “nihilism.”

Many databases and search engines have an advanced search function that allows you to refine results in a similar way without typing the Boolean operators manually.

Example: Project Muse advanced search

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing - try for free!

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Try for free

You can find helpful print sources in your institution’s library. These include:

• Journal articles
• Encyclopedias
• Newspapers and magazines

Make sure that the sources you consult are appropriate to your research.

You can find these sources using your institution’s library database. This will allow you to explore the library’s catalog and to search relevant keywords. You can refine your results using Boolean operators .

Once you have found a relevant print source in the library:

• Consider what books are beside it. This can be a great way to find related sources, especially when you’ve found a secondary or tertiary source instead of a primary source .
• Consult the index and bibliography to find the bibliographic information of other relevant sources.

You can consult popular online sources to learn more about your topic. These include:

• Crowdsourced encyclopedias like Wikipedia

You can find these sources using search engines. To refine your search, use Boolean operators in combination with relevant keywords.

However, exercise caution when using online sources. Consider what kinds of sources are appropriate for your research and make sure the sites are credible .

Look for sites with trusted domain extensions:

• URLs that end with .edu are educational resources.
• URLs that end with .gov are government-related resources.
• DOIs often indicate that an article is published in a peer-reviewed , scientific article.

Other sites can still be used, but you should evaluate them carefully and consider alternatives.

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

Scribbr Citation Checker New

The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

You can find sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar . Use Boolean operators or advanced search functions to narrow or expand your search.

For print sources, you can use your institution’s library database. This will allow you to explore the library’s catalog and to search relevant keywords.

It is important to find credible sources and use those that you can be sure are sufficiently scholarly .

• Consult your institute’s library to find out what books, journals, research databases, and other types of sources they provide access to.
• Look for books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses, as these are typically considered trustworthy sources.
• Look for journals that use a peer review process. This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published.

When searching for sources in databases, think of specific keywords that are relevant to your topic , and consider variations on them or synonyms that might be relevant.

Once you have a clear idea of your research parameters and key terms, choose a database that is relevant to your research (e.g., Medline, JSTOR, Project MUSE).

Find out if the database has a “subject search” option. This can help to refine your search. Use Boolean operators to combine your keywords, exclude specific search terms, and search exact phrases to find the most relevant sources.

There are many types of sources commonly used in research. These include:

You’ll likely use a variety of these sources throughout the research process , and the kinds of sources you use will depend on your research topic and goals.

Scholarly sources are written by experts in their field and are typically subjected to peer review . They are intended for a scholarly audience, include a full bibliography, and use scholarly or technical language. For these reasons, they are typically considered credible sources .

Popular sources like magazines and news articles are typically written by journalists. These types of sources usually don’t include a bibliography and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience. They are not always reliable and may be written from a biased or uninformed perspective, but they can still be cited in some contexts.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). How to Find Sources | Scholarly Articles, Books, Etc.. Scribbr. Retrieved April 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/finding-sources/

Is this article helpful?

Eoghan Ryan

Other students also liked, types of sources explained | examples & tips, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, boolean operators | quick guide, examples & tips, unlimited academic ai-proofreading.

✔ Document error-free in 5minutes ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts