social media and globalization essay

Over 2.5 billion people use social media. This is how it has changed the world

3.5 billion people are online. Image:  REUTERS/Tim Wimborne

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Facebook, the largest social media platform in the world, has 2.4 billion users. Other social media platforms including Youtube and Whatsapp also have more than one billion users each.

These numbers are huge – there are 7.7 billion people in the world, with 3.5 billion of us online . This means social media platforms are used by one-in-three people in the world, and more than two-thirds of all internet users.

Social media has changed the world. The rapid and vast adoption of these technologies is changing how we find partners , how we access information from the news , and how we organize to demand political change .

Who uses social media? When did the rise of social media start and what are the largest sites today? Here we answer these and other key questions to understand social media use around the world.

We begin with an outline of key trends and conclude with a perspective on the rate of adoption of social media relative to other modern communication technologies.

Social media started in the early 2000s

The first social media site to reach a million monthly active users was MySpace – it achieved this milestone around 2004. This is arguably the beginning of social media as we know it.

In the interactive chart below we plot monthly active users, by platform, since 2004. You can use the slider to focus on particular years, and you can click the ‘+ Add’ option to change series and track the evolution of other social media platforms.

This chart shows that there are some large social media sites that have been around for ten or more years, such as Facebook, YouTube and Reddit; but other large sites are much newer.

TikTok, for example, launched in September 2016 and by mid-2018 it had already reached half a billion users. To put this in perspective: TikTok gained on average about 20 million new users per month over this period.

The data also shows rapid changes in the opposite direction. Once-dominant platforms have disappeared. In 2008, Hi5, MySpace and Friendster were close competitors to Facebook, yet by 2012 they had virtually no share of the market. The case of MySpace is remarkable considering that in 2006 it temporarily surpassed Google as the most visited website in the US.

Most of the social media platforms that survived the last decade have shifted significantly in what they offer users. Twitter, for example, didn’t allow users to upload videos or images in the beginning. Since 2011 this is possible and today more than 50% of the content viewed on Twitter includes images and videos.

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Facebook has dominated the social media market for a decade, but five other platforms also have more than half a billion users each

With 2.3 billion users, Facebook is the most popular social media platform today. YouTube, Instagram and WeChat follow, with more than a billion users. Tumblr and TikTok come next, with over half a billion users.

The bar chart below shows a ranking of the top social media platforms, year by year. You can drag the slider in this chart to see the ranking for other years.

Some social media sites are particularly popular among specific population groups

The aggregate numbers mask a great deal of heterogeneity across platforms – some social media sites are much more popular than others among specific population groups.

In general, young people are more likely to use social media than older people. But some platforms are much more popular among younger people. This is shown in the chart below, where we plot the breakdown of social media use by age groups in the US.

For Snapchat and Instagram the ‘age gradient’ is extremely steep – the popularity of these platforms drops much faster with age. The majority of people under 25 use Snapchat (73%), while only 3% of people over 65 use it.

Since these platforms are relatively new, it’s hard to know how much of this age gradient is the result of a “cohort effect”. In other words: it’s unclear whether today’s young people will continue using Snapchat as they become older. If they do, the age gradient would narrow.

Let’s now look at gender differences.

The next chart shows the percentage of men and women who use different platforms in the US. The diagonal line marks parity; so sites above the diagonal line are those more popular among men and sites below are those more popular among women. (Bubble sizes are proportional to the total number of users of each platform.)

For some platforms the gender differences are very large. The share of women who use Pinterest is more than twice as high as the share of men using this platform. For Reddit it is the other way around, the share of men is almost twice as high.

In rich countries almost all young people use social media

From a back-of-the-envelope calculation we know that, if Facebook has 2.3 billion users, then at least 30% of the world uses social media. This is of course just an average – for some world regions, and specifically for some population groups, usage rates are much higher.

Young people tend to use social media more frequently. In fact, in rich countries, where access to the internet is nearly universal , the vast majority of young adults use it.

The chart below shows the proportion of people aged 16 to 24 who use social networks across a selection of countries. As we can see, the average for the OECD is close to 90%.

If today’s young adults continue using social media throughout their life, then it’s likely that social media will continue growing rapidly as internet adoption expands throughout lower-income countries .

The rise of social media in rich countries has come together with an increase in the amount of time spent online

The increase in social media use over the last decade has, of course, come together with a large increase in the amount of time that people spend online.

In the US, adults spend more than 6 hours per day on digital media (apps and websites accessed through mobile phones, tablets, computers and other connected devices such as game consoles). As the chart below shows, this growth has been driven almost entirely by additional time spent on smartphones and tablets.

According to a survey from the Pew Research Center, adults aged 18 to 29 in the US are more likely to get news indirectly via social media than directly from print newspapers or news sites; and they also report being online ‘almost constantly’ .

There is evidence that in other rich countries people also spend many hours per day online. The next chart shows the number of hours young people spend on the internet across a selection of rich countries. As we can see, the average for the OECD is more than 4 hours per day, and in some countries the average is above 6 hours per day.

Some perspective on how fast and profound these rapid changes are

The percentage of US adults who use social media increased from 5% in 2005 to 79% in 2019. Even on a global stage the speed of diffusion is striking: Facebook surged from covering around 1.5% of the world population in 2008, to around 30% in 2018.

How does this compare to the diffusion of other communication technologies that make part of our everyday life today?

The following chart provides some perspective.

Social media’s growth in the US is comparable – in speed and to some extent also in reach – to that of most modern communication-enabling technologies, including computers, smartphones and the internet.

The rise of social media is an extraordinary example of how quickly and drastically social behaviours can change: Something that is today part of the everyday life of one-third of the world population, was unthinkable less than a generation ago.

Fast changes like those brought about by social media always spark fears about possible negative effects. Specifically in the context of social media, a key question is whether these new communication technologies are having a negative impact on our mental health – this is an important question and we cover the evidence at Our World in Data here .

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Why social media has changed the world — and how to fix it

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Are you on social media a lot? When is the last time you checked Twitter, Facebook, or Instagram? Last night? Before breakfast? Five minutes ago?

If so, you are not alone — which is the point, of course. Humans are highly social creatures. Our brains have become wired to process social information, and we usually feel better when we are connected. Social media taps into this tendency.

“Human brains have essentially evolved because of sociality more than any other thing,” says Sinan Aral, an MIT professor and expert in information technology and marketing. “When you develop a population-scale technology that delivers social signals to the tune of trillions per day in real-time, the rise of social media isn’t unexpected. It’s like tossing a lit match into a pool of gasoline.”

The numbers make this clear. In 2005, about 7 percent of American adults used social media. But by 2017, 80 percent of American adults used Facebook alone. About 3.5 billion people on the planet, out of 7.7 billion, are active social media participants. Globally, during a typical day, people post 500 million tweets, share over 10 billion pieces of Facebook content, and watch over a billion hours of YouTube video.

As social media platforms have grown, though, the once-prevalent, gauzy utopian vision of online community has disappeared. Along with the benefits of easy connectivity and increased information, social media has also become a vehicle for disinformation and political attacks from beyond sovereign borders.

“Social media disrupts our elections, our economy, and our health,” says Aral, who is the David Austin Professor of Management at the MIT Sloan School of Management.

Now Aral has written a book about it. In “The Hype Machine,” published this month by Currency, a Random House imprint, Aral details why social media platforms have become so successful yet so problematic, and suggests ways to improve them.

As Aral notes, the book covers some of the same territory as “The Social Dilemma,” a documentary that is one of the most popular films on Netflix at the moment. But Aral’s book, as he puts it, "starts where ‘The Social Dilemma’ leaves off and goes one step further to ask: What can we do about it?”

“This machine exists in every facet of our lives,” Aral says. “And the question in the book is, what do we do? How do we achieve the promise of this machine and avoid the peril? We’re at a crossroads. What we do next is essential, so I want to equip people, policymakers, and platforms to help us achieve the good outcomes and avoid the bad outcomes.”

When “engagement” equals anger

“The Hype Machine” draws on Aral’s own research about social networks, as well as other findings, from the cognitive sciences, computer science, business, politics, and more. Researchers at the University of California at Los Angeles, for instance, have found that people obtain bigger hits of dopamine — the chemical in our brains highly bound up with motivation and reward — when their social media posts receive more likes.

At the same time, consider a 2018 MIT study by Soroush Vosoughi, an MIT PhD student and now an assistant professor of computer science at Dartmouth College; Deb Roy, MIT professor of media arts and sciences and executive director of the MIT Media Lab; and Aral, who has been studying social networking for 20 years. The three researchers found that on Twitter, from 2006 to 2017, false news stories were 70 percent more likely to be retweeted than true ones. Why? Most likely because false news has greater novelty value compared to the truth, and provokes stronger reactions — especially disgust and surprise.

In this light, the essential tension surrounding social media companies is that their platforms gain audiences and revenue when posts provoke strong emotional responses, often based on dubious content.

“This is a well-designed, well-thought-out machine that has objectives it maximizes,” Aral says. “The business models that run the social-media industrial complex have a lot to do with the outcomes we’re seeing — it’s an attention economy, and businesses want you engaged. How do they get engagement? Well, they give you little dopamine hits, and … get you riled up. That’s why I call it the hype machine. We know strong emotions get us engaged, so [that favors] anger and salacious content.”

From Russia to marketing

“The Hype Machine” explores both the political implications and business dimensions of social media in depth. Certainly social media is fertile terrain for misinformation campaigns. During the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Russia spread  false information to at least 126 million people on Facebook and another 20 million people on Insta­gram (which Facebook owns), and was responsible for 10 million tweets. About 44 percent of adult Americans visited a false news source in the final weeks of the campaign.

“I think we need to be a lot more vigilant than we are,” says Aral.

We do not know if Russia’s efforts altered the outcome of the 2016 election, Aral says, though they may have been fairly effective. Curiously, it is not clear if the same is true of most U.S. corporate engagement efforts.

As Aral examines, digital advertising on most big U.S. online platforms is often wildly ineffective, with academic studies showing that the “lift” generated by ad campaigns — the extent to which they affect consumer action — has been overstated by a factor of hundreds, in some cases. Simply counting clicks on ads is not enough. Instead, online engagement tends to be more effective among new consumers, and when it is targeted well; in that sense, there is a parallel between good marketing and guerilla social media campaigns.

“The two questions I get asked the most these days,” Aral says, “are, one, did Russia succeed in intervening in our democracy? And two, how do I measure the ROI [return on investment] from marketing investments? As I was writing this book, I realized the answer to those two questions is the same.”

Ideas for improvement

“The Hype Machine” has received praise from many commentators. Foster Provost, a professor at New York University’s Stern School of Business, says it is a “masterful integration of science, business, law, and policy.” Duncan Watts, a university professor at the University of Pennsylvania, says the book is “essential reading for anyone who wants to understand how we got here and how we can get somewhere better.”

In that vein, “The Hype Machine” has several detailed suggestions for improving social media. Aral favors automated and user-generated labeling of false news, and limiting revenue-collection that is based on false content. He also calls for firms to help scholars better research the issue of election interference.

Aral believes federal privacy measures could be useful, if we learn from the benefits and missteps of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe and a new California law that lets consumers stop some data-sharing and allows people to find out what information companies have stored about them. He does not endorse breaking up Facebook, and suggests instead that the social media economy needs structural reform. He calls for data portability and interoperability, so “consumers would own their identities and could freely switch from one network to another.” Aral believes that without such fundamental changes, new platforms will simply replace the old ones, propelled by the network effects that drive the social-media economy.

“I do not advocate any one silver bullet,” says Aral, who emphasizes that changes in four areas together — money, code, norms, and laws — can alter the trajectory of the social media industry.

But if things continue without change, Aral adds, Facebook and the other social media giants risk substantial civic backlash and user burnout.

“If you get me angry and riled up, I might click more in the short term, but I might also grow really tired and annoyed by how this is making my life miserable, and I might turn you off entirely,” Aral observes. “I mean, that’s why we have a Delete Facebook movement, that’s why we have a Stop Hate for Profit movement. People are pushing back against the short-term vision, and I think we need to embrace this longer-term vision of a healthier communications ecosystem.”

Changing the social media giants can seem like a tall order. Still, Aral says, these firms are not necessarily destined for domination.

“I don’t think this technology or any other technology has some deterministic endpoint,” Aral says. “I want to bring us back to a more practical reality, which is that technology is what we make it, and we are abdicating our responsibility to steer technology toward good and away from bad. That is the path I try to illuminate in this book.”

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Press mentions.

Prof. Sinan Aral’s new book, “The Hype Machine,” has been selected as one of the best books of the year about AI by Wired . Gilad Edelman notes that Aral’s book is “an engagingly written shortcut to expertise on what the likes of Facebook and Twitter are doing to our brains and our society.”

Prof. Sinan Aral speaks with Danny Crichton of TechCrunch about his new book, “The Hype Machine,” which explores the future of social media. Aral notes that he believes a starting point “for solving the social media crisis is creating competition in the social media economy.” 

New York Times

Prof. Sinan Aral speaks with New York Times editorial board member Greg Bensinger about how social media platforms can reduce the spread of misinformation. “Human-in-the-loop moderation is the right solution,” says Aral. “It’s not a simple silver bullet, but it would give accountability where these companies have in the past blamed software.”

Prof. Sinan Aral speaks with Kara Miller of GBH’s Innovation Hub about his research examining the impact of social media on everything from business re-openings during the Covid-19 pandemic to politics.

Prof. Sinan Aral speaks with NPR’s Michael Martin about his new book, “The Hype Machine,” which explores the benefits and downfalls posed by social media. “I've been researching social media for 20 years. I've seen its evolution and also the techno utopianism and dystopianism,” says Aral. “I thought it was appropriate to have a book that asks, 'what can we do to really fix the social media morass we find ourselves in?'”

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Likes, Shares, and Beyond: Exploring the Impact of Social Media in Essays

Table of contents

• 1 Definition and Explanation of a Social Media Essay
• 2.1 Topics for an Essay on Social Media and Mental Health
• 2.2 Social Dynamics
• 2.3 Social Media Essay Topics about Business
• 2.4 Politics
• 3 Research and Analysis
• 4 Structure Social Media Essay
• 5 Tips for Writing Essays on Social Media
• 6 Examples of Social Media Essays
• 7 Navigating the Social Media Labyrinth: Key Insights

In the world of digital discourse, our article stands as a beacon for those embarking on the intellectual journey of writing about social media. It is a comprehensive guide for anyone venturing into the dynamic world of social media essays. Offering various topics about social media and practical advice on selecting engaging subjects, the piece delves into research methodologies, emphasizing the importance of credible sources and trend analysis. Furthermore, it provides invaluable tips on structuring essays, including crafting compelling thesis statements and hooks balancing factual information with personal insights. Concluding with examples of exemplary essays, this article is an essential tool for students and researchers alike, aiding in navigating the intricate landscape of its impact on society.

Definition and Explanation of a Social Media Essay

Essentially, when one asks “What is a social media essay?” they are referring to an essay that analyzes, critiques, or discusses its various dimensions and effects. These essays can range from the psychological implications of its use to its influence on politics, business strategies, and social dynamics.

A social media essay is an academic or informational piece that explores various aspects of social networking platforms and their impact on individuals and society.

In crafting such an essay, writers blend personal experiences, analytical perspectives, and empirical data to paint a full picture of social media’s role. For instance, a social media essay example could examine how these platforms mold public opinion, revolutionize digital marketing strategies, or raise questions about data privacy ethics. Through a mix of thorough research, critical analysis, and personal reflections, these essays provide a layered understanding of one of today’s most pivotal digital phenomena.

Great Social Media Essay Topics

When it comes to selecting a topic for your essay, consider its current relevance, societal impact, and personal interest. Whether exploring the effects on business, politics, mental health, or social dynamics, these social media essay titles offer a range of fascinating social media topic ideas. Each title encourages an exploration of the intricate relationship between social media and our daily lives. A well-chosen topic should enable you to investigate the impact of social media, debate ethical dilemmas, and offer unique insights. Striking the right balance in scope, these topics should align with the objectives of your essays, ensuring an informative and captivating read.

Topics for an Essay on Social Media and Mental Health

• The Impact of Social Media on Self-Esteem.
• Unpacking Social Media Addiction: Causes, Effects, and Solutions.
• Analyzing Social Media’s Role as a Catalyst for Teen Depression and Anxiety.
• Social Media and Mental Health Awareness: A Force for Good?
• The Psychological Impacts of Cyberbullying in the Social Media Age.
• The Effects of Social Media on Sleep and Mental Health.
• Strategies for Positive Mental Health in the Era of Social Media.
• Real-Life vs. Social Media Interactions: An Essay on Mental Health Aspects.
• The Mental Well-Being Benefits of a Social Media Detox.
• Social Comparison Psychology in the Realm of Social Media.

Social Dynamics

• Social Media and its Impact on Interpersonal Communication Skills: A Cause and Effect Essay on Social Media.
• Cultural Integration through Social Media: A New Frontier.
• Interpersonal Communication in the Social Media Era: Evolving Skills and Challenges.
• Community Building and Social Activism: The Role of Social Media.
• Youth Culture and Behavior: The Influence of Social Media.
• Privacy and Personal Boundaries: Navigating Social Media Challenges.
• Language Evolution in Social Media: A Dynamic Shift.
• Leveraging Social Media for Social Change and Awareness.
• Family Dynamics in the Social Media Landscape.
• Friendship in the Age of Social Media: An Evolving Concept.

Social Media Essay Topics about Business

• Influencer Marketing on Social Media: Impact and Ethics.
• Brand Building and Customer Engagement: The Power of Social Media.
• The Ethics and Impact of Influencer Marketing in Social Media.
• Measuring Business Success Through Social Media Analytics.
• The Changing Face of Advertising in the Social Media World.
• Revolutionizing Customer Service in the Social Media Era.
• Market Research and Consumer Insights: The Social Media Advantage.
• Small Businesses and Startups: The Impact of Social Media.
• Ethical Dimensions of Social Media Advertising.
• Consumer Behavior and Social Media: An Intricate Relationship.
• The Role of Social Media in Government Transparency and Accountability
• Social Media’s Impact on Political Discourse and Public Opinion.
• Combating Fake News on Social Media: Implications for Democracy.
• Political Mobilization and Activism: The Power of Social Media.
• Social Media: A New Arena for Political Debates and Discussions.
• Government Transparency and Accountability in the Social Media Age.
• Voter Behavior and Election Outcomes: The Social Media Effect.
• Political Polarization: A Social Media Perspective.
• Tackling Political Misinformation on Social Media Platforms.
• The Ethics of Political Advertising in the Social Media Landscape.
• Memes as a Marketing Tool: Successes, Failures, and Pros of Social Media.
• Shaping Public Opinion with Memes: A Social Media Phenomenon.
• Political Satire and Social Commentary through Memes.
• The Psychology Behind Memes: Understanding Their Viral Nature.
• The Influence of Memes on Language and Communication.
• Tracing the History and Evolution of Internet Memes.
• Memes in Online Communities: Culture and Subculture Formation.
• Navigating Copyright and Legal Issues in the World of Memes.
• Memes as a Marketing Strategy: Analyzing Successes and Failures.
• Memes and Global Cultural Exchange: A Social Media Perspective.

Research and Analysis

In today’s fast-paced information era, the ability to sift through vast amounts of data and pinpoint reliable information is more crucial than ever. Research and analysis in the digital age hinge on identifying credible sources and understanding the dynamic landscape. Initiating your research with reputable websites is key. Academic journals, government publications, and established news outlets are gold standards for reliable information. Online databases and libraries provide a wealth of peer-reviewed articles and books. For websites, prioritize those with domains like .edu, .gov, or .org, but always critically assess the content for bias and accuracy. Turning to social media, it’s a trove of real-time data and trends but requires a discerning approach. Focus on verified accounts and official pages of recognized entities.

Analyzing current trends and user behavior is crucial for staying relevant. Platforms like Google Trends, Twitter Analytics, and Facebook Insights offer insights into what’s resonating with audiences. These tools help identify trending topics, hashtags, and the type of content that engages users. Remember, it reflects and influences public opinion and behavior. Observing user interactions, comments, and shares can provide a deeper understanding of consumer attitudes and preferences. This analysis is invaluable for tailoring content, developing marketing strategies, and staying ahead in a rapidly evolving digital landscape.

Structure Social Media Essay

In constructing a well-rounded structure for a social media essay, it’s crucial to begin with a strong thesis statement. This sets the foundation for essays about social media and guides the narrative.

Thesis Statements

A thesis statement is the backbone of your essay, outlining the main argument or position you will explore throughout the text. It guides the narrative, providing a clear direction for your essay and helping readers understand the focus of your analysis or argumentation. Here are some thesis statements:

• “Social media has reshaped communication, fostering a connected world through instant information sharing, yet it has come at the cost of privacy and genuine social interaction.”
• “While social media platforms act as potent instruments for societal and political transformation, they present significant challenges to mental health and the authenticity of information.”
• “The role of social media in contemporary business transcends mere marketing; it impacts customer relationships, shapes brand perception, and influences operational strategies.”

Social Media Essay Hooks

Social media essay hooks are pivotal in grabbing the reader’s attention right from the beginning and compelling them to continue reading. A well-crafted hook acts as the engaging entry point to your essay, setting the tone and framing the context for the discussion that will follow.

Here are some effective social media essay hooks:

• “In a world where a day without social media is unimaginable, its pervasive presence is both a testament to its utility and a source of various societal issues.”
• “Each scroll, like, and share on social media platforms carries the weight of influencing public opinion and shaping global conversations.”
• “Social media has become so ingrained in our daily lives that its absence would render the modern world unrecognizable.”

Introduction:

Navigating the digital landscape, an introduction for a social media essay serves as a map, charting the terrain of these platforms’ broad influence across various life aspects. This section should briefly summarize the scope of the essay, outlining both the benefits and the drawbacks, and segue into the thesis statement.

When we move to the body part of the essay, it offers an opportunity for an in-depth exploration and discussion. It can be structured first to examine the positive aspects of social media, including improved communication channels, innovative marketing strategies, and the facilitation of social movements. Following this, the essay should address the negative implications, such as issues surrounding privacy, the impact on mental health, and the proliferation of misinformation. Incorporating real-world examples, statistical evidence, and expert opinions throughout the essay will provide substantial support for the arguments presented.

Conclusion:

It is the summit of the essay’s exploration, offering a moment to look back on the terrain covered. The conclusion should restate the thesis in light of the discussions presented in the body. It should summarize the key points made, reflecting on the multifaceted influence of social media in contemporary society. The essay should end with a thought-provoking statement or question about the future role of social media, tying back to the initial hooks and ensuring a comprehensive and engaging end to the discourse.

Tips for Writing Essays on Social Media

In the ever-evolving realm of digital dialogue, mastering the art of essay writing on social media is akin to navigating a complex web of virtual interactions and influences. Writing an essay on social media requires a blend of analytical insight, factual accuracy, and a nuanced understanding of the digital landscape. Here are some tips to craft a compelling essay:

• Incorporate Statistical Data and Case Studies

Integrate statistical data and relevant case studies to lend credibility to your arguments. For instance, usage statistics, growth trends, and demographic information can provide a solid foundation for your points. Case studies, especially those highlighting its impact on businesses, politics, or societal change, offer concrete examples that illustrate your arguments. Ensure your sources are current and reputable to maintain the essay’s integrity.

• Balance Personal Insights with Factual Information

While personal insights can add a unique perspective to your essay, balancing them with factual information is crucial. Personal observations and experiences can make your essay relatable and engaging, but grounding these insights in factual data ensures credibility and helps avoid bias.

• Respect Privacy

When discussing real-world examples or case studies, especially those involving individuals or specific organizations, be mindful of privacy concerns. Avoid sharing sensitive information, and always respect the confidentiality of your sources.

• Maintain an Objective Tone

It is a polarizing topic, but maintaining an objective tone in your essay is essential. Avoid emotional language and ensure that your arguments are supported by evidence. An objective approach allows readers to form opinions based on the information presented.

• Use Jargon Wisely

While using social media-specific terminology can make your essay relevant and informed, it’s important to use jargon judiciously. Avoid overuse and ensure that terms are clearly defined for readers who might not be familiar with their lingo.

Examples of Social Media Essays

Title: The Dichotomy of Social Media: A Tool for Connection and a Platform for Division

Introduction

In the digital era, social media has emerged as a paradoxical entity. It serves as a bridge connecting distant corners of the world and a battleground for conflicting ideologies. This essay explores this dichotomy, utilizing statistical data, case studies, and real-world examples to understand its multifaceted impact on society.

Section 1 – Connection Through Social Media:

Social media’s primary allure lies in its ability to connect. A report by the Pew Research Center shows that 72% of American adults use some form of social media, where interactions transcend geographical and cultural barriers. This statistic highlights the platform’s popularity and role in fostering global connections. An exemplary case study of this is the #MeToo movement. Originating as a hashtag on Twitter, it grew into a global campaign against sexual harassment, demonstrating its power to mobilize and unify people for a cause.

However, personal insights suggest that while it bridges distances, it can also create a sense of isolation. Users often report feeling disconnected from their immediate surroundings, hinting at the platform’s double-edged nature. Despite enabling connections on a global scale, social media can paradoxically alienate individuals from their local context.

Section 2 – The Platform for Division

Conversely, social media can amplify societal divisions. Its algorithm-driven content can create echo chambers, reinforcing users’ preexisting beliefs. A study by the Knight Foundation found that it tends to polarize users, especially in political contexts, leading to increased division. This is further exacerbated by the spread of misinformation, as seen in the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election case, where it was used to disseminate false information, influencing public opinion and deepening societal divides.

Respecting privacy and maintaining an objective tone, it is crucial to acknowledge that social media is not divisive. Its influence is determined by both its usage and content. Thus, it is the obligation of both platforms to govern content and consumers to access information.

In conclusion, it is a complex tool. It has the unparalleled ability to connect individuals worldwide while possessing the power to divide. Balancing the personal insights with factual information presented, it’s clear that its influence is a reflection of how society chooses to wield it. As digital citizens, it is imperative to use it judiciously, understanding its potential to unite and divide.

Delving into the intricacies of social media’s impact necessitates not just a keen eye for detail but an analytical mindset to dissect its multifaceted layers. Analysis is paramount because it allows us to navigate through the vast sea of information, distinguishing between mere opinion and well-supported argumentation.

This essay utilizes tips for writing a social media essay. Statistical data from the Pew Research Center and the Knight Foundation lend credibility to the arguments. The use of the #MeToo movement as a case study illustrates its positive impact, while the reference to the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election demonstrates its negative aspects. The essay balances personal insights with factual information, respects privacy, maintains an objective tone, and appropriately uses jargon. The structure is clear and logical, with distinct sections for each aspect of its impact, making it an informative and well-rounded analysis of its role in modern society.

Navigating the Social Media Labyrinth: Key Insights

In the digital age, the impact of social media on various aspects of human life has become a critical area of study. This article has provided a comprehensive guide for crafting insightful and impactful essays on this subject, blending personal experiences with analytical rigor. Through a detailed examination of topics ranging from mental health and social dynamics to business and politics, it has underscored the dual nature of social media as both a unifying and divisive force. The inclusion of statistical data and case studies has enriched the discussion, offering a grounded perspective on the nuanced effects of these platforms.

The tips and structures outlined serve as a valuable framework for writers to navigate the complex interplay between social media and societal shifts. As we conclude, it’s clear that understanding social media’s role requires a delicate balance of critical analysis and open-mindedness. Reflecting on its influence, this article guides the creation of thoughtful essays and encourages readers to ponder the future of digital interactions and their implications for the fabric of society.

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Social Media, Globalization, and the Right to Drive

By Christina Grossi

Published: July 31, 2020

As Saudi Arabia rose to become a global economic power, largely due to its vast oil reserves, the once little-known country became subject to the global spotlight. International scrutiny is particularly intense regarding women's rights in Saudi Arabia, and since the early 2000s, this controversy has centered around the movement by women in Saudi Arabia protesting the ban on women's driving. The legal ban on women driving in Saudi Arabia originated in 1990, when around fifty women drove cars through public streets in defiance of cultural stigma around women driving, which some called an "unofficial ban" (Doumato 34). In response, the Saudi Ministry of Interior introduced the official, legal ban, which the Saudi government upheld and enforced until June of 2018, when the government lifted the ban, granting Saudi women the right to drive without fear of legal repercussions (Doumato 34; Van Sant).

The government's decision to grant women the right to drive surprised many, given Saudi Arabia's conservative stance on social issues. The Saudi Arabian government is a religious monarchy, and as such, "Islam is totally ingrained in the fabric of contemporary Saudi life" (Pharaon 349). The actions of the government must follow Islamic practices, as "Shari'a (Islamic doctrine) is the law and constitution of the land" (Pharaon 349). In the case of women's driving, the Supreme Council of Islamic Research supported the government's decision to ban women from driving by issuing an official statement that, according to their interpretation of Islam, "women should not be allowed to drive motor vehicles as the shari'a instructs that things that degrade or harm the dignity of women must be prevented" (Doumato 35). Given the conservative nature of Saudi Arabian society and the prominent role of Islam in deciding Saudi laws and practices, the decision to grant women the right to drive seems out of place. This huge shift in women's rights policy in Saudi Arabia prompts the following questions: What were the most significant factors that led to the lifting of the ban on women driving in Saudi Arabia? How did the rise of social media and the internet impact the movement to give women the right to drive? How did globalization play a role in the Saudi Arabian government's decision to allow women to drive? There are likely other forces that impacted the decision to allow women to drive, but for the purposes of this paper, I will focus on globalization and social media as the primary causes of this decision. I define globalization as "the connection of different parts of the world…[resulting] in the expansion of international cultural, economic, and political activities" ("Globalization"); I define social media as "forms of online communication through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content" ("Social Media"). In this paper, I will argue that social media brought global attention to the issue of women driving in Saudi Arabia, which, combined with economic globalization, forced the Saudi Arabian government to give in to international pressure and lift the driving ban.

History of Control

Since the 1980s and 1990s, control over women has been a defining feature in Saudi Arabian society. Along with the implementation of the ban on women's driving, the Saudi Arabian government enacted a series of other laws designed to control women in society on the basis of Islamic conservatism. One example of this is the system of gender segregation, under which schools, universities, charitable organizations, hospitals, restaurants, government offices, and other public spaces are segregated by gender throughout the country (Meijer). Another is the male guardianship system, which is the most comprehensive law controlling women in Saudi Arabia today. Under the male guardianship system, "adult women must obtain permission from a male guardian—usually a husband, father, brother, or son—to travel abroad, obtain a passport, marry, or be discharged from prison" ("World Report"). The system treats women as far inferior to men, to the extent that an adult woman may be forced to obey the will of her own son.

The implementation of these controlling laws provides a counterargument to one of the primary assertions of this paper, the assertion that globalization has been a modernizing force in Saudi Arabia. During this period, it was the opposite. Saudi Arabia became increasingly connected with the world during the 1980s and 1990s, but rather than encouraging egalitarian social reforms, contact with more liberal societies pushed the Saudi Arabian government the other way (Pharaon 356). Saudi Arabia sought to preserve its cultural traditionalism in the face of globalization, and used women as "the bearers of their culture's authenticity […] made to serve as boundary markers" (Pharaon 356). Particularly as the home of Mecca and Medinah, the two holiest cities in Islam, Saudi leaders felt pressure to maintain their Muslim identity through laws that would ensure that women stayed in their traditional role (Pharaon 350).

Although globalization was a force for conservatism in the 1980s and 1990s, its influence in the Saudi Arabian government changed over time. Laws that control women, such as the driving ban and the male guardianship system, may have been enacted as a response to globalization, but the movement to overthrow them also has its roots in increasing international connectedness. In this way, globalization has both encouraged social reform in Saudi Arabia and created barriers to it. However, in the case of the movement for women's driving, globalization has forced the Saudi Arabian government to make social change.

Social Media

As a conservative state with concerns about controlling freedom of speech by its citizens, the Saudi Arabian government was cautious when first introducing the internet to the country. Internet was not implemented in Saudi Arabia until the late 1990s, and then it was only available through a government-controlled and regulated monopoly (Teitelbaum 224). Perhaps the Saudi Arabian government was right in being cautious; with the rise of the Internet, the world has seen that it is "homogenizing, and to a large degree, Americanizing" (Teitelbaum 223). The Americanization that the Internet brings can have a liberalizing impact on more conservative countries, often bringing with it demands for freedom of speech and equality. In Saudi Arabia, this effect has been most prominent amongst women. The majority of Internet users in Saudi Arabia are women, with estimates ranging from just over half to two-thirds of Saudi internet users being female (Altoaimy 3; Teitelbaum 234).

Given the vast numbers of Saudi women on the Internet and the heavy control exercised over women's movements in Saudi Arabia, it should be no surprise that the Internet quickly became a liberalizing force in the country. The anonymity of chat rooms allows users to discuss subjects that would be suppressed in public conversation, such as the issue of women being granted the right to drive (Teitelbaum 234). Online social media platforms give women the ability to express their thoughts and opinions publicly with more freedom than ever before (Altoaimy 3). This is particularly important in Saudi society, where group activism and feminism are not socially accepted. The term "feminist" is rarely used amongst Saudi women, even among those who believe in women's rights, and women's groups avoid the term "activist" even when their actions would be interpreted as such by many in the Western world (Al-Dabbagh 236-7). Because of the negative connotations around group activism and feminism in Saudi society, online social media platforms have been particularly helpful for the women's rights movement in Saudi Arabia. The Internet allows like-minded women to share their views from home without meeting with a group in person, an action that would likely be labeled as "feminist." The Internet has increased the ease with which Saudi women can partake in discussions surrounding women's rights issues.

Women in the pro-driving campaign used Twitter in a variety of ways. They used the platform to undermine religious justifications for the driving ban by examining inconsistencies in religious scholarship surrounding the issues and by criticizing the institutions that provided the Saudi government with Islamic support for the ban (Altoaimy 6). The movement did not call for the abolishment of religious institutions and practices in Saudi Arabia, but instead showed how Islam provides justification for granting women the right to drive (Altoaimy 7). Tweets from the women's driving movement also discussed the economic hardships the ban brought on women, as well as broader appeals for women's rights in the country (Altoaimy 8). None of these discussions would have been possible without the Internet, as these subjects are taboo in Saudi society. In particular, it allowed women to spread their ideas to men; given the gender-segregated nature of Saudi society, the Internet is one of the only places in the country where women and men can discuss controversial topics together (Altoaimy 8). Twitter gave the women's driving movement a platform to explain their position and to spread their ideas to others without being immediately dismissed as radical, as they likely would have been outside of the Internet.

Along with spreading awareness inside of the country, the global interconnectedness of the Internet also allows Saudis to discuss such topics with the rest of the world, drawing new attention to issues of gender in Saudi Arabia. Many of the women who protested the ban by driving cars illegally in Saudi Arabia posted videos of their protests to YouTube, where viewers could watch from around the world. This aspect of social media is perhaps the most influential when considering the Saudi Arabian government's decision to give women the right to drive. For several years, YouTube videos of Saudi women driving and being arrested circulated throughout the world, providing a powerful visual reminder that they were jailed for doing something that many consider an everyday occurrence. These videos drew unprecedented awareness of the issue of women's rights in Saudi Arabia. Major Western news organizations amplified these videos, covering the stories of the women protesting the driving ban. Because of the rise of social media, the Saudi Arabian government now faced a global public relations disaster.

The rise of social media and the Internet acted as a catalyst in Saudi Arabia, allowing women to draw attention to the ban on women driving both domestically and internationally. It allowed female activists to share their views from home despite the strict controls placed on them. The importance of this heightened awareness should not be understated; without it, the ban on women's driving likely would not have been lifted, as the international community would not have been as knowledgeable about this issue. However, social media was not the only factor in the lifting of the ban. Globalization and international pressure, particularly economic pressure, forced the Saudi Arabian government to account for the issue highlighted by activists.

Globalization

Over recent decades, the global economy has become increasingly interconnected through technology, bringing countries in closer contact with one another than ever before. Nations are less independent than they once were, as they must answer to the international community both through diplomatic and political channels such as the United Nations, and economically through their trade partners. Saudi Arabia's vast oil reserves may once have shielded them from the political pressures of their trade partners, but as the price of oil has fallen and the world attempts to shift away from oil, they are no longer an invincible economic power.

Saudi Arabia controls a quarter of the world's recognized oil reserves, and their economy has long been heavily reliant on the influx of money that oil brings with it (Pharaon 350). However, the price of crude oil has fallen in recent years, demonstrated here by prices in the United States, a primary consumer of oil in the global economy. From 2011 to 2014, the United States average first purchase price of crude oil was $93.51 per barrel; by contrast, from 2015 to 2018, it was $48.04 ("US Crude Oil"). Dropping oil prices could mean disaster for the Saudi Arabian economy, particularly as the population in Saudi Arabia grows. With more citizens, the per capita wealth generated from oil production is far less than it once was, and continues to fall (Pharaon 350). The price of oil also fluctuates dramatically. In July of 2008, the US first purchase price was $128.08 per barrel, but by January of 2009, six months later, the price had fallen to $35 per barrel. Such dramatic fluctuations in oil price, coupled with falling oil prices, make the Saudi Arabian economy unstable and likely to decline.

In the face of an impending economic slowdown, the Saudi Arabian government now looks to diversify, stabilize, and drive growth in its economy. Their new Crown Prince, Mohammed bin Salman, initiated "Vision 2030," which outlines his vision for the future of Saudi Arabia. It includes reducing Saudi dependence on oil, diversifying its economy, and improving women's rights in the country (Van Sant). The inclusion of women's rights amongst economic goals indicates that Saudi Arabia feels pressure from the international community to meet the political and social norms that come along with globalization. The United Nations has pressured the Saudi Arabian government to make significant changes to the women's rights situation in the country, and it "continues to exert significant efforts to hold the Arab states accountable to improve the status of its women" (Pharaon 352). It has further called for Saudi Arabia to adopt an anti-discrimination law ("World Report"). In particular, the ban on female drivers has been "widely criticized" by the international community (Van Sant).

The lifting of the ban on women's driving directly coincides with economic and political difficulties in the Saudi Arabian government, suggesting that the ban was lifted in response to international pressures. Mohammed bin Salman's campaign to portray himself as a champion of women's rights supports this idea. The move to allow women's driving has been "touted as part of Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman's promise to push through reforms and modernise the conservative kingdom" (Al Omran). Some feel that this does not acknowledge the role of female activists who protested the ban. Seven of the most prominent activists were arrested on charges of "suspicious contact with foreign entities" just weeks before the ban was officially lifted (Al Omran). According to one activist, they were "held in solitary confinement, beaten, waterboarded, given electric shocks, sexually harassed and threatened with rape and murder" (Al-Hathloul). Other activists have stated that the government warned them against commenting on the women's driving issue (Al Omran). The timing of the arrests, threats, and maltreatment suggest that these activists were jailed in order to prevent them from taking credit for the lifting of the ban, even though, as previously discussed, their actions were a primary factor in bringing attention to the issue of women driving in Saudi Arabia. Mohammed bin Salman does not want to give credit to civilians for bringing about this change, as this would challenge the power of the Saudi Arabian monarchy. Instead, he seeks to take full credit for this modernizing act so as to create the appearance that the Saudi Arabian government is becoming more modern and egalitarian.

Globalization, economic problems, and the rise of social media drove the Saudi Arabian government's decision to lift the ban on women's driving. Social media increased awareness of the issue both inside the country and out. Domestically, social media enabled Saudis to discuss issues of gender in unprecedented open conversations, while internationally, it increased the pressure on the Saudi Arabian government to modernize by giving the world a firsthand look at the women's rights situation inside of the country. The decline of the Saudi Arabian economy forced the government to concede to the demands of its trade partners and the global community. All of these factors acting together forced the Saudi Arabian government to take this step towards modernization, or risk being left behind in an increasingly interconnected world.

After the ban was lifted, Saudi Arabian women celebrated their newly-granted right to drive by arriving en masse to become licensed drivers. One even commemorated the occasion with a rap music video (Kreps). However, there is undoubtedly a shadow over this happy change for women in the country. Even as women have the right to drive, many of the activists who had a major role in making the policy change remain in jail. Women all over the country remain at a disadvantage to their male counterparts, as laws that forbid women to travel without the approval of a male guardian persist ("World Report"). In Saudi Arabia, as in many countries around the world, there remains work to be done in order to have true gender equality.

The example of Saudi Arabian women winning the right to drive provides a model for how social media can be used to make social change. Although social media was not the only factor in this case, it played a large role in drawing attention to the issue and putting pressure on the government to amend the law. Without social media, this issue would likely have gotten much less attention, both within Saudi Arabian society and in other countries around the world. One can hope that marginalized groups around the world will harness the power of social media in a similar way, so that it can continue to be a force for good.

Works Cited

Al-Dabbagh, May. "Saudi Arabian Women and Group Activism." Journal of Middle East Women's Studies , vol. 11, no. 2, 2015, pp. 235-237. Project MUSE . Accessed 22 March 2019.

Al-Hathloul, Alia. "My Sister is in a Saudi Prison. Will Mike Pompeo Stay Silent?" New York Times , 13 January 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/13/opinion/saudi-women-rights-activist-prison-pompeo.html . Accessed 25 March 2019.

Al Omran, Ahmed. "Saudi Arabia Arrests Campaigners Who Challenged Women Driving Ban." Financial Times , 18 May 2018. ProQuest , http://proxy.library.nd.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/2072460548?accountid=12874 . Accessed 22 March 2019.

Altoaimy, Lama. "Driving Change on Twitter: A Corpus-Assisted Discourse Analysis of the Twitter Debates on the Saudi Ban on Women Driving." Social Sciences vol. 7, no. 5, 2018, pp. 81. Crossref . Accessed 24 March 2019.

Doumato, Eleanor Abdella. "Women and the Stability of Saudi Arabia." Middle East Report vol. 171, 1991, pp. 34-37. JSTOR . www.jstor.org/stable/3013073 . Accessed 22 March 2019.

"Globalization." National Geographic Resource Library. National Geographic Society, 28 March 2011, https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/globalization . Accessed 12 April 2019.

Kreps, Daniel. "Saudi Female Rapper Celebrates Lift of Driving Ban with New Video." Rolling Stone , 29 June 2018, https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/saudi-female-rapper-celebrates-lift-of-driving-ban-with-new-video-667066/ . Accessed 3 April 2019.

Meijer, Roel. "Reform in Saudi Arabia: The Gender-Segregation Debate." Middle East Policy Council, n.d., http://mepc.org/reform-saudi-arabia-gender-segregation-debate . Accessed 3 April 2019.

Pharaon, Nora Alarifi. "Saudi Women and the Muslim State in the Twenty-First Century." Sex Roles vol. 51, no. 5-6, 2004, pp. 349-366 . ProQuest , doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000046618.62910.ef. Accessed 23 March 2019.

"Social Media." Merriam-Webster.com . Merriam Webster, n.d., https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social%20media . Accessed 12 April 2019.

Teitelbaum, Joshua. "Dueling for 'Da'wa': State vs. Society on the Saudi Internet." Middle East Journal vol. 56, no. 2, 2002, pp. 222–239. JSTOR , www.jstor.org/stable/4329752 . Accessed 23 March 2019.

"U.S. Crude Oil First Purchase Price (Dollars per Barrel)." U.S. Energy Information Administration , 1 March 2019, www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=PET&s=F000000__3&f=M . Accessed 24 March 2019.

Van Sant, Shannon. "Saudi Arabia Lifts Ban on Female Drivers." NPR, 24 June 2018, https://www.npr.org/2018/06/24/622990978/saudi-arabia-lifts-ban-on-women-drivers . Accessed 25 March 2019.

"World Report 2019: Saudi Arabia." Human Rights Watch , 2019, https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/saudi-arabia . Accessed 25 March 2019.

Christina Grossi

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11.4 The Effects of the Internet and Globalization on Popular Culture and Interpersonal Communication

Learning objectives.

• Describe the effects of globalization on culture.
• Identify the possible effects of news migrating to the Internet.
• Define the Internet paradox.

It’s in the name: World Wide Web . The Internet has broken down communication barriers between cultures in a way that could only be dreamed of in earlier generations. Now, almost any news service across the globe can be accessed on the Internet and, with the various translation services available (like Babelfish and Google Translate), be relatively understandable. In addition to the spread of American culture throughout the world, smaller countries are now able to cheaply export culture, news, entertainment, and even propaganda.

The Internet has been a key factor in driving globalization in recent years. Many jobs can now be outsourced entirely via the Internet. Teams of software programmers in India can have a website up and running in very little time, for far less money than it would take to hire American counterparts. Communicating with these teams is now as simple as sending e-mails and instant messages back and forth, and often the most difficult aspect of setting up an international video conference online is figuring out the time difference. Especially for electronic services such as software, outsourcing over the Internet has greatly reduced the cost to develop a professionally coded site.

Electronic Media and the Globalization of Culture

The increase of globalization has been an economic force throughout the last century, but economic interdependency is not its only by-product. At its core, globalization is the lowering of economic and cultural impediments to communication between countries all over the globe. Globalization in the sphere of culture and communication can take the form of access to foreign newspapers (without the difficulty of procuring a printed copy) or, conversely, the ability of people living in previously closed countries to communicate experiences to the outside world relatively cheaply.

TV, especially satellite TV, has been one of the primary ways for American entertainment to reach foreign shores. This trend has been going on for some time now, for example, with the launch of MTV Arabia (Arango, 2008). American popular culture is, and has been, a crucial export.

At the Eisenhower Fellowship Conference in Singapore in 2005, U.S. ambassador Frank Lavin gave a defense of American culture that differed somewhat from previous arguments. It would not be all Starbucks, MTV, or Baywatch , he said, because American culture is more diverse than that. Instead, he said that “America is a nation of immigrants,” and asked, “When Mel Gibson or Jackie Chan come to the United States to produce a movie, whose culture is being exported (Lavin, 2005)?” This idea of a truly globalized culture—one in which content can be distributed as easily as it can be received—now has the potential to be realized through the Internet. While some political and social barriers still remain, from a technological standpoint there is nothing to stop the two-way flow of information and culture across the globe.

China, Globalization, and the Internet

The scarcity of artistic resources, the time lag of transmission to a foreign country, and censorship by the host government are a few of the possible impediments to transmission of entertainment and culture. China provides a valuable example of the ways the Internet has helped to overcome (or highlight) all three of these hurdles.

China, as the world’s most populous country and one of its leading economic powers, has considerable clout when it comes to the Internet. In addition, the country is ruled by a single political party that uses censorship extensively in an effort to maintain control. Because the Internet is an open resource by nature, and because China is an extremely well-connected country—with 22.5 percent (roughly 300 million people, or the population of the entire United States) of the country online as of 2008 (Google, 2010)—China has been a case study in how the Internet makes resistance to globalization increasingly difficult.

Figure 11.7

China has more Internet users than any other country.

On January 21, 2010, Hillary Clinton gave a speech in front of the Newseum in Washington, DC, where she said, “We stand for a single Internet where all of humanity has equal access to knowledge and ideas (Ryan & Halper, 2010).” That same month, Google decided it would stop censoring search results on Google.cn, its Chinese-language search engine, as a result of a serious cyber-attack on the company originating in China. In addition, Google stated that if an agreement with the Chinese government could not be reached over the censorship of search results, Google would pull out of China completely. Because Google has complied (albeit uneasily) with the Chinese government in the past, this change in policy was a major reversal.

Withdrawing from one of the largest expanding markets in the world is shocking coming from a company that has been aggressively expanding into foreign markets. This move highlights the fundamental tension between China’s censorship policy and Google’s core values. Google’s company motto, “Don’t be evil,” had long been at odds with its decision to censor search results in China. Google’s compliance with the Chinese government did not help it make inroads into the Chinese Internet search market—although Google held about a quarter of the market in China, most of the search traffic went to the tightly controlled Chinese search engine Baidu. However, Google’s departure from China would be a blow to antigovernment forces in the country. Since Baidu has a closer relationship with the Chinese government, political dissidents tend to use Google’s Gmail, which uses encrypted servers based in the United States. Google’s threat to withdraw from China raises the possibility that globalization could indeed hit roadblocks due to the ways that foreign governments may choose to censor the Internet.

New Media: Internet Convergence and American Society

One only needs to go to CNN’s official Twitter feed and begin to click random faces in the “Following” column to see the effect of media convergence through the Internet. Hundreds of different options abound, many of them individual journalists’ Twitter feeds, and many of those following other journalists. Considering CNN’s motto, “The most trusted name in network news,” its presence on Twitter might seem at odds with providing in-depth, reliable coverage. After all, how in-depth can 140 characters get?

The truth is that many of these traditional media outlets use Twitter not as a communication tool in itself, but as a way to allow viewers to aggregate a large amount of information they may have missed. Instead of visiting multiple home pages to see the day’s top stories from multiple viewpoints, Twitter users only have to check their own Twitter pages to get updates from all the organizations they “follow.” Media conglomerates then use Twitter as part of an overall integration of media outlets; the Twitter feed is there to support the news content, not to report the content itself.

Internet-Only Sources

The threshold was crossed in 2008: The Internet overtook print media as a primary source of information for national and international news in the U.S. Television is still far in the lead, but especially among younger demographics, the Internet is quickly catching up as a way to learn about the day’s news. With 40 percent of the public receiving their news from the Internet (see Figure 11.8 ) (Pew Research Center for the People, 2008), media outlets have been scrambling to set up large presences on the web. Yet one of the most remarkable shifts has been in the establishment of online-only news sources.

Figure 11.8

Americans now receive more national and international news from the Internet than they do from newspapers.

The conventional argument claims that the anonymity and the echo chamber of the Internet undermine worthwhile news reporting, especially for topics that are expensive to report on. The ability of large news organizations to put reporters in the field is one of their most important contributions and (because of its cost) is often one of the first things to be cut back during times of budget problems. However, as the Internet has become a primary news source for more and more people, new media outlets—publications existing entirely online—have begun to appear.

In 2006, two reporters for the Washington Post , John F. Harris and Jim VandeHei, left the newspaper to start a politically centered website called Politico. Rather than simply repeating the day’s news in a blog, they were determined to start a journalistically viable news organization on the web. Four years later, the site has over 6,000,000 unique monthly visitors and about a hundred staff members, and there is now a Politico reporter on almost every White House trip (Wolff, 2009).

Far from being a collection of amateurs trying to make it big on the Internet, Politico’s senior White House correspondent is Mike Allen, who previously wrote for The New York Times , Washington Post , and Time . His daily Playbook column appears at around 7 a.m. each morning and is read by much of the politically centered media. The different ways that Politico reaches out to its supporters—blogs, Twitter feeds, regular news articles, and now even a print edition—show how media convergence has even occurred within the Internet itself. The interactive nature of its services and the active comment boards on the site also show how the media have become a two-way street: more of a public forum than a straight news service.

“Live” From New York …

Top-notch political content is not the only medium moving to the Internet, however. Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) has built an entire entertainment model around its broadcast time slot. Every weekend, around 11:40 p.m. on Saturday, someone interrupts a skit, turns toward the camera, shouts “Live from New York, it’s Saturday Night!” and the band starts playing. Yet the show’s sketch comedy style also seems to lend itself to the watch-anytime convenience of the Internet. In fact, the online TV service Hulu carries a full eight episodes of SNL at any given time, with regular 3.5-minute commercial breaks replaced by Hulu-specific minute-long advertisements. The time listed for an SNL episode on Hulu is just over an hour—a full half-hour less than the time it takes to watch it live on Saturday night.

Hulu calls its product “online premium video,” primarily because of its desire to attract not the YouTube amateur, but rather a partnership of large media organizations. Although many networks, like NBC and Comedy Central, stream video on their websites, Hulu builds its business by offering a legal way to see all these shows on the same site; a user can switch from South Park to SNL with a single click, rather than having to move to a different website.

Premium Online Video Content

Hulu’s success points to a high demand among Internet users for a wide variety of content collected and packaged in one easy-to-use interface. Hulu was rated the Website of the Year by the Associated Press (Coyle, 2008) and even received an Emmy nomination for a commercial featuring Alec Baldwin and Tina Fey, the stars of the NBC comedy 30 Rock (Neil, 2009). Hulu’s success has not been the product of the usual dot-com underdog startup, however. Its two parent companies, News Corporation and NBC Universal, are two of the world’s media giants. In many ways, this was a logical step for these companies to take after fighting online video for so long. In December 2005, the video “Lazy Sunday,” an SNL digital short featuring Andy Samberg and Chris Parnell, went viral with over 5,000,000 views on YouTube before February 2006, when NBC demanded that YouTube take down the video (Biggs, 2006). NBC later posted the video on Hulu, where it could sell advertising for it.

Hulu allows users to break out of programming models controlled by broadcast and cable TV providers and choose freely what shows to watch and when to watch them. This seems to work especially well for cult programs that are no longer available on TV. In 2008, the show Arrested Development , which was canceled in 2006 after repeated time slot shifts, was Hulu’s second-most-popular program.

Hulu certainly seems to have leveled the playing field for some shows that have had difficulty finding an audience through traditional means. 30 Rock , much like Arrested Development , suffered from a lack of viewers in its early years. In 2008, New York Magazine described the show as a “fragile suckling that critics coddle but that America never quite warms up to (Sternbergh, 2008).” However, even as 30 Rock shifted time slots mid-season, its viewer base continued to grow through the NBC partner of Hulu. The nontraditional media approach of NBC’s programming culminated in October 2008, when NBC decided to launch the new season of 30 Rock on Hulu a full week before it was broadcast over the airwaves (Wortham, 2008). Hulu’s strategy of providing premium online content seems to have paid off: As of March 2011, Hulu provided 143,673,000 viewing sessions to more than 27 million unique visitors, according to Nielsen (ComScore, 2011).

Unlike other “premium” services, Hulu does not charge for its content; rather, the word premium in its slogan seems to imply that it could charge for content if it wanted to. Other platforms, like Sony’s PlayStation 3, block Hulu for this very reason—Sony’s online store sells the products that Hulu gives away for free. However, Hulu has been considering moving to a paid subscription model that would allow users to access its entire back catalog of shows. Like many other fledgling web enterprises, Hulu seeks to create reliable revenue streams to avoid the fate of many of the companies that folded during the dot-com crash (Sandoval, 2009).

Like Politico, Hulu has packaged professionally produced content into an on-demand web service that can be used without the normal constraints of traditional media. Just as users can comment on Politico articles (and now, on most newspapers’ articles), they can rate Hulu videos, and Hulu will take this into account. Even when users do not produce the content themselves, they still want this same “two-way street” service.

Table 11.2 Top 10 U.S. Online Video Brands, Home and Work

The Role of the Internet in Social Alienation

In the early years, the Internet was stigmatized as a tool for introverts to avoid “real” social interactions, thereby increasing their alienation from society. Yet the Internet was also seen as the potentially great connecting force between cultures all over the world. The idea that something that allowed communication across the globe could breed social alienation seemed counterintuitive. The American Psychological Association (APA) coined this concept the “ Internet paradox .”

Studies like the APA’s “Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being (Kraut, et. al., 1998)?” which came out in 1998, suggested that teens who spent lots of time on the Internet showed much greater rates of self-reported loneliness and other signs of psychological distress. Even though the Internet had been around for a while by 1998, the increasing concern among parents was that teenagers were spending all their time in chat rooms and online. The fact was that teenagers spent much more time on the Internet than adults, due to their increased free time, curiosity, and familiarity with technology.

However, this did not necessarily mean that “kids these days” were antisocial or that the Internet caused depression and loneliness. In his critical analysis “Deconstructing the Internet Paradox,” computer scientist, writer, and PhD recipient from Carnegie Mellon University Joseph M. Newcomer points out that the APA study did not include a control group to adjust for what may be normal “lonely” feelings in teenagers. Again, he suggests that “involvement in any new, self-absorbing activity which has opportunity for failure can increase depression,” seeing Internet use as just another time-consuming hobby, much like learning a musical instrument or playing chess (Newcomer, 2000).

The general concept that teenagers were spending all their time in chat rooms and online forums instead of hanging out with flesh-and-blood friends was not especially new; the same thing had generally been thought of the computer hobbyists who pioneered the esoteric Usenet. However, the concerns were amplified when a wider range of young people began using the Internet, and the trend was especially strong in the younger demographics.

The “Internet Paradox” and Facebook

As they developed, it became quickly apparent that the Internet generation did not suffer from perpetual loneliness as a rule. After all, the generation that was raised on instant messaging invented Facebook and still makes up most of Facebook’s audience. As detailed earlier in the chapter, Facebook began as a service limited to college students—a requirement that practically excluded older participants. As a social tool and as a reflection of the way younger people now connect with each other over the Internet, Facebook has provided a comprehensive model for the Internet’s effect on social skills and especially on education.

A study by the Michigan State University Department of Telecommunication, Information Studies, and Media has shown that college-age Facebook users connect with offline friends twice as often as they connect with purely online “friends (Ellison, et. al., 2007).” In fact, 90 percent of the participants in the study reported that high school friends, classmates, and other friends were the top three groups that their Facebook profiles were directed toward.

In 2007, when this study took place, one of Facebook’s most remarkable tools for studying the ways that young people connect was its “networks” feature. Originally, a Facebook user’s network consisted of all the people at his or her college e-mail domain: the “mycollege” portion of “[email protected].” The MSU study, performed in April 2006, just 6 months after Facebook opened its doors to high school students, found that first-year students met new people on Facebook 36 percent more often than seniors did. These freshmen, in April 2006, were not as active on Facebook as high schoolers (Facebook began allowing high schoolers on its site during these students’ first semester in school) (Rosen, 2005). The study concluded that they could “definitively state that there is a positive relationship between certain kinds of Facebook use and the maintenance and creation of social capital (Ellison, et. al., 2007).” In other words, even though the study cannot show whether Facebook use causes or results from social connections, it can say that Facebook plays both an important and a nondestructive role in the forming of social bonds.

Although this study provides a complete and balanced picture of the role that Facebook played for college students in early 2006, there have been many changes in Facebook’s design and in its popularity. In 2006, many of a user’s “friends” were from the same college, and the whole college network might be mapped as a “friend-of-a-friend” web. If users allowed all people within a single network access to their profiles, it would create a voluntary school-wide directory of students. Since a university e-mail address was required for signup, there was a certain level of trust. The results of this Facebook study, still relatively current in terms of showing the Internet’s effects on social capital, show that not only do social networking tools not lead to more isolation, but that they actually have become integral to some types of networking.

However, as Facebook began to grow and as high school and regional networks (such as “New York City” or “Ireland”) were incorporated, users’ networks of friends grew exponentially, and the networking feature became increasingly unwieldy for privacy purposes. In 2009, Facebook discontinued regional networks over concerns that networks consisting of millions of people were “no longer the best way for you to control your privacy (Zuckerberg, 2009).” Where privacy controls once consisted of allowing everyone at one’s college access to specific information, Facebook now allows only three levels: friends, friends of friends, and everyone.

Meetup.com : Meeting Up “IRL”

Of course, not everyone on teenagers’ online friends lists are actually their friends outside of the virtual world. In the parlance of the early days of the Internet, meeting up “IRL” (shorthand for “in real life”) was one of the main reasons that many people got online. This practice was often looked at with suspicion by those not familiar with it, especially because of the anonymity of the Internet. The fear among many was that children would go into chat rooms and agree to meet up in person with a total stranger, and that stranger would turn out to have less-than-friendly motives. This fear led to law enforcement officers posing as underage girls in chat rooms, agreeing to meet for sex with older men (after the men brought up the topic—the other way around could be considered entrapment), and then arresting the men at the agreed-upon meeting spot.

In recent years, however, the Internet has become a hub of activity for all sorts of people. In 2002, Scott Heiferman started Meetup.com based on the “simple idea of using the Internet to get people off the Internet (Heiferman, 2009).” The entire purpose of Meetup.com is not to foster global interaction and collaboration (as is the purpose of something like Usenet,) but rather to allow people to organize locally. There are Meetups for politics (popular during Barack Obama’s presidential campaign), for New Yorkers who own Boston terriers (Fairbanks, 2008), for vegan cooking, for board games, and for practically everything else. Essentially, the service (which charges a small fee to Meetup organizers) separates itself from other social networking sites by encouraging real-life interaction. Whereas a member of a Facebook group may never see or interact with fellow members, Meetup.com actually keeps track of the (self-reported) real-life activity of its groups—ideally, groups with more activity are more desirable to join. However much time these groups spend together on or off the Internet, one group of people undoubtedly has the upper hand when it comes to online interaction: World of Warcraft players.

World of Warcraft : Social Interaction Through Avatars

A writer for Time states the reasons for the massive popularity of online role-playing games quite well: “[My generation’s] assumptions were based on the idea that video games would never grow up. But no genre has worked harder to disprove that maxim than MMORPGs—Massively Multiplayer Online Games (Coates, 2007).” World of Warcraft (WoW , for short) is the most popular MMORPG of all time, with over 11 million subscriptions and counting. The game is inherently social; players must complete “quests” in order to advance in the game, and many of the quests are significantly easier with multiple people. Players often form small, four-to five-person groups in the beginning of the game, but by the end of the game these larger groups (called “raiding parties”) can reach up to 40 players.

In addition, WoW provides a highly developed social networking feature called “guilds.” Players create or join a guild, which they can then use to band with other guilds in order to complete some of the toughest quests. “But once you’ve got a posse, the social dynamic just makes the game more addictive and time-consuming,” writes Clive Thompson for Slate (Thompson, 2005). Although these guilds do occasionally meet up in real life, most of their time together is spent online for hours per day (which amounts to quite a bit of time together), and some of the guild leaders profess to seeing real-life improvements. Joi Ito, an Internet business and investment guru, joined WoW long after he had worked with some of the most successful Internet companies; he says he “definitely (Pinckard, 2006)” learned new lessons about leadership from playing the game. Writer Jane Pinckard, for video game blog 1UP , lists some of Ito’s favorite activities as “looking after newbs [lower-level players] and pleasing the veterans,” which he calls a “delicate balancing act (Pinckard, 2006),” even for an ex-CEO.

Figure 11.9

Guilds often go on “raiding parties”—just one of the many semisocial activities in World of Warcraft .

monsieur paradis – gathering in Kargath before a raid – CC BY-NC 2.0.

With over 12 million subscribers, WoW necessarily breaks the boundaries of previous MMORPGs. The social nature of the game has attracted unprecedented numbers of female players (although men still make up the vast majority of players), and its players cannot easily be pegged as antisocial video game addicts. On the contrary, they may even be called social video game players, judging from the general responses given by players as to why they enjoy the game. This type of play certainly points to a new way of online interaction that may continue to grow in coming years.

Social Interaction on the Internet Among Low-Income Groups

In 2006, the journal Developmental Psychology published a study looking at the educational benefits of the Internet for teenagers in low-income households. It found that “children who used the Internet more had higher grade point averages (GPA) after one year and higher scores after standardized tests of reading achievement after six months than did children who used it less,” and that continuing to use the Internet more as the study went on led to an even greater increase in GPA and standardized test scores in reading (there was no change in mathematics test scores) (Jackson, et. al., 2006).

One of the most interesting aspects of the study’s results is the suggestion that the academic benefits may exclude low-performing children in low-income households. The reason for this, the study suggests, is that children in low-income households likely have a social circle consisting of other children from low-income households who are also unlikely to be connected to the Internet. As a result, after 16 months of Internet usage, only 16 percent of the participants were using e-mail and only 25 percent were using instant messaging services. Another reason researchers suggested was that because “African-American culture is historically an ‘oral culture,’” and 83 percent of the participants were African American, the “impersonal nature of the Internet’s typical communication tools” may have led participants to continue to prefer face-to-face contact. In other words, social interaction on the Internet can only happen if your friends are also on the Internet.

The Way Forward: Communication, Convergence, and Corporations

On February 15, 2010, the firm Compete, which analyzes Internet traffic, reported that Facebook surpassed Google as the No. 1 site to drive traffic toward news and entertainment media on both Yahoo! and MSN (Ingram, 2010). This statistic is a strong indicator that social networks are quickly becoming one of the most effective ways for people to sift through the ever-increasing amount of information on the Internet. It also suggests that people are content to get their news the way they did before the Internet or most other forms of mass media were invented—by word of mouth.

Many companies now use the Internet to leverage word-of-mouth social networking. The expansion of corporations into Facebook has given the service a big publicity boost, which has no doubt contributed to the growth of its user base, which in turn helps the corporations that put marketing efforts into the service. Putting a corporation on Facebook is not without risk; any corporation posting on Facebook runs the risk of being commented on by over 500 million users, and of course there is no way to ensure that those users will say positive things about the corporation. Good or bad, communicating with corporations is now a two-way street.

Key Takeaways

• The Internet has made pop culture transmission a two-way street. The power to influence popular culture no longer lies with the relative few with control over traditional forms of mass media; it is now available to the great mass of people with access to the Internet. As a result, the cross-fertilization of pop culture from around the world has become a commonplace occurrence.
• The Internet’s key difference from traditional media is that it does not operate on a set intervallic time schedule. It is not “periodical” in the sense that it comes out in daily or weekly editions; it is always updated. As a result, many journalists file both “regular” news stories and blog posts that may be updated and that can come at varied intervals as necessary. This allows them to stay up-to-date with breaking news without necessarily sacrificing the next day’s more in-depth story.
• The “Internet paradox” is the hypothesis that although the Internet is a tool for communication, many teenagers who use the Internet lack social interaction and become antisocial and depressed. It has been largely disproved, especially since the Internet has grown so drastically. Many sites, such as Meetup.com or even Facebook, work to allow users to organize for offline events. Other services, like the video game World of Warcraft , serve as an alternate social world.
• Make a list of ways you interact with friends, either in person or on the Internet. Are there particular methods of communication that only exist in person?
• Are there methods that exist on the Internet that would be much more difficult to replicate in person?
• How do these disprove the “Internet paradox” and contribute to the globalization of culture?
• Pick a method of in-person communication and a method of Internet communication, and compare and contrast these using a Venn diagram.

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Biggs, John. “A Video Clip Goes Viral, and a TV Network Wants to Control It,” New York Times , February 20, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/20/business/media/20youtube.html .

Coates, Ta-Nehisi Paul. “Confessions of a 30-Year-Old Gamer,” Time , January 12, 2007, http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1577502,00.html .

ComScore, “ComScore release March 2011 US Online Video Rankings,” April 12, 2011, http://www.comscore.com/Press_Events/Press_Releases/2011/4/ comScore_Releases_March_2011_U.S._Online_Video_Rankings .

Coyle, Jake. “On the Net: Hulu Is Web Site of the Year,” Seattle Times , December 19, 2008, http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/entertainment/2008539776_aponthenetsiteoftheyear.html .

Ellison, Nicole B. Charles Steinfield, and Cliff Lampe, “The Benefits of Facebook ‘Friends’: Social Capital and College Students’ Use of Online Social Network Sites,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 14, no. 4 (2007).

Fairbanks, Amanda M. “Funny Thing Happened at the Dog Run,” New York Times , August 23, 2008, cse http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/24/nyregion/24meetup.html .

Google, “Internet users as percentage of population: China,” February 19, 2010, http://www.google.com/publicdata?ds=wb-wdi&met=it_net_user_p2&idim=country: CHN&dl=en&hl=en&q=china+internet+users .

Heiferman, Scott. “The Pursuit of Community,” New York Times , September 5, 2009, cse http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/06/jobs/06boss.html .

Ingram, Mathew. “Facebook Driving More Traffic Than Google,” New York Times , February 15, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/external/gigaom/2010/02/15/15gigaom-facebook-driving-more-traffic-than-google-42970.html .

Jackson, Linda A. and others, “Does Home Internet Use Influence the Academic Performance of Low-Income Children?” Developmental Psychology 42, no. 3 (2006): 433–434.

Kraut, Robert and others, “Internet Paradox: A Social Technology That Reduces Social Involvement and Psychological Well-Being?” American Psychologist, September 1998, http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=1998-10886-001 .

Lavin, Frank. “‘Globalization and Culture’: Remarks by Ambassador Frank Lavin at the Eisenhower Fellowship Conference in Singapore,” U.S. Embassy in Singapore, June 28, 2005, http://singapore.usembassy.gov/062805.html .

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Newcomer, Joseph M. “Deconstructing the Internet Paradox,” Ubiquity , Association for Computing Machinery, April 2000, http://ubiquity.acm.org/article.cfm?id=334533 . (Originally published as an op-ed in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette , September 27, 1998.).

Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, “Internet Overtakes Newspapers as News Outlet,” December 23, 2008, http://people-press.org/report/479/internet-overtakes-newspapers-as-news-source .

Pinckard, Jane. “Is World of Warcraft the New Golf?” 1UP.com , February 8, 2006, http://www.1up.com/news/world-warcraft-golf .

Rosen, Ellen. “THE INTERNET; Facebook.com Goes to High School,” New York Times , October 16, 2005, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C05EEDA173FF935A25753C1A9639C8B63&scp=5&sq=facebook&st=nyt .

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Sternbergh, Adam. “‘The Office’ vs. ‘30 Rock’: Comedy Goes Back to Work,” New York Magazine , April 10, 2008, http://nymag.com/daily/entertainment/2008/04/the_office_vs_30_rock_comedy_g.html .

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Understanding Media and Culture Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

• Essay Editor

Social Media and Globalization: Positive and Negative Effects Essay

1. introduction.

In today's world, "Social Media and Globalization: Positive and Negative Effects" is an important contemporary issue that has been the subject of many debates. However, it is not just a contemporary issue. It is a complex and multifaceted concept that has been described and explained by numerous scholars and academic researchers across the world. This essay, as the title suggests, will focus on the positive and negative effects of social media and globalization on the contemporary world. Clearly, using the title to continue the first part of the main essay enhances the coherency of the text, which would not occur in a more random, 'variable' style of writing. The focus on the positive effects of social media in the first main part, found throughout the text, establishes coherency with the content of the essay, showing that the goals set out in the introduction (in the final version) are being met. These focuses of each of the parts of the essay presented in the first part come together in a coherently summed up conclusion, where the complex sentences from the introduction are engaged with and answered. Such nuances of language and organization lend a greater formal style and tone to the text. The avoidance of particular forms of academic study such as first person pronouns and spoken language cliches, such as 'you know', 'to be fair', and 'kind of', the text is rendered much more academically- although not perfect! -cohesive and appropriate. For instance, while the use of formal conjunctions and some prepositional structures are there, it has to be recognized that the paragraph lengths and grammar are not always academic. Overall, the language is cohesively arranged and the form of the text generally follows standard codes and conventions of an academic essay.

1.1. Background

Social media, defined as interactive platforms via which individuals and communities create and share user-generated content, challenge the established norms of religious and political communities. With the explosive growth of social media, the ensuing changes in human interactions have transformed the globalizing phase of society. Nowadays, a growing number of studies and essays have argued that social media is responsible for all kinds of globalization processes around the world. However, many people have a misunderstanding of globalization and they misattributed aspects of social media to globalizing effects as a whole. It is important to approach the research topic of "social media globalization" in a multidimensional view, as objectively as possible, and carefully investigate each suspected globalizing outcome and then assess in what respect social media has the capacity of engendering and catalyzing pivoting globalizing processes. Such capacity to globalize from the bottom up is mirrored in the very defining features of social media itself. These features - users generativity and interactivity - enable the possibility for the diversity of information to be constructed and transmitted and the distributed network form of association which may for example underpin the facilitation of interest communities of specific niche. With the background information and main trends of social media globalization provided, we can engage in the exploration of the globalizing capacity and impacts of social media with an informed view by the essay.

1.2. Purpose of the Essay

The awareness of the impacts of globalization on different nations has raised many questions, including: Will globalization be found affecting all nations equally and positively or does it have certain criteria among the nations? Does globalization show the same face wherever and in every part of the world or does it have different looks and effects, depending on the local and national cultures, economies, and political settings? This essay will be mainly focused on analyzing the impacts of globalization through the media. The intensification of global interconnectedness has been sparked off by the rapid development of the media. Its impacts on the media environment as well as on the coverage of the news in the era of globalization and the culture and society will be dealt with in the first and second chapters. Well, we shall see that the intensified media globalization has been encouraging a reinvigoration of the public sphere, the elaboration of new forms of cultural identity and cultural production, as well as an intensification of the processes that we summarize in the word "time-space compression". Next but not least, I will also analyze the major technological changes in the global media in the one after the next chapter, which aims to highlight the multifaceted nature of media globalization and the most important outcomes of this process for twenty-first-century life.

2. Positive Effects of Social Media on Globalization

The essay concludes with a summary of both the positive and negative effects of social media on globalization, as well as the implications it has for global connectivity. The key focus of the section "2. Positive Effects of Social Media on Globalization" is on the second of these two main arguments: that using social media to communicate has a range of positive effects on social networks and communities around the world. As we shall see, these effects are widespread and beneficial for many different social groups. First, increased connectivity has had a huge impact on social networking, as the essay details. This is obvious when we consider the difference between physical social networks – where it is really quite challenging to keep in touch with large numbers of friends and acquaintances – and online social networks, where it is really quite easy to do so. This has, in turn, restructured the way people communicate, in the sense that we can now maintain continuous and effective communication with many people and groups across the world at any given time. The essay mentions that one main positive of increased connectivity, as enabled by social media, is that "it has the capacity to increase and strengthen the social fabric of a community". In other words, maintaining these effective connections helps to maintain close personal and community relationships. This point is elaborated with more detail, in particular the rise of "communities of shared interest" as a result of social media. This helps to ground the more abstract idea of increased connectivity with some more concrete examples, which can also help the essay to remain focused and to keep a sense of structure in the argument. Besides this, the essay explains this argument point further; not only does it allow for relationships with existing groups, such as family and friends, to be strengthened, but also "social media facilitates new and innovative ways of communication and learning". However, the essay is also careful not to overstate the benefits of this connectivity, explaining that "it is not the quantity of social relationships that one has, but the quality of those relationships that is important".

2.1. Increased Connectivity

Today, the world is a global village. This has been made possible by globalization, which is a phenomenon that has also been facilitated by the use of social media. Social media is increasingly becoming the most important and effective tool for globalization. This is a platform that provides a wide variety of collaborative and cooperation opportunities for the whole world and various reasons. One of the most significant positive impacts of social media on globalization is the aspect of increased connectivity. According to the statistics, more than 50% of people globally are somehow connected to social media. This means that in the realms of global connectivity, people can easily meet distantly, socialize, do business, and reconcile conflicting ideas. It has necessitated a shared sense of humanity, collective conscience on the future of global travel, and motivations towards a fair world. It is evident that information communication is facilitated by social media for all possible opportunities provided on the platforms, and this, in turn, has absolute effects towards globalization. The social connections, business, and knowledge passed through social media enhance people's lifestyles. In that case, it has allowed people to understand and appreciate living in a borderless world. A world where geographic distance is no longer a barrier to communication and interactions. In summary, increased connectivity is one of the most crucial positive effects of globalization. As the findings explain, there is a close relationship between social media and globalization. Social media has become a tool for information flow, communication, and a place for business and pleasure. As the current world has been converted into a global place through the digitization of everything, borders do not exist but opportunities are shared by everyone in the globe.

2.2. Enhanced Communication

Finally, social media has made communication even faster than before. In the past, sending letters or telegrams would take days or even months to reach its destination. Thanks to social media, now connection between people is instantaneous. Users can now send and receive messages in a matter of seconds as long as the sender and recipient are both online. This is not only convenient for everyday communication but is also useful during emergencies. For example, when the massive earthquake and tsunami happened in Japan, messages on social media platforms from all over the world became a source of real-time information. This will be explained further in the next negative effect. With faster and easier communication, business people can contact each other more easily to the benefit of their business or to discuss work-related proposals. This is another great positive impact of social media on society. Businesses have noticed that younger audiences are more likely to discover their brands through social media. Because of the mass amount of children and teenagers using these sites, companies found that creating entertaining advertisements that were quick to catch onto the social media world would be the best way to spread the word of their franchise's chain of products. It has been found that social media is a great agent in tourism for social media allows people to share their experiences and an easier way of being able to provide travel expeditions for the whole world to see. For instance, when people travel, they are likely to post about their journey on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram and that would keep friends and families updated. These people's photos and travel blogs will inspire other travelers and facilitate people put on their journey online. Fondly, businesses have the chance to provide travel promotions, attract more customers and may receive 'word of mouth endorsements' through social media. This is mutually beneficial to travelers, businesses, and global tourism. This interaction shows that social media has had a major impact through the spirit of communication across the globe.

2.3. Access to Information

Without a doubt, one of the most significant positive effects of the globalization of social media is that it enables people to access a wealth of information. The internet is a treasure trove of information, and when this is coupled with social media, what you get is an abundance of knowledge at the fingertips of every single user. This is a huge advantage to students and scholars around the world. Internet users are given multiple tools and facilities to help them with their everyday needs. For example, Google is now so advanced that it has begun focusing on voice search and as of 2015, a report found that 30% of the 30 million queries made through the medium were voice searches. That has only increased further today thanks to the growing cosmopolitan nature of social media and the internet. Social media websites are now commonly offering options for users to translate pages and the options of multilingual compositions. For example, on Facebook, a user can easily choose to read in English but the user's writings may consist of any languages that they wish. In addition to this, advanced variations of social media, for example, the instantaneous reportage of events seen on tools such as Twitter, have led to the general population being a lot more informed about world occurrences than the pre-social media ramifications. This can be seen as a very significant factor and a real turning point in global connectivity, as the very nature of society today is so fast moving and focuses on the modern and the technologically applicable. So, not only does social media heighten the capability to access and distribute information and ideas through different parts of society, but also to do so in a manner that is quicker, more effective and involves less hassle than some of the traditional methods that are in place today. All of this can only mean an even further improvement in the nature of the relationship and direct integration between the nexus of globalization and social media.

2.4. Collaborative Opportunities

In the age of social media, collaborative opportunities in different parts of the world have become more easily achievable. One of the ways in which social media fosters global connectedness is through the organization of offline activities based on common interests that are initially enacted in an online space. For example, platforms such as Facebook offer hundreds of groups that bring together members of specific interests, nationalities, and geographical locations. Translation Made Easy, for instance, is a group for translators and interpreters from across the world with a staggering one thousand and sixty-five members. Several events have been established through this group, including Sheffield Meet Up - an event based in the United Kingdom. Such events allow people to share knowledge, make friendships, and discuss future collaborations. This phenomenon enables a move from building connections and sharing perspectives online to real-world publishing and increased dialogue between specialists in different countries. Additionally, the low cost and accessibility of social media have allowed charitable organizations to thrive, particularly those founded upon social media affiliation. One example is the To Give To Ghana Charity. It was established by Sarah Ann Humble and is still managed to this day by her and a team who are, as the mission statement claims, "spread out across the globe". The charity uses its platform of over three thousand Facebook followers to facilitate 'envisioning trips' - through partnership with existing schools in rural areas of Ghana, teachers from the United Kingdom are invited to visit the schools on a fact-finding excursions. The charity thus organizes and shares events through the events tab and member groups on Facebook, allowing trip leaders to discuss and promote their trip through the page and allowing those who take part to share media content afterwards, such as photography and PDF presentations. This has helped the charity grow and establish further connections between those who support the effort in the United Kingdom and the main contributors in Ghana. Social media is presented in this example as an essential part of the charity infrastructure. By allowing users to create and manage events and promote the annual trip through the Events tab on the page, the charity is able to reach out to a much larger audience. Also, social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter allow users to create 'crowdfunding' projects - these projects allow individuals to set up a page for donations towards a specific event, piece of equipment, or even a whole project with no complicated paper forms. With links to the above events tab and the option to invite friends and share proposals between members, it is now much easier for charity members to work together and create something new. Through providing an engaging, user-friendly, and effective online platform, extensive levels of collaboration and shared knowledge can be fostered through the realization of fundraising objectives. For example, United Kingdom Giving, a fundraising network organization in the United Kingdom, reported that nearly two hundred and fifty-four million pounds was donated through online platforms last year - a rise of nearly twenty-six million on last year's figures. This indicates that utilizing 'events' on charity social media pages such as 'fundraisingforuk' has a real impact on the development of charitable projects by bringing potential project users together in the online forum and providing effective tools to share progress and collaborate in fundraising activities.

3. Negative Effects of Social Media on Globalization

Over the years, social media has had a tremendous influence on globalization, and it is something that has continued to grow and affect the world. While there are a good number of ways that the process of social media and an increasing globalized world as set forth in the section above, there are negative aspects of social media on globalizing as well. One of the negative impacts is that social media has made the flow of information become very fast and has created the issue of 'information' conflict. There is a high possibility for the real news to be overtaken by fake news. This is mainly based on the fact that every single minute, every single second, someone has access to social media to upload news, whether they are true or not. This has created a scenario whereby there are no verifications for the news that are uploaded on social media to help the recipients to be able to distinguish the real and actual news. The creation of what we call 'echo chambers' in the social media community is the other negative effect of globalization. In such a social media platform, the people that an individual communicates a lot with are mainly not family members, relations, or friends. But they are mainly those people who are like-minded on certain opinions. This therefore means that social media has played a very big role in ensuring that the individuals who share a common opinion are brought together more closely as compared to the rest of the people. This has created more division and conflict among different societies. The physical and emotional well-being of individuals is also a negative impact of globalization. As mentioned above, social media has been one of the major contributors to spreading negative impact. For instance, most of the time, people can access the information that is presented on social media. This is whether such information is required or not. This has made modern people to be over-reliant on technology. In that case, globalization has made people start questioning the positive impact of social media.

3.1. Spread of Misinformation

One particular issue with social media is that it facilitates incredibly rapid and nearly uncontrollable spreading of information. For better or for worse, the natural human tendency is to trust in what one reads or encounters. However, with millions of sources of constantly updating information in everyone's pocket, the facts often become blurred with fiction. The spreading of misinformation is not a new phenomenon in dealing with communication technology. Even in the early days of traditional media, such as television and newspapers, rumour mills always circulated around the possible existence of false or misleading media. There is often political and ethical debate about how much the government/media should control the internet because it is such a huge platform for false information. Especially in light of recent events, such as the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election and the Brexit Referendum, the issue of online misinformation has only been further strengthened. This can lead to ever larger impacts on cultural, political and social aspects of our lives, analogous to the tense and disturbing polity in the example of polarised and unsubstantiated claims proliferated by leader figures. It can also lead to a self-perpetuating consequential development of abuse and offensive comments manners that have only tended in recent years to more evasive and surveillance reasons. Social media provide a range of data for your own personal profiling which can lead to misinformation and a denial of the right to privacy in your identity. Social media platforms are designed with the intent of providing an individual with a unique and interconnected style of communication using shareable texts, images, videos and the like - but there remains the question of how truthful all the information given is. Many companies and political organisations will use outsiders and cyber bots; automated software. Such rogue elements are now a common factor in resulting in fake news. This only contributes to the increased expansion of false information because these bots have been known for systematically tending to send out at regular periods of time massive political and biased views in relation to societal issues. So, as fake news expands globally, so does a large scale propaganda and misinformation movement. Social media provides fertile ground for such aspects to occur and this in turn cultivates further spreading campaigns that harvest the very seed of misinformation.

3.2. Privacy Concerns

In addition to concerns about the spread of misinformation, the negative impact of social media on privacy has been well documented. Social networking sites and the assembling and analysis of 'big data' enable the tracking and personal profiling of users. As the digital capitalism thesis clearly shows, social media users are not customers; they are the product. Profiles, regarded as data commodities, are an 'economic space where circulation, transactions, and exchanges occur' between users and different actors of digital capitalism. Profiles are created from data generated through user action on the social network and posted content, marketed by social media companies to third parties for profit. For example, Facebook uses the personal data uploaded by individuals to provide targeted advertising to different third parties based on the range of personal user information they store. Furthermore, the capacity for large-scale data aggregation and tracking on social media platforms poses a significant threat to privacy. For instance, the revelation that political consulting firm Cambridge Analytica harvested and used the personal data of millions of Facebook users without their consent for political advertising and influence signifies the dangers posed by contemporary data practices supported by social media. However, possibly the most extensive connotation of social media facilitated surveillance is the potential for the data accumulated by big technology companies to be put to use in the expression of 'biopower', a term coined by Michel Foucault. Foucault conjectures that biopower incites people to regulate their actions, perhaps 'instituting projects of life' aligned with what the individual sees as a constructive and healthy existence. The enormous and varied data accessible and amenable to scrutiny on individuals, including their personal life, online activity, health, and lifestyle, could theoretically be employed to postulate the complexities of biopower. Indeed, this may take shape in the forthcoming years, particularly as the data protection legislative framework struggles to keep stride with the advancement of surveillance technologies. Such significant privacy concerns that arise from an immensely experienced and knowledgeable class of virtual burglars are the subject of intense and vital consideration all over the world. Although criminal in nature, cyber-attacks do not simply consist of hacking into electronic devices and stealing personal data, however they symbolize an incursive and malicious transgressing of the unique and insular relationship people have with the digital realm. For instance, in June 2017, the 'NotPetya' ransomware attack reverberated internationally and encrypted data on thousands of computers across numerous countries, rendering any personal data stored on those devices inaccessible. Demonstrative of one of the most ambitious cyber-attacks in the modern era, the damage incurred by private individuals and businesses highlights the gravity of privacy concerns in the age of social media and digitalisation. Cyber-attacks also have the potentiality to annihilate the transition and preservation of personal and confidential data but also lay bare the frailty of established social principles to the devastating impact of electronically executed criminality.

3.3. Social Fragmentation

While social media has greatly advanced the globalization process by allowing for increased levels of connectivity and information exchange, it has also led to social fragmentation, defined as the division of different peoples or cultural groups based on their beliefs or origin. This occurs as social media allows different users to create and join groups, where only a particular type of people are heralded, an example of the "echo chamber" term in the digital age. These groups frequently become isolated from the wider global community and often use rhetoric that leads to a deeper level of separation from those who don't fall into the same category, which could refer back to the notion of disjuncture and difference by Martin. Since social media is used not only as a tool to connect the world but also to spread opinions and options, strong division in knowledge is created, resulting in a failure for everyone to experience globalization and also multiculturalism. This brings to the debate of ethnocentrism, one of the main obstacles to cultural globalization, on social media and in reality. When people are made to believe that their cultures are superior and "normal", different beliefs and moral values between societies will become less accepted. Thanks to the development of technology, it is almost impossible to avoid social media in the modern era so the best solution is to use it effectively. Professor Latif said "I was delighted to see how engaged the young people were, spending time using social media and the internet, seeking out information for their homework/projects, editing films, making music and creating animation." As his remarks agreed with, the best way to approach this issue is to critically consume the media, to check those facts of any information seen on the social media and if possible, sharing different perspectives on a common topic. This could promote a more comprehensive, balanced and considerate sharing of ideas and knowledge and enhance the process of globalization and cultural homogenization. This summary reflects the key ideas and themes of the entire essay. The author efficiently summarized the content of each chapter, covered in the main table of content, and evaluated the implications of social media accordingly. Given that there is a wide range of negative aspects about social media on globalization, more people can benefit from the positive elements of sociocultural globalization by working together and embracing the differences. It also inspires the need for greater regulation and monitoring of social media practice in a globalized world and hence, brings the essay to a full circle.

4. Conclusion

The internet has changed some important things about our lives and society thus far. It has changed the way we communicate, the way we share information, and even the way politicians communicate with the public. Most importantly, it has opened up new opportunities for alternative forms of knowledge sharing and grassroots political action that may serve to challenge the centralized processes typical of conventional political systems. We see from the essay that much of the positive impacts of social media are starting to be felt by sociologists and political scientists around the world, as the real potential of this information is beginning to be understood and explored. However, the negative impacts are not to be taken lightly. As we move into an "enlightened" digital age, personal privacy is more under threat than before and we have seen the potential of "weaponized" data by large and even small states all around the world. As they say, with great power comes great responsibility. Trusting in the public power of social media and completely ignoring the widespread negative impacts is not an option; champions of transparency and research into data privacy and the potential for scientific research in these fields must be given more serious political clout and set space for stakeholder consultation in policy-making in the future. We look towards an era where new and novel forms of advocacy and empirical investigation assisted by collected data have the potential to implement fundamental social and political change all around the world; and this is one of the reasons why we study class. We study to learn how we can take "big data" and its analysis and turn it into constructive and effective knowledge that serves the public, not the particular interest groups or institutions.

4.1. Summary of Positive and Negative Effects

Finally, a summary of the positive and negative impacts of social media on globalization is provided. This includes information on increased connectivity, enhanced communication, access to information, collaborative opportunities, the spread of misinformation, privacy concerns, and social fragmentation. The writer suggests that while social media can have potential negative effects, it is essential to have an understanding of these in Western societies in order to properly harness the full potential of globalization. He concludes that although there are negative impacts to consider, social media today has a largely positive impact on globalization and the way in which people are able to connect with one another globally, and it has the potential to bring people closer together and foster international understanding, especially if the negative effects can be both accounted for and mitigated through education and regulatory measures. This implies that globalization furthers the interconnectedness of societies, and the spread of information through social media can help to bring together all different ends of the world. Social media has a very positive influence in connecting cultures and people on a global scale and that the continued development of globalization would not be possible without the use of social media. However, he also notes that because westernized societies have a life surrounded by technology, it is particularly difficult to escape the effects of social media and obstacles that would hinder the many opportunities and advantages it could bring to fully embrace the globalizing society that we live in. He states that a completely different approach has to be taken in countries that have chosen to ignore the tidal wave of information that is shared on a daily basis, suggesting that the effects are much more ungracious and damaging however. Every paragraph should be finished with a concluding sentence, which demonstrates its significance and links it towards the concept of globalization and social media as a whole. By doing this, the writer has been able to critically evaluate each point he made and pick out the main advantages and disadvantages of social media on globalization. He emphasizes that really, the positive influences of social media on globalization far outweigh the negative and as a result, when people and countries could begin to embrace the fact that the world is a far more connected place than it used to be, it can be seen that advantages and opportunities such as greater international understanding and cultural exchange will be fully realized.

4.2. Implications for Globalization

The emergence of social media in the context of globalization is a meaningful point for the evolving studies on media and technology. Globalization, which is known as a worldwide integration and development, covers several aspects of life. It is a very broad term that we often see in various areas. It covers all areas such as social, cultural, environmental, economical, and of course, political. It means the impact of globalization and social media is inevitable. The impact of social media is wide-ranging and deep. From my own observation, surprisingly, many service systems are now available on mobile phones. For instance, if I need to make a doctor's appointment, I don't need to call or go to see the doctor, I just make appointments through the mobile phone. It means the fixed national borders that used to separate countries are no longer meaningful nowadays. In fact, social media now not only gives flexibility and knowledge of other cultures and societies, but also it may lead to a challenge in cultural diversity. By referring to cultural diversity, it is the existence of a variety of cultural groups within a society. It is a situation that has both positive and negative effects in terms of tolerance and mutual respect for each other. In a positive way, the impact of social media on cultural diversity is the awareness of the identity of a society. It is a great way for a shared growth of cultural diversity, knowing the mutual respect that gives a chance for different communities to be connected. However, going back to the example on the impact of social media on the doctor's appointment booking system, it can be seen that the applicability of this system will bring a unique culture to be dominant, which is the mobile phone culture. In this sense, people will no longer understand the reasons for its tradition and its culture. This is what we call a challenge in cultural diversity.

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Does Social Media Contribute to Economic Growth?

• Published: 16 June 2023

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• Jacques Simon Song   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8944-1982 1 ,
• Georges Ngnouwal Eloundou   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8187-5615 2 ,
• Fabrice Bitoto Ewolo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8134-6745 2 &
• Blaise Ondoua Beyene   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7985-4644 2  

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This paper assesses the effects of social media on economic growth in a sample of 177 countries. The originality of the article lies in highlighting the direct and indirect effects of social media externalities on the process of economic growth. Unlike existing works, we study this nexus from a global perspective using a cross-sectional model. To achieve this, we specify and estimate a panel data model using ordinary least squares (OLS) methods over the period 2012–2019. The robustness of the results has been proven by using Poisson pseudo maximum likehood (PPML) and the quantile regression (QR). The results show that social media as measured by Facebook penetration improves economic growth. Furthermore, the results of the mediation analysis show that the effect of social media on the economic growth is mediated by financial development, human capital, information and communication technologies (ICT), electricity consumption, and political stability. We suggest, in addition to the quantitative and qualitative strengthening of the telecommunication infrastructure, a rational use of social media for a better consolidation of economic growth.

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The authors would like to sincerely thank the Editor, the different anonymous referees of Journal of the Knowledge Economy, whose comments, reviews, and suggestions have substantially improved the first version of this article. They also thank the extraordinary editing work and Désiré Avom and Flora Yselle Malah for sharing the database on Facebook penetration.

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Song, J.S., Ngnouwal Eloundou, G., Bitoto Ewolo, F. et al. Does Social Media Contribute to Economic Growth?. J Knowl Econ (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-023-01419-1

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