research allows engineers to gather information because

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Each activity in the design process requires information, either general, or specific which is related to the particular project. Often data gathering is considered as an attribute of the process of identification of user needs and establishing requirements. However, data gathering is essential during the entire project, on all its phases.

Product Research

In combination with the expectations for a product, product research builds up the basis for a successful design and must be accomplished before making any product-related decisions.

Technical/Engineering Research

After accomplishing product/market research more detailed information about technical aspects of the product is needed. In the beginning of the project such information helps to properly formulate the problem. At the following stages data gathering helps to select proper development tools (hardware and software), to evaluate ideas and concept, to test and verify proposed solutions, and so on.

Department and University Information

Forces Shaping the U.S. Academic Engineering Research Enterprise (1995)

Chapter: what is engineering research and how do engineering and science interact.

ages (Lane, this volume). According to a recent study (Dickens, this volume), there are 281 university research centers sponsored by six federal agencies (including NSF) and over 1,000 university-based engineering research units in the United States. Most of these research units were established as university initiatives in the past 10 years, and their success in establishing industry linkages varies widely. Much broader adoption of such linkages by industry—without government sponsorship and participation—is needed.

Consistent with the important role of academic engineering research in the advancement and diffusion of the engineering knowledge base and the training of engineers, substantial increases are needed in the level of support for academic engineering research and associated aspects of engineering education. Such increases will enhance U.S. leadership in commercially important technologies, improve industrial competitiveness, and increase economic growth. Reports issued over the past decade by the National Academy of Engineering, the National Research Council Engineering Research Board, and the National Science Board Committee on Industrial Support for R&D all have echoed the need to boost funding in this area (Committee to Evaluate the Programs of the National Science Foundation Directorate for Engineering. 1985; National Research Council, 1987; National Science Board, 1992).

Because policymakers tend to be unaware of the variety of purposes and products of government-sponsored research, the engineering community must coordinate and focus more effectively the many voices speaking for engineering. Both policymakers and the public need to better appreciate the important differences between scientific and engineering research, especially with regard to how quickly the two disciplines can address pressing national concerns.

In general, the concept of engineering research is not readily understood. In academic settings, its distinction from research in the basic sciences is even less well understood. Therefore, the next section of this report is devoted to an exposition of the nature and value of academic engineering research.

WHAT IS ENGINEERING RESEARCH AND HOW DO ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE INTERACT?

In many ways, the methods of academic engineering research and the resulting insights into the nature of the physical world are indistinguishable from those of basic scientific research. However, there are crucial differences between the two endeavors. Basic scientific research is concerned with the discovery of new phenomena and their integration into coherent

conceptual models of major physical or biological systems. By definition, the focus of greatest interest tends to be at the outer edges of present knowledge. Most scientific knowledge will, in a highly variable and unpredictable fashion, find technical applications of economic and social value, but in most cases the nature of such applications will not be apparent to the those who perform the original scientific research.

Basic research in engineering is by definition concerned with the discovery and systematic conceptual structuring of knowledge. Engineers develop, design, produce or construct, and operate devices, structures, machines, and systems of economic and societal value. Virtually all engineering research is driven by the anticipated value of an application. However, not all potential applications can be anticipated, and occasionally the hoped-for application may not be nearly as important as one that turns up by serendipity. The time from research to production may be a few years, as in the development and application of the laser or in the progression from the integrated circuit to microprocessor, or it may be decades, as in the development of television.

Engineering, unlike science, is concerned not only with knowledge of natural phenomena, but also with how knowledge can serve humankind's needs and wants. Such variables as cost, user compatibility, producibility, safety, and adaptability to various external operating conditions and environments must be taken into account in the design, development, operational support, and maintenance of the products and services that engineers create. Thus, engineering involves the integration of knowledge, techniques, methods, and experiences from many fields.

Also, almost all university research in both science and engineering is performed as a component of the advanced education of students. For most engineering students, the goal of a career in industry motivates their pursuit of advanced study, and this will increasingly be the case in the future. Because of this, engineering students' outlook on research tends to be predisposed toward application in engineering practice.

Basic science and mathematics have advanced rapidly in the past several decades with the development of computers that can deal with increasingly complex problems. At the same time, engineering science, research, and practice have employed increasingly advanced analytical and experimental methods across the spectrum of engineering fields and industrial sectors. In What Engineers Know and How They Know It (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), Walter Vincenti has identified some theoretical and experimental features common to both scientific and engineering research. In fact, in some engineering fields such as electronic materials, the analytical and experimental methods and instruments used may be indistinguishable from those in the basic-science fields of solid-state physics and chemistry.

The way in which academic engineering research is financed and public expectations for the outcomes from such research are changing at an unprecedented rate. The decrease in support of defense-related research, coupled with the realization that many U.S. technological products are no longer competitive in the global market, has sent a shock wave through research universities that train engineers. This book argues for several concrete actions on the part of universities, government, and industry to ensure the flow and relevance of technical talent to meet national social and economic goals, to maintain a position of leadership in the global economy, and to preserve and enhance the nation's engineering knowledge base.

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Search catalog, critical thinking and academic research: information.

• Information
• Point of View
• Assumptions
• Implications

Gather the Information

Research involves gathering and interpreting information. To answer a question or understand the complexity of an issue, you have to seek relevant information, which helps you develop your own point of view.

It's important to remember, though, that information from outside sources should not stand in for your thinking. Sometimes, people think that gathering information and summarizing it in a paper is all there is to the research process. But finding information is just part of the process.

Research involves applying critical thinking to information, whether it comes from an encyclopedia entry, a journal article, a website, or a documentary. A researcher analyzes the material and develops a perspective on it. The goal is to think critically about the information, not simply repeat its ideas.

The purpose of your research and the questions you're trying to answer will determine what information is relevant and useful. If you're trying to understand public opinion on an issue, it might be worthwhile to look at news articles and blog entries. On the other hand, such sources may not be appropriate for a formal philosophical argument or a medical study.

Sources used in academic papers might include scholarly journals, books, research reports, government documents, films, comic books, magazines, newspapers, maps, statistics, letters, diaries, dictionaries, musical recordings, and more. It all depends on your purpose.

The Complexity of the Information Universe

The information universe is very complex, so it's important to understand the differences among information sources. For instance, online information includes commercial websites, personal blogs, subscription databases, professional news sites, government resources, Wikipedia entries, Facebook profiles, Twitter feeds, YouTube videos, and much more. Different research projects require different types of sources. In many cases, you will need to look beyond the free web to find scholarly information in subscription library databases such as ProQuest Direct and EBSCO Academic Search Premier.

Understanding varying levels of complexity in information sources is also important. For example, a reference encyclopedia might provide useful background information on postmodernism, but it will not provide the level of sophistication and depth offered in an original work of postmodern theory or a scholarly article that applies that theory.

While background sources are useful and will help you understand more complex material, most professors expect you to explore in-depth, scholarly sources, most of which are not available on the free web. That's one reason why learning to use library resources is crucial.

Critical Questions

• What information do I need to address this question or understand this topic?
• How much information do I need?
• Where can I find this information?
• How do I know this information is reliable and authoritative?
• Is this information relevant to my purpose?
• Who is the audience for this information?
• What perspective does this information come from? What are its biases?
• Is the information current enough?
• " More on Evaluating Sources
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• Last Updated: Jul 10, 2023 11:50 AM
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Data collection in research: Your complete guide

Last updated

31 January 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

In the late 16th century, Francis Bacon coined the phrase "knowledge is power," which implies that knowledge is a powerful force, like physical strength. In the 21st century, knowledge in the form of data is unquestionably powerful.

But data isn't something you just have - you need to collect it. This means utilizing a data collection process and turning the collected data into knowledge that you can leverage into a successful strategy for your business or organization.

Believe it or not, there's more to data collection than just conducting a Google search. In this complete guide, we shine a spotlight on data collection, outlining what it is, types of data collection methods, common challenges in data collection, data collection techniques, and the steps involved in data collection.

Analyze all your data in one place

Uncover hidden nuggets in all types of qualitative data when you analyze it in Dovetail

• What is data collection?

There are two specific data collection techniques: primary and secondary data collection. Primary data collection is the process of gathering data directly from sources. It's often considered the most reliable data collection method, as researchers can collect information directly from respondents.

Secondary data collection is data that has already been collected by someone else and is readily available. This data is usually less expensive and quicker to obtain than primary data.

• What are the different methods of data collection?

There are several data collection methods, which can be either manual or automated. Manual data collection involves collecting data manually, typically with pen and paper, while computerized data collection involves using software to collect data from online sources, such as social media, website data, transaction data, etc. 

Here are the five most popular methods of data collection:

Surveys are a very popular method of data collection that organizations can use to gather information from many people. Researchers can conduct multi-mode surveys that reach respondents in different ways, including in person, by mail, over the phone, or online.

As a method of data collection, surveys have several advantages. For instance, they are relatively quick and easy to administer, you can be flexible in what you ask, and they can be tailored to collect data on various topics or from certain demographics.

However, surveys also have several disadvantages. For instance, they can be expensive to administer, and the results may not represent the population as a whole. Additionally, survey data can be challenging to interpret. It may also be subject to bias if the questions are not well-designed or if the sample of people surveyed is not representative of the population of interest.

Interviews are a common method of collecting data in social science research. You can conduct interviews in person, over the phone, or even via email or online chat.

Interviews are a great way to collect qualitative and quantitative data . Qualitative interviews are likely your best option if you need to collect detailed information about your subjects' experiences or opinions. If you need to collect more generalized data about your subjects' demographics or attitudes, then quantitative interviews may be a better option.

Interviews are relatively quick and very flexible, allowing you to ask follow-up questions and explore topics in more depth. The downside is that interviews can be time-consuming and expensive due to the amount of information to be analyzed. They are also prone to bias, as both the interviewer and the respondent may have certain expectations or preconceptions that may influence the data.

Direct observation

Observation is a direct way of collecting data. It can be structured (with a specific protocol to follow) or unstructured (simply observing without a particular plan).

Organizations and businesses use observation as a data collection method to gather information about their target market, customers, or competition. Businesses can learn about consumer behavior, preferences, and trends by observing people using their products or service.

There are two types of observation: participatory and non-participatory. In participatory observation, the researcher is actively involved in the observed activities. This type of observation is used in ethnographic research , where the researcher wants to understand a group's culture and social norms. Non-participatory observation is when researchers observe from a distance and do not interact with the people or environment they are studying.

There are several advantages to using observation as a data collection method. It can provide insights that may not be apparent through other methods, such as surveys or interviews. Researchers can also observe behavior in a natural setting, which can provide a more accurate picture of what people do and how and why they behave in a certain context.

There are some disadvantages to using observation as a method of data collection. It can be time-consuming, intrusive, and expensive to observe people for extended periods. Observations can also be tainted if the researcher is not careful to avoid personal biases or preconceptions.

Automated data collection

Business applications and websites are increasingly collecting data electronically to improve the user experience or for marketing purposes.

There are a few different ways that organizations can collect data automatically. One way is through cookies, which are small pieces of data stored on a user's computer. They track a user's browsing history and activity on a site, measuring levels of engagement with a business’s products or services, for example.

Another way organizations can collect data automatically is through web beacons. Web beacons are small images embedded on a web page to track a user's activity.

Finally, organizations can also collect data through mobile apps, which can track user location, device information, and app usage. This data can be used to improve the user experience and for marketing purposes.

Automated data collection is a valuable tool for businesses, helping improve the user experience or target marketing efforts. Businesses should aim to be transparent about how they collect and use this data.

Sourcing data through information service providers

Organizations need to be able to collect data from a variety of sources, including social media, weblogs, and sensors. The process to do this and then use the data for action needs to be efficient, targeted, and meaningful.

In the era of big data, organizations are increasingly turning to information service providers (ISPs) and other external data sources to help them collect data to make crucial decisions. 

Information service providers help organizations collect data by offering personalized services that suit the specific needs of the organizations. These services can include data collection, analysis, management, and reporting. By partnering with an ISP, organizations can gain access to the newest technology and tools to help them to gather and manage data more effectively.

There are also several tools and techniques that organizations can use to collect data from external sources, such as web scraping, which collects data from websites, and data mining, which involves using algorithms to extract data from large data sets. 

Organizations can also use APIs (application programming interface) to collect data from external sources. APIs allow organizations to access data stored in another system and share and integrate it into their own systems.

Finally, organizations can also use manual methods to collect data from external sources. This can involve contacting companies or individuals directly to request data, by using the right tools and methods to get the insights they need.

• What are common challenges in data collection?

There are many challenges that researchers face when collecting data. Here are five common examples:

Big data environments

Data collection can be a challenge in big data environments for several reasons. It can be located in different places, such as archives, libraries, or online. The sheer volume of data can also make it difficult to identify the most relevant data sets.

Second, the complexity of data sets can make it challenging to extract the desired information. Third, the distributed nature of big data environments can make it difficult to collect data promptly and efficiently.

Therefore it is important to have a well-designed data collection strategy to consider the specific needs of the organization and what data sets are the most relevant. Alongside this, consideration should be made regarding the tools and resources available to support data collection and protect it from unintended use.

Data bias is a common challenge in data collection. It occurs when data is collected from a sample that is not representative of the population of interest. 

There are different types of data bias, but some common ones include selection bias, self-selection bias, and response bias. Selection bias can occur when the collected data does not represent the population being studied. For example, if a study only includes data from people who volunteer to participate, that data may not represent the general population.

Self-selection bias can also occur when people self-select into a study, such as by taking part only if they think they will benefit from it. Response bias happens when people respond in a way that is not honest or accurate, such as by only answering questions that make them look good. 

These types of data bias present a challenge because they can lead to inaccurate results and conclusions about behaviors, perceptions, and trends. Data bias can be avoided by identifying potential sources or themes of bias and setting guidelines for eliminating them.

Lack of quality assurance processes

One of the biggest challenges in data collection is the lack of quality assurance processes. This can lead to several problems, including incorrect data, missing data, and inconsistencies between data sets.

Quality assurance is important because there are many data sources, and each source may have different levels of quality or corruption. There are also different ways of collecting data, and data quality may vary depending on the method used. 

There are several ways to improve quality assurance in data collection. These include developing clear and consistent goals and guidelines for data collection, implementing quality control measures, using standardized procedures, and employing data validation techniques. By taking these steps, you can ensure that your data is of adequate quality to inform decision-making.

Limited access to data

Another challenge in data collection is limited access to data. This can be due to several reasons, including privacy concerns, the sensitive nature of the data, security concerns, or simply the fact that data is not readily available.

Legal and compliance regulations

Most countries have regulations governing how data can be collected, used, and stored. In some cases, data collected in one country may not be used in another. This means gaining a global perspective can be a challenge. 

For example, if a company is required to comply with the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), it may not be able to collect data from individuals in the EU without their explicit consent. This can make it difficult to collect data from a target audience.

Legal and compliance regulations can be complex, and it's important to ensure that all data collected is done so in a way that complies with the relevant regulations.

• What are the key steps in the data collection process?

There are five steps involved in the data collection process. They are:

1. Decide what data you want to gather

Have a clear understanding of the questions you are asking, and then consider where the answers might lie and how you might obtain them. This saves time and resources by avoiding the collection of irrelevant data, and helps maintain the quality of your datasets. 

2. Establish a deadline for data collection

Establishing a deadline for data collection helps you avoid collecting too much data, which can be costly and time-consuming to analyze. It also allows you to plan for data analysis and prompt interpretation. Finally, it helps you meet your research goals and objectives and allows you to move forward.

3. Select a data collection approach

The data collection approach you choose will depend on different factors, including the type of data you need, available resources, and the project timeline. For instance, if you need qualitative data, you might choose a focus group or interview methodology. If you need quantitative data , then a survey or observational study may be the most appropriate form of collection.

4. Gather information

When collecting data for your business, identify your business goals first. Once you know what you want to achieve, you can start collecting data to reach those goals. The most important thing is to ensure that the data you collect is reliable and valid. Otherwise, any decisions you make using the data could result in a negative outcome for your business.

5. Examine the information and apply your findings

As a researcher, it's important to examine the data you're collecting and analyzing before you apply your findings. This is because data can be misleading, leading to inaccurate conclusions. Ask yourself whether it is what you are expecting? Is it similar to other datasets you have looked at? 

There are many scientific ways to examine data, but some common methods include:

looking at the distribution of data points

examining the relationships between variables

looking for outliers

By taking the time to examine your data and noticing any patterns, strange or otherwise, you can avoid making mistakes that could invalidate your research.

• How qualitative analysis software streamlines the data collection process

Knowledge derived from data does indeed carry power. However, if you don't convert the knowledge into action, it will remain a resource of unexploited energy and wasted potential.

Luckily, data collection tools enable organizations to streamline their data collection and analysis processes and leverage the derived knowledge to grow their businesses. For instance, qualitative analysis software can be highly advantageous in data collection by streamlining the process, making it more efficient and less time-consuming.

Secondly, qualitative analysis software provides a structure for data collection and analysis, ensuring that data is of high quality. It can also help to uncover patterns and relationships that would otherwise be difficult to discern. Moreover, you can use it to replace more expensive data collection methods, such as focus groups or surveys.

Overall, qualitative analysis software can be valuable for any researcher looking to collect and analyze data. By increasing efficiency, improving data quality, and providing greater insights, qualitative software can help to make the research process much more efficient and effective.

Learn more about qualitative research data analysis software

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11.4 Strategies for Gathering Reliable Information

Learning objectives.

• Distinguish between primary and secondary sources.
• Identify strategies for locating relevant print and electronic resources efficiently.
• Identify instances when it is appropriate to use human sources, such as interviews or eyewitness testimony.
• Identify criteria for evaluating research resources.
• Understand why many electronic resources are not reliable.

Now that you have planned your research project, you are ready to begin the research. This phase can be both exciting and challenging. As you read this section, you will learn ways to locate sources efficiently, so you have enough time to read the sources, take notes, and think about how to use the information.

Of course, the technological advances of the past few decades—particularly the rise of online media—mean that, as a twenty-first-century student, you have countless sources of information available at your fingertips. But how can you tell whether a source is reliable? This section will discuss strategies for evaluating sources critically so that you can be a media-savvy researcher.

In this section, you will locate and evaluate resources for your paper and begin taking notes. As you read, begin gathering print and electronic resources, identify at least eight to ten sources by the time you finish the chapter, and begin taking notes on your research findings.

Locating Useful Resources

When you chose a paper topic and determined your research questions, you conducted preliminary research to stimulate your thinking. Your research proposal included some general ideas for how to go about your research—for instance, interviewing an expert in the field or analyzing the content of popular magazines. You may even have identified a few potential sources. Now it is time to conduct a more focused, systematic search for informative primary and secondary sources.

Using Primary and Secondary Sources

Writers classify research resources in two categories: primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources are direct, firsthand sources of information or data. For example, if you were writing a paper about the First Amendment right to freedom of speech, the text of the First Amendment in the Bill of Rights would be a primary source.

Other primary sources include the following:

• Research articles
• Literary texts
• Historical documents such as diaries or letters
• Autobiographies or other personal accounts

Secondary sources discuss, interpret, analyze, consolidate, or otherwise rework information from primary sources. In researching a paper about the First Amendment, you might read articles about legal cases that involved First Amendment rights, or editorials expressing commentary on the First Amendment. These sources would be considered secondary sources because they are one step removed from the primary source of information.

The following are examples of secondary sources:

• Magazine articles
• Biographical books
• Literary and scientific reviews
• Television documentaries

Your topic and purpose determine whether you must cite both primary and secondary sources in your paper. Ask yourself which sources are most likely to provide the information that will answer your research questions. If you are writing a research paper about reality television shows, you will need to use some reality shows as a primary source, but secondary sources, such as a reviewer’s critique, are also important. If you are writing about the health effects of nicotine, you will probably want to read the published results of scientific studies, but secondary sources, such as magazine articles discussing the outcome of a recent study, may also be helpful.

Once you have thought about what kinds of sources are most likely to help you answer your research questions, you may begin your search for print and electronic resources. The challenge here is to conduct your search efficiently. Writers use strategies to help them find the sources that are most relevant and reliable while steering clear of sources that will not be useful.

Finding Print Resources

Print resources include a vast array of documents and publications. Regardless of your topic, you will consult some print resources as part of your research. (You will use electronic sources as well, but it is not wise to limit yourself to electronic sources only, because some potentially useful sources may be available only in print form.) Table 11.1 “Library Print Resources” lists different types of print resources available at public and university libraries.

Table 11.1 Library Print Resources

Some of these resources are also widely available in electronic format. In addition to the resources noted in the table, library holdings may include primary texts such as historical documents, letters, and diaries.

Writing at Work

Businesses, government organizations, and nonprofit organizations produce published materials that range from brief advertisements and brochures to lengthy, detailed reports. In many cases, producing these publications requires research. A corporation’s annual report may include research about economic or industry trends. A charitable organization may use information from research in materials sent to potential donors.

Regardless of the industry you work in, you may be asked to assist in developing materials for publication. Often, incorporating research in these documents can make them more effective in informing or persuading readers.

As you gather information, strive for a balance of accessible, easy-to-read sources and more specialized, challenging sources. Relying solely on lightweight books and articles written for a general audience will drastically limit the range of useful, substantial information. On the other hand, restricting oneself to dense, scholarly works could make the process of researching extremely time-consuming and frustrating.

Make a list of five types of print resources you could use to find information about your research topic. Include at least one primary source. Be as specific as possible—if you have a particular resource or type of resource in mind, describe it.

To find print resources efficiently, first identify the major concepts and terms you will use to conduct your search—that is, your keywords . These, along with the research questions you identified in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” , will help you find sources using any of the following methods:

• Using the library’s online catalog or card catalog
• Using periodicals indexes and databases
• Consulting a reference librarian

You probably already have some keywords in mind based on your preliminary research and writing. Another way to identify useful keywords is to visit the Library of Congress’s website at http://id.loc.gov/authorities . This site allows you to search for a topic and see the related subject headings used by the Library of Congress, including broader terms, narrower terms, and related terms. Other libraries use these terms to classify materials. Knowing the most-used terms will help you speed up your keyword search.

Jorge used the Library of Congress site to identify general terms he could use to find resources about low-carb dieting. His search helped him identify potentially useful keywords and related topics, such as carbohydrates in human nutrition, glycemic index, and carbohydrates—metabolism. These terms helped Jorge refine his search.

Knowing the right keywords can sometimes make all the difference in conducting a successful search. If you have trouble finding sources on a topic, consult a librarian to see whether you need to modify your search terms.

Visit the Library of Congress’s website at http://id.loc.gov/authorities and conduct searches on a few terms related to your topic.

• Review your search results and identify six to eight additional terms you might use when you conduct your research.
• Print out the search results or save the results to your research folder on your computer or portable storage device.

Using Periodicals, Indexes, and Databases

Library catalogs can help you locate book-length sources, as well as some types of nonprint holdings, such as CDs, DVDs, and audio books. To locate shorter sources, such as magazine and journal articles, you will need to use a periodical index or an online periodical database . These tools index the articles that appear in newspapers, magazines, and journals. Like catalogs, they provide publication information about an article and often allow users to access a summary or even the full text of the article.

Print indexes may be available in the periodicals section of your library. Increasingly, libraries use online databases that users can access through the library website. A single library may provide access to multiple periodical databases. These can range from general news databases to specialized databases. Table 11.2 “Commonly Used Indexes and Databases” describes some commonly used indexes and databases.

Table 11.2 Commonly Used Indexes and Databases

Reading Popular and Scholarly Periodicals

When you search for periodicals, be sure to distinguish among different types. Mass-market publications, such as newspapers and popular magazines, differ from scholarly publications in their accessibility, audience, and purpose.

Newspapers and magazines are written for a broader audience than scholarly journals. Their content is usually quite accessible and easy to read. Trade magazines that target readers within a particular industry may presume the reader has background knowledge, but these publications are still reader-friendly for a broader audience. Their purpose is to inform and, often, to entertain or persuade readers as well.

Scholarly or academic journals are written for a much smaller and more expert audience. The creators of these publications assume that most of their readers are already familiar with the main topic of the journal. The target audience is also highly educated. Informing is the primary purpose of a scholarly journal. While a journal article may advance an agenda or advocate a position, the content will still be presented in an objective style and formal tone. Entertaining readers with breezy comments and splashy graphics is not a priority.

Because of these differences, scholarly journals are more challenging to read. That doesn’t mean you should avoid them. On the contrary, they can provide in-depth information unavailable elsewhere. Because knowledgeable professionals carefully review the content before publication, scholarly journals are far more reliable than much of the information available in popular media. Seek out academic journals along with other resources. Just be prepared to spend a little more time processing the information.

Periodicals databases are not just for students writing research papers. They also provide a valuable service to workers in various fields. The owner of a small business might use a database such as Business Source Premiere to find articles on management, finance, or trends within a particular industry. Health care professionals might consult databases such as MedLine to research a particular disease or medication. Regardless of what career path you plan to pursue, periodicals databases can be a useful tool for researching specific topics and identifying periodicals that will help you keep up with the latest news in your industry.

Consulting a Reference Librarian

Sifting through library stacks and database search results to find the information you need can be like trying to find a needle in a haystack. If you are not sure how you should begin your search, or if it is yielding too many or too few results, you are not alone. Many students find this process challenging, although it does get easier with experience. One way to learn better search strategies is to consult a reference librarian.

Reference librarians are intimately familiar with the systems libraries use to organize and classify information. They can help you locate a particular book in the library stacks, steer you toward useful reference works, and provide tips on how to use databases and other electronic research tools. Take the time to see what resources you can find on your own, but if you encounter difficulties, ask for help. Many university librarians hold virtual office hours and are available for online chatting.

Visit your library’s website or consult with a reference librarian to determine what periodicals indexes or databases would be useful for your research. Depending on your topic, you may rely on a general news index, a specialized index for a particular subject area, or both. Search the catalog for your topic and related keywords. Print out or bookmark your search results.

• Identify at least one to two relevant periodicals, indexes, or databases.
• Conduct a keyword search to find potentially relevant articles on your topic.
• Save your search results. If the index you are using provides article summaries, read these to determine how useful the articles are likely to be.
• Identify at least three to five articles to review more closely. If the full article is available online, set aside time to read it. If not, plan to visit our library within the next few days to locate the articles you need.

One way to refine your keyword search is to use Boolean operators. These operators allow you to combine keywords, find variations on a word, and otherwise expand or limit your results. Here are some of the ways you can use Boolean operators:

• Combine keywords with and or + to limit results to citations that include both keywords—for example, diet + nutrition .
• Combine keywords with not or – to search for the first word without the second. This can help you eliminate irrelevant results based on words that are similar to your search term. For example, searching for obesity not childhood locates materials on obesity but excludes materials on childhood obesity.
• Enclose a phrase in quotation marks to search for an exact phrase, such as “ morbid obesity .”
• Use parentheses to direct the order of operations in a search string. For example, since Type II diabetes is also known as adult-onset diabetes, you could search (Type II or adult-onset) and diabetes to limit your search results to articles on this form of the disease.
• Use a wildcard symbol such as # , ? , or $ after a word to search for variations on a term. For instance, you might type diabet# to search for information on diabetes and diabetics. The specific symbol used varies with different databases.

Finding and Using Electronic Resources

With the expansion of technology and media over the past few decades, a wealth of information is available to you in electronic format. Some types of resources, such as a television documentary, may only be available electronically. Other resources—for instance, many newspapers and magazines—may be available in both print and electronic form. The following are some of the electronic sources you might consult:

• Online databases
• Popular web search engines
• Websites maintained by businesses, universities, nonprofit organizations, or government agencies
• Newspapers, magazines, and journals published on the web
• Audio books
• Industry blogs
• Radio and television programs and other audio and video recordings
• Online discussion groups

The techniques you use to locate print resources can also help you find electronic resources efficiently. Libraries usually include CD-ROMs, audio books, and audio and video recordings among their holdings. You can locate these materials in the catalog using a keyword search. The same Boolean operators used to refine database searches can help you filter your results in popular search engines.

Using Internet Search Engines Efficiently

When faced with the challenge of writing a research paper, some students rely on popular search engines as their first source of information. Typing a keyword or phrase into a search engine instantly pulls up links to dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of related websites—what could be easier? Unfortunately, despite its apparent convenience, this research strategy has the following drawbacks to consider:

• Results do not always appear in order of reliability. The first few hits that appear in search results may include sites whose content is not always reliable, such as online encyclopedias that can be edited by any user. Because websites are created by third parties, the search engine cannot tell you which sites have accurate information.
• Results may be too numerous for you to use. The amount of information available on the web is far greater than the amount of information housed within a particular library or database. Realistically, if your web search pulls up thousands of hits, you will not be able to visit every site—and the most useful sites may be buried deep within your search results.
• Search engines are not connected to the results of the search. Search engines find websites that people visit often and list the results in order of popularity. The search engine, then, is not connected to any of the results. When you cite a source found through a search engine, you do not need to cite the search engine. Only cite the source.

A general web search can provide a helpful overview of a topic and may pull up genuinely useful resources. To get the most out of a search engine, however, use strategies to make your search more efficient. Use multiple keywords and Boolean operators to limit your results. Click on the Advanced Search link on the homepage to find additional options for streamlining your search. Depending on the specific search engine you use, the following options may be available:

• Limit results to websites that have been updated within a particular time frame.
• Limit results by language or country.
• Limit results to scholarly works available online.
• Limit results by file type.
• Limit results to a particular domain type, such as .edu (school and university sites) or .gov (government sites). This is a quick way to filter out commercial sites, which can often lead to more objective results.

Use the Bookmarks or Favorites feature of your web browser to save and organize sites that look promising.

Using Other Information Sources: Interviews

With so many print and electronic media readily available, it is easy to overlook another valuable information resource: other people. Consider whether you could use a person or group as a primary source. For instance, you might interview a professor who has expertise in a particular subject, a worker within a particular industry, or a representative from a political organization. Interviews can be a great way to get firsthand information.

To get the most out of an interview, you will need to plan ahead. Contact your subject early in the research process and explain your purpose for requesting an interview. Prepare detailed questions. Open-ended questions, rather than questions with simple yes-or-no answers, are more likely to lead to an in-depth discussion. Schedule a time to meet, and be sure to obtain your subject’s permission to record the interview. Take careful notes and be ready to ask follow-up questions based on what you learn.

If scheduling an in-person meeting is difficult, consider arranging a telephone interview or asking your subject to respond to your questions via e-mail. Recognize that any of these formats takes time and effort. Be prompt and courteous, avoid going over the allotted interview time, and be flexible if your subject needs to reschedule.

Evaluating Research Resources

As you gather sources, you will need to examine them with a critical eye. Smart researchers continually ask themselves two questions: “Is this source relevant to my purpose?” and “Is this source reliable?” The first question will help you avoid wasting valuable time reading sources that stray too far from your specific topic and research questions. The second question will help you find accurate, trustworthy sources.

Determining Whether a Source Is Relevant

At this point in your research process, you may have identified dozens of potential sources. It is easy for writers to get so caught up in checking out books and printing out articles that they forget to ask themselves how they will use these resources in their research. Now is a good time to get a little ruthless. Reading and taking notes takes time and energy, so you will want to focus on the most relevant sources.

To weed through your stack of books and articles, skim their contents. Read quickly with your research questions and subtopics in mind. Table 11.3 “Tips for Skimming Books and Articles” explains how to skim to get a quick sense of what topics are covered. If a book or article is not especially relevant, put it aside. You can always come back to it later if you need to.

Table 11.3 Tips for Skimming Books and Articles

Determining Whether a Source Is Reliable

All information sources are not created equal. Sources can vary greatly in terms of how carefully they are researched, written, edited, and reviewed for accuracy. Common sense will help you identify obviously questionable sources, such as tabloids that feature tales of alien abductions, or personal websites with glaring typos. Sometimes, however, a source’s reliability—or lack of it—is not so obvious. For more information about source reliability, see Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” .

To evaluate your research sources, you will use critical thinking skills consciously and deliberately. You will consider criteria such as the type of source, its intended purpose and audience, the author’s (or authors’) qualifications, the publication’s reputation, any indications of bias or hidden agendas, how current the source is, and the overall quality of the writing, thinking, and design.

Evaluating Types of Sources

The different types of sources you will consult are written for distinct purposes and with different audiences in mind. This accounts for other differences, such as the following:

• How thoroughly the writers cover a given topic
• How carefully the writers research and document facts
• How editors review the work
• What biases or agendas affect the content

A journal article written for an academic audience for the purpose of expanding scholarship in a given field will take an approach quite different from a magazine feature written to inform a general audience. Textbooks, hard news articles, and websites approach a subject from different angles as well. To some extent, the type of source provides clues about its overall depth and reliability. Table 11.4 “Source Rankings” ranks different source types.

Table 11.4 Source Rankings

Free online encyclopedias and wikis may seem like a great source of information. They usually appear among the first few results of a web search. They cover thousands of topics, and many articles use an informal, straightforward writing style. Unfortunately, these sites have no control system for researching, writing, and reviewing articles. Instead, they rely on a community of users to police themselves. At best, these sites can be a starting point for finding other, more trustworthy sources. Never use them as final sources.

Evaluating Credibility and Reputability

Even when you are using a type of source that is generally reliable, you will still need to evaluate the author’s credibility and the publication itself on an individual basis. To examine the author’s credibility —that is, how much you can believe of what the author has to say—examine his or her credentials. What career experience or academic study shows that the author has the expertise to write about this topic?

Keep in mind that expertise in one field is no guarantee of expertise in another, unrelated area. For instance, an author may have an advanced degree in physiology, but this credential is not a valid qualification for writing about psychology. Check credentials carefully.

Just as important as the author’s credibility is the publication’s overall reputability. Reputability refers to a source’s standing and reputation as a respectable, reliable source of information. An established and well-known newspaper, such as the New York Times or the Wall Street Journal , is more reputable than a college newspaper put out by comparatively inexperienced students. A website that is maintained by a well-known, respected organization and regularly updated is more reputable than one created by an unknown author or group.

If you are using articles from scholarly journals, you can check databases that keep count of how many times each article has been cited in other articles. This can be a rough indication of the article’s quality or, at the very least, of its influence and reputation among other scholars.

Checking for Biases and Hidden Agendas

Whenever you consult a source, always think carefully about the author’s or authors’ purpose in presenting the information. Few sources present facts completely objectively. In some cases, the source’s content and tone are significantly influenced by biases or hidden agendas.

Bias refers to favoritism or prejudice toward a particular person or group. For instance, an author may be biased against a certain political party and present information in a way that subtly—or not so subtly—makes that organization look bad. Bias can lead an author to present facts selectively, edit quotations to misrepresent someone’s words, and distort information.

Hidden agendas are goals that are not immediately obvious but influence how an author presents the facts. For instance, an article about the role of beef in a healthy diet would be questionable if it were written by a representative of the beef industry—or by the president of an animal-rights organization. In both cases, the author would likely have a hidden agenda.

As Jorge conducted his research, he read several research studies in which scientists found significant benefits to following a low-carbohydrate diet. He also noticed that many studies were sponsored by a foundation associated with the author of a popular series of low-carbohydrate diet books. Jorge read these studies with a critical eye, knowing that a hidden agenda might be shaping the researchers’ conclusions.

Using Current Sources

Be sure to seek out sources that are current, or up to date. Depending on the topic, sources may become outdated relatively soon after publication, or they may remain useful for years. For instance, online social networking sites have evolved rapidly over the past few years. An article published in 2002 about this topic will not provide current information. On the other hand, a research paper on elementary education practices might refer to studies published decades ago by influential child psychologists.

When using websites for research, check to see when the site was last updated. Many sites publish this information on the homepage, and some, such as news sites, are updated daily or weekly. Many nonfunctioning links are a sign that a website is not regularly updated. Do not be afraid to ask your professor for suggestions if you find that many of your most relevant sources are not especially reliable—or that the most reliable sources are not relevant.

Evaluating Overall Quality by Asking Questions

When you evaluate a source, you will consider the criteria previously discussed as well as your overall impressions of its quality. Read carefully, and notice how well the author presents and supports his or her statements. Stay actively engaged—do not simply accept an author’s words as truth. Ask questions to determine each source’s value. Checklist 11.1 lists ten questions to ask yourself as a critical reader.

Checklist 11.1

Source Evaluation

• Is the type of source appropriate for my purpose? Is it a high-quality source or one that needs to be looked at more critically?
• Can I establish that the author is credible and the publication is reputable?
• Does the author support ideas with specific facts and details that are carefully documented? Is the source of the author’s information clear? (When you use secondary sources, look for sources that are not too removed from primary research.)
• Does the source include any factual errors or instances of faulty logic?
• Does the author leave out any information that I would expect to see in a discussion of this topic?
• Do the author’s conclusions logically follow from the evidence that is presented? Can I see how the author got from one point to another?
• Is the writing clear and organized, and is it free from errors, clichés, and empty buzzwords? Is the tone objective, balanced, and reasonable? (Be on the lookout for extreme, emotionally charged language.)
• Are there any obvious biases or agendas? Based on what I know about the author, are there likely to be any hidden agendas?
• Are graphics informative, useful, and easy to understand? Are websites organized, easy to navigate, and free of clutter like flashing ads and unnecessary sound effects?
• Is the source contradicted by information found in other sources? (If so, it is possible that your sources are presenting similar information but taking different perspectives, which requires you to think carefully about which sources you find more convincing and why. Be suspicious, however, of any source that presents facts that you cannot confirm elsewhere.)

The critical thinking skills you use to evaluate research sources as a student are equally valuable when you conduct research on the job. If you follow certain periodicals or websites, you have probably identified publications that consistently provide reliable information. Reading blogs and online discussion groups is a great way to identify new trends and hot topics in a particular field, but these sources should not be used for substantial research.

Use a search engine to conduct a web search on your topic. Refer to the tips provided earlier to help you streamline your search. Evaluate your search results critically based on the criteria you have learned. Identify and bookmark one or more websites that are reliable, reputable, and likely to be useful in your research.

Managing Source Information

As you determine which sources you will rely on most, it is important to establish a system for keeping track of your sources and taking notes. There are several ways to go about it, and no one system is necessarily superior. What matters is that you keep materials in order; record bibliographical information you will need later; and take detailed, organized notes.

Keeping Track of Your Sources

Think ahead to a moment a few weeks from now, when you’ve written your research paper and are almost ready to submit it for a grade. There is just one task left—writing your list of sources.

As you begin typing your list, you realize you need to include the publication information for a book you cited frequently. Unfortunately, you already returned it to the library several days ago. You do not remember the URLs for some of the websites you used or the dates you accessed them—information that also must be included in your bibliography. With a sinking feeling, you realize that finding this information and preparing your bibliography will require hours of work.

This stressful scenario can be avoided. Taking time to organize source information now will ensure that you are not scrambling to find it at the last minute. Throughout your research, record bibliographical information for each source as soon as you begin using it. You may use pen-and-paper methods, such as a notebook or note cards, or maintain an electronic list. (If you prefer the latter option, many office software packages include separate programs for recording bibliographic information.)

Table 11.5 “Details for Commonly Used Source Types” shows the specific details you should record for commonly used source types. Use these details to develop a working bibliography —a preliminary list of sources that you will later use to develop the references section of your paper. You may wish to record information using the formatting system of the American Psychological Association (APA) or the Modern Language Association (MLA), which will save a step later on. (For more information on APA and MLA formatting, see Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” .)

Table 11.5 Details for Commonly Used Source Types

Your research may involve less common types of sources not listed in Table 11.5 “Details for Commonly Used Source Types” . For additional information on citing different sources, see Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” .

Create a working bibliography using the format that is most convenient for you. List at least five sources you plan to use. Continue to add sources to your working bibliography throughout the research process.

To make your working bibliography even more complete, you may wish to record additional details, such as a book’s call number or contact information for a person you interviewed. That way, if you need to locate a source again, you have all the information you need right at your fingertips. You may also wish to assign each source a code number to use when taking notes (1, 2, 3, or a similar system).

Taking Notes Efficiently

Good researchers stay focused and organized as they gather information from sources. Before you begin taking notes, take a moment to step back and think about your goal as a researcher—to find information that will help you answer your research question. When you write your paper, you will present your conclusions about the topic supported by research. That goal will determine what information you record and how you organize it.

Writers sometimes get caught up in taking extensive notes, so much so that they lose sight of how their notes relate to the questions and ideas they started out with. Remember that you do not need to write down every detail from your reading. Focus on finding and recording details that will help you answer your research questions. The following strategies will help you take notes efficiently.

Use Headings to Organize Ideas

Whether you use old-fashioned index cards or organize your notes using word-processing software, record just one major point from each source at a time, and use a heading to summarize the information covered. Keep all your notes in one file, digital or otherwise. Doing so will help you identify connections among different pieces of information. It will also help you make connections between your notes and the research questions and subtopics you identified earlier.

Know When to Summarize, Paraphrase, or Directly Quote a Source

Your notes will fall under three categories—summary notes, paraphrased information, and direct quotations from your sources. Effective researchers make choices about which type of notes is most appropriate for their purpose.

• Summary notes sum up the main ideas in a source in a few sentences or a short paragraph. A summary is considerably shorter than the original text and captures only the major ideas. Use summary notes when you do not need to record specific details but you intend to refer to broad concepts the author discusses.
• Paraphrased notes restate a fact or idea from a source using your own words and sentence structure.
• Direct quotations use the exact wording used by the original source and enclose the quoted material in quotation marks. It is a good strategy to copy direct quotations when an author expresses an idea in an especially lively or memorable way. However, do not rely exclusively on direct quotations in your note taking.

Most of your notes should be paraphrased from the original source. Paraphrasing as you take notes is usually a better strategy than copying direct quotations, because it forces you to think through the information in your source and understand it well enough to restate it. In short, it helps you stay engaged with the material instead of simply copying and pasting. Synthesizing will help you later when you begin planning and drafting your paper. (For detailed guidelines on summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting, see Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.6 “Writing from Research: End-of-Chapter Exercises” .)

Maintain Complete, Accurate Notes

Regardless of the format used, any notes you take should include enough information to help you organize ideas and locate them instantly in the original text if you need to review them. Make sure your notes include the following elements:

• Heading summing up the main topic covered
• Author’s name, a source code, or an abbreviated source title
• Page number
• Full URL of any pages buried deep in a website

Throughout the process of taking notes, be scrupulous about making sure you have correctly attributed each idea to its source. Always include source information so you know exactly which ideas came from which sources. Use quotation marks to set off any words for phrases taken directly from the original text. If you add your own responses and ideas, make sure they are distinct from ideas you quoted or paraphrased.

Finally, make sure your notes accurately reflect the content of the original text. Make sure quoted material is copied verbatim. If you omit words from a quotation, use ellipses to show the omission and make sure the omission does not change the author’s meaning. Paraphrase ideas carefully, and check your paraphrased notes against the original text to make sure that you have restated the author’s ideas accurately in your own words.

Use a System That Works for You

There are several formats you can use to take notes. No technique is necessarily better than the others—it is more important to choose a format you are comfortable using. Choosing the format that works best for you will ensure your notes are organized, complete, and accurate. Consider implementing one of these formats when you begin taking notes:

• Use index cards. This traditional format involves writing each note on a separate index card. It takes more time than copying and pasting into an electronic document, which encourages you to be selective in choosing which ideas to record. Recording notes on separate cards makes it easy to later organize your notes according to major topics. Some writers color-code their cards to make them still more organized.
• Use note-taking software. Word-processing and office software packages often include different types of note-taking software. Although you may need to set aside some time to learn the software, this method combines the speed of typing with the same degree of organization associated with handwritten note cards.
• Maintain a research notebook. Instead of using index cards or electronic note cards, you may wish to keep a notebook or electronic folder, allotting a few pages (or one file) for each of your sources. This method makes it easy to create a separate column or section of the document where you add your responses to the information you encounter in your research.
• Annotate your sources. This method involves making handwritten notes in the margins of sources that you have printed or photocopied. If using electronic sources, you can make comments within the source document. For example, you might add comment boxes to a PDF version of an article. This method works best for experienced researchers who have already thought a great deal about the topic because it can be difficult to organize your notes later when starting your draft.

Choose one of the methods from the list to use for taking notes. Continue gathering sources and taking notes. In the next section, you will learn strategies for organizing and synthesizing the information you have found.

Key Takeaways

• A writer’s use of primary and secondary sources is determined by the topic and purpose of the research. Sources used may include print sources, such as books and journals; electronic sources, such as websites and articles retrieved from databases; and human sources of information, such as interviews.
• Strategies that help writers locate sources efficiently include conducting effective keyword searches, understanding how to use online catalogs and databases, using strategies to narrow web search results, and consulting reference librarians.
• Writers evaluate sources based on how relevant they are to the research question and how reliable their content is.
• Skimming sources can help writers determine their relevance efficiently.
• Writers evaluate a source’s reliability by asking questions about the type of source (including its audience and purpose); the author’s credibility, the publication’s reputability, the source’s currency, and the overall quality of the writing, research, logic, and design in the source.
• In their notes, effective writers record organized, complete, accurate information. This includes bibliographic information about each source as well as summarized, paraphrased, or quoted information from the source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Quantitative Methods for the Social Sciences pp 23–35 Cite as

A Short Introduction to Survey Research

• Daniel Stockemer 2  
• First Online: 20 November 2018

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This chapter offers a brief introduction into survey research. In the first part of the chapter, students learn about the importance of survey research in the social and behavioral sciences, substantive research areas where survey research is frequently used, and important cross-national survey such as the World Values Survey and the European Social Survey. In the second, I introduce different types of surveys.

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In the literature, such reversed causation is often referred to as an endogeneity problem.

Almond, G., & Verba, S. (1963) [1989]. The civic culture: Political attitudes and democracy in five nations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

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Further Reading

Why do we need survey research.

Converse, J. M. (2017). Survey research in the United States: Roots and emergence 1890–1960. New York: Routledge. This book has more of an historical ankle. It tackles the history of survey research in the United States.

Davidov, E., Schmidt, P., & Schwartz, S. H. (2008). Bringing values back in: The adequacy of the European Social Survey to measure values in 20 countries. Public Opinion Quarterly, 72 (3), 420–445. This rather short article highlights the importance of conducting a large pan-European survey to measure European’s social and political beliefs.

Schmitt, H., Hobolt, S. B., Popa, S. A., & Teperoglou, E. (2015). European parliament election study 2014, voter study. GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. ZA5160 Data file Version , 2 (0). The European Voter Study is another important election study that researchers and students can access freely. It provides a comprehensive battery of variables about voting, political preferences, vote choice, demographics, and political and social opinions of the electorate.

Applied Survey Research

Almond, G. A., & Verba, S. (1963). The civic culture: Political attitudes and democracy in five nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Almond’s and Verba’s masterpiece is a seminal work in survey research measuring citizens’ political and civic attitudes in key Western democracies. The book is also one of the first books that systematically uses survey research to measure political traits.

Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2005). Modernization, cultural change, and democracy: The human development sequence . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This is an influential book, which uses data from the World Values Survey to explain modernization as a process that changes individual’s values away from traditional and patriarchal values and toward post-materialist values including environmental protection, minority rights, and gender equality.

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Bridging the Gap: Overcome these 7 flaws in descriptive research design

Descriptive research design is a powerful tool used by scientists and researchers to gather information about a particular group or phenomenon. This type of research provides a detailed and accurate picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or subject. By observing and collecting data on a given topic, descriptive research helps researchers gain a deeper understanding of a specific issue and provides valuable insights that can inform future studies.

In this blog, we will explore the definition, characteristics, and common flaws in descriptive research design, and provide tips on how to avoid these pitfalls to produce high-quality results. Whether you are a seasoned researcher or a student just starting, understanding the fundamentals of descriptive research design is essential to conducting successful scientific studies.

Table of Contents

What Is Descriptive Research Design?

The descriptive research design involves observing and collecting data on a given topic without attempting to infer cause-and-effect relationships. The goal of descriptive research is to provide a comprehensive and accurate picture of the population or phenomenon being studied and to describe the relationships, patterns, and trends that exist within the data.

Descriptive research methods can include surveys, observational studies , and case studies, and the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative . The findings from descriptive research provide valuable insights and inform future research, but do not establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance of Descriptive Research in Scientific Studies

1. understanding of a population or phenomenon.

Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or phenomenon, allowing researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the topic.

2. Baseline Information

The information gathered through descriptive research can serve as a baseline for future research and provide a foundation for further studies.

3. Informative Data

Descriptive research can provide valuable information and insights into a particular topic, which can inform future research, policy decisions, and programs.

4. Sampling Validation

Descriptive research can be used to validate sampling methods and to help researchers determine the best approach for their study.

5. Cost Effective

Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods , making it a cost-effective way to gather information about a particular population or phenomenon.

6. Easy to Replicate

Descriptive research is straightforward to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.

Key Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

The primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon.

2. Participants and Sampling

Descriptive research studies a particular population or sample that is representative of the larger population being studied. Furthermore, sampling methods can include convenience, stratified, or random sampling.

3. Data Collection Techniques

Descriptive research typically involves the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data through methods such as surveys, observational studies, case studies, or focus groups.

4. Data Analysis

Descriptive research data is analyzed to identify patterns, relationships, and trends within the data. Statistical techniques , such as frequency distributions and descriptive statistics, are commonly used to summarize and describe the data.

5. Focus on Description

Descriptive research is focused on describing and summarizing the characteristics of a particular population or phenomenon. It does not make causal inferences.

6. Non-Experimental

Descriptive research is non-experimental, meaning that the researcher does not manipulate variables or control conditions. The researcher simply observes and collects data on the population or phenomenon being studied.

When Can a Researcher Conduct Descriptive Research?

A researcher can conduct descriptive research in the following situations:

• To better understand a particular population or phenomenon
• To describe the relationships between variables
• To describe patterns and trends
• To validate sampling methods and determine the best approach for a study
• To compare data from multiple sources.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

1. survey research.

Surveys are a type of descriptive research that involves collecting data through self-administered or interviewer-administered questionnaires. Additionally, they can be administered in-person, by mail, or online, and can collect both qualitative and quantitative data.

2. Observational Research

Observational research involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without manipulating variables or controlling conditions. It can be conducted in naturalistic settings or controlled laboratory settings.

3. Case Study Research

Case study research is a type of descriptive research that focuses on a single individual, group, or event. It involves collecting detailed information on the subject through a variety of methods, including interviews, observations, and examination of documents.

4. Focus Group Research

Focus group research involves bringing together a small group of people to discuss a particular topic or product. Furthermore, the group is usually moderated by a researcher and the discussion is recorded for later analysis.

5. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research involves conducting detailed observations of a particular culture or community. It is often used to gain a deep understanding of the beliefs, behaviors, and practices of a particular group.

Advantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. provides a comprehensive understanding.

Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon, which can be useful in informing future research and policy decisions.

2. Non-invasive

Descriptive research is non-invasive and does not manipulate variables or control conditions, making it a suitable method for sensitive or ethical concerns.

3. Flexibility

Descriptive research allows for a wide range of data collection methods , including surveys, observational studies, case studies, and focus groups, making it a flexible and versatile research method.

4. Cost-effective

Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods. Moreover, it gives a cost-effective option to many researchers.

5. Easy to Replicate

Descriptive research is easy to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.

6. Informs Future Research

The insights gained from a descriptive research can inform future research and inform policy decisions and programs.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. limited scope.

Descriptive research only provides a snapshot of the current situation and cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

2. Dependence on Existing Data

Descriptive research relies on existing data, which may not always be comprehensive or accurate.

3. Lack of Control

Researchers have no control over the variables in descriptive research, which can limit the conclusions that can be drawn.

The researcher’s own biases and preconceptions can influence the interpretation of the data.

5. Lack of Generalizability

Descriptive research findings may not be applicable to other populations or situations.

6. Lack of Depth

Descriptive research provides a surface-level understanding of a phenomenon, rather than a deep understanding.

7. Time-consuming

Descriptive research often requires a large amount of data collection and analysis, which can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.

7 Ways to Avoid Common Flaws While Designing Descriptive Research

1. Clearly define the research question

A clearly defined research question is the foundation of any research study, and it is important to ensure that the question is both specific and relevant to the topic being studied.

2. Choose the appropriate research design

Choosing the appropriate research design for a study is crucial to the success of the study. Moreover, researchers should choose a design that best fits the research question and the type of data needed to answer it.

3. Select a representative sample

Selecting a representative sample is important to ensure that the findings of the study are generalizable to the population being studied. Researchers should use a sampling method that provides a random and representative sample of the population.

4. Use valid and reliable data collection methods

Using valid and reliable data collection methods is important to ensure that the data collected is accurate and can be used to answer the research question. Researchers should choose methods that are appropriate for the study and that can be administered consistently and systematically.

5. Minimize bias

Bias can significantly impact the validity and reliability of research findings.  Furthermore, it is important to minimize bias in all aspects of the study, from the selection of participants to the analysis of data.

6. Ensure adequate sample size

An adequate sample size is important to ensure that the results of the study are statistically significant and can be generalized to the population being studied.

7. Use appropriate data analysis techniques

The appropriate data analysis technique depends on the type of data collected and the research question being asked. Researchers should choose techniques that are appropriate for the data and the question being asked.

Have you worked on descriptive research designs? How was your experience creating a descriptive design? What challenges did you face? Do write to us or leave a comment below and share your insights on descriptive research designs!

extremely very educative

Indeed very educative and useful. Well explained. Thank you

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2 Research as an Exploratory Process

One important factor in doing college level research is thinking about and using the components of the research process . It is important to note that the research process is not simply a series of steps that you follow in a particular order. Searching for information is often non-linear and iterative , and the components illustrated in this process may be repeated or reordered, depending on your research needs and the results you retrieve.

When people think of “the research process ,” they usually think of writing papers in college. However, it is important to remember that a lot of the things you do outside of college also use some or all of the components of the research process. Rather than having to write a research paper, for example, you may have a personal question you wish to explore in order to make some decision in your life, or you may be asked by your employer to investigate something to make a decision for work.

Below is a brief description of these components, and how they might look in college vs. real life.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Investigating.

In college , the investigating stage of the research process involves identifying what you need to research, understanding the parameters of your assignment, and stating your research need as either a focused research question or thesis statement . In some classes you take at Weber State University, you will be given a specific question or topic and detailed assignment parameters, and will be told the exact number, types, and formats of information you’ll be required to use. In that case, your professor has already completed this step for you, and you can start your search immediately. In other scenarios, you’ll be given a general idea, and will need to focus that idea based on the assignment.

For example, if you are asked to research a topic and required to write a 20-page paper on it and use a minimum of eight scholarly articles, you wouldn’t want to focus it so narrowly that you wouldn’t be able to find enough information. Or, if you are given the same topic but only have to write five pages and use two sources, your question can be a little more focused. For example, a research question for a 20-page paper might be, “How effective is homework as a learning tool?” while a research question for a 5-page paper might be, “How effective are homework math sheets as a learning tool for elementary school children?”

A real life example of investigating an important question to consider as a responsible information consumer might be the issue of who to vote for in a political election. While the ultimate question is, of course, who to vote for, think about the specific things you might want to know about to help you make this decision. For example, what issues are at stake in the election, and which of the candidates best represents your point of view or supports your needs? In this case, you are designing your own assignment parameters and will need to decide on the number, types, and formats of information you’ll need to answer these questions. There are a number of specific avenues you might explore, including their ideological leanings, their past voting records, their political donors or campaign contributors, and even looking at fact-checkers to see if what they are saying in their speeches is actually true.

In the searching stage of the research process in college , you’ll choose keywords and synonyms from your research topic and use these in catalogs, databases, and/or search engines to find books , articles, and other sources on your topic. Sometimes if you are not finding enough information, or finding too much, you’ll need to re-investigate and revise your question or thesis again. It is important to be familiar with the various search tools that are available to you and which ones will or will not work for your assignment project.

For example, some search tools will only find certain types or formats of information. The library catalog is a good example: if you need articles, you wouldn’t want to search the catalog because the catalog does not include articles. If you need an article on a medical topic that is written for the lay reader, the database MEDLINE would not be a good choice, because it only includes scholarly literature. Most of the time, it is a good idea to search multiple places to find information for college level assignments, and some terms will work better in some search tools than others. Another thing to keep in mind is that first attempts at searching often do not produce adequate results; you will probably have to try a number of different types of searches before you find one that works.

In the real life example, most people have access to the Internet and are very comfortable using Google , and there is a wealth of information available on political candidates. Some well-known examples include Vote Smart , GovTrack.us , and fact-checking sites such as factcheck.org and politifact.com . From these sites you can research candidates’ ideologies, speeches, voting records, legislation, funding sources, and positions on issues of the day. If you have access to library resources through a local public library, a college library open to the public, or digital library such as onlinelibrary.utah.gov , a good example might be the CQWeekly database, which provides in-depth reports on issues looming on the congressional horizon, plus a complete wrap-up of the previous week’s news, including records of political actions such as roll-call votes. As with all tools, each site has pros and cons, so it is important to be aware of any caveats for the sites you use.

For example, factcheck.org focuses primarily on federal politicians, particularly during election years, so if you are researching a state-level candidate you probably won’t find much here. They also state on their site, “In all years, we closely monitor the factual accuracy of what is said by the president and top administration officials, as well as congressional and party leaders. However, we primarily focus on presidential candidates in presidential election years, and on the top Senate races in midterm elections. In off-election years, our primary focus is on the action in Congress” (FactCheck.org, 2020, Topics section). As with college level research, it is a good idea to search multiple places to find information, especially with controversial or current topics that are highlighted in the media, and keep in mind that you may need to try multiple searches to find what you are looking for.

In college , once you’ve searched for information and for relevant sources that fit the assignment parameters, you’ll need to locate them. Some items will be readily available online or on the shelf in the library, and others you may have to use library services such as interlibrary loan to have them ordered for you. Some items are the kind where searching and locating are basically one step, like when you search and find a full text article in a database, but sometimes more work is necessary to locate the item, like a print book. If, after looking over your sources, you decide that you still need more information (or different information), you may need to search again to find other sources. Sometimes you’ll need to revise your search terms, and other times you may need to look in different places you may not have already searched.

In the real life example of political candidate research, you may find most of what you need online. However, there may be very useful sources that are not available online or through your local library. One example might be local news sources, which may be the best sources for a specific local race, or for more in depth coverage of local concerns for a national race. If these are not available online or in physical form through your local library, they may be ordered through Interlibrary Loan, a free library service. You might also decide after looking through the fact checking sites and government records that you want to search again to dig a little deeper and find well written biographies on the candidates, or review recorded debates.

In college , once you obtain the information you need, you’ll evaluate the quality of that information. Sometimes when you get to this stage, you might realize that the information you found is not adequate. Perhaps the sources are not in agreement, or maybe you question their credibility . Or, perhaps it is suited to a different audience (practitioner vs. researcher, or graduate student. vs. undergrad) or too broad in coverage. In this case, you’ll go back to search and locate additional sources on your topic.

In the real life example of researching your candidates, if you have gathered information from community groups, you may realize that some of the information you found was published by advocates of certain candidates, who will have a clear bias . You may wish to gather additional information from opponents who will present information from a different perspective. You may also want to examine information from media sources to determine whether they might be right- or left-leaning to get a broader picture of your candidate, or look at sites like allsides.com who make an effort to provide pieces from left, right, and center in one place. In all of these cases it is important to try to remain objective in your research, and examine the credibility of each piece rather than assume it is all good or all bad based on who it comes from — a trap it is easy to fall into in these days of “fake news.”

DOCUMENTING

In college , once you have the appropriate number and types of sources you need for your assignment or project, you will begin the process of creating or writing. As you use the information, you will give credit to the creators of the information by documenting them in a reference list or works cited list with proper, complete citations . You’ll also provide in-text citations, footnotes, or parenthetical citations (depending on your citation style) in order to provide attribution for the works of others that you use in the paper or presentation.

In the real life example personal research endeavor, you will not officially document your sources. However, as you discuss the pros and cons of the various candidates with friends and family, your stance will be more credible if you can point to your sources. Making a decision about which candidate to vote for based on three sources that are left-leaning will probably not be very persuasive, while a longer list of unbiased sources will make a much stronger case. It will also enable those who question your choice to review your sources and locate additional sources themselves, possibly broadening their information base.

The final component of the research process in college , is utilizing the information for a specific purpose. This might be a paper, speech, presentation, or research project. Here, you will communicate what you found to a particular audience. This step begins with synthesizing the information that you found. To synthesize information means to think critically about what you gleaned from the sources you chose, and to put that information into conversation with what you already knew about the subject. In education, this act of creation — writing your paper or giving your presentation — is the highest form of thinking (Lundstrom et al., 2015). Even at this stage, as you begin synthesizing what you found and start writing, you may see the need to find additional information to fill in missing pieces, or you may change the direction of your paper. This will require you to go back and conduct additional searching , locating , evaluating , and documenting .

In the real life example of looking up information on political candidates, the best way to use what you find is to exercise your right to vote and make your opinion known at the polls. Other ways of using this kind of political information may be to maintain your engagement and vote in other elections that come your way: local, state, and federal. You could run for office yourself, advocate publicly for the candidate you think is best, make phone calls to voters, write to your representative and let them know how important issues up for debate affect you or your family, or join grass-roots organizations to help change the political playing field in your area.

In this example, you are synthesizing the information you found in various sources, just as you would do if you were writing a college paper. In this case, however, the information is mostly synthesized in your thoughts and ways of thinking as you expand your knowledge, rather than formally synthesizing it by producing a written document – and yet you may still find you need to go back and repeat components of the research process , as the issues of the day change or political candidates drop out or enter the race.

Sound familiar? Let’s go back to the three definitions of information (Buckland, 1991): information-as-knowledge, information-as-process, and information-as-thing. You have learned that these three definitions function as a process to further knowledge. This is the process of synthesizing information, which is the key to utilizing information, the last (but not least) component of the research process . With information-as-knowledge you have an idea of what you know about the subject. You research the subject, and find sources (information-as-thing) that introduce new ideas. Thinking critically about those new ideas, and using them to alter, dismiss, or support what it is you already know (information-as-process) is synthesis. This process takes known knowledge, knowledge known by you, and knowledge found in your research that you use to create new knowledge: the product of your research — your paper, or your vote.

As stated previously, the research process is not a simple series of steps that produces quick results. It requires mental flexibility and creativity, and persistence when things do not work the first time. Working on research projects with deadlines requires the ability to understand when enough information has been gathered to meet your needs

Visual Map of the Research Process

The concept of scientific inquiry as a nonlinear and iterative process composed of several components, including Investigate , Search , Locate , Evaluate , Document , and Utilize .

One of the components of the Research Process , which involves discovering information sources to fulfill the information need identified during the Investigation component.

Involving repetition. Utilizing repetition of a sequence of operations, steps, or procedures.

One of the components of the Research Process , which involves understanding the information need and articulating it in the form of a Research Question or Thesis Statement .

A statement formally articulating an information need in the form of an explicit, detailed question to guide the Research Process ; sometimes framed as a Thesis Statement .

A detailed, explicit statement formally articulating an information need to guide the Research Process ; sometimes framed as a Research Question .

A main idea or important word in a research question or thesis statement; two or more keywords can be combined with Boolean Operators to form the Search Statements used to locate sources in Library Search Tools .

A word or phrase that means the same as another or can take the place of it, sometimes in a particular context; particularly useful when using Keywords to build Search Statements with the Boolean Operator , OR, or when searching for information on a topic which can be referred to in many ways, such as college students (i.e., undergraduates, university students, graduate students) or climate change (i.e., global warming, sea level rise, green energy, renewable energy, CO2, greenhouse gas, carbon footprint).

An interface for a computer program hosted on a website that indexes information and allows Internet users to search through online content, generally using Natural Language Queries , and which typically returns results that include Websites and Webpages .

Traditionally a written or printed work consisting of pages glued or sewn together along one side and bound in covers, also available in audio, electronic, and braille formats, making it both a Multi-Format Information source and one of the Long Formats of information.

A Library Search Tool where information about the library’s book collection is kept and made searchable, to allow users to discover and locate needed information

One the most commonly used Web Search Engines , used widely to search for information on millions of topics. Also used as a verb, meaning to use a Web Search Engine to search for information.

One of the components of the Research Process , which involves retrieving information sources discovered through Searching .

A type of Reference Source providing information about the lives of people.

One of the components of the Research Process , which involves the practice of appraising the value of an information source both in its own right and as it relates to your topic, typically by investigating its Authority , Credibility , Currency , Bias , and Documentation .

The quality of believability; the ability of an author or work to inspire trust based on the author’s expertise, training, credentials, objectivity, or other factors of Authority . An important consideration in the Evaluation of Information .

A preconceived opinion in favor of or against a thing, person, group, etc. which may lead to partiality in information sources. Types of bias include Funding Bias , Media Bias , and Selection Bias .

The opposite of Bias ; the quality of being impartial or neutral.

One of the components of the Research Process , which involves providing References in a work to show a reader where to find the information the author used to create their work; usually includes Attribution and Citing .

An indicator, formatted according to a consistent style (such as MLA or APA ), that material used in a work is originally from another source, usually included in the text and/or in a list appended to the work.

A reference made in parentheses within the text of an article, book, etc., generally including author, year, and/or page number information, to indicate to the reader where information was found, which is paired with an entry in a Bibliography to make a complete Citation .

Giving credit to the creator or copyright holder of a work whose information you used in your own work, generally by including an In-Text Citation or Parenthetical Citation .

One of the components of the Research Process , which involves synthesizing what you found and and identifying additional information that may be missing.

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In-Situ Testing

In-situ testing refers to testing methods that are carried out directly on the ground, rock, or soil at a particular site. These tests are conducted to gather information about the geotechnical properties of the site, such as strength, stiffness, permeability, and deformation characteristics. In-situ testing is an important component of site investigation, as it allows engineers and geologists to evaluate the subsurface conditions and the suitability of the site for various types of construction projects.

In-situ testing methods are typically divided into two broad categories: (1) penetration tests, which involve driving a tool or instrument into the ground and measuring the resistance or penetration rate, and (2) non-penetration tests, which involve measuring various physical properties of the ground or soil without penetrating it. Some of the most commonly used in-situ testing methods include the Standard Penetration Test (SPT), the Cone Penetration Test (CPT), the Pressuremeter Test, and the Dilatometer Test. Each of these tests has its own advantages and limitations, and the choice of test method will depend on the specific objectives of the investigation and the properties of the site being investigated.

Importance in site investigation

Types of in-situ tests, standard penetration test (spt), cone penetration test (cpt), pressuremeter test, vane shear test, plate load test, cross-hole test, downhole test.

In-situ testing is an important part of site investigation as it helps to obtain a better understanding of the characteristics and behavior of soil and rock at the actual site conditions. The results obtained from in-situ testing are used to assess the geotechnical properties of soil and rock, which in turn are used for design and construction of various civil engineering projects such as buildings, roads, bridges, dams, and tunnels.

In-situ testing can also provide information on the presence of natural hazards such as landslides , liquefaction, and subsidence. By understanding the geotechnical properties of the site, engineers can design appropriate foundations, earthworks, and other geotechnical structures to minimize the risk of failure and ensure the safety and stability of the structures over their design life.

There are various types of in-situ tests used in geotechnical site investigation. Some of the commonly used in-situ tests are:

• Standard Penetration Test (SPT): This test involves driving a split spoon sampler into the ground using a standard weight and fall height. The number of blows required to drive the sampler over a set distance is recorded and used to determine the soil resistance.
• Cone Penetration Test (CPT): This test involves pushing a cone-shaped penetrometer into the ground at a constant rate of penetration. The resistance of the soil to penetration is measured and used to determine soil properties.
• Pressuremeter Test: This test involves inserting a cylindrical probe into a borehole and then expanding it using water pressure. The pressure required to expand the probe is measured and used to determine soil stiffness and strength.
• Vane Shear Test: This test involves inserting a vane into the soil and then rotating it to measure the torque required to cause failure. The test is used to determine the shear strength of soft to stiff clays.
• Plate Load Test: This test involves placing a steel plate on the ground surface and applying a load. The settlement of the plate under load is measured and used to determine the bearing capacity of the soil.
• Cross-Hole Test: This test involves drilling two or more boreholes and placing seismic sensors in them. An acoustic wave is generated in one borehole and the time it takes to travel to the other boreholes is measured. The test is used to determine the shear wave velocity and stiffness of the soil between the boreholes.
• Downhole Test: This test involves inserting a probe into a borehole and measuring the properties of the soil at different depths. The test is used to determine soil stratigraphy and stiffness properties at different depths.

The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is a widely used in-situ test to determine the geotechnical properties of soil at a site. The test involves driving a standard sampler into the ground using a hammer with a standard weight and falling distance. The number of blows required to drive the sampler a standard distance into the soil is recorded as the SPT “N-value.” The SPT is used to estimate the soil’s shear strength, density, and other properties.

The SPT test is performed by drilling a borehole into the soil, usually using a hollow stem auger, and inserting a sampler tube into the borehole. A split-spoon sampler is then driven into the soil at the bottom of the borehole using a standard hammer of 63.5 kg weight and falling through a standard distance of 75 cm. The number of blows required to drive the sampler the first 15 cm of penetration is not counted, and the number of blows required for the next three 15 cm increments is recorded as the SPT N-value.

The SPT is a relatively quick and inexpensive test, making it a popular choice for site investigations. However, the test results can be affected by factors such as soil type, sampler size, and hammer energy, which must be taken into account when interpreting the results.

The Cone Penetration Test (CPT) is a widely used in-situ testing method in geotechnical engineering. It involves pushing a cone penetrometer into the ground at a constant rate of penetration and measuring the resistance to penetration and pore water pressure at different depths. The cone penetrometer typically consists of a steel cone tip, a series of friction sleeve segments, and a pore water pressure transducer. As the cone penetrometer is pushed into the ground, the resistance to penetration and pore water pressure measurements are recorded continuously, providing a profile of the soil or rock properties with depth.

The CPT is often used to obtain information about soil type, strength, and compressibility, as well as groundwater conditions. The test results can be used to estimate soil bearing capacity, foundation settlement, liquefaction potential, and soil slope stability . The CPT is considered to be a reliable and cost-effective method for site investigation, particularly for large and complex projects.

The pressuremeter test is an in-situ test used to measure the in situ stress-strain characteristics of soils and rocks . In this test, a cylindrical probe is inserted into the ground, and the probe is then expanded by applying pressure to the inside of the probe. The pressure is increased incrementally while the volume of the probe is monitored. The resulting pressure-volume data is used to determine the modulus of deformation and shear strength parameters of the soil or rock being tested. The pressuremeter test is often used in soft soils where standard penetration testing or cone penetration testing may not be suitable. It is also commonly used in geotechnical engineering design for foundations and retaining structures.

Vane shear test is an in-situ geotechnical test used to determine the undrained shear strength of soft to stiff cohesive soils. The test involves pushing a four-bladed vane vertically into the soil, rotating it at a constant rate of shear, and measuring the torque required to maintain the rotation. The torque measurement is used to determine the maximum shear resistance, which is used to calculate the undrained shear strength of the soil.

The vane shear test is particularly useful in the assessment of the strength of clays and silts, and is often used to estimate the undrained shear strength of soils for the design of shallow foundations, retaining walls, and embankments. The test is quick, inexpensive, and can be performed in boreholes or test pits without the need for soil excavation.

The Plate Load Test (PLT) is an in-situ test used to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and the likely settlement of a structure on that soil. The test involves placing a steel plate on the ground surface and loading it with a hydraulic jack until the plate starts to sink into the soil. The amount of settlement and the pressure applied to the plate are measured at different stages of loading to establish a load-settlement curve.

From the load-settlement curve, the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil can be estimated, along with the deformation modulus and other soil properties. This information is useful in designing shallow foundations for structures, such as buildings and bridges, and in assessing the stability of embankments and slopes.

PLT is typically used in conjunction with other site investigation techniques , such as borehole drilling and sampling, and geophysical surveys, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the soil and rock conditions at a site.

Cross-hole testing is an in-situ geophysical technique used to determine the seismic properties of soil or rock materials between two or more boreholes. The method involves generating a seismic wave in one borehole using an energy source such as a hammer or explosive and recording the response to the wave in a nearby borehole using a geophone or accelerometer. By analyzing the arrival time, amplitude, and frequency content of the wave at the receiver, geophysicists can determine the properties of the material between the boreholes, such as seismic velocity, shear modulus, and Poisson’s ratio. Cross-hole testing is commonly used for geotechnical and geophysical investigations of the subsurface, such as in foundation design, seismic hazard assessment, and groundwater characterization.

Downhole testing is a type of in-situ testing that involves measuring geotechnical parameters in a borehole. This type of testing is commonly used in mineral exploration, but can also be used in geotechnical engineering and environmental investigations.

There are several types of downhole tests, including:

• Downhole seismic testing: This involves measuring the velocity and attenuation of seismic waves in the rock layers surrounding a borehole. This information can be used to infer the elastic properties of the rock, which can be important in geotechnical engineering applications.
• Downhole logging: This involves lowering a logging tool down a borehole to measure various properties of the rock, such as density, porosity, and electrical conductivity. This information can be used to characterize the geology and hydrology of the subsurface, and can be important in mineral exploration, geotechnical engineering, and environmental investigations.
• Borehole permeability testing: This involves injecting or pumping water into a borehole and measuring the pressure response. This information can be used to estimate the permeability of the surrounding rock, which can be important in hydrogeological and geotechnical engineering applications.

Overall, downhole testing can provide valuable information about the subsurface geology and properties, which can be important in a wide range of applications.

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National Academy of Sciences (US), National Academy of Engineering (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Ensuring the Utility and Integrity of Research Data in a Digital Age. Ensuring the Integrity, Accessibility, and Stewardship of Research Data in the Digital Age. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2009.

Ensuring the Integrity, Accessibility, and Stewardship of Research Data in the Digital Age.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

2 Ensuring the Integrity of Research Data

The fields of science span the totality of natural phenomena and their styles are enormously varied. Consequently, science is too broad an enterprise to permit many generalizations about its conduct. One theme, however, threads through its many fields: the primacy of scrupulously recorded data. Because the techniques that researchers employ to ensure the truth and accuracy of their data are as varied as the fields themselves, there are no universal procedures for achieving technical accuracy. There are, however, some broadly accepted practices for pursuing science. In most fields of science, for instance, experimental observations must be shown to be reproducible in order to be creditable. 1 Other practices include checking and rechecking data to ensure that the interpretation is valid, and also submitting the results to peer review to further confirm that the findings are sound. Yet other practices may be employed only within specific fields, for instance, the use of double-blind trials, or the independent verification of important results in separate laboratories.

Although the pervasive use of high-speed computing and communications in research has vastly expanded the capabilities of researchers, if used inappropriately or carelessly, digital technologies can lower the quality of data and compromise the integrity of research. 2 Digitization may introduce spurious information into a representation, and complex digital analyses of data can yield misleading results if researchers are not scrupulously careful in monitoring and understanding the analysis process. Because so much of the processing and communication of digital data are done by computers with relatively little human oversight, erroneous data can be rapidly multiplied and widely disseminated. Some projects generate so much data that significant patterns or signals can be lost in a deluge of information. As an example of the challenges posed by digital research data, Box 2-1 explores these issues in the context of particle physics research.

Digital Data in Particle Physics. From the invention of digital counting electronics in the early days of nuclear physics, to the creation of the World Wide Web and the data acquisition technology for the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), particle physics (more...)

Because digital data can be manipulated more easily than can other forms of data, digital data are particularly susceptible to distortion. Researchers—and others—may be tempted to distort data in a misguided effort to clarify results. In the worst cases, they may even falsify or fabricate data.

As an example of how digital data can be inappropriately manipulated, consider the case of digital images in cell biology. When the journals published by the Rockefeller University Press, including the Journal of Cell Biology , adopted a completely electronic work flow in 2002, the editors gained the ability to check images for changes in ways that were not possible previously. The Journal of Cell Biology , in consultation with the research community it serves, therefore adopted a policy that specified its expectations and procedures:

No specific feature within an image may be enhanced, obscured, moved, removed, or introduced. The grouping of images from different parts of the same gel, or from dif ferent gels, fields, or exposures must be made explicit by the arrangement of the figure (i.e., using dividing lines) and in the text of the figure legend. If dividing lines are not included, they will be added by our production department, and this may result in production delays. Adjustments of brightness, contrast, or color balance are acceptable if they are applied to the whole image and as long as they do not obscure, eliminate, or misrepresent any information present in the original, including backgrounds. Without any background information, it is not possible to see exactly how much of the original gel is actually shown. Non-linear adjustments (e.g., changes to gamma settings) must be disclosed in the figure legend. All digital images in manuscripts accepted for publication will be scrutinized by our production department for any indication of improper manipulation. Questions raised by the production department will be referred to the Editors, who will request the original data from the authors for comparison to the prepared figures. If the original data cannot be produced, the acceptance of the manuscript may be revoked. Cases in which the manipulation affects the interpretation of the data will result in revocation of acceptance, and will be reported to the corresponding author’s home institution or funding agency.

—The Journal of Cell Biology , Instructions to Authors, http://www.jcb.org/misc/ifora.shtml

Having developed this policy, the editors at the Journal of Cell Biology began to screen all of the images in accepted articles for evidence of inappropriate manipulation. For example, simple brightness and contrast adjustments could reveal inconsistencies in the background of the image that are clues to manipulation. In this way, the editors could determine whether the images presented in a manuscript were an accurate representation of what was actually observed and whether the quality or context in which the images were obtained was apparent.

Over the course of the next 5 years, the editors screened the images in 1,869 accepted papers. 3 Over a quarter of the manuscripts contained one or more images that had been inappropriately manipulated. In the vast majority of those cases, the manipulation violated the journal’s guidelines but did not affect the interpretation of the data, and the articles were published after the authors revised the images in accordance with the guidelines.

In 18 of the papers—about 1 percent of the total for which the editors sought and obtained the original data—the editors determined that the image manipulations affected the interpretation of the data. The acceptance of those papers was revoked, and they were not published. In only one case did the authors state that the original data could not be found and withdrew the paper.

According to a federal definition of research misconduct developed by the Office of Science and Technology Policy, misconduct consists of fabrication, fal sification, or plagiarism of research results. 4 However, the editors at the Journal of Cell Biology do not consider the element of “intent” in their inquiries into potential violations of their guidelines. They obtain the original data directly from the authors, since whether an image has been inappropriately manipulated can be determined only by comparing the submitted figures with the original data. Initial inquiries from the journal emphasize that questions are being asked only about the presentation of data, not its integrity, and inquiries are kept strictly confidential between a journal and authors.

The section on image manipulation in the White Paper on Promoting Integ rity in Scientific Journal Publications by the Council of Science Editors, which was written by the editors at the Journal of Cell Biology , suggests that “journal editors should attempt to resolve the problem before a case is reported. This is because the vast majority of cases do not turn out to be fraudulent.” 5

Since the Journal of Cell Biology adopted its policy, other journals, including the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and Nature , have begun screening images for evidence of inappropriate manipulation (see Table 2-1 ). Generally, these journals have screened a subset of papers and have made the additional level of scrutiny known to authors in the hope that this will act as a disincentive to manipulation. 6 In addition, software is being developed that may automate at least part of the screening process so that more images can be examined with less expense.

Publishers of scientific, engineering, and medical journals continue to grapple with issues related to technological change and ensuring the integrity of published results. Concurrent with the present study, a number of leading journals have held a series of meetings to discuss these issues. One question is whether the additional efforts on the part of journals to screen digital images entail additional responsibilities. For example, suppose a journal screens digital images in a manuscript, finds something suspicious, and after undertaking an inquiry and finding that an image has been fraudulently manipulated rejects the paper. Does the journal have further responsibilities, and if so what are they? According to the White Paper on Promoting Integrity in Scientific Journal Publications by the Council of Science Editors, when a journal “suspects an article contains material that may result in a finding of misconduct, the editor can notify some or all of the following parties: the author who submitted the article, all authors of the article, the institution that employs the author(s), the sponsor of the study, or an agency that would have jurisdiction over an inves tigation of the matter (e.g., ORI [Office of Research Integrity]).” 7 In practice, however, an editor may be reluctant to initiate action that could have disciplinary consequences. 8

Analysis of Journal Policies.

Another question is whether the high incidence of inappropriate manipulation of images in the above example reflects a lack of experience with applying the standards of science to digital data or an underlying disregard for the standards of science. The recommendations presented later in this chapter address the need for researchers not only to understand the reasons for maintaining the integrity of research data, but also the methods for doing so. 9

All research data, whether digital or not, are susceptible both to error and to misrepresentation. Digital technologies can introduce technical sources of error into data analysis, communication, or storage systems. At the frontiers of human knowledge, the data that bear on a problem can be very difficult to separate from irrelevant information. 10 Research methods may not be firmly established, and even the questions being asked may not be fully defined.

Furthermore, researchers may have incentives to structure research or gather data in ways that favor a particular outcome, as in the case of drug studies funded by companies that stand to profit from particular results. 11 In addition, researchers can have philosophical, political, or religious convictions that can influence their work, including the ways they collect and interpret data. 12 Because of the many ways in which data can depart from empirical realities, everyone involved in the collection, analysis, dissemination, and preservation of data has a responsibility to safeguard the integrity of data.

• THE ROLES OF DATA PRODUCERS, PROVIDERS, AND USERS

The example from the Journal of Cell Biology illustrates the different roles that individuals and groups can play in ensuring the integrity of data. For the purposes of this report, we have divided these individuals and groups into three categories—data producers, data providers, and data users—though it should be kept it mind that many individuals and organizations fall into more than one of these categories.

Data producers are the scientists, engineers, students, and others who generate data, whether through observations, experiments, simulations, or the gathering of information from other sources. Often the creation of data is an explicit objective of research, but data can be generated in many ways. For example, administrative records, archaeological artifacts, cell phone logs, or many other forms of information can be adapted to serve as inputs to research. Data also are produced by government agencies in the course of performing tasks for other purposes (such as remote sensing for weather forecasts or conducting the decadal censuses), and these data can be used extensively for research. This report focuses on data produced through activities that are related primarily to research, but the general principles laid out in this report apply to all data used in research.

Data providers consist of the individuals and organizations who are responsible, whether formally or informally, for making data accessible to others. Sometimes a data provider may be simply the producer of those data, because data producers generally are expected to make data available to verify research conclusions and allow for the continued progress of research. In other cases, data may be deposited in a repository, center, or archive that has the responsibility of disseminating the data. Journals also can be data providers, either through the articles they publish or through the provision of supplementary material that supports a published article.

Data users are the individuals and groups who access data in order to use those data in their own work, whether in research or in other endeavors. At one extreme, the users of data may belong entirely to the community of originating researchers (as in the case of elementary particle physics, which is described in this chapter). At the other extreme, a given body of data may be of wide interest to people outside a research field (as in the case of climate records, which is discussed in Chapter 3 ). Data producers are generally data users, but the collective body of data users extends beyond the research community to policy makers, educators, the media, the courts, and others. Data users can work in fields quite different from those of data producers, which means that they have an interest in being able to access data that are well annotated in order to use them accurately and appropriately.

As described below, each of these three groups has particular responsibilities in ensuring the integrity of research data.

• THE COLLECTIVE SCRUTINY OF RESEARCH DATA AND RESULTS

In Chapter 1 , we noted that measures of data integrity have both individual and collective dimensions. At an individual level, ensuring integrity means ensuring that the data are complete, verified, and undistorted. This is essential for science and engineering to progress, but it is not sufficient because progress in understanding the world requires that knowledge be shared. This process of submitting research data and results derived from those data to the scrutiny of others provides for a collective means of establishing and confirming data integrity. When others can examine the steps used to generate data and the conclusions drawn from those data, they can judge the validity of the data and results and accept (perhaps with reservations) or reject proffered contributions to science. Of course, the collective scrutiny of research results cannot guarantee that those results will be free of error or bias. For instance, it is noteworthy that important phenomena such as plate tectonics, chaotic motion in mechanical systems, or the functions of “junk” DNA were overlooked for decades because of theoretical perspectives that shaped the collection of data in those fields. Nevertheless, by bringing multiple perspectives to bear on a common body of information, the error and bias inherent in individual perspectives can be minimized. In this way, the frontiers of understanding continually advance through the collective evaluation of new data and hypotheses.

Data producers, providers, and users are all involved in the collective scrutiny of research data and results. Data producers need to make data available to others so that the data’s quality can be judged. ( Chapter 3 discusses the accessibility of research data.) Data providers need to make data widely available in a form such that the data can be not only used but evaluated, which requires that data be accompanied by sufficient metadata for their content and value to be ascertained. ( Chapter 4 discusses the importance of metadata.) Finally, data users need to examine critically the data generated by themselves and others. The critical evaluation of data is a fundamental obligation of all researchers.

Completely and accurately describing the conditions under which data are collected, characterizing the equipment used and its response, and recording anything that was done to the data thereafter are critical to ensuring data integrity. In this report we refer to the techniques, procedures, and tools used to collect or generate data simply as methods, where a “method” is understood to encompass everything from research protocols to the computers and software (including models, code, and input data) used to gather information, process and analyze data, or perform simulations. The validity of the methods used to conduct research is judged collectively by the community involved in that research. For example, a community may decide that double-blind trials, independent verification, or particular instrumental calibrations are necessary for a body of data to be accepted as having high quality. Scientific methods include both a core of widely accepted methods and a periphery of methods that are less widely accepted. Thus, discussions of data integrity inevitably involve scrutiny of the methods used to derive those data.

The procedures used to ensure the integrity of data can vary greatly from field to field. The methods high-energy physicists use to ensure the integrity of data are quite different from those of clinical psychologists. The cultures of the fields of research are enormously varied, and there are no universal procedures for achieving technical accuracy. Some practices may be employed only within specific fields, such as the use of double-blind trials. Some of these field-specific methods may be embodied in technical manuals, institutional policies, journal guidelines, or publications of professional societies. Other methods are part of the collective but tacit knowledge held in common by researchers in that field and passed down to beginning researchers through instruction and mentoring.

In contrast to field-specific methods, some methods used to ensure data integrity extend across most fields of research. Examples include the review of data within research groups, replication of previous observations and experiments, peer review, the sharing of data and research results, and the retention of raw data for possible future use.

The importance of understanding the particular methods used (whether field-specific or general) is signaled in some publications by a “methods section” that describes the procedures used to derive a result. In some print journals, methods sections are being squeezed by pressures to cut costs, though conventionally sized or longer methods sections may be available in supplementary material online. Researchers also may abbreviate methods sections to keep some procedures private in order to obscure the processes used to derive data.

To some extent, researchers must simply trust that other researchers have adhered to the methods accepted in a field of scientific, engineering, or medical research. Sometimes it is impossible to specify in enough detail the procedures used to gather or generate data so that others will get exactly the same results. In such cases, assistance from the original researcher may be necessary for other researchers to replicate or extend earlier results.

The importance of understanding the methods of collecting or generating the data emphasizes the importance of understanding the context of data. Most data cannot be properly interpreted without at least some—and frequently detailed—understanding of the procedures, instruments, and processing used to generate those data. Thus, data integrity depends critically on communicating to other researchers and to the public the context in which data are generated and processed.

• PEER REVIEW AND OTHER MEANS FOR ENSURING THE INTEGRITY OF DATA

Of all the social processes used to maintain the integrity of the research enterprise, the most prominent is peer review of articles submitted to a scholarly journal for publication. Review of submitted articles by the authors’ peers screens for quality and relevance and helps to ensure that professional standards have been maintained in the collection and analysis of data. It provides a forum in which the collective standards of a field can be not only negotiated but enforced, because of the researchers’ interests in having their results published. Peer review examines whether research questions have been framed and addressed properly, whether findings are original and significant, and whether a paper is clearly written and acknowledges previous work. Peer review also organizes research results so that the most important research appears in specific journals, which allows for more effective communication.

Because peer review is such an effective tool in quality control, it also is used in evaluating researchers. Researchers are judged for purposes of hiring and promotion largely on the basis of publication in peer-reviewed journals. Furthermore, publication in these journals remains the most important way to disseminate quality-controlled contributions to knowledge. The number of peer-reviewed journals is continuing to grow, and importance of peer review has not diminished during the digital era.

However, changes in the way research is conducted, including many changes caused by digital technologies, have put pressure on the peer review system. 13 The volume or diversity of research data supporting a conclusion may overwhelm the ability of a reviewer to evaluate the link between the data and that conclusion. As supporting information for a finding in a submitted paper increasingly moves to lengthy supplemental materials, reviewers may be less able to judge the merits of a paper. In addition, journals and funders can have trouble finding peer reviewers who are competent and have the time to judge complex interdisciplinary manuscripts.

Peer review cannot ensure that all research data are technically accurate, though inaccuracies in data can become apparent either in review or as researchers seek to extend or build on data. The research system is based to a large degree on trust. As described later in this chapter, training and the development of standards are crucial factors in building trust. Broader cultural forces such as reward systems, the reputation of researchers and their institutions, and social and cultural penalties for violation of trust also serve to build and maintain trust.

A recent example that illustrates both the limitations of peer review and the strengths of the cumulative nature of science is the case of Seoul National University researcher Woo Suk Hwang. Major advances in stem cell technology that were reported by Hwang and his colleagues and published in the journal Science were based on fabricated data. 14 The fraud was uncovered and confirmed after the original publication because of continued scrutiny of the results by the research community. Another case involving fabricated data is described in Box 2-2 .

Breach of Trust. Beginning in 1998, a series of remarkable papers attracted great attention within the condensed-matter physics community. The papers, based largely on work done at Bell Laboratories, described methods that could create carbon-based materials (more...)

Changes in publication practices are affecting peer review. Largely because of advances in digital communications, the scholarly publishing industry is undergoing dramatic changes, some of which are having a major influence on the economics of the industry. 15 Peer review is expensive because of the time devoted to the process by editors, reviewers, and authors responding to reviewers’ comments. Changes in the economics of scholarly publishing may put pressure on editors and publishers to lessen the emphasis on peer review as they strive to cut costs and increase efficiency.

At the same time, digital technologies can strengthen peer review by catalyzing and facilitating new ways of reviewing publications. For example, some journals have been experimenting with making reviews open and public. 16 In some cases, reviewers’ names are known to authors and readers. In other cases, their reviews and authors’ responses become part of the online record of publication. More radical innovations, such as the continuous improvement of published materials through wikis and similar approaches, or peer rankings and commentary on published papers, could further change both journals and the institution of peer review.

Although it is clear that traditional peer review processes remain vital for evaluating the importance and relevance of research, the advance of digital technologies is providing new opportunities to ensure the integrity of data. The emergence and growth of accessible databases such as GenBank and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey illustrate these opportunities in widely disparate disciplines. 17

Many researchers post databases, draft papers, oral presentations, simulations, software packages, or other scholarly products on personal or institutional Web sites. Repositories, such as the Nature Precedings repository established by the Nature publishing group for the life sciences, allow researchers to share, discuss, and cite preliminary findings. 18 The Web allows widespread dissemination of critiques, commentaries, blogs, and other communications. All of these communications can be widely disseminated without undergoing a formal peer review process. In these cases, the quality of research results and the underlying data may be uncertain, and other researchers may have questions in deciding whether to rely on that research in their own work.

The processes for reviewing data that are preserved in a repository or otherwise made widely available to researchers can be quite different from the procedures for reviewing data presented in a publication. 19 Trust in the quality of data may require personal knowledge of how the data were collected and analyzed. Metadata that carefully describe the origins and subsequent processing of the data can increase confidence in the validity of the data.

In some cases, digital technologies can assist in ensuring data quality and building trust in the integrity of the data. Verified technical methods for gather ing, analyzing, and disseminating data can establish tight connections between natural phenomena and representations of those phenomena. Digital technologies also can allow for the widespread dissemination of data and research results to potential reviewers and data users. The emergence and growth of accessible databases such as GenBank and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey illustrate these opportunities in widely disparate disciplines. 20 ( Box 2-3 on clinical research in this chapter describes another example.) However, it can be difficult to verify the integrity of results based on large datasets that have undergone substantial processing.

Using Digital Technologies to Enhance Data Integrity. Digital technologies can pose risks to data integrity, but they also offer ways to improve the reliability of research data. By enabling phenomena and objects to be described and analyzed more comprehensively, (more...)

In cases where research results or underlying data are distributed electronically without undergoing peer review, researchers may be able to find other ways to submit them to collective evaluation. For example, they may be able to submit data to informal review by colleagues or open review by users of electronic documents. To advance science, in some cases it may be desirable to disseminate data and conclusions in ways other than through peer-reviewed publications. Electronic technologies are greatly enhancing this dissemination.

However, widespread dissemination of research results and underlying data that have not been vetted through the social mechanisms characteristic of research poses the risk that the conclusions drawn from available data can be distorted. Furthermore, it can be difficult for a community to assess the validity of evaluations that are outside traditional peer review processes. And academic disciplines and institutions are just beginning to develop methods for evaluating and rewarding researchers for the production of results that have not undergone peer review or have undergone only informal review. 21

Fields of research may settle on methods that enhance the quality of research without following all the steps of a formal review process. For example, a research community may structure itself to examine and verify research procedures and data, even though the data are not publicly accessible, as happens in high-energy physics. Another example is research in economics, where authors often work on papers for extended periods, presenting preliminary version of their papers (and data) at conferences and receiving official critiques from their colleagues prior to submitting a paper for publication.

In other cases, the accuracy of data may be continuously reviewed as they are incorporated into ongoing research in such a way that their accuracy is checked; for example, this is one of the quality control mechanisms used with biological data that are made publicly available as soon as they are generated. The rapid release of validated, high-quality data requires analysis and planning by the researchers who built the data-gathering and processing system (which requires that those researchers be rewarded for their efforts) and the design of systems that incorporate innovative automated data-quality assessment. In these cases, provisions may need to be made for continually updating data as errors are detected and improved methods are developed, resulting in databases that evolve as fields advance.

Table 2-2 summarizes the policies of federal agencies regarding data integrity and data sharing.

• DATA INTEGRITY IN THE DIGITAL AGE AND THE ROLE OF DATA PROFESSIONALS

In the digital age, the methods used to maintain data integrity are increasingly complex. As new methods and tools are brought into practice, researchers are continually challenged to understand them and use them effectively. Furthermore, providing data to users inevitably becomes more involved as the size and complexity of databases increase. Because methods continually change as digital technologies evolve, researchers may be required to make a substantial investment of time in order to keep pace.

In some fields, the researchers themselves may be at the forefront of efforts to meet these data challenges, but in many fields the challenges are met at least in part by what we call in this report “data professionals.” These individuals have a very wide range of responsibilities for data analysis, archiving, preservation, and distribution. 22 Often, they are the leaders in developing new methods of data communication, data visualization, educational outreach, and other key advances. They also often participate in the development of standards, formats, metadata, and quality control mechanisms. They can bring new perspectives on existing datasets or new ways of combining data that yield important advances. Through their familiarity with rapidly changing digital technologies, they can enhance the ability of others to conduct research. They also are in a unique position to make digital data available to the broadest possible range of researchers, educators, students, and the general public. Educational opportunities, viable career paths, and professional recognition all help ensure that data professionals are in a position to make needed contributions to research.

• GENERAL PRINCIPLE FOR ENSURING THE INTEGRITY OF RESEARCH DATA

The new capabilities and challenges posed by digital technologies point to the need for a renewed emphasis on data integrity. The assumption that traditional practices will suffice is no longer tenable as digital technologies continue to transform the nature of research. Researchers must be aware of how the integration of digital technologies into research affects the quality of data. As the generation and dissemination of data become the primary objectives of some research projects, researchers need to find ways to validate the quality of those data. They need to take steps to ensure that digital technologies enhance rather than detract from data integrity.

These observations lead to the following general principle:

Data Integrity Principle: Ensuring the integrity of research data is essential for advancing scientific, engineering, and medical knowledge and for maintaining public trust in the research enterprise. Although other stakeholders in the research enterprise have important roles to play, researchers themselves are ultimately responsible for ensuring the integrity of research data .

In emphasizing the importance of this principle, the committee is not calling for formal assurances of data integrity. Maintaining the quality of research is an essential part of being a responsible and competent researcher. In assigning researchers the ultimate responsibility for data integrity, the committee is asking no more than that researchers adhere to the standards established and held in common by all researchers.

This principle may seem apparent, but its application in the digital age leads to several important recommendations.

• THE OBLIGATIONS OF RESEARCHERS TO ENSURE THE INTEGRITY OF RESEARCH DATA

Researchers have a fundamental obligation to their colleagues, to the public, and to themselves to ensure the integrity of research data. Members of the research community trust that their colleagues will adhere to the standards of their field and will be transparent in describing the methods used to generate data. They also assume that colleagues will make available the data on which publicly disseminated research results are based. ( Chapter 3 discusses issues of data access in detail.) Members of the general public may be unfamiliar with the standards of a research field, but they, too, trust that researchers will gather, analyze, and review data accurately, honestly, and without unstated bias. If trust among colleagues or the public is misplaced and research data are shown to be inaccurate (or, even worse, fabricated), the consequences can be severe both within science and in the broader society.

Federal Agency Policies on Research Data.

The twin ideals of trust and transparency lead to our first recommendation:

Recommendation 1: Researchers should design and manage their projects so as to ensure the integrity of research data, adhering to the professional standards that distinguish scientific, engineering, and medical research both as a whole and as their particular fields of specialization.

Some professional standards apply throughout research, such as the injunction never to falsify or fabricate data or plagiarize research results. These are fundamental to research, and have been confirmed by leading organizations and codified in regulations. 23 Others are relevant only within specific fields, such as requirements to conduct double-blind clinical trials. Researchers must adhere to both sets of standards if they are to maintain the integrity of research data.

• THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING

The integrity of research data can suffer if researchers inadvertently or willfully ignore the professional standards of their field. Data integrity also can be negatively affected if researchers are unaware of these standards or are unaware of their importance.

Recommendation 2: Research institutions should ensure that every researcher receives appropriate training in the responsible conduct of research, including the proper management of research data in general and within the researcher’s field of specialization. Some research sponsors provide support for this training and for the development of training programs.

The training that is appropriate for researchers varies by field. While every researcher should be familiar with the standards common to all research, other standards may be unique to a particular field. Much of this knowledge is handed down from senior researchers to junior researchers during the course of a person’s education and research apprenticeship. In at least some fields, a more formal statement of accepted practices, combined with more explicit instruction in those practices, could enhance the quality and utility of the data produced by those fields. Given the rapid pace of change in many research fields, research focused specifically on methods to ensure the integrity of research data may be necessary.

Today, the actual implementation of training varies greatly from field to field and institution to institution. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) requires that graduate and postdoctoral students who are supported by NIH training grants receive instruction in the responsible conduct of research. The Office of Research Integrity at the Department of Health and Human Services supports programs undertaken by the Council of Graduate Schools, the National Postdoctoral Association, and the Laboratory Management Institute at the University of California at Davis to develop education and training programs in the responsible conduct of research. 24 Many research institutions also require such training of students or beginning researchers, often in the form of seminars, workshops, or Web-based modules. ( Box 2-4 describes one such program.)

Training in Data Management. The program Fostering Integrity in Research, Scholarship, and Teaching (FIRST) at the University of Minnesota includes an online workshop in research data management. New faculty members, postdoctoral fellows, and graduate (more...)

A 2002 Institute of Medicine report examined how institutions can create environments that foster research integrity. 25 The report points out that although education and training can be helpful, not much is currently known about which approaches are most effective. Institutional self-assessment and external peer review can be valuable tools in developing and improving education and training. Smaller institutions may need to take advantage of consortia or electronic communications to provide their researchers with adequate education and training.

The leaders of research groups have a particular responsibility to see that professional standards are observed in the conduct of research. They should ensure that the members of their groups have opportunities to learn about the proper management of data. Research leaders also have an obligation to set a standard for responsible behavior and to monitor and guide the actions of the members of their groups. Implementing institutional policies at the group level, holding regular meetings to discuss data issues, and providing careful supervision all help to create a research environment in which the integrity of data is understood, valued, and ensured. 26

As described earlier, the need for training in the standards of research has been made more urgent by the advance of the digital age. The application of digital technologies in research has fundamentally altered the daily practices and interpersonal interactions of everyone involved in the research enterprise. Researchers need to become familiar with complex and rapidly changing systems to review, visualize, store, summarize, and search for information. They need to understand the technologies and methods they apply to the collection, analysis, storage, and dissemination of data in sufficient detail to have confidence in the integrity of those data. Unless they understand the procedures used to generate, process, represent, and document data, they risk wasting resources or reducing the quality of their data and research conclusions. In a profession so dependent on advanced computing and communications, every researcher needs to understand not only how to use computers but how computing affects research.

• PRODUCING CLEAR, UP-TO-DATE STANDARDS FOR DATA INTEGRITY: A SHARED RESPONSIBILITY OF THE RESEARCH ENTERPRISE

Researchers, research institutions, research sponsors, professional societies, and journals all are responsible for creating and sustaining an environment that supports the efforts of researchers to ensure the integrity of research data. In some cases, digital technologies are having such a dramatic effect on research practices that professional standards either have not yet been established or are in flux. 27 The research enterprise needs to redouble efforts to set clear expectations for appropriate behavior and effectively communicate those expectations.

Recommendation 3: The research enterprise and its stakeholders—research institutions, research sponsors, professional societies, journals, and individual researchers—should develop and disseminate professional standards for ensuring the integrity of research data and for ensuring adherence to these standards. In areas where standards differ between fields, it is important that differences be clearly defined and explained. Specific guidelines for data management may require reexamination and updating as technologies and research practices evolve.

To date, research communities have responded to the new challenges of the digital age in a largely decentralized fashion, adapting traditional ethical standards to new circumstances. This decentralized approach is appropriate in that data management practices are so varied across research fields that a “one size fits all” approach would not address important issues, and the imposition of detailed standards from outside a field is unlikely to be effective. In some cases, fields of research within and across disciplines may be able to cooperate in developing standards for ensuring the integrity of research data.

The application of professional standards can be complicated in the case of interdisciplinary research, where investigators in different fields bring different practices to joint projects. In this case, familiarity with the standards and expectations of all the fields represented by that research is preferable to the blanket imposition of overly broad standards. Better education and training in data management for investigators, combined with expanded access to research data across disciplines (which is the subject of the next chapter), will best serve the advance of knowledge and other public interests.

• THE ROLES OF DATA PROFESSIONALS

Although all researchers should understand digital technologies well enough to be confident in the integrity of the data they generate, they cannot always be expected to be able to take full advantage of new capabilities. Instead, they may have to rely on collaborations with colleagues who have specialized training in applying digital technologies in research. Through their in-depth knowledge of digital technologies and how those technologies can advance knowledge in a particular field, data professionals can make key intellectual contributions to the progress of research.

Data professionals have a wide range of backgrounds, levels of training, and roles in research. Some serve in a support role for research groups; others make substantial intellectual or other contributions to research that warrant professional rewards such as inclusion in a list of authors. The roles of data professionals vary from field to field, but in an increasing number of fields, data professionals are assuming a shared professional responsibility with researchers for maintaining the integrity of research data. Chapters 3 and 4 return to the roles of data professionals in enabling access to and preserving research data. The following recommendation reflects their importance in ensuring data integrity.

Recommendation 4: Research institutions, professional societies, and journals should ensure that the contributions of data professionals to research are appropri ately recognized. In addition, research sponsors should acknowledge that financial support for data professionals is an appropriate research cost in an increasing number of fields.

Even this fundamental principle can have exceptions. For instance, observations with a historical element, such as the explosion of a supernova or the growth of an epidemic, cannot be reproduced.

The challenges of maintaining data integrity over the long term, including the decay of physical storage media and improper manipulation of archived data, are discussed in Chapter 4 .

These figures are from Mike Rossner, The Rockefeller University Press, presentation to the committee, April 16, 2007. For background, see Mike Rossner and Kenneth M. Yamada. 2004. “What’s in a picture: The temptation of image manipulation.” Journal of Cell Biology 166(1):11–15.

Office of Science and Technology Policy, Federal Policy on Research Misconduct. Available at http://ori ​.dhhs.gov/education ​/products/RCRintro/c02/b1c2 ​.html .

Editorial Policy Committee. 2006. CSE’s White Paper on Promoting Integrity in Scientific Journal Publications . Reston, VA: Council of Science Editors, p. 50.

Unfortunately, the experience of the editors of the Journal of Cell Biology indicates that this is not the case, because the rates at which they see image manipulation have not declined over the past 5 years.

D. Butler. 2008. “Entire-paper plagiarism caught by software.” Nature News 455:715.

National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2009. On Being a Scientist: Responsible Conduct in Research , 3rd ed . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

E. Brian Davis. 2003. Science in the Looking Glass: What Do Scientists Really Know? New York: Oxford University Press.

Sheldon Krimsky. 2006. “Publication bias, data ownership, and the funding effect in science: Threats to the integrity of biomedical research.” Pp. 61–85 in Rescuing Science from Politics: Regu lation and the Distortion of Scientific Research , eds. Wendy Wagner and Rena Steinzor. New York: Cambridge University Press.

National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2009. On Being a Scientist: Responsible Conduct in Research, 3rd ed . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Stevan Harnad. 1998. “Learned inquiry and the net: The role of peer review, peer commentary and copyright,” Learned Publishing 11:183–192. Available at http://cogprints ​.org/1694/0/harnad98 ​.toronto.learnedpub.html . Accessed February 23, 2007.

Mildred K. Cho, Glen McGee, and David Magnus. 2006. “Lessons of the stem cell scandal.” Science 311(5761): 614–615.

National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2004. Electronic Scientific, Technical, and Medical Journal Publishing and Its Implications . Washing-ton, DC: The National Academies Press.

A number of open access journals maintain open peer review processes. The traditional journal Nature experimented with an open peer review process during 2006, finding that the open process was not popular with authors or reviewers. Sarah Greaves, Joanna Scott, Maxine Clarke, Linda Miller, Timo Hannay, Annette Thomas, and Philip Campbell. 2006. “Overview: Nature’s peer review trial.” Nature doi:10.1038/nature05535. Available http://www ​.nature.com ​/nature/peerreview/debate/nature05535 ​.html . This report is also discussed in an editorial. 2006. “Peer review and fraud.” 444:971.

Dennis A. Benson, Ilene Karsch-Mizrachi, David J. Lipman, James Ostell, and David L. Wheeler. 2006. “GenBank.” Nucleic Acids Research 34(Database):D16–D20. Available at http://nar ​.oxfordjournals ​.org/cgi/content ​/abstract/34/suppl_1/D16 . See also Robert C. Kennicutt, Jr. 2007. “Sloan at five.” Nature 450:488–489.

See http://precedings ​.nature.com/ .

Christine L. Borgman. 2007. Scholarship in the Digital Age: Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

ACRL Scholarly Communications Committee. 2007. Establishing a Research Agenda for Scholarly Communication: A Call for Community Engagement. Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries. Available at http://acrl ​.ala.org/scresearchagenda ​/index ​.php?title=Main_Page .

National Science Board. 2005. Long-Lived Data Collections: Enabling Research and Education in the 21st Century. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation.

National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 1992. Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Office of Research Integrity. 2008. Annual Report 2007. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services.

Institute of Medicine. 2002. Integrity in Scientific Research: Creating an Environment That Promotes Responsible Conduct . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Chris B. Pascal. 2006. “Managing data for integrity: Policies and procedures for ensuring the accuracy and quality of the data in the laboratory.” Science and Engineering Ethics 2:23–39.

The quality standards applied to microarray data in proteomics provide a good example of ongoing efforts to improve the data generated by a rapidly evolving technology. See S. Rogers and A. Cambrosio. 2007. Making a new technology work: The standardization and regulation of microarrays. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 80:165–178.

• Cite this Page National Academy of Sciences (US), National Academy of Engineering (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Ensuring the Utility and Integrity of Research Data in a Digital Age. Ensuring the Integrity, Accessibility, and Stewardship of Research Data in the Digital Age. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2009. 2, Ensuring the Integrity of Research Data.
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How to Do Market Research: The Complete Guide

Learn how to do market research with this step-by-step guide, complete with templates, tools and real-world examples.

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What are your customers’ needs? How does your product compare to the competition? What are the emerging trends and opportunities in your industry? If these questions keep you up at night, it’s time to conduct market research.

Market research plays a pivotal role in your ability to stay competitive and relevant, helping you anticipate shifts in consumer behavior and industry dynamics. It involves gathering these insights using a wide range of techniques, from surveys and interviews to data analysis and observational studies.

In this guide, we’ll explore why market research is crucial, the various types of market research, the methods used in data collection, and how to effectively conduct market research to drive informed decision-making and success.

What is market research?

Market research is the systematic process of gathering, analyzing and interpreting information about a specific market or industry. The purpose of market research is to offer valuable insight into the preferences and behaviors of your target audience, and anticipate shifts in market trends and the competitive landscape. This information helps you make data-driven decisions, develop effective strategies for your business, and maximize your chances of long-term growth.

Why is market research important? 

By understanding the significance of market research, you can make sure you’re asking the right questions and using the process to your advantage. Some of the benefits of market research include:

• Informed decision-making: Market research provides you with the data and insights you need to make smart decisions for your business. It helps you identify opportunities, assess risks and tailor your strategies to meet the demands of the market. Without market research, decisions are often based on assumptions or guesswork, leading to costly mistakes.
• Customer-centric approach: A cornerstone of market research involves developing a deep understanding of customer needs and preferences. This gives you valuable insights into your target audience, helping you develop products, services and marketing campaigns that resonate with your customers.
• Competitive advantage: By conducting market research, you’ll gain a competitive edge. You’ll be able to identify gaps in the market, analyze competitor strengths and weaknesses, and position your business strategically. This enables you to create unique value propositions, differentiate yourself from competitors, and seize opportunities that others may overlook.
• Risk mitigation: Market research helps you anticipate market shifts and potential challenges. By identifying threats early, you can proactively adjust their strategies to mitigate risks and respond effectively to changing circumstances. This proactive approach is particularly valuable in volatile industries.
• Resource optimization: Conducting market research allows organizations to allocate their time, money and resources more efficiently. It ensures that investments are made in areas with the highest potential return on investment, reducing wasted resources and improving overall business performance.
• Adaptation to market trends: Markets evolve rapidly, driven by technological advancements, cultural shifts and changing consumer attitudes. Market research ensures that you stay ahead of these trends and adapt your offerings accordingly so you can avoid becoming obsolete. 

As you can see, market research empowers businesses to make data-driven decisions, cater to customer needs, outperform competitors, mitigate risks, optimize resources and stay agile in a dynamic marketplace. These benefits make it a huge industry; the global market research services market is expected to grow from $76.37 billion in 2021 to $108.57 billion in 2026 . Now, let’s dig into the different types of market research that can help you achieve these benefits.

Types of market research 

• Qualitative research
• Quantitative research
• Exploratory research
• Descriptive research
• Causal research
• Cross-sectional research
• Longitudinal research

Despite its advantages, 23% of organizations don’t have a clear market research strategy. Part of developing a strategy involves choosing the right type of market research for your business goals. The most commonly used approaches include:

1. Qualitative research

Qualitative research focuses on understanding the underlying motivations, attitudes and perceptions of individuals or groups. It is typically conducted through techniques like in-depth interviews, focus groups and content analysis — methods we’ll discuss further in the sections below. Qualitative research provides rich, nuanced insights that can inform product development, marketing strategies and brand positioning.

2. Quantitative research

Quantitative research, in contrast to qualitative research, involves the collection and analysis of numerical data, often through surveys, experiments and structured questionnaires. This approach allows for statistical analysis and the measurement of trends, making it suitable for large-scale market studies and hypothesis testing. While it’s worthwhile using a mix of qualitative and quantitative research, most businesses prioritize the latter because it is scientific, measurable and easily replicated across different experiments.

3. Exploratory research

Whether you’re conducting qualitative or quantitative research or a mix of both, exploratory research is often the first step. Its primary goal is to help you understand a market or problem so you can gain insights and identify potential issues or opportunities. This type of market research is less structured and is typically conducted through open-ended interviews, focus groups or secondary data analysis. Exploratory research is valuable when entering new markets or exploring new product ideas.

4. Descriptive research

As its name implies, descriptive research seeks to describe a market, population or phenomenon in detail. It involves collecting and summarizing data to answer questions about audience demographics and behaviors, market size, and current trends. Surveys, observational studies and content analysis are common methods used in descriptive research. 

5. Causal research

Causal research aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables. It investigates whether changes in one variable result in changes in another. Experimental designs, A/B testing and regression analysis are common causal research methods. This sheds light on how specific marketing strategies or product changes impact consumer behavior.

6. Cross-sectional research

Cross-sectional market research involves collecting data from a sample of the population at a single point in time. It is used to analyze differences, relationships or trends among various groups within a population. Cross-sectional studies are helpful for market segmentation, identifying target audiences and assessing market trends at a specific moment.

7. Longitudinal research

Longitudinal research, in contrast to cross-sectional research, collects data from the same subjects over an extended period. This allows for the analysis of trends, changes and developments over time. Longitudinal studies are useful for tracking long-term developments in consumer preferences, brand loyalty and market dynamics.

Each type of market research has its strengths and weaknesses, and the method you choose depends on your specific research goals and the depth of understanding you’re aiming to achieve. In the following sections, we’ll delve into primary and secondary research approaches and specific research methods.

Primary vs. secondary market research

Market research of all types can be broadly categorized into two main approaches: primary research and secondary research. By understanding the differences between these approaches, you can better determine the most appropriate research method for your specific goals.

Primary market research 

Primary research involves the collection of original data straight from the source. Typically, this involves communicating directly with your target audience — through surveys, interviews, focus groups and more — to gather information. Here are some key attributes of primary market research:

• Customized data: Primary research provides data that is tailored to your research needs. You design a custom research study and gather information specific to your goals.
• Up-to-date insights: Because primary research involves communicating with customers, the data you collect reflects the most current market conditions and consumer behaviors.
• Time-consuming and resource-intensive: Despite its advantages, primary research can be labor-intensive and costly, especially when dealing with large sample sizes or complex study designs. Whether you hire a market research consultant, agency or use an in-house team, primary research studies consume a large amount of resources and time.

Secondary market research 

Secondary research, on the other hand, involves analyzing data that has already been compiled by third-party sources, such as online research tools, databases, news sites, industry reports and academic studies.

Here are the main characteristics of secondary market research:

• Cost-effective: Secondary research is generally more cost-effective than primary research since it doesn’t require building a research plan from scratch. You and your team can look at databases, websites and publications on an ongoing basis, without needing to design a custom experiment or hire a consultant. 
• Leverages multiple sources: Data tools and software extract data from multiple places across the web, and then consolidate that information within a single platform. This means you’ll get a greater amount of data and a wider scope from secondary research.
• Quick to access: You can access a wide range of information rapidly — often in seconds — if you’re using online research tools and databases. Because of this, you can act on insights sooner, rather than taking the time to develop an experiment. 

So, when should you use primary vs. secondary research? In practice, many market research projects incorporate both primary and secondary research to take advantage of the strengths of each approach.

One rule of thumb is to focus on secondary research to obtain background information, market trends or industry benchmarks. It is especially valuable for conducting preliminary research, competitor analysis, or when time and budget constraints are tight. Then, if you still have knowledge gaps or need to answer specific questions unique to your business model, use primary research to create a custom experiment. 

Market research methods

• Surveys and questionnaires
• Focus groups
• Observational research
• Online research tools
• Experiments
• Content analysis
• Ethnographic research

How do primary and secondary research approaches translate into specific research methods? Let’s take a look at the different ways you can gather data: 

1. Surveys and questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires are popular methods for collecting structured data from a large number of respondents. They involve a set of predetermined questions that participants answer. Surveys can be conducted through various channels, including online tools, telephone interviews and in-person or online questionnaires. They are useful for gathering quantitative data and assessing customer demographics, opinions, preferences and needs. On average, customer surveys have a 33% response rate , so keep that in mind as you consider your sample size.

2. Interviews

Interviews are in-depth conversations with individuals or groups to gather qualitative insights. They can be structured (with predefined questions) or unstructured (with open-ended discussions). Interviews are valuable for exploring complex topics, uncovering motivations and obtaining detailed feedback. 

3. Focus groups

The most common primary research methods are in-depth webcam interviews and focus groups. Focus groups are a small gathering of participants who discuss a specific topic or product under the guidance of a moderator. These discussions are valuable for primary market research because they reveal insights into consumer attitudes, perceptions and emotions. Focus groups are especially useful for idea generation, concept testing and understanding group dynamics within your target audience.

4. Observational research

Observational research involves observing and recording participant behavior in a natural setting. This method is particularly valuable when studying consumer behavior in physical spaces, such as retail stores or public places. In some types of observational research, participants are aware you’re watching them; in other cases, you discreetly watch consumers without their knowledge, as they use your product. Either way, observational research provides firsthand insights into how people interact with products or environments.

5. Online research tools

You and your team can do your own secondary market research using online tools. These tools include data prospecting platforms and databases, as well as online surveys, social media listening, web analytics and sentiment analysis platforms. They help you gather data from online sources, monitor industry trends, track competitors, understand consumer preferences and keep tabs on online behavior. We’ll talk more about choosing the right market research tools in the sections that follow.

6. Experiments

Market research experiments are controlled tests of variables to determine causal relationships. While experiments are often associated with scientific research, they are also used in market research to assess the impact of specific marketing strategies, product features, or pricing and packaging changes.

7. Content analysis

Content analysis involves the systematic examination of textual, visual or audio content to identify patterns, themes and trends. It’s commonly applied to customer reviews, social media posts and other forms of online content to analyze consumer opinions and sentiments.

8. Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research immerses researchers into the daily lives of consumers to understand their behavior and culture. This method is particularly valuable when studying niche markets or exploring the cultural context of consumer choices.

How to do market research

• Set clear objectives
• Identify your target audience
• Choose your research methods
• Use the right market research tools
• Collect data
• Analyze data 
• Interpret your findings
• Identify opportunities and challenges
• Make informed business decisions
• Monitor and adapt

Now that you have gained insights into the various market research methods at your disposal, let’s delve into the practical aspects of how to conduct market research effectively. Here’s a quick step-by-step overview, from defining objectives to monitoring market shifts.

1. Set clear objectives

When you set clear and specific goals, you’re essentially creating a compass to guide your research questions and methodology. Start by precisely defining what you want to achieve. Are you launching a new product and want to understand its viability in the market? Are you evaluating customer satisfaction with a product redesign? 

Start by creating SMART goals — objectives that are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound. Not only will this clarify your research focus from the outset, but it will also help you track progress and benchmark your success throughout the process. 

You should also consult with key stakeholders and team members to ensure alignment on your research objectives before diving into data collecting. This will help you gain diverse perspectives and insights that will shape your research approach.

2. Identify your target audience

Next, you’ll need to pinpoint your target audience to determine who should be included in your research. Begin by creating detailed buyer personas or stakeholder profiles. Consider demographic factors like age, gender, income and location, but also delve into psychographics, such as interests, values and pain points.

The more specific your target audience, the more accurate and actionable your research will be. Additionally, segment your audience if your research objectives involve studying different groups, such as current customers and potential leads.

If you already have existing customers, you can also hold conversations with them to better understand your target market. From there, you can refine your buyer personas and tailor your research methods accordingly.

3. Choose your research methods

Selecting the right research methods is crucial for gathering high-quality data. Start by considering the nature of your research objectives. If you’re exploring consumer preferences, surveys and interviews can provide valuable insights. For in-depth understanding, focus groups or observational research might be suitable. Consider using a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods to gain a well-rounded perspective. 

You’ll also need to consider your budget. Think about what you can realistically achieve using the time and resources available to you. If you have a fairly generous budget, you may want to try a mix of primary and secondary research approaches. If you’re doing market research for a startup , on the other hand, chances are your budget is somewhat limited. If that’s the case, try addressing your goals with secondary research tools before investing time and effort in a primary research study. 

4. Use the right market research tools

Whether you’re conducting primary or secondary research, you’ll need to choose the right tools. These can help you do anything from sending surveys to customers to monitoring trends and analyzing data. Here are some examples of popular market research tools:

• Market research software: Crunchbase is a platform that provides best-in-class company data, making it valuable for market research on growing companies and industries. You can use Crunchbase to access trusted, first-party funding data, revenue data, news and firmographics, enabling you to monitor industry trends and understand customer needs.

• Survey and questionnaire tools: SurveyMonkey is a widely used online survey platform that allows you to create, distribute and analyze surveys. Google Forms is a free tool that lets you create surveys and collect responses through Google Drive.
• Data analysis software: Microsoft Excel and Google Sheets are useful for conducting statistical analyses. SPSS is a powerful statistical analysis software used for data processing, analysis and reporting.
• Social listening tools: Brandwatch is a social listening and analytics platform that helps you monitor social media conversations, track sentiment and analyze trends. Mention is a media monitoring tool that allows you to track mentions of your brand, competitors and keywords across various online sources.
• Data visualization platforms: Tableau is a data visualization tool that helps you create interactive and shareable dashboards and reports. Power BI by Microsoft is a business analytics tool for creating interactive visualizations and reports.

5. Collect data

There’s an infinite amount of data you could be collecting using these tools, so you’ll need to be intentional about going after the data that aligns with your research goals. Implement your chosen research methods, whether it’s distributing surveys, conducting interviews or pulling from secondary research platforms. Pay close attention to data quality and accuracy, and stick to a standardized process to streamline data capture and reduce errors. 

6. Analyze data

Once data is collected, you’ll need to analyze it systematically. Use statistical software or analysis tools to identify patterns, trends and correlations. For qualitative data, employ thematic analysis to extract common themes and insights. Visualize your findings with charts, graphs and tables to make complex data more understandable.

If you’re not proficient in data analysis, consider outsourcing or collaborating with a data analyst who can assist in processing and interpreting your data accurately.

7. Interpret your findings

Interpreting your market research findings involves understanding what the data means in the context of your objectives. Are there significant trends that uncover the answers to your initial research questions? Consider the implications of your findings on your business strategy. It’s essential to move beyond raw data and extract actionable insights that inform decision-making.

Hold a cross-functional meeting or workshop with relevant team members to collectively interpret the findings. Different perspectives can lead to more comprehensive insights and innovative solutions.

8. Identify opportunities and challenges

Use your research findings to identify potential growth opportunities and challenges within your market. What segments of your audience are underserved or overlooked? Are there emerging trends you can capitalize on? Conversely, what obstacles or competitors could hinder your progress?

Lay out this information in a clear and organized way by conducting a SWOT analysis, which stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Jot down notes for each of these areas to provide a structured overview of gaps and hurdles in the market.

9. Make informed business decisions

Market research is only valuable if it leads to informed decisions for your company. Based on your insights, devise actionable strategies and initiatives that align with your research objectives. Whether it’s refining your product, targeting new customer segments or adjusting pricing, ensure your decisions are rooted in the data.

At this point, it’s also crucial to keep your team aligned and accountable. Create an action plan that outlines specific steps, responsibilities and timelines for implementing the recommendations derived from your research. 

10. Monitor and adapt

Market research isn’t a one-time activity; it’s an ongoing process. Continuously monitor market conditions, customer behaviors and industry trends. Set up mechanisms to collect real-time data and feedback. As you gather new information, be prepared to adapt your strategies and tactics accordingly. Regularly revisiting your research ensures your business remains agile and reflects changing market dynamics and consumer preferences.

Online market research sources

As you go through the steps above, you’ll want to turn to trusted, reputable sources to gather your data. Here’s a list to get you started:

• Crunchbase: As mentioned above, Crunchbase is an online platform with an extensive dataset, allowing you to access in-depth insights on market trends, consumer behavior and competitive analysis. You can also customize your search options to tailor your research to specific industries, geographic regions or customer personas.

• Academic databases: Academic databases, such as ProQuest and JSTOR , are treasure troves of scholarly research papers, studies and academic journals. They offer in-depth analyses of various subjects, including market trends, consumer preferences and industry-specific insights. Researchers can access a wealth of peer-reviewed publications to gain a deeper understanding of their research topics.
• Government and NGO databases: Government agencies, nongovernmental organizations and other institutions frequently maintain databases containing valuable economic, demographic and industry-related data. These sources offer credible statistics and reports on a wide range of topics, making them essential for market researchers. Examples include the U.S. Census Bureau , the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the Pew Research Center .
• Industry reports: Industry reports and market studies are comprehensive documents prepared by research firms, industry associations and consulting companies. They provide in-depth insights into specific markets, including market size, trends, competitive analysis and consumer behavior. You can find this information by looking at relevant industry association databases; examples include the American Marketing Association and the National Retail Federation .
• Social media and online communities: Social media platforms like LinkedIn or Twitter (X) , forums such as Reddit and Quora , and review platforms such as G2 can provide real-time insights into consumer sentiment, opinions and trends. 

Market research examples

At this point, you have market research tools and data sources — but how do you act on the data you gather? Let’s go over some real-world examples that illustrate the practical application of market research across various industries. These examples showcase how market research can lead to smart decision-making and successful business decisions.

Example 1: Apple’s iPhone launch

Apple ’s iconic iPhone launch in 2007 serves as a prime example of market research driving product innovation in tech. Before the iPhone’s release, Apple conducted extensive market research to understand consumer preferences, pain points and unmet needs in the mobile phone industry. This research led to the development of a touchscreen smartphone with a user-friendly interface, addressing consumer demands for a more intuitive and versatile device. The result was a revolutionary product that disrupted the market and redefined the smartphone industry.

Example 2: McDonald’s global expansion

McDonald’s successful global expansion strategy demonstrates the importance of market research when expanding into new territories. Before entering a new market, McDonald’s conducts thorough research to understand local tastes, preferences and cultural nuances. This research informs menu customization, marketing strategies and store design. For instance, in India, McDonald’s offers a menu tailored to local preferences, including vegetarian options. This market-specific approach has enabled McDonald’s to adapt and thrive in diverse global markets.

Example 3: Organic and sustainable farming

The shift toward organic and sustainable farming practices in the food industry is driven by market research that indicates increased consumer demand for healthier and environmentally friendly food options. As a result, food producers and retailers invest in sustainable sourcing and organic product lines — such as with these sustainable seafood startups — to align with this shift in consumer values. 

The bottom line? Market research has multiple use cases and is a critical practice for any industry. Whether it’s launching groundbreaking products, entering new markets or responding to changing consumer preferences, you can use market research to shape successful strategies and outcomes.

Market research templates

You finally have a strong understanding of how to do market research and apply it in the real world. Before we wrap up, here are some market research templates that you can use as a starting point for your projects:

• Smartsheet competitive analysis templates : These spreadsheets can serve as a framework for gathering information about the competitive landscape and obtaining valuable lessons to apply to your business strategy.
• SurveyMonkey product survey template : Customize the questions on this survey based on what you want to learn from your target customers.
• HubSpot templates : HubSpot offers a wide range of free templates you can use for market research, business planning and more.
• SCORE templates : SCORE is a nonprofit organization that provides templates for business plans, market analysis and financial projections.
• SBA.gov : The U.S. Small Business Administration offers templates for every aspect of your business, including market research, and is particularly valuable for new startups. 

Strengthen your business with market research

When conducted effectively, market research is like a guiding star. Equipped with the right tools and techniques, you can uncover valuable insights, stay competitive, foster innovation and navigate the complexities of your industry.

Throughout this guide, we’ve discussed the definition of market research, different research methods, and how to conduct it effectively. We’ve also explored various types of market research and shared practical insights and templates for getting started. 

Now, it’s time to start the research process. Trust in data, listen to the market and make informed decisions that guide your company toward lasting success.

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Security Analyst and Web Developer

How do social engineers gather information about their targets?

In the intricate realm of cybersecurity, the art of social engineering is characterised by meticulous reconnaissance—the gathering of information that serves as the foundation for manipulative tactics. This comprehensive exploration delves into the sophisticated methods employed by social engineers to acquire data about their targets, highlighting the diverse techniques that weave the intricate tapestry of information exploitation. Understanding the nuances of reconnaissance is crucial for individuals and organisations seeking to fortify their defences against the insidious machinations of social engineering.

The Foundation of Social Engineering: Information Acquisition

Precision in deception.

At the heart of social engineering lies the strategic acquisition of information, an intricate dance of research and reconnaissance that allows attackers to craft manipulative narratives with precision. Social engineers adeptly exploit human vulnerabilities, leverageing the information they gather to tailor their approaches, gaining trust and manipulating individuals into compromising situations.

Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT): The Digital Detective

Mining the public domain.

Social engineers often embark on a digital detective journey through Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT), where information available in the public domain becomes a valuable resource. This includes mining social media profiles, public databases, news articles, and other online sources to gather details about a target’s personal and professional life. OSINT serves as a foundation for constructing targeted and convincing narratives.

Social Media Analysis: Peering Behind the Digital Curtain

The telltale traces.

Social media platforms, with their treasure trove of personal information, become a prime target for social engineers. By analysing profiles, posts, and connections, attackers gain insights into a target’s interests, relationships, and activities. Details such as birthdays, interests, and affiliations serve as building blocks for manipulative tactics, exploiting the familiar and relatable in their interactions.

Phishing Surveys and Quizzes: Interactive Reconnaissance

Exploiting the desire to participate.

Phishing surveys and quizzes represent a subtle yet effective method of interactive reconnaissance. Social engineers create seemingly innocuous surveys or quizzes that entice individuals to participate. The questions posed in these seemingly harmless activities, however, serve a dual purpose—they extract valuable information while providing the illusion of engagement.

Dumpster Diving and Physical Reconnaissance

Beyond the digital landscape.

Social engineers, in their quest for information, may extend their tactics beyond the digital landscape to the physical realm. Dumpster diving involves scouring discarded materials for documents or items that reveal sensitive information. Physical reconnaissance, such as observing a target’s workplace or habits, provides additional layers of insight for crafting convincing social engineering scenarios.

Impersonation Tactics: Probing the Human Element

Posing as a trusted figure.

The art of impersonation is a potent reconnaissance tactic employed by social engineers. By posing as a trusted figure—be it a colleague, friend, or service provider—attackers extract information under the guise of routine interaction. The human element is the linchpin, as individuals are more likely to disclose information to someone they perceive as familiar or trustworthy.

Company Websites and Publications: Corporate Insights

Harvesting organisational details.

When targeting organisations, social engineers meticulously study company websites, publications, and press releases. These sources provide insights into the corporate hierarchy, department structures, and key personnel. Armed with this information, attackers can tailor their approaches, posing as internal personnel or trusted service providers to gain access or extract sensitive details.

Building Resilience: Recognising and Mitigating Reconnaissance

Awareness as a defence mechanism.

Building resilience against social engineering reconnaissance begins with awareness. Individuals and organisations must recognise the tactics employed and cultivate a culture of cybersecurity consciousness. Training programmes that simulate real-world scenarios help individuals develop the skills to identify and resist information-gathering attempts.

Limiting Online Exposure

Mitigating the risk of information exploitation involves limiting online exposure. Individuals should carefully manage their privacy settings on social media platforms, refraining from oversharing personal details. Implementing strict privacy controls helps reduce the potential pool of information available for reconnaissance.

Shredding Sensitive Documents and Implementing Physical Security Measures

For organisations, implementing physical security measures, such as shredding sensitive documents and securing disposal practices, becomes essential. By thwarting physical reconnaissance tactics, organisations reduce the risk of attackers gaining access to valuable information through non-digital means.

The art of reconnaissance in social engineering unveils a complex tapestry of tactics, where attackers deftly navigate the digital and physical landscapes to gather information about their targets. Understanding the methods employed—whether through OSINT, social media analysis, phishing surveys, impersonation, or physical reconnaissance—is fundamental for individuals and organisations seeking to fortify their defences. By staying informed, cultivating awareness, and implementing proactive security measures, we can collectively navigate the intricate web woven by social engineering reconnaissance. Stay vigilant, stay informed, and stay resilient in the face of the meticulous information-gathering efforts orchestrated by social engineers.

Continue your journey…

• How do social engineers manipulate authority and hierarchy in organisations?
• How do software engineers approach debugging and troubleshooting?
• How do social engineers manipulate emotions to achieve their goals?
• How do social engineers exploit the desire for social validation?
• How do social engineers use authority bias to their advantage?
• How do software engineers address software maintenance and updates?
• How do social engineering attacks leverage information from social media?
• Can social engineering attacks be used for identity theft?
• How do social engineering attacks evolve with technological advancements?
• How do social engineers exploit the urgency of situations in their attacks?

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Home » Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Table of Contents

Data Collection

Definition:

Data collection is the process of gathering and collecting information from various sources to analyze and make informed decisions based on the data collected. This can involve various methods, such as surveys, interviews, experiments, and observation.

In order for data collection to be effective, it is important to have a clear understanding of what data is needed and what the purpose of the data collection is. This can involve identifying the population or sample being studied, determining the variables to be measured, and selecting appropriate methods for collecting and recording data.

Types of Data Collection

Types of Data Collection are as follows:

Primary Data Collection

Primary data collection is the process of gathering original and firsthand information directly from the source or target population. This type of data collection involves collecting data that has not been previously gathered, recorded, or published. Primary data can be collected through various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, and focus groups. The data collected is usually specific to the research question or objective and can provide valuable insights that cannot be obtained from secondary data sources. Primary data collection is often used in market research, social research, and scientific research.

Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data collection is the process of gathering information from existing sources that have already been collected and analyzed by someone else, rather than conducting new research to collect primary data. Secondary data can be collected from various sources, such as published reports, books, journals, newspapers, websites, government publications, and other documents.

Qualitative Data Collection

Qualitative data collection is used to gather non-numerical data such as opinions, experiences, perceptions, and feelings, through techniques such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis. It seeks to understand the deeper meaning and context of a phenomenon or situation and is often used in social sciences, psychology, and humanities. Qualitative data collection methods allow for a more in-depth and holistic exploration of research questions and can provide rich and nuanced insights into human behavior and experiences.

Quantitative Data Collection

Quantitative data collection is a used to gather numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical methods. This data is typically collected through surveys, experiments, and other structured data collection methods. Quantitative data collection seeks to quantify and measure variables, such as behaviors, attitudes, and opinions, in a systematic and objective way. This data is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and establish correlations between variables. Quantitative data collection methods allow for precise measurement and generalization of findings to a larger population. It is commonly used in fields such as economics, psychology, and natural sciences.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

Surveys involve asking questions to a sample of individuals or organizations to collect data. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, or online.

Interviews involve a one-on-one conversation between the interviewer and the respondent. Interviews can be structured or unstructured and can be conducted in person or over the phone.

Focus Groups

Focus groups are group discussions that are moderated by a facilitator. Focus groups are used to collect qualitative data on a specific topic.

Observation

Observation involves watching and recording the behavior of people, objects, or events in their natural setting. Observation can be done overtly or covertly, depending on the research question.

Experiments

Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables and observing the effect on another variable. Experiments are commonly used in scientific research.

Case Studies

Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a single individual, organization, or event. Case studies are used to gain detailed information about a specific phenomenon.

Secondary Data Analysis

Secondary data analysis involves using existing data that was collected for another purpose. Secondary data can come from various sources, such as government agencies, academic institutions, or private companies.

How to Collect Data

The following are some steps to consider when collecting data:

• Define the objective : Before you start collecting data, you need to define the objective of the study. This will help you determine what data you need to collect and how to collect it.
• Identify the data sources : Identify the sources of data that will help you achieve your objective. These sources can be primary sources, such as surveys, interviews, and observations, or secondary sources, such as books, articles, and databases.
• Determine the data collection method : Once you have identified the data sources, you need to determine the data collection method. This could be through online surveys, phone interviews, or face-to-face meetings.
• Develop a data collection plan : Develop a plan that outlines the steps you will take to collect the data. This plan should include the timeline, the tools and equipment needed, and the personnel involved.
• Test the data collection process: Before you start collecting data, test the data collection process to ensure that it is effective and efficient.
• Collect the data: Collect the data according to the plan you developed in step 4. Make sure you record the data accurately and consistently.
• Analyze the data: Once you have collected the data, analyze it to draw conclusions and make recommendations.
• Report the findings: Report the findings of your data analysis to the relevant stakeholders. This could be in the form of a report, a presentation, or a publication.
• Monitor and evaluate the data collection process: After the data collection process is complete, monitor and evaluate the process to identify areas for improvement in future data collection efforts.
• Ensure data quality: Ensure that the collected data is of high quality and free from errors. This can be achieved by validating the data for accuracy, completeness, and consistency.
• Maintain data security: Ensure that the collected data is secure and protected from unauthorized access or disclosure. This can be achieved by implementing data security protocols and using secure storage and transmission methods.
• Follow ethical considerations: Follow ethical considerations when collecting data, such as obtaining informed consent from participants, protecting their privacy and confidentiality, and ensuring that the research does not cause harm to participants.
• Use appropriate data analysis methods : Use appropriate data analysis methods based on the type of data collected and the research objectives. This could include statistical analysis, qualitative analysis, or a combination of both.
• Record and store data properly: Record and store the collected data properly, in a structured and organized format. This will make it easier to retrieve and use the data in future research or analysis.
• Collaborate with other stakeholders : Collaborate with other stakeholders, such as colleagues, experts, or community members, to ensure that the data collected is relevant and useful for the intended purpose.

Applications of Data Collection

Data collection methods are widely used in different fields, including social sciences, healthcare, business, education, and more. Here are some examples of how data collection methods are used in different fields:

• Social sciences : Social scientists often use surveys, questionnaires, and interviews to collect data from individuals or groups. They may also use observation to collect data on social behaviors and interactions. This data is often used to study topics such as human behavior, attitudes, and beliefs.
• Healthcare : Data collection methods are used in healthcare to monitor patient health and track treatment outcomes. Electronic health records and medical charts are commonly used to collect data on patients’ medical history, diagnoses, and treatments. Researchers may also use clinical trials and surveys to collect data on the effectiveness of different treatments.
• Business : Businesses use data collection methods to gather information on consumer behavior, market trends, and competitor activity. They may collect data through customer surveys, sales reports, and market research studies. This data is used to inform business decisions, develop marketing strategies, and improve products and services.
• Education : In education, data collection methods are used to assess student performance and measure the effectiveness of teaching methods. Standardized tests, quizzes, and exams are commonly used to collect data on student learning outcomes. Teachers may also use classroom observation and student feedback to gather data on teaching effectiveness.
• Agriculture : Farmers use data collection methods to monitor crop growth and health. Sensors and remote sensing technology can be used to collect data on soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient levels. This data is used to optimize crop yields and minimize waste.
• Environmental sciences : Environmental scientists use data collection methods to monitor air and water quality, track climate patterns, and measure the impact of human activity on the environment. They may use sensors, satellite imagery, and laboratory analysis to collect data on environmental factors.
• Transportation : Transportation companies use data collection methods to track vehicle performance, optimize routes, and improve safety. GPS systems, on-board sensors, and other tracking technologies are used to collect data on vehicle speed, fuel consumption, and driver behavior.

Examples of Data Collection

Examples of Data Collection are as follows:

• Traffic Monitoring: Cities collect real-time data on traffic patterns and congestion through sensors on roads and cameras at intersections. This information can be used to optimize traffic flow and improve safety.
• Social Media Monitoring : Companies can collect real-time data on social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook to monitor their brand reputation, track customer sentiment, and respond to customer inquiries and complaints in real-time.
• Weather Monitoring: Weather agencies collect real-time data on temperature, humidity, air pressure, and precipitation through weather stations and satellites. This information is used to provide accurate weather forecasts and warnings.
• Stock Market Monitoring : Financial institutions collect real-time data on stock prices, trading volumes, and other market indicators to make informed investment decisions and respond to market fluctuations in real-time.
• Health Monitoring : Medical devices such as wearable fitness trackers and smartwatches can collect real-time data on a person’s heart rate, blood pressure, and other vital signs. This information can be used to monitor health conditions and detect early warning signs of health issues.

Purpose of Data Collection

The purpose of data collection can vary depending on the context and goals of the study, but generally, it serves to:

• Provide information: Data collection provides information about a particular phenomenon or behavior that can be used to better understand it.
• Measure progress : Data collection can be used to measure the effectiveness of interventions or programs designed to address a particular issue or problem.
• Support decision-making : Data collection provides decision-makers with evidence-based information that can be used to inform policies, strategies, and actions.
• Identify trends : Data collection can help identify trends and patterns over time that may indicate changes in behaviors or outcomes.
• Monitor and evaluate : Data collection can be used to monitor and evaluate the implementation and impact of policies, programs, and initiatives.

When to use Data Collection

Data collection is used when there is a need to gather information or data on a specific topic or phenomenon. It is typically used in research, evaluation, and monitoring and is important for making informed decisions and improving outcomes.

Data collection is particularly useful in the following scenarios:

• Research : When conducting research, data collection is used to gather information on variables of interest to answer research questions and test hypotheses.
• Evaluation : Data collection is used in program evaluation to assess the effectiveness of programs or interventions, and to identify areas for improvement.
• Monitoring : Data collection is used in monitoring to track progress towards achieving goals or targets, and to identify any areas that require attention.
• Decision-making: Data collection is used to provide decision-makers with information that can be used to inform policies, strategies, and actions.
• Quality improvement : Data collection is used in quality improvement efforts to identify areas where improvements can be made and to measure progress towards achieving goals.

Characteristics of Data Collection

Data collection can be characterized by several important characteristics that help to ensure the quality and accuracy of the data gathered. These characteristics include:

• Validity : Validity refers to the accuracy and relevance of the data collected in relation to the research question or objective.
• Reliability : Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the data collection process, ensuring that the results obtained are consistent over time and across different contexts.
• Objectivity : Objectivity refers to the impartiality of the data collection process, ensuring that the data collected is not influenced by the biases or personal opinions of the data collector.
• Precision : Precision refers to the degree of accuracy and detail in the data collected, ensuring that the data is specific and accurate enough to answer the research question or objective.
• Timeliness : Timeliness refers to the efficiency and speed with which the data is collected, ensuring that the data is collected in a timely manner to meet the needs of the research or evaluation.
• Ethical considerations : Ethical considerations refer to the ethical principles that must be followed when collecting data, such as ensuring confidentiality and obtaining informed consent from participants.

Advantages of Data Collection

There are several advantages of data collection that make it an important process in research, evaluation, and monitoring. These advantages include:

• Better decision-making : Data collection provides decision-makers with evidence-based information that can be used to inform policies, strategies, and actions, leading to better decision-making.
• Improved understanding: Data collection helps to improve our understanding of a particular phenomenon or behavior by providing empirical evidence that can be analyzed and interpreted.
• Evaluation of interventions: Data collection is essential in evaluating the effectiveness of interventions or programs designed to address a particular issue or problem.
• Identifying trends and patterns: Data collection can help identify trends and patterns over time that may indicate changes in behaviors or outcomes.
• Increased accountability: Data collection increases accountability by providing evidence that can be used to monitor and evaluate the implementation and impact of policies, programs, and initiatives.
• Validation of theories: Data collection can be used to test hypotheses and validate theories, leading to a better understanding of the phenomenon being studied.
• Improved quality: Data collection is used in quality improvement efforts to identify areas where improvements can be made and to measure progress towards achieving goals.

Limitations of Data Collection

While data collection has several advantages, it also has some limitations that must be considered. These limitations include:

• Bias : Data collection can be influenced by the biases and personal opinions of the data collector, which can lead to inaccurate or misleading results.
• Sampling bias : Data collection may not be representative of the entire population, resulting in sampling bias and inaccurate results.
• Cost : Data collection can be expensive and time-consuming, particularly for large-scale studies.
• Limited scope: Data collection is limited to the variables being measured, which may not capture the entire picture or context of the phenomenon being studied.
• Ethical considerations : Data collection must follow ethical principles to protect the rights and confidentiality of the participants, which can limit the type of data that can be collected.
• Data quality issues: Data collection may result in data quality issues such as missing or incomplete data, measurement errors, and inconsistencies.
• Limited generalizability : Data collection may not be generalizable to other contexts or populations, limiting the generalizability of the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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