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• What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

• Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
• Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your  dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

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A literature review is a discussion of the literature (aka. the "research" or "scholarship") surrounding a certain topic. A good literature review doesn't simply summarize the existing material, but provides thoughtful synthesis and analysis. The purpose of a literature review is to orient your own work within an existing body of knowledge. A literature review may be written as a standalone piece or be included in a larger body of work.

You can read more about literature reviews, what they entail, and how to write one, using the resources below. 

Am I the only one struggling to write a literature review?

Dr. Zina O'Leary explains the misconceptions and struggles students often have with writing a literature review. She also provides step-by-step guidance on writing a persuasive literature review.

An Introduction to Literature Reviews

Dr. Eric Jensen, Professor of Sociology at the University of Warwick, and Dr. Charles Laurie, Director of Research at Verisk Maplecroft, explain how to write a literature review, and why researchers need to do so. Literature reviews can be stand-alone research or part of a larger project. They communicate the state of academic knowledge on a given topic, specifically detailing what is still unknown.

This is the first video in a whole series about literature reviews. You can find the rest of the series in our SAGE database, Research Methods:

Videos covering research methods and statistics

Identify Themes and Gaps in Literature (with real examples) | Scribbr

Finding connections between sources is key to organizing the arguments and structure of a good literature review. In this video, you'll learn how to identify themes, debates, and gaps between sources, using examples from real papers.

4 Tips for Writing a Literature Review's Intro, Body, and Conclusion | Scribbr

While each review will be unique in its structure--based on both the existing body of both literature and the overall goals of your own paper, dissertation, or research--this video from Scribbr does a good job simplifying the goals of writing a literature review for those who are new to the process. In this video, you’ll learn what to include in each section, as well as 4 tips for the main body illustrated with an example.

• Literature Review This chapter in SAGE's Encyclopedia of Research Design describes the types of literature reviews and scientific standards for conducting literature reviews.
• UNC Writing Center: Literature Reviews This handout from the Writing Center at UNC will explain what literature reviews are and offer insights into the form and construction of literature reviews in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences.
• Purdue OWL: Writing a Literature Review The overview of literature reviews comes from Purdue's Online Writing Lab. It explains the basic why, what, and how of writing a literature review.

Organizational Tools for Literature Reviews

One of the most daunting aspects of writing a literature review is organizing your research. There are a variety of strategies that you can use to help you in this task. We've highlighted just a few ways writers keep track of all that information! You can use a combination of these tools or come up with your own organizational process. The key is choosing something that works with your own learning style.

Citation Managers

Citation managers are great tools, in general, for organizing research, but can be especially helpful when writing a literature review. You can keep all of your research in one place, take notes, and organize your materials into different folders or categories. Read more about citations managers here:

• Manage Citations & Sources

Concept Mapping

Some writers use concept mapping (sometimes called flow or bubble charts or "mind maps") to help them visualize the ways in which the research they found connects.

There is no right or wrong way to make a concept map. There are a variety of online tools that can help you create a concept map or you can simply put pen to paper. To read more about concept mapping, take a look at the following help guides:

• Using Concept Maps From Williams College's guide, Literature Review: A Self-guided Tutorial

Synthesis Matrix

A synthesis matrix is is a chart you can use to help you organize your research into thematic categories. By organizing your research into a matrix, like the examples below, can help you visualize the ways in which your sources connect. 

• Walden University Writing Center: Literature Review Matrix Find a variety of literature review matrix examples and templates from Walden University.
• Writing A Literature Review and Using a Synthesis Matrix An example synthesis matrix created by NC State University Writing and Speaking Tutorial Service Tutors. If you would like a copy of this synthesis matrix in a different format, like a Word document, please ask a librarian. CC-BY-SA 3.0
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Literature Review

• What is a Literature Review?
• What is NOT a Literature Review?
• Purposes of a Literature Review
• Types of Literature Reviews
• Literature Reviews vs. Systematic Reviews
• Systematic vs. Meta-Analysis

Literature Review  is a comprehensive survey of the works published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant works.

Also, we can define a literature review as the collected body of scholarly works related to a topic:

• Summarizes and analyzes previous research relevant to a topic
• Includes scholarly books and articles published in academic journals
• Can be an specific scholarly paper or a section in a research paper

The objective of a Literature Review is to find previous published scholarly works relevant to an specific topic

• Help gather ideas or information
• Keep up to date in current trends and findings
• Help develop new questions

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Helps focus your own research questions or problems
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Suggests unexplored ideas or populations
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.
• Identifies critical gaps, points of disagreement, or potentially flawed methodology or theoretical approaches.
• Indicates potential directions for future research.

All content in this section is from Literature Review Research from Old Dominion University 

Keep in mind the following, a literature review is NOT:

Not an essay 

Not an annotated bibliography  in which you summarize each article that you have reviewed.  A literature review goes beyond basic summarizing to focus on the critical analysis of the reviewed works and their relationship to your research question.

Not a research paper   where you select resources to support one side of an issue versus another.  A lit review should explain and consider all sides of an argument in order to avoid bias, and areas of agreement and disagreement should be highlighted.

A literature review serves several purposes. For example, it

• provides thorough knowledge of previous studies; introduces seminal works.
• helps focus one’s own research topic.
• identifies a conceptual framework for one’s own research questions or problems; indicates potential directions for future research.
• suggests previously unused or underused methodologies, designs, quantitative and qualitative strategies.
• identifies gaps in previous studies; identifies flawed methodologies and/or theoretical approaches; avoids replication of mistakes.
• helps the researcher avoid repetition of earlier research.
• suggests unexplored populations.
• determines whether past studies agree or disagree; identifies controversy in the literature.
• tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.

As Kennedy (2007) notes*, it is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the original studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally that become part of the lore of field. In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews.

Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are several approaches to how they can be done, depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study. Listed below are definitions of types of literature reviews:

Argumentative Review      This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review      Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication.

Historical Review      Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review      A review does not always focus on what someone said [content], but how they said it [method of analysis]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our study.

Systematic Review      This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review      The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

* Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature."  Educational Researcher  36 (April 2007): 139-147.

All content in this section is from The Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee USC

Robinson, P. and Lowe, J. (2015),  Literature reviews vs systematic reviews.  Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 39: 103-103. doi: 10.1111/1753-6405.12393

What's in the name? The difference between a Systematic Review and a Literature Review, and why it matters . By Lynn Kysh from University of Southern California

Systematic review or meta-analysis?

A  systematic review  answers a defined research question by collecting and summarizing all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria.

A  meta-analysis  is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of these studies.

Systematic reviews, just like other research articles, can be of varying quality. They are a significant piece of work (the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination at York estimates that a team will take 9-24 months), and to be useful to other researchers and practitioners they should have:

• clearly stated objectives with pre-defined eligibility criteria for studies
• explicit, reproducible methodology
• a systematic search that attempts to identify all studies
• assessment of the validity of the findings of the included studies (e.g. risk of bias)
• systematic presentation, and synthesis, of the characteristics and findings of the included studies

Not all systematic reviews contain meta-analysis. 

Meta-analysis is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of independent studies. By combining information from all relevant studies, meta-analysis can provide more precise estimates of the effects of health care than those derived from the individual studies included within a review.  More information on meta-analyses can be found in  Cochrane Handbook, Chapter 9 .

A meta-analysis goes beyond critique and integration and conducts secondary statistical analysis on the outcomes of similar studies.  It is a systematic review that uses quantitative methods to synthesize and summarize the results.

An advantage of a meta-analysis is the ability to be completely objective in evaluating research findings.  Not all topics, however, have sufficient research evidence to allow a meta-analysis to be conducted.  In that case, an integrative review is an appropriate strategy. 

Some of the content in this section is from Systematic reviews and meta-analyses: step by step guide created by Kate McAllister.

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Conducting a literature review: why do a literature review, why do a literature review.

• How To Find "The Literature"
• Found it -- Now What?

Besides the obvious reason for students -- because it is assigned! -- a literature review helps you explore the research that has come before you, to see how your research question has (or has not) already been addressed.

You identify:

• core research in the field
• experts in the subject area
• methodology you may want to use (or avoid)
• gaps in knowledge -- or where your research would fit in

It Also Helps You:

• Publish and share your findings
• Justify requests for grants and other funding
• Identify best practices to inform practice
• Set wider context for a program evaluation
• Compile information to support community organizing

Great brief overview, from NCSU

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A literature review surveys prior research published in books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have used in researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within existing scholarship about the topic.

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

• Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
• Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
• Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or
• Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

Given this, the purpose of a literature review is to:

• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2011; Knopf, Jeffrey W. "Doing a Literature Review." PS: Political Science and Politics 39 (January 2006): 127-132; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012.

Types of Literature Reviews

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally among scholars that become part of the body of epistemological traditions within the field.

In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.

Argumentative Review This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply embedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].

Integrative Review Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

Historical Review Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

Systematic Review This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research problem . Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social sciences.

Theoretical Review The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

NOTE : Most often the literature review will incorporate some combination of types. For example, a review that examines literature supporting or refuting an argument, assumption, or philosophical problem related to the research problem will also need to include writing supported by sources that establish the history of these arguments in the literature.

Baumeister, Roy F. and Mark R. Leary. "Writing Narrative Literature Reviews."  Review of General Psychology 1 (September 1997): 311-320; Mark R. Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-147; Petticrew, Mark and Helen Roberts. Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2006; Torracro, Richard. "Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples." Human Resource Development Review 4 (September 2005): 356-367; Rocco, Tonette S. and Maria S. Plakhotnik. "Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions." Human Ressource Development Review 8 (March 2008): 120-130; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Thinking About Your Literature Review

The structure of a literature review should include the following in support of understanding the research problem :

• An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature review,
• Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
• An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
• Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research.

The critical evaluation of each work should consider :

• Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings]?
• Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate? Were the results effectively interpreted and reported?
• Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
• Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least convincing?
• Validity -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

II.  Development of the Literature Review

Four Basic Stages of Writing 1.  Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? 2.  Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored. 3.  Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic. 4.  Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.

Consider the following issues before writing the literature review: Clarify If your assignment is not specific about what form your literature review should take, seek clarification from your professor by asking these questions: 1.  Roughly how many sources would be appropriate to include? 2.  What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly versus popular sources)? 3.  Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or issue? 4.  Should I evaluate the sources in any way beyond evaluating how they relate to understanding the research problem? 5.  Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history? Find Models Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of interest have composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or to identify ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read, such as required readings in the course syllabus, are also excellent entry points into your own research. Narrow the Topic The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to obtain a good survey of relevant resources. Your professor will probably not expect you to read everything that's available about the topic, but you'll make the act of reviewing easier if you first limit scope of the research problem. A good strategy is to begin by searching the USC Libraries Catalog for recent books about the topic and review the table of contents for chapters that focuses on specific issues. You can also review the indexes of books to find references to specific issues that can serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the history of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in mediating the conflict, or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in the text. Consider Whether Your Sources are Current Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. This is particularly true in disciplines in medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes obsolete very quickly as new discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be required. In other words, a complete understanding the research problem requires you to deliberately examine how knowledge and perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to explore what is considered by scholars to be a "hot topic" and what is not.

III.  Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronology of Events If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union. By Publication Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies. Thematic [“conceptual categories”] A thematic literature review is the most common approach to summarizing prior research in the social and behavioral sciences. Thematic reviews are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time, although the progression of time may still be incorporated into a thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it would still be organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The difference in this example between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: themes related to the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point being made. Methodological A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

Other Sections of Your Literature Review Once you've decided on the organizational method for your literature review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out because they arise from your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period; a thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue. However, sometimes you may need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. However, only include what is necessary for the reader to locate your study within the larger scholarship about the research problem.

Here are examples of other sections, usually in the form of a single paragraph, you may need to include depending on the type of review you write:

• Current Situation : Information necessary to understand the current topic or focus of the literature review.
• Sources Used : Describes the methods and resources [e.g., databases] you used to identify the literature you reviewed.
• History : The chronological progression of the field, the research literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.
• Selection Methods : Criteria you used to select (and perhaps exclude) sources in your literature review. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed [i.e., scholarly] sources.
• Standards : Description of the way in which you present your information.
• Questions for Further Research : What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

IV.  Writing Your Literature Review

Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each section. When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.

Use Evidence A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying is valid. Be Selective Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological. Related items that provide additional information, but that are not key to understanding the research problem, can be included in a list of further readings . Use Quotes Sparingly Some short quotes are appropriate if you want to emphasize a point, or if what an author stated cannot be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, is not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute for using your own words in reviewing the literature. Summarize and Synthesize Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each thematic paragraph as well as throughout the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to your own work and the work of others. Keep Your Own Voice While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice [the writer's] should remain front and center. For example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and wording. Use Caution When Paraphrasing When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still must provide a citation to that work.

V.  Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.

• Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
• You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem;
• Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies or data;
• Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
• Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to review;
• Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods; and,
• Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.

Cook, Kathleen E. and Elise Murowchick. “Do Literature Review Skills Transfer from One Course to Another?” Psychology Learning and Teaching 13 (March 2014): 3-11; Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . London: SAGE, 2011; Literature Review Handout. Online Writing Center. Liberty University; Literature Reviews. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2016; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012; Randolph, Justus J. “A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review." Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation. vol. 14, June 2009; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016; Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Writing a Literature Review. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra.

Writing Tip

Break Out of Your Disciplinary Box!

Thinking interdisciplinarily about a research problem can be a rewarding exercise in applying new ideas, theories, or concepts to an old problem. For example, what might cultural anthropologists say about the continuing conflict in the Middle East? In what ways might geographers view the need for better distribution of social service agencies in large cities than how social workers might study the issue? You don’t want to substitute a thorough review of core research literature in your discipline for studies conducted in other fields of study. However, particularly in the social sciences, thinking about research problems from multiple vectors is a key strategy for finding new solutions to a problem or gaining a new perspective. Consult with a librarian about identifying research databases in other disciplines; almost every field of study has at least one comprehensive database devoted to indexing its research literature.

Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Just Review for Content!

While conducting a review of the literature, maximize the time you devote to writing this part of your paper by thinking broadly about what you should be looking for and evaluating. Review not just what scholars are saying, but how are they saying it. Some questions to ask:

• How are they organizing their ideas?
• What methods have they used to study the problem?
• What theories have been used to explain, predict, or understand their research problem?
• What sources have they cited to support their conclusions?
• How have they used non-textual elements [e.g., charts, graphs, figures, etc.] to illustrate key points?

When you begin to write your literature review section, you'll be glad you dug deeper into how the research was designed and constructed because it establishes a means for developing more substantial analysis and interpretation of the research problem.

Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1 998.

Yet Another Writing Tip

When Do I Know I Can Stop Looking and Move On?

Here are several strategies you can utilize to assess whether you've thoroughly reviewed the literature:

• Look for repeating patterns in the research findings . If the same thing is being said, just by different people, then this likely demonstrates that the research problem has hit a conceptual dead end. At this point consider: Does your study extend current research?  Does it forge a new path? Or, does is merely add more of the same thing being said?
• Look at sources the authors cite to in their work . If you begin to see the same researchers cited again and again, then this is often an indication that no new ideas have been generated to address the research problem.
• Search Google Scholar to identify who has subsequently cited leading scholars already identified in your literature review [see next sub-tab]. This is called citation tracking and there are a number of sources that can help you identify who has cited whom, particularly scholars from outside of your discipline. Here again, if the same authors are being cited again and again, this may indicate no new literature has been written on the topic.

Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2016; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

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How To Structure Your Literature Review

3 options to help structure your chapter.

By: Amy Rommelspacher (PhD) | Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | November 2020 (Updated May 2023)

Writing the literature review chapter can seem pretty daunting when you’re piecing together your dissertation or thesis. As  we’ve discussed before , a good literature review needs to achieve a few very important objectives – it should:

• Demonstrate your knowledge of the research topic
• Identify the gaps in the literature and show how your research links to these
• Provide the foundation for your conceptual framework (if you have one)
• Inform your own  methodology and research design

To achieve this, your literature review needs a well-thought-out structure . Get the structure of your literature review chapter wrong and you’ll struggle to achieve these objectives. Don’t worry though – in this post, we’ll look at how to structure your literature review for maximum impact (and marks!).

But wait – is this the right time?

Deciding on the structure of your literature review should come towards the end of the literature review process – after you have collected and digested the literature, but before you start writing the chapter. 

In other words, you need to first develop a rich understanding of the literature before you even attempt to map out a structure. There’s no use trying to develop a structure before you’ve fully wrapped your head around the existing research.

Equally importantly, you need to have a structure in place before you start writing , or your literature review will most likely end up a rambling, disjointed mess. 

Importantly, don’t feel that once you’ve defined a structure you can’t iterate on it. It’s perfectly natural to adjust as you engage in the writing process. As we’ve discussed before , writing is a way of developing your thinking, so it’s quite common for your thinking to change – and therefore, for your chapter structure to change – as you write. 

Need a helping hand?

Like any other chapter in your thesis or dissertation, your literature review needs to have a clear, logical structure. At a minimum, it should have three essential components – an  introduction , a  body   and a  conclusion . 

Let’s take a closer look at each of these.

1: The Introduction Section

Just like any good introduction, the introduction section of your literature review should introduce the purpose and layout (organisation) of the chapter. In other words, your introduction needs to give the reader a taste of what’s to come, and how you’re going to lay that out. Essentially, you should provide the reader with a high-level roadmap of your chapter to give them a taste of the journey that lies ahead.

Here’s an example of the layout visualised in a literature review introduction:

Your introduction should also outline your topic (including any tricky terminology or jargon) and provide an explanation of the scope of your literature review – in other words, what you  will   and  won’t   be covering (the delimitations ). This helps ringfence your review and achieve a clear focus . The clearer and narrower your focus, the deeper you can dive into the topic (which is typically where the magic lies). 

Depending on the nature of your project, you could also present your stance or point of view at this stage. In other words, after grappling with the literature you’ll have an opinion about what the trends and concerns are in the field as well as what’s lacking. The introduction section can then present these ideas so that it is clear to examiners that you’re aware of how your research connects with existing knowledge .

2: The Body Section

The body of your literature review is the centre of your work. This is where you’ll present, analyse, evaluate and synthesise the existing research. In other words, this is where you’re going to earn (or lose) the most marks. Therefore, it’s important to carefully think about how you will organise your discussion to present it in a clear way. 

The body of your literature review should do just as the description of this chapter suggests. It should “review” the literature – in other words, identify, analyse, and synthesise it. So, when thinking about structuring your literature review, you need to think about which structural approach will provide the best “review” for your specific type of research and objectives (we’ll get to this shortly).

There are (broadly speaking)  three options  for organising your literature review.

Option 1: Chronological (according to date)

Organising the literature chronologically is one of the simplest ways to structure your literature review. You start with what was published first and work your way through the literature until you reach the work published most recently. Pretty straightforward.

The benefit of this option is that it makes it easy to discuss the developments and debates in the field as they emerged over time. Organising your literature chronologically also allows you to highlight how specific articles or pieces of work might have changed the course of the field – in other words, which research has had the most impact . Therefore, this approach is very useful when your research is aimed at understanding how the topic has unfolded over time and is often used by scholars in the field of history. That said, this approach can be utilised by anyone that wants to explore change over time .

For example , if a student of politics is investigating how the understanding of democracy has evolved over time, they could use the chronological approach to provide a narrative that demonstrates how this understanding has changed through the ages.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself to help you structure your literature review chronologically.

• What is the earliest literature published relating to this topic?
• How has the field changed over time? Why?
• What are the most recent discoveries/theories?

In some ways, chronology plays a part whichever way you decide to structure your literature review, because you will always, to a certain extent, be analysing how the literature has developed. However, with the chronological approach, the emphasis is very firmly on how the discussion has evolved over time , as opposed to how all the literature links together (which we’ll discuss next ).

Option 2: Thematic (grouped by theme)

The thematic approach to structuring a literature review means organising your literature by theme or category – for example, by independent variables (i.e. factors that have an impact on a specific outcome).

As you’ve been collecting and synthesising literature , you’ll likely have started seeing some themes or patterns emerging. You can then use these themes or patterns as a structure for your body discussion. The thematic approach is the most common approach and is useful for structuring literature reviews in most fields.

For example, if you were researching which factors contributed towards people trusting an organisation, you might find themes such as consumers’ perceptions of an organisation’s competence, benevolence and integrity. Structuring your literature review thematically would mean structuring your literature review’s body section to discuss each of these themes, one section at a time.

Here are some questions to ask yourself when structuring your literature review by themes:

• Are there any patterns that have come to light in the literature?
• What are the central themes and categories used by the researchers?
• Do I have enough evidence of these themes?

PS – you can see an example of a thematically structured literature review in our literature review sample walkthrough video here.

Option 3: Methodological

The methodological option is a way of structuring your literature review by the research methodologies used . In other words, organising your discussion based on the angle from which each piece of research was approached – for example, qualitative , quantitative or mixed  methodologies.

Structuring your literature review by methodology can be useful if you are drawing research from a variety of disciplines and are critiquing different methodologies. The point of this approach is to question  how  existing research has been conducted, as opposed to  what  the conclusions and/or findings the research were.

For example, a sociologist might centre their research around critiquing specific fieldwork practices. Their literature review will then be a summary of the fieldwork methodologies used by different studies.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself when structuring your literature review according to methodology:

• Which methodologies have been utilised in this field?
• Which methodology is the most popular (and why)?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the various methodologies?
• How can the existing methodologies inform my own methodology?

3: The Conclusion Section

Once you’ve completed the body section of your literature review using one of the structural approaches we discussed above, you’ll need to “wrap up” your literature review and pull all the pieces together to set the direction for the rest of your dissertation or thesis.

The conclusion is where you’ll present the key findings of your literature review. In this section, you should emphasise the research that is especially important to your research questions and highlight the gaps that exist in the literature. Based on this, you need to make it clear what you will add to the literature – in other words, justify your own research by showing how it will help fill one or more of the gaps you just identified.

Last but not least, if it’s your intention to develop a conceptual framework for your dissertation or thesis, the conclusion section is a good place to present this.

Example: Thematically Structured Review

In the video below, we unpack a literature review chapter so that you can see an example of a thematically structure review in practice.

Let’s Recap

In this article, we’ve  discussed how to structure your literature review for maximum impact. Here’s a quick recap of what  you need to keep in mind when deciding on your literature review structure:

• Just like other chapters, your literature review needs a clear introduction , body and conclusion .
• The introduction section should provide an overview of what you will discuss in your literature review.
• The body section of your literature review can be organised by chronology , theme or methodology . The right structural approach depends on what you’re trying to achieve with your research.
• The conclusion section should draw together the key findings of your literature review and link them to your research questions.

If you’re ready to get started, be sure to download our free literature review template to fast-track your chapter outline.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Literature Review Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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27 Comments

Great work. This is exactly what I was looking for and helps a lot together with your previous post on literature review. One last thing is missing: a link to a great literature chapter of an journal article (maybe with comments of the different sections in this review chapter). Do you know any great literature review chapters?

I agree with you Marin… A great piece

I agree with Marin. This would be quite helpful if you annotate a nicely structured literature from previously published research articles.

Awesome article for my research.

I thank you immensely for this wonderful guide

It is indeed thought and supportive work for the futurist researcher and students

Very educative and good time to get guide. Thank you

Great work, very insightful. Thank you.

Thanks for this wonderful presentation. My question is that do I put all the variables into a single conceptual framework or each hypothesis will have it own conceptual framework?

Thank you very much, very helpful

This is very educative and precise . Thank you very much for dropping this kind of write up .

Pheeww, so damn helpful, thank you for this informative piece.

I’m doing a research project topic ; stool analysis for parasitic worm (enteric) worm, how do I structure it, thanks.

comprehensive explanation. Help us by pasting the URL of some good “literature review” for better understanding.

great piece. thanks for the awesome explanation. it is really worth sharing. I have a little question, if anyone can help me out, which of the options in the body of literature can be best fit if you are writing an architectural thesis that deals with design?

I am doing a research on nanofluids how can l structure it?

Beautifully clear.nThank you!

Lucid! Thankyou!

Brilliant work, well understood, many thanks

I like how this was so clear with simple language 😊😊 thank you so much 😊 for these information 😊

Insightful. I was struggling to come up with a sensible literature review but this has been really helpful. Thank you!

You have given thought-provoking information about the review of the literature.

Thank you. It has made my own research better and to impart your work to students I teach

I learnt a lot from this teaching. It’s a great piece.

I am doing research on EFL teacher motivation for his/her job. How Can I structure it? Is there any detailed template, additional to this?

You are so cool! I do not think I’ve read through something like this before. So nice to find somebody with some genuine thoughts on this issue. Seriously.. thank you for starting this up. This site is one thing that is required on the internet, someone with a little originality!

I’m asked to do conceptual, theoretical and empirical literature, and i just don’t know how to structure it

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Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

• An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
• A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
• Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
• Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

• Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
• Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

• Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
• Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
• Qualitative versus quantitative research
• Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
• Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

• It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
• Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
• Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
• Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

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Dave Harris is a writing coach who helps authors develop productive writing practices, using principles from design methods, philosophy of science, and cognitive science. With Jean-Pierre Protzen, he is author of The Universe of Design (2010, Routledge), and, alone, author of Getting the Best of Your Dissertation (2015, Thought Clearing). Find him on the web at www.thoughtclearing.com.

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• Introduction
• Acknowledgements
• Part One: On Research
• Chapter 1. Research Philosophy
• Chapter 2. Research Practice
• Part Two: Reading Literature
• Chapter 3. Attitude
• Chapter 4. Managing the Literature
• Chapter 5. Deep Reading
• Part Three: Writing About Literature
• Chapter 6. Writing with Literature
• Chapter 7. Writing a Literature Review
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Guide to Thematic Analysis

• Abductive Thematic Analysis
• Collaborative Thematic Analysis
• Deductive Thematic Analysis
• How to Do Thematic Analysis
• Inductive Thematic Analysis
• Reflexive Thematic Analysis
• Advantages of Thematic Analysis
• Thematic Analysis for Case Studies
• Thematic Coding
• Disadvantages of Thematic Analysis
• Thematic Analysis in Educational Research
• Thematic Analysis Examples
• Thematic Analysis for Focus Groups
• Thematic Analysis vs. Grounded Theory
• What is Thematic Analysis?
• Increasing Rigor in Thematic Analysis
• Thematic Analysis for Interviews
• Introduction

What is a thematic literature review?

Advantages of a thematic literature review, structuring and writing a thematic literature review.

• Thematic Analysis in Mixed Methods Approach
• Thematic Analysis in Observations
• Peer Review in Thematic Analysis
• How to Present Thematic Analysis Results
• Thematic Analysis in Psychology
• Thematic Analysis of Secondary Data
• Thematic Analysis in Social Work
• Thematic Analysis Software
• Thematic Analysis in Surveys
• Thematic Analysis in UX Research
• Thematic vs. Content Analysis
• Thematic Analysis vs. Discourse Analysis
• Thematic Analysis vs. Framework Analysis
• Thematic Analysis vs. Narrative Analysis
• Thematic Analysis vs. Phenomenology

A thematic literature review serves as a critical tool for synthesizing research findings within a specific subject area. By categorizing existing literature into themes, this method offers a structured approach to identify and analyze patterns and trends across studies. The primary goal is to provide a clear and concise overview that aids scholars and practitioners in understanding the key discussions and developments within a field. Unlike traditional literature reviews , which may adopt a chronological approach or focus on individual studies, a thematic literature review emphasizes the aggregation of findings through key themes and thematic connections. This introduction sets the stage for a detailed examination of what constitutes a thematic literature review, its benefits, and guidance on effectively structuring and writing one.

A thematic literature review methodically organizes and examines a body of literature by identifying, analyzing, and reporting themes found within texts such as journal articles, conference proceedings, dissertations, and other forms of academic writing. While a particular journal article may offer some specific insight, a synthesis of knowledge through a literature review can provide a comprehensive overview of theories across relevant sources in a particular field.

Unlike other review types that might organize literature chronologically or by methodology , a thematic review focuses on recurring themes or patterns across a collection of works. This approach enables researchers to draw together previous research to synthesize findings from different research contexts and methodologies, highlighting the overarching trends and insights within a field.

At its core, a thematic approach to a literature review research project involves several key steps. Initially, it requires the comprehensive collection of relevant literature that aligns with the review's research question or objectives. Following this, the process entails a meticulous analysis of the texts to identify common themes that emerge across the studies. These themes are not pre-defined but are discovered through a careful reading and synthesis of the literature.

The thematic analysis process is iterative, often involving the refinement of themes as the review progresses. It allows for the integration of a broad range of literature, facilitating a multidimensional understanding of the research topic. By organizing literature thematically, the review illuminates how various studies contribute to each theme, providing insights into the depth and breadth of research in the area.

A thematic literature review thus serves as a foundational element in research, offering a nuanced and comprehensive perspective on a topic. It not only aids in identifying gaps in the existing literature but also guides future research directions by underscoring areas that warrant further investigation. Ultimately, a thematic literature review empowers researchers to construct a coherent narrative that weaves together disparate studies into a unified analysis.

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Conducting a literature review thematically provides a comprehensive and nuanced synthesis of research findings, distinguishing it from other types of literature reviews. Its structured approach not only facilitates a deeper understanding of the subject area but also enhances the clarity and relevance of the review. Here are three significant advantages of employing a thematic analysis in literature reviews.

Enhanced understanding of the research field

Thematic literature reviews allow for a detailed exploration of the research landscape, presenting themes that capture the essence of the subject area. By identifying and analyzing these themes, reviewers can construct a narrative that reflects the complexity and multifaceted nature of the field.

This process aids in uncovering underlying patterns and relationships, offering a more profound and insightful examination of the literature. As a result, readers gain an enriched understanding of the key concepts, debates, and evolutionary trajectories within the research area.

Identification of research gaps and trends

One of the pivotal benefits of a thematic literature review is its ability to highlight gaps in the existing body of research. By systematically organizing the literature into themes, reviewers can pinpoint areas that are under-explored or warrant further investigation.

Additionally, this method can reveal emerging trends and shifts in research focus, guiding scholars toward promising areas for future study. The thematic structure thus serves as a roadmap, directing researchers toward uncharted territories and new research questions .

Facilitates comparative analysis and integration of findings

A thematic literature review excels in synthesizing findings from diverse studies, enabling a coherent and integrated overview. By concentrating on themes rather than individual studies, the review can draw comparisons and contrasts across different research contexts and methodologies . This comparative analysis enriches the review, offering a panoramic view of the field that acknowledges both consensus and divergence among researchers.

Moreover, the thematic framework supports the integration of findings, presenting a unified and comprehensive portrayal of the research area. Such integration is invaluable for scholars seeking to navigate the extensive body of literature and extract pertinent insights relevant to their own research questions or objectives.

The process of structuring and writing a thematic literature review is pivotal in presenting research in a clear, coherent, and impactful manner. This review type necessitates a methodical approach to not only unearth and categorize key themes but also to articulate them in a manner that is both accessible and informative to the reader. The following sections outline essential stages in the thematic analysis process for literature reviews , offering a structured pathway from initial planning to the final presentation of findings.

Identifying and categorizing themes

The initial phase in a thematic literature review is the identification of themes within the collected body of literature. This involves a detailed examination of texts to discern patterns, concepts, and ideas that recur across the research landscape. Effective identification hinges on a thorough and nuanced reading of the literature, where the reviewer actively engages with the content to extract and note significant thematic elements. Once identified, these themes must be meticulously categorized, often requiring the reviewer to discern between overarching themes and more nuanced sub-themes, ensuring a logical and hierarchical organization of the review content.

Analyzing and synthesizing themes

After categorizing the themes, the next step involves a deeper analysis and synthesis of the identified themes. This stage is critical for understanding the relationships between themes and for interpreting the broader implications of the thematic findings. Analysis may reveal how themes evolve over time, differ across methodologies or contexts, or converge to highlight predominant trends in the research area. Synthesis involves integrating insights from various studies to construct a comprehensive narrative that encapsulates the thematic essence of the literature, offering new interpretations or revealing gaps in existing research.

Presenting and discussing findings

The final stage of the thematic literature review is the discussion of the thematic findings in a research paper or presentation. This entails not only a descriptive account of identified themes but also a critical examination of their significance within the research field. Each theme should be discussed in detail, elucidating its relevance, the extent of research support, and its implications for future studies. The review should culminate in a coherent and compelling narrative that not only summarizes the key thematic findings but also situates them within the broader research context, offering valuable insights and directions for future inquiry.

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Title: teaching algorithm design: a literature review.

Abstract: Algorithm design is a vital skill developed in most undergraduate Computer Science (CS) programs, but few research studies focus on pedagogy related to algorithms coursework. To understand the work that has been done in the area, we present a systematic survey and literature review of CS Education studies. We search for research that is both related to algorithm design and evaluated on undergraduate-level students. Across all papers in the ACM Digital Library prior to August 2023, we only find 94 such papers. We first classify these papers by topic, evaluation metric, evaluation methods, and intervention target. Through our classification, we find a broad sparsity of papers which indicates that many open questions remain about teaching algorithm design, with each algorithm topic only being discussed in between 0 and 10 papers. We also note the need for papers using rigorous research methods, as only 38 out of 88 papers presenting quantitative data use statistical tests, and only 15 out of 45 papers presenting qualitative data use a coding scheme. Only 17 papers report controlled trials. We then synthesize the results of the existing literature to give insights into what the corpus reveals about how we should teach algorithms. Much of the literature explores implementing well-established practices, such as active learning or automated assessment, in the algorithms classroom. However, there are algorithms-specific results as well: a number of papers find that students may under-utilize certain algorithmic design techniques, and studies describe a variety of ways to select algorithms problems that increase student engagement and learning. The results we present, along with the publicly available set of papers collected, provide a detailed representation of the current corpus of CS Education work related to algorithm design and can orient further research in the area.

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• Published: 27 April 2024

Advancing the local climate zones framework: a critical review of methodological progress, persisting challenges, and future research prospects

• Jie Han   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0003-3165-631X 1 ,
• Jingyi Cai 1 ,
• Leixin Ouyang 2 &
• Zhengxuan Liu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2761-5078 3  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  538 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The local climate zones (LCZs) classification system has emerged as a more refined method for assessing the urban heat island (UHI) effect. However, few researchers have conducted systematic critical reviews and summaries of the research on LCZs, particularly regarding significant advancements of this field in recent years. This paper aims to bridge this gap in scientific research by systematically reviewing the evolution, current status, and future trends of LCZs framework research. Additionally, it critically assesses the impact of the LCZs classification system on climate-responsive urban planning and design. The findings of this study highlight several key points. First, the challenge of large-scale, efficient, and accurate LCZs mapping persists as a significant issue in LCZs research. Despite this challenge, the universality, simplicity, and objectivity of the LCZs framework make it a promising tool for a wide range of applications in the future, especially in the realm of climate-responsive urban planning and design. In conclusion, this study makes a substantial contribution to the advancement of LCZs research and advocates for the broader adoption of this framework to foster sustainable urban development. Furthermore, it offers valuable insights for researchers and practitioners engaged in this field.

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Global multi-model projections of local urban climates

Global mapping of urban nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation

Urban Nature Indexes tool offers comprehensive and flexible approach to monitoring urban ecological performance

Introduction.

Urbanization is an irreversible process that will continue to accelerate over the next three decades, resulting in a projected global urban population increase of up to 668 million (UN-Habitat 2022 ). While urbanization brings economic development, cultural exchange, and technological progress, it also concentrates people in cities, leading to higher greenhouse gas emissions and pollutants. These emissions contribute to air quality degradation, global warming, and climate change. Urban heat island (UHI), characterized by higher temperatures in urban areas compared to their surrounding rural areas, is a consequence of urbanization, driven by unique urban surfaces and anthropogenic heat release. UHI carries numerous adverse effects, including increased energy consumption, air pollution, degradation of living conditions, and elevated heat-related mortality rates. All of these challenges significantly impede sustainable development, underscoring the critical importance of identifying, mitigating, and adapting to UHI (Huang and Lu 2018 ).

The term “urban heat island” was first introduced by Balchin and Pye ( 1947 ), and it has since become a prominent research field within urban climate studies (Peng et al. 2022 , Zhang et al. 2022 , Mo et al. 2024 ). The central issue in UHI research revolves around quantifying urban heat island intensity (UHII) (Huang and Lu 2018 ). The conventional approach to UHI evaluation involves computing UHII by comparing the average temperature difference between urban and rural areas. However, this method encounters limitations due to the diverse nature of urban morphology, land cover, and human activities, leading to varying UHII results within urban areas. Consequently, UHI analysis and mitigation strategies based on these results lack precision. Another challenge with the urban-rural dichotomy lies in selecting suburban measurement points that are minimally affected by urbanization. With urbanization, the once-clear social, political, and economic boundaries between urban and rural areas have blurred. It is more accurate to describe the relationship between urban and rural areas as a continuous and dynamic system rather than a rigid dichotomy.

To address the shortcomings of the traditional “urban-rural dichotomy” in UHI research, the local climate zones (LCZs) classification system, introduced by Stewart and Oke ( 2012 ), offers a fresh research framework. This system has expanded its applications beyond UHI research and is now being employed in other domains related to sustainable urban development, including urban planning (Pradhesta et al. 2019 , Kopp et al. 2021 ), building energy consumption (Yang et al. 2020a , 2022 , Benjamin et al. 2021 ), and urban thermal comfort (Lau et al. 2019 , Wu et al. 2022 ).

Table 1 lists the existing review articles on LCZs research. Many researchers in the domain of LCZs mapping have directed their attention to the current advancements in this area. For instance, Huang et al. ( 2023 ) offered a comprehensive review of LCZs mapping, providing detailed analyses of remote sensing (RS)-based and geographic information system (GIS)-based methods. They discussed RS-based methods in terms of feature sets, classification units, training areas, classification algorithms, and accuracy assessment, while GIS-based methods were elaborated based on LCZ parameters, basic spatial units (BSUs), classification algorithms, and accuracy assessment. Quan and Bansal ( 2021 ) summarized the general LCZs mapping processes in the reviewed studies, encompassing data collection, defining BSUs, calculating urban canopy parameters (UCPs), LCZs classification, post-processing, and performance evaluation. Ma et al. ( 2021 ) conducted a timely investigation into RS-based LCZs mapping applications. They analyzed and evaluated several aspects influencing LCZs mapping performance, including mapping units/scales, transferability, sample datasets, low accuracy, and classification schemes. Meanwhile, researchers have dedicated their focus to the field pertaining to the LCZs framework. For example, Lehnert et al. ( 2021 ) provided a comprehensive analysis of the application of the LCZs framework in European urban areas, demonstrating an increasing and widely recognized use of LCZs in climate research across European cities. Xue et al. ( 2020 ) explored the applications of LCZs schemes in various research fields such as meteorology, atmospheric science, environmental science, remote sensing, architectural technology, civil engineering, and ecology by conducting a bibliometric analysis of articles citing LCZs using CiteSpace. Additionally, most review studies utilize bibliometric analysis to review LCZs research. However, bibliometric analysis has the limitation of time lag due to the literature on which it is based, which can not sufficiently reflect the latest research progress.

The mentioned studies indicate the significant attention LCZs-related research has garnered within the academic community. Nonetheless, several noticeable gaps exist: 1) Few researchers have systematically conducted critical reviews and comprehensive summaries of LCZs research, especially concerning its recent notable advancements. 2) A thorough investigation into its development, research methodologies, and broader applications, particularly in sustainable urban development contexts, is warranted. This paper’s innovations and contributions primarily involve:

1) Given recent advancements, this study comprehensively examines and categorizes research methods and application areas within the LCZs framework. This analysis provides a thorough understanding of theoretical foundations and practical applications, contributing to a more holistic comprehension of LCZs studies.

2) The paper critically evaluates the effectiveness of the LCZs classification system in supporting climate-responsive urban planning and design. This assessment is crucial in understanding the practical utility of the LCZs framework for sustainable urban development and its potential to mitigate UHI challenges.

The primary sections of this paper are structured as follows: The literature survey and corresponding quantitative analysis are presented in Literature Survey. Advancements in local climate zones framework introduces the LCZs framework and delves into the measurement of UCPs. Recent advancements in manual sampling and mapping methods of LCZs reviews the progress of LCZs research methods applied in UHI research. Application of LCZs framework in various scenarios explores the various application areas of LCZs, with a particular focus on its utility in UHI research and climate-sensitive urban design. Limitations, challenges, and future prospects engages in a discussion regarding research limitations and potential future applications of the LCZs framework. Conclusions presents the key findings and conclusions drawn from the study. This structured approach allows for a systematic and in-depth exploration of the LCZs classification system’s development and its multifaceted applications in the context of research related to sustainable urban development.

Literature survey

This study conducted a comprehensive screening of all peer-reviewed journal and conference papers that cited the original LCZs framework articles based on the Web of Science dataset. As of February 2023, a total of 1534 papers were identified. Based on this, we performed literature statistics and bibliometric analysis to quantitatively assess the current state of development of LCZs research.

Literature statistics

The literature statistics were conducted from three aspects: annual output, country distribution, and research fields. Figures 1 and 2 provide visual representations of the annual output and the country distribution of LCZs research for the period spanning from 2013 to 2022. Since the introduction of the LCZs framework in 2012, there has been a notable surge in publications related to LCZs research. Specifically, the number of publications has seen a substantial increase, starting at 17 in 2013 and reaching 300 in 2022. This upward trend underscores the escalating interest and engagement in LCZs research within the academic community and beyond. Furthermore, the distribution of countries reveals five nations that have made substantial contributions to LCZs research. China stands out with the highest number of papers, accounting for 668 publications, which amounts to approximately 43.55% of the total papers. Following China, the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Australia have also made significant contributions to LCZs research, with 333, 225, 176, and 104 publications, respectively. These statistics highlight the global reach and significance of LCZs research, with diverse countries actively participating in advancing this research field.

Annual output of LCZs research.

Country distribution of LCZs research.

Table 2 provides an overview of the distribution of research fields related to LCZs. LCZs research is characterized by its interdisciplinary nature, encompassing a wide spectrum of academic disciplines. The research content of LCZs studies spans several fields: (1) Meteorology and atmospheric sciences: The LCZs framework is employed to investigate urban meteorology, evaluate the impact of urbanization on weather patterns, and develop models for urban climate simulations; (2) Environmental sciences and ecology: The LCZs classification system helps identify and quantify the effect of urbanization on ecosystems, biodiversity, and the overall environment; (3) Physical sciences: The LCZs classification takes into account physical parameters such as surface materials, building density, and thermal admittance. This classification helps physical scientists study the thermal characteristics of urban surfaces, develop models for energy balance calculations, and explore the impact of different materials on the UHI effect; (4) Geography: Geographers use LCZs framework to investigate urban morphology, land use dynamics, urban-rural interactions, and the relationship between urban form and climate; (5) Energy and fuels: The LCZs classification system helps identify areas with high energy demand or heat stress, guiding the development of energy-efficient buildings, urban cooling techniques, and renewable energy integration; (6) RS: RS is a prominent and integral research direction within LCZs. It involves the use of satellite and aerial imagery to map and monitor large-scale urban climates, often supported by GIS technologies. The multidisciplinary nature of LCZs research enables cross-disciplinary collaboration and knowledge integration, making it a versatile framework for understanding and addressing urban climate challenges.

Bibliometric analysis

The study employs the concept of “co-occurrence clustering” and utilizes the CiteSpace visualization software to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the screening results. In this analysis, the fundamental unit of information extraction and structural construction is the “keywords”. The research utilizes a “keyword co-occurrence” network to depict the knowledge structure, research evolution, and current research focal points within the LCZs application field. In this network, each node corresponds to a keyword found in the literature, and the links represent the connections between these keywords. The objective is to visually and analytically explore the nodes, links, and overall network structure, shedding light on the present state of development in the LCZs application field. This approach allows for a systematic and data-driven examination of the relationships between keywords and their significance within the context of LCZs research. It facilitates the identification of trends, patterns, and emerging areas of interest within this field, providing valuable insights for researchers and practitioners alike.

In the analyzed literature employing the LCZs framework, several recurring nodes stand out, shedding light on the primary objectives and emphases of LCZs research. The top five frequently occurring nodes include “urban heat island,” “temperature,” “climate,” “impact,” and “city,” as illustrated in Fig. 3 . These nodes collectively indicate that LCZs research primarily seeks to understand the factors influencing urban climates (“climate” and “city”), particularly the impact on temperature parameters (“temperature”). There is a notable focus on examining how the factors affect UHI (“urban heat island”), which aligns with the LCZs framework’s original purpose. The high frequency of “urban heat island” (697 times, with 144 mentions in 2021) underscores its central role in LCZs research. This centrality stems from the LCZs framework’s inception, which aimed to address the limitations of the “urban-rural dichotomy” in UHI studies, enabling a more nuanced understanding of UHI impacts and the development of effective mitigation strategies.

Keyword co-present of the analyzed LCZs literature.

Advancements in local climate zones framework

Local climate zone classification system.

LCZs are defined as areas with uniform surface cover, structure, material, and human activity, with a minimum radius of 200–500 m, which exhibit local-scale, climatic nature, and zonal representation as depicted in Fig. 4 . The LCZs classification system is based on 10 UCPs with recommended ranges, allowing for classification into 17 standard LCZ patterns, comprising 10 built types and 7 land cover types. The various LCZ types represent the diverse compositions of buildings, roads, plants, soils, rocks, and water. The names of standard built types primarily reflect three building structure characteristics (Density: compact/open; Height: high/mid/low; Material: heavy/lightweight) and building type (general/industrial). Conversely, the counterparts of standard land cover types mainly reflected the vegetation and land cover characteristics.

Schematic diagram of standard LCZs.

The process of LCZs classification usually involves four steps: data acquisition, UCPs calculation, LCZs classification, and accuracy evaluation. The first step is to collect the required information for the study area (e.g., field measurements and satellite images). The second step involves calculating UCPs using the data gathered in the previous step. A detailed description of the calculation methods for UCPs is provided in Measurement of urban canopy parameters. For LCZs classification, the results from UCPs calculation can assist in identifying the best match between field sites and LCZ classes. Additionally, LCZs subclasses can be customized when UCPs deviate from the recommended ranges of the standard set of classes. For instance, a combination of LCZ 4 (Open high-rise) and 3 (Compact low-rise) can provide LCZ 3 4 (Compact low-rise with open high-rise).

Measurement of urban canopy parameters

For achieving precise LCZs classification, obtaining accurate values for UCPs is of paramount importance. These UCPs are primarily related to surface structure parameters, including sky view factor (SVF) (Steyn 1980 , Matzarakis et al. 2007 , Liang et al. 2017 ), aspect ratio (AR) (Masson 2000 ), and height of roughness elements (HRE) (Yan and Huang 2022 , Wu et al. 2023 ). They also encompass surface cover parameters such as building surface fraction (BSF) (Yu et al. 2010 , Guo et al. 2022 , Jifroudi et al. 2022 , Wei et al. 2023 ), impervious surface fractions (ISF), and pervious surface fractions (PSF) (Deng and Wu 2013 , Sytsma et al. 2020 ). Surface fabric parameters (surface admittance and surface albedo (Bartmiński and Siłuch 2022 , Tahooni et al. 2023 )) and human activity parameters (anthropogenic heat flux (Yu et al. 2021 , Wang et al. 2022b , Liu and Li 2023 )) are equally included.

In the absence of specific heat-related indicators, most current studies rely on the geometric and ground cover values to define LCZs. Table 3 highlights the various methods employed in previous studies to measure parameters related to ground cover and geometry. Measurement methods for SVF are typically categorized as fisheye photographs, satellite images, street view images, and numerical simulations. Parameters such as AR, BSF, ISF, PSF, HRE, and TRC are primarily grouped into three categories: field measurement, satellite image calculation, and building data acquisition.

In summary, methods for measuring UCPs mainly consist of manual measurement and satellite image calculation. Manual measurement involves collecting data from a few sampling points in a region and then averaging them to determine UCP values. However, this approach is time-consuming, labor-intensive, and prone to inaccuracies, rendering it unsuitable for large-scale urban climate studies based on the LCZs framework. In contrast, alternative methods such as RS and simulation modeling can be more effectively employed for UCPs measurements. These methods offer a more efficient and accurate means of collecting UCPs, enabling a comprehensive and reliable analysis of urban climate patterns and their impact on human well-being and the environment. Furthermore, there is a pressing need to establish standardized procedures for measuring UCPs. Future research within the LCZs framework could emphasize the standardization of UCP calculation using RS and GIS data to ensure precise results.

Calculating urban heat island intensity using the LCZs framework

The LCZs framework method focuses on defining the UHI magnitude using the temperature difference between LCZs, represented by ΔT LCZ X-LCZ D , rather than the traditional “urban-rural” temperature difference (ΔT u-r ) (Stewart and Oke 2012 ). Here, LCZ X denotes any class within the LCZs classification system, while the temperature of LCZ D (low plants) serves as the baseline. This calculation method not only offers a more physically grounded understanding of UHII but also enhances its analysis and comparability. Numerous studies have affirmed the efficacy of the LCZs-based UHII calculation method. For example, Shi et al. ( 2021 ) computed surface urban heat island (SUHI) intensity by analyzing the difference in land surface temperature (LST) between LCZs and compared it with the conventional “urban-rural dichotomy” method. The results revealed that the LCZs-based UHII calculation method yielded a more precise measure of SUHI intensity. Similarly, Budhiraja et al. ( 2019 ) examined the seasonal SUHI intensity of Delhi using both LCZs-based and “urban-rural dichotomy” methods, concluding that the former provided a more detailed understanding of the relationship between urban structure and SUHI.

Two primary UHI types were assessed using the LCZs-based UHII calculation method: atmospheric urban heat island (AUHI) and SUHI. Concerning AUHI, Chen et al. ( 2021 ) explored the connection between the diurnal temperature range and AUHI intensity using the LCZs-based UHII calculation method under varying meteorological conditions categorized by precipitation. Yang et al. ( 2017 ) investigated the characteristics of local AUHI at selected LCZ sites, employing the LCZs-based UHII calculation method. Regarding SUHI, Wang et al. ( 2021 ) calculated surface urban heat island intensity (SUHII) using this method and proposed a sustainable urban green infrastructure planning strategy based on the analysis results. O’Malley and Kikumoto ( 2022 ) delved into heat storage in Tokyo Prefecture, utilizing the LCZs-based UHII calculation method to compute nocturnal-diurnal SUHI differences. Finally, Zheng et al. ( 2022 ) scrutinized the changes of LCZs and surface SUHII within Chang-Zhu-Tan’s primary urban area, employing the LCZs-based UHII calculation method.

In conclusion, the LCZs-based UHII calculation method represents a significant advancement in UHI research. Its ability to capture localized UHI variations, enhance comparability across regions, and guide targeted mitigation strategies makes it a valuable tool for urban planning and climate adaptation. However, addressing data challenges and standardization issues will be crucial to fully realize its potential for widespread application. Further research should focus on refining data acquisition and measurement techniques within the LCZs framework to ensure the accuracy and reliability of UHII assessments.

Recent advancements in manual sampling and mapping methods of LCZs research

This section explores the research methods employed within the LCZs framework for UHI research, specifically focusing on the manual sampling method for limited LCZs and LCZs mapping methods for large-scale applications.

Manual sampling method for limited LCZs

In the early stages of UHI research based on the LCZs framework, the primary emphasis was on LCZs classification through a manual sampling approach. This method involved the identification of LCZ types for a limited number of land parcels using manual techniques, such as scrutinizing satellite images, live photos, and conducting field surveys, for urban climate investigations. For instance, Yang et al. ( 2017 ) conducted a study examining the local UHI characteristics across 12 LCZs. These LCZs were selected based on a thorough review of satellite images, street-level views, and on-site fieldwork. In another research endeavor, Yang et al. ( 2018 ) investigated 14 distinct LCZs using field data and high-resolution satellite images to analyze the thermal characteristics of each location.

However, it is important to note that the manual sampling method has limitations, particularly when applied to large-scale urban climate investigations. It necessitates a substantial number of researchers to manually identify the LCZ type of each plot, which is resource-intensive and time-consuming. Moreover, there is a risk of human error during the identification process, potentially compromising the accuracy and reliability of the results. Consequently, while the manual sampling method has proven valuable for in-depth studies focusing on limited LCZs, it may not be suitable for broader urban climate investigations within expansive urban areas. In such cases, alternative LCZs mapping methods are typically preferred to ensure efficiency and accuracy.

LCZs mapping methods

The evolution of the LCZs framework has given rise to LCZs mapping methods tailored for large-scale urban climate studies. These methods simplify the representation of urban climate within the LCZs framework, enabling comparative analyses across different cities and enhancing the universality and applicability of findings. Moreover, LCZs framework facilitates the transformation of “climate language,” supporting the development of climate-sensitive urban design. LCZs mapping methods can be categorized into two types based on their data sources and classification algorithms: GIS-based and RS-based mapping methods (Tamás et al. 2015 ).

GIS-based LCZs mapping method

The GIS-based LCZs mapping method comprises six main steps, as depicted in Fig. 5 (Quan and Bansal 2021 ). Initially, it involves collecting GIS data and defining BSUs to segment the urban environment into smaller blocks for LCZs classification. Subsequently, the UCPs values for each BSU are calculated using GIS data, and the LCZ type for each BSU is determined based on the LCZs framework. Finally, post-processing is carried out to merge adjacent units for simplification and size adjustment, ultimately leading to the generation and evaluation of the LCZs map. BSUs refer to the spatial scale of LCZ classification, and the size of a BSU must meet the size requirement of the LCZs framework. The definition of BSUs is typically divided into lot area polygons (Lelovics et al. 2014 , Unger et al. 2014 ), urban blocks (Wu et al. 2018 , Quan 2019 ), and regular grids (Chen et al. 2020a ). Additionally, pre-processing of the GIS data is often necessary before calculating the UCPs. Common pre-processing includes: (1) Data cleaning: GIS datasets may contain errors or inconsistencies, such as missing values, outliers, or topological errors. It’s important to clean the data to avoid inaccuracies. (2) Spatial resolution matching: GIS datasets may have different spatial resolutions, which can affect the accuracy of UCPs calculations. Pre-processing is necessary to resample or aggregate datasets to a common spatial resolution to ensure compatibility for analysis. (3) Others: Steps such as data normalization and data integration are performed as needed. Overall, pre-processing of GIS data is essential before calculating UCPs to ensure data cleanliness, compatibility, and suitability for analysis, leading to more accurate and reliable results.

General steps of GIS-based LCZs mapping method (Quan and Bansal 2021 ).

The use of GIS-based LCZs mapping has gained traction in urban climate studies since the pioneering study by Lelovics et al. ( 2014 ) in Hungary. For example, Quan et al. ( 2017 ) developed and tested a bottom-up, fine-grained 3D LCZs mapping method utilizing GIS and land cover data, with urban block units serving as BSUs. Geletič et al. ( 2019 ) employed the GIS-based LCZs mapping method to explore the inter-zone and intra-zone seasonal variations of SUHI in three central European cities.

Despite its precision, the GIS-based LCZs mapping method has limitations. Firstly, obtaining accurate and consistent ground truth data for calculating UCPs poses a significant challenge, leading to limited availability of urban data. The inability to acquire comprehensive and detailed datasets for estimating UCPs, particularly those related to thermal aspects, can significantly impact the accuracy of LCZs mapping. Secondly, the merging of BSUs exists in post-processing, making it challenging to find optimal solutions, particularly in intricate urban environments. This process may not fully capture the complexity of LCZs mapping.

RS-based LCZs mapping method

RS is a technology that leverages remote sensors to collect data from target objects and analyze it to extract valuable information. Advances in RS information acquisition, transmission, and storage technologies have diminished the limitations of RS applications due to improved data quality and the increased availability of multiple RS data sources (Liu et al. 2006 ). RS satellites streamline fieldwork complexity and time intervals while delivering quantifiable and qualitative data (Dhingra and Kumar 2019 ). Optical RS imagery is gradually favored for identifying and categorizing land types and has become a pivotal research area.

RS-based LCZs mapping methods also have several limitations. One key limitation is the spatial and temporal resolution of the RS data. RS data may not always provide complete coverage or may be affected by cloud cover, which means that RS images need to be processed for stitching. However, since the spatial and temporal resolution of different remotely sensed images may vary, the stitching process may impact the accuracy and completeness of the LCZs mapping. Additionally, RS-based LCZs mapping requires specialized knowledge in remote sensing and image processing, which can be a barrier for non-remote sensing professionals. This limitation restricts the widespread application of RS-based LCZs mapping in urban planning and climate studies.

However, compared to GIS-based approaches, RS-based LCZs mapping methods offer several advantages, including higher resolution, finer spatial and temporal data, and the ability to quickly cover large areas. As a result, RS-based LCZs mapping has become the preferred approach for LCZs classification.

To enhance the accuracy of LCZs map classification, RS researchers have employed various benchmark datasets and classifiers. Regarding the benchmark dataset, Hu et al. ( 2018 ) utilized Sentinel-1 Dual-Pol data in LCZs mapping. Yang et al. ( 2020b ) employed multi-source datasets, including Luojia1-01 nighttime light imagery, Landsat-8, Sentinel-2, and building vector data, to generate LCZs maps. They found that a combination of object-based and pixel-based data with multi-source data improved LCZs mapping workflow. Machine learning classifiers, such as random forests and support vector machines (Xu et al. 2017 , Hu et al. 2018 , Hay Chung et al. 2021 ), are widely used for LCZs classification based on free multi-temporal RS data. In recent years, deep learning techniques have also been employed in RS-based LCZs mapping, as artificial intelligence has advanced. For example, Liu et al. ( 2019 ) combined object-based image analysis with convolutional neural networks (CNN) for LCZs mapping. Huang et al. ( 2021 ) introduced a CNN-based LCZ classification model for LCZs mapping in 32 Chinese cities. Their model achieved high overall accuracy in more than 50% of the cities.

Urban climate studies based on the LCZs framework face notable challenges due to the demand for expertise in meteorological science, RS, and machine learning, as well as data availability issues and non-standardized urban description methods. To address these challenges, Bechtel et al. ( 2015 ) proposed the world urban database and access portal tool (WUDAPT) protocol for LCZs mapping, which was developed ultimately into the LCZs generator (Demuzere et al. 2021 ), an online platform that generates LCZs mapping solely needing a training area file as input and also provides automated accuracy assessment. This approach aims to collect, store, and disseminate climate-related data on urban physical geography globally. The WUDAPT approach merges local expert knowledge with the LCZs framework to categorize the urban landscape into LCZs, generating LCZs maps for urban regions. The WUDAPT, outlined in Fig. 6 , has been widely adopted for urban climate studies in numerous regions. For example, Demuzere et al. ( 2022 ) generated a 100 m-resolution global LCZs map, accessible for download at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6364594 . Cai et al. ( 2018 ) created an LCZs map for the Yangtze River Delta megaregion in China. Ren et al. ( 2019 ) generated LCZs maps for over 20 cities and three major economic regions in China, offering recommendations for enhancement. Demuzere et al. ( 2019 ) constructed LCZs maps for Europe. Beyond urban climate studies, WUDAPT finds applications in various domains, including urban pollution (Shi et al. 2019 ) and multi-scale urban atmospheric modeling (Ching et al. 2019 ).

WUDAPT workflow (Bechtel et al. 2015 ).

LCZs mapping methods represent a pivotal advancement within the LCZs framework, enabling more extensive and systematic urban climate studies. These methods are indispensable for gaining insights into urban climatology, which is crucial for informed urban planning and climate-responsive urban design. While both GIS-based and RS-based LCZs mapping methods offer advantages, it’s essential to consider their respective strengths and limitations. GIS-based approaches provide high precision but may suffer from data availability issues and the complexity of post-processing. In contrast, RS-based methods offer freely available multi-temporal data and can quickly capture large-scale urban environments but may require extensive computational resources and expertise. The integration of machine learning and deep learning techniques into RS-based LCZs mapping has significantly improved classification accuracy and efficiency. However, these methods often demand large training datasets and computational resources. Further research should focus on optimizing these techniques for resource-constrained environments. The WUDAPT protocol stands out as a promising approach for LCZs mapping, offering generality, simplicity, and objectivity. Its reliance on local expert knowledge enhances accuracy, especially in areas with limited data availability. However, challenges persist in implementing this protocol universally, particularly in regions lacking local expertise.

In summary, LCZs mapping methods represent a pivotal milestone in urban climate research. They offer versatile tools for understanding and addressing the UHI effect and other climate-related urban challenges. As technology and data availability continue to advance, these methods are poised to play an increasingly prominent role in shaping sustainable and climate-resilient cities.

Application of LCZs framework in various scenarios

The application domains of the LCZs framework can be categorized and analyzed based on the keywords found in the screened literature. This analysis spans three principal areas: (1) LCZs framework in UHI studies: The primary application of the LCZs framework remains in the domain of UHI research. It provides a valuable tool for investigating the causes and consequences of UHIs, helping researchers better comprehend their impacts on urban climates and devising strategies to mitigate them. Given the growing significance of UHI effects in urban areas, continued research in this area is essential. (2) LCZs research contributions to urban design and climate change mitigation: LCZs research also makes substantial contributions to urban design and climate change mitigation efforts. The framework enables a more refined understanding of how urban structures and land use impact local climates. Consequently, it aids urban planners and policymakers in developing climate-sensitive urban designs and strategies to reduce the UHI effect and its associated challenges. (3) LCZs framework in diverse fields: LCZs research has found applications in various other domains, such as urban ventilation, precipitation, thermal comfort, carbon emissions, and building energy consumption. This indicates the versatility of the LCZs framework and its potential to inform a broad spectrum of urban-related research.

In summary, the LCZs framework has evolved to become a valuable tool in various research scenarios. While its origins lie in addressing UHI research limitations, it now extends its influence to inform urban design, climate change mitigation, and a range of interdisciplinary studies. Its adaptability and versatility underscore the continued relevance of LCZs research in addressing contemporary urban challenges.

LCZs framework in urban heat island studies

UHI research is crucial for understanding the impact of urban environments and devising strategies to mitigate UHI effects. Traditional studies have focused on 2D built environment parameters, such as building density, road density, and green space area, extracted from available data sources like weather data or satellite imagery for 2D planar UHI studies. Recent investigations have revealed that 3D built environment factors, including building height and SVF, have a more substantial influence on UHI than the 2D parameters (Luo et al. 2023 ). Consequently, there is a growing need for research that assesses and characterizes UHI through 3D spatial analysis, rather than the planar UHI estimation (Kim and Brown 2021 ). The LCZs system, which integrates both 2D and 3D UCPs, is well-suited for 3D UHI studies and can contribute to advancing the understanding of UHI and its influencing factors.

Table 4 provides examples of UHI research conducted using the LCZs framework, covering various climate types and research contents. These studies span different climate types, including tropical, subtropical, temperate, and more. UHI research typically falls into two categories: SUHI, which concerns the temperature difference between urban and rural areas at the surface level, and AUHI, which examines corresponding air temperature differences. Temperature variables in UHI studies can further be categorized into LST and air temperature, depending on the type of UHI under investigation. Research objectives encompass the identification, influencing factors, and mitigation strategies associated with UHI. UHI studies employ four primary measurement methods, including fixed measurement (utilizing fixed meteorological stations or establishing stationary observation points for thermal environment measurements), mobile measurement (employing mobile vehicles equipped with climate observation instruments to collect and record climate data along predefined routes), ground measurement (retrieving LST using thermal infrared data), and numerical simulation.

Given the dispersed nature of measurement points and the limited equipment available for LCZs investigations, many UHI studies opt for mobile measurement or LST retrieval methods to gather temperature data across extensive areas. Furthermore, contemporary LCZs framework research has shifted its focus from single-city examinations to comparative analyses between cities. This shift highlights the generalizability of the LCZs framework and its contributions to the growing trend of multi-regional urban climate research.

LCZs research contributions to urban design and climate change mitigation

Well-planned cities are essential for achieving sustainable urban development (Bai 2018 ). Climate-sensitive urban design plays a pivotal role in addressing the challenges posed by rising temperatures, which threaten residents’ thermal comfort (Kim and Brown 2021 ). However, existing urban planning systems struggle to cope with the complexities of local, regional, and global warming. Integrating climate considerations into data requirements and analysis methods is crucial for practical urban design applications (Perera and Emmanuel 2018 ).

The development of urban climate mapping systems has emerged as a responsive tool for climate-conscious urban planning. LCZs offer a structured classification system for land surface characteristics, forming the basis for surface parameterization methods (Ren et al. 2011 , Jin et al. 2020 ). LCZs facilitate the examination of the relationship between urban morphology and climate, providing meteorological data that informs building and urban design decisions. This framework has yielded significant insights into climate-responsive urban design, as exemplified by recent research endeavors.

For instance, Perera and Emmanuel ( 2018 ) utilized the LCZs framework to guide urban planning in Colombo, establishing it as a valuable theoretical foundation for crafting climate-sensitive cities. Likewise, Maharoof et al. ( 2020 ) applied the LCZs framework to investigate the implementation of climate-sensitive urban planning in densely populated urban areas, as illustrated by their case study of Glasgow city center. Another study by Pradhesta et al. ( 2019 ) dissected the critical components of thermal comfort within the LCZs framework, emphasizing factors such as roughness feature height, packing density, surface cover, and thermal admittance of materials. These components prove pivotal in the design of urban spaces that prioritize residents’ thermal comfort.

In essence, the LCZs framework offers a powerful tool for formulating climate-sensitive urban design strategies that enhance the quality of life and the sustainability of our cities. Climate-conscious urban design based on LCZs revolves around several key facets:

i) Green infrastructure: Integrating green infrastructure into urban planning stands as a critical measure for mitigating the effects of climate change on cities and their inhabitants. A comprehensive evaluation by Emmanuel and Loconsole ( 2015 ) underscores the effectiveness of green infrastructure options in combatting urban overheating, particularly within the context of a warming climate. Notably, increasing green coverage by approximately 20% over current levels could potentially eliminate up to half of the projected extra UHI effect by 2050 (Emmanuel and Loconsole 2015 ). Further insights from Kotharkar et al. ( 2020 ) reveal that greening initiatives not only serve as cooling strategies but also enhance pedestrian-level comfort. Intriguingly, their research highlights the superior results achieved by planting vegetation along streets, as opposed to concentrating greenery in designated areas. Li et al. ( 2022b ) further advocate for the moderation of SUHI through the strategic implementation of urban blue-green infrastructure. Stepani and Emmanuel ( 2022 ) advocate optimizing green spaces within public realms rather than merely increasing their quantity, emphasizing that climate-responsive design necessitates a diverse array of solutions, extending beyond green infrastructure.

ii) Blue infrastructure: The concept of blue infrastructure encompasses a network of natural and artificial water systems, including rivers, lakes, canals, and drainage systems, which serve as vital resources for human communities. Li et al. ( 2022b ) recommended harnessing the seasonal variations and spatial distribution of water bodies to enhance the cooling performance of LCZ G (Water). Factors such as distance and flow rates within rivers significantly influence the cooling effects, making them key considerations for urban planners and policymakers. Furthermore, they stress the importance of accounting for the growing risks of floods and droughts in East African cities, necessitating the design of blue infrastructure capable of adapting to seasonal variations and changing climates.

iii) Building design: Building resilience to climate change-induced extreme weather events is a crucial consideration in urban design. Passive cooling strategies, including cool roofs, emerge as effective means to reduce energy consumption and mitigate the UHI effect. Kotharkar et al. ( 2020 ) highlight the efficacy of cool roofs, specially designed to reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat than traditional roofing materials, particularly in densely populated urban areas.

iv) Street design: Urban streets represent a significant component of contemporary urban planning, encompassing approximately one-quarter of urban areas. They wield considerable influence in shaping comfortable urban environments. However, the climate-sensitive street design goes beyond rigid one-size-fits-all approaches. Maharoof et al. ( 2020 ) advocate for the integration of LCZ parameters with form-based considerations such as orientation and façade geometry. This nuanced approach recognizes that different street typologies may demand distinct design strategies, underscoring the importance of tailoring designs to specific urban contexts.

v) Other considerations: Research by O’Malley and Kikumoto ( 2022 ) suggests that mitigating UHI effects can be achieved through constructing lower-rise and open LCZs. They note that high-rise buildings possess larger heat storage capacities relative to lower-rise structures. Additionally, Zheng et al. ( 2022 ) proposed the full utilization of the cooling potential inherent in LCZ A-D and LCZ G and emphasized the need for judicious regulation of construction land areas (built LCZs) in future urban development plans.

Leveraging insights from LCZs-based research, climate-sensitive urban design should center around the integration of green and blue infrastructure, innovative building design, and flexible street design elements to counter the adverse impacts of climate change and foster the creation of sustainable, climate-responsive urban environments.

i) Green-blue infrastructure: Urban areas can benefit significantly from nature-based solutions, such as green roofs, gardens, and urban forests. These solutions serve dual purposes, including mitigating the negative impacts of climate change and promoting biodiversity. Furthermore, green corridors, such as tree-lined streets and bike paths, serve as multifunctional assets. They not only improve air quality but also offer enhanced mobility options for residents and reduce noise pollution. Water features, such as fountains and ponds, not only enhance the aesthetic appeal of public spaces but also provide cooling through evaporation.

ii) Building design: To mitigate UHI effects, building design should incorporate various strategies, including green roofs, cool roofs, shade provision, and sustainable materials. Green roofs are particularly advantageous because they contribute to cooling both buildings and their surroundings by absorbing and subsequently releasing moisture through transpiration. Additionally, cool roofs reflect sunlight and possess lower heat absorption than traditional roofing materials. The reduction in heat transfer into buildings beneath the roof not only lowers cooling costs but also enhances indoor comfort during hot weather. Moreover, building design can introduce shading solutions in outdoor areas, thereby reducing the amount of sunlight absorbed by buildings and their surroundings, thus contributing to cooler environments. Sustainable building materials, such as recycled steel, bamboo, and reclaimed wood, can play a pivotal role in reducing the environmental footprint of construction, ensuring that buildings are more sustainable, efficient, and comfortable.

iii) Street design: The design of urban streets plays a crucial role in mitigating UHI effects. Incorporating vegetation, green roofs, and other green elements into street design can effectively provide shade and evaporative cooling. Furthermore, using permeable pavement materials allows rainwater to penetrate the surface, promoting evaporation and reducing the amount of heat absorbed and re-emitted by the pavement. This is particularly important as impervious surfaces, like concrete and asphalt, tend to absorb and re-emit substantial amounts of heat, exacerbating UHI effects. By reducing the prevalence of impervious surfaces in street design, the adverse impacts of UHI can be mitigated. Additionally, thoughtful street furniture design, including streetlights and bus shelters, can be employed to provide shade and further reduce UHI effects.

In summary, urban design strategies that incorporate green-blue infrastructure, utilize innovative building design techniques, and employ street design elements prioritizing vegetation and sustainability offer comprehensive solutions to mitigate the adverse effects of UHI. These strategies enhance the overall resilience and comfort of urban areas, preparing them for the challenges posed by climate change.

Applications of the LCZs framework in other domains

Urban climate studies.

Beyond its primary application in UHI studies, the LCZs framework offers substantial utility across various domains of urban climate research. This adaptable framework enables researchers to explore both spatial and temporal dynamics of ventilation and precipitation patterns at a local scale, providing crucial insights for developing effective strategies to mitigate the environmental and health impacts of urbanization. For instance, Zhao et al. ( 2020 ) effectively employed the LCZs framework to analyze local-scale urban ventilation performance in Shenyang. In another study, Yang et al. ( 2019a ) evaluated the ventilation efficiency of different LCZs in Shanghai by assessing the frontal area index across various LCZ types. Chen et al. ( 2021 ) conducted a quantitative assessment of the relationship between daily temperature variations and UHII under varying meteorological conditions, classifying data using precipitation as a criterion. Additionally, Shi et al. ( 2022 ) assessed the influence of urban ventilation corridors on UHII using the LCZs framework. Yang et al. ( 2020c ) explored the spatial and temporal variations in humidity within the urban canopy across eight LCZ plots in Nanjing, analyzing the interplay between humidity differences, condensation precipitation events, meteorological parameters, and UHI. In a related study, Savić et al. ( 2020 ) scrutinized precipitation patterns in different urbanization settings by segregating areas into “urbanized” and “non-urbanized” based on LCZs classifications.

In summation, the utilization of the LCZs framework within urban climate research enhances our comprehension of the intricate connections between urban design and the multifaceted facets of urban climate. This broader perspective empowers researchers to devise effective strategies aimed at mitigating the repercussions of urbanization on the environment and human well-being, ultimately contributing to the enhancement of urban living conditions.

Enhancing outdoor thermal comfort

The quality of outdoor thermal comfort significantly influences the livability of urban areas. Changes in urban surfaces can substantially affect LST, consequently leading to elevated air temperatures and increased heat stress on urban residents (Lau et al. 2019 ). The LCZs framework proves to be a valuable tool in advancing research on outdoor thermal comfort by capturing the nuances of urban surface characteristics. For instance, Lau et al. ( 2019 ) employed a combination of questionnaires and field measurements to gauge subjective thermal sensations within eight distinct LCZs in Hong Kong. Unger et al. ( 2018 ) examined daily and seasonal fluctuations of outdoor human thermal perceptions, scrutinizing diverse LCZ types based on meteorological data. On a quantitative note, Liu et al. ( 2018 ) analytically assessed the levels of outdoor thermal comfort within nine LCZs in Shenzhen, dissecting the impact of various urban spatial characteristics. Schibuola and Tambani ( 2022 ) engaged in an evaluation of outdoor thermal comfort using the LCZs framework, offering a basis for comparative analysis of mitigation strategies. Meanwhile, Unal Cilek and Uslu ( 2022 ) analyzed the thermal conditions in urban green spaces across three distinct canopy cover scenarios using LCZs framework. Lastly, Wu et al. ( 2022 ) assessed the thermal comfort levels in Shenzhen throughout the year 2020 based on the LCZs framework.

These studies demonstrate that the LCZs framework enables a more profound comprehension of how urban surface characteristics affect outdoor thermal comfort. This understanding is crucial for developing and optimizing mitigation strategies in urban planning and design to enhance the quality of life and comfort for urban residents.

Tackling carbon emissions and building energy consumption

Cities play a significant role in global energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions (Zhou 2022b ), making the development of sustainable urban areas pivotal for achieving climate stability objectives (Zhou 2023 , Zhou et al. 2023 ). The form and function of the built environment closely intertwine with its carbon emission patterns. Hence, the LCZs framework emerges as a valuable tool for research focused on mitigating carbon emissions and optimizing building energy efficiency. Through the creation of a regional carbon map grounded in the LCZs framework, researchers can furnish urban planners and decision-makers with crucial insights into urban carbon emissions, thereby bolstering strategic initiatives for carbon reduction and management.

Recent studies have harnessed the potential of the LCZs framework to scrutinize and chart building carbon emissions and energy utilization within urban landscapes. Notably, Wu et al. ( 2018 ) established correlations between building carbon emissions and LCZs classifications, culminating in a detailed mapping of LCZs-based building carbon emissions in Shanghai. This research enables a granular understanding of urban-scale carbon dynamics, essential for localized mitigation efforts. Additionally, Sharifi et al. ( 2018 ) introduced a novel LCZs-based urban carbon mapping method, offering a standardized approach to urban carbon assessment. This method found application in major global cities like Bangkok, Shanghai, and Tokyo, facilitating comprehensive carbon analysis. Moreover, the adaptability of the LCZs framework extends to energy consumption assessments for city-level energy management and planning. For instance, Yang et al. ( 2019b ) devised a diagnostic equation for daily maximum UHI indices grounded in the LCZs framework, effectively applying it to simulate building energy consumption. In a similar vein, Kotharkar et al. ( 2022 ) explored cooling loads and energy requisites for two distinct building typologies, leveraging the LCZs framework for insights into energy planning.

Collectively, these studies underscore the versatility and promise of the LCZs framework in guiding urban sustainability endeavors and informed energy planning, ultimately steering cities toward a greener, more energy-efficient future.

Limitations, challenges, and future prospects

Limitations and challenges.

While the LCZs framework presents a promising avenue for standardizing the exchange of global urban temperature data, its widespread adoption faces challenges due to the lack of a unified approach to data sourcing and LCZs classification, leading to inconsistencies in LCZs framework research. To ensure methodological consistency, it is essential to establish a standardized LCZs framework research protocol. The WUDAPT method, designed for data sharing and user-friendliness, shows promise for future urban climate studies based on LCZs mapping. However, a critical challenge remains in improving this method’s accuracy. Consequently, a key concern in LCZs research is developing a large-scale, effective, and precise LCZs mapping approach by leveraging various benchmark datasets and classifiers. This paper highlights current issues in the LCZs mapping process and suggests potential enhancements.

i) Data availability: Data availability poses significant challenges for LCZs mapping, stemming from several factors. These include limitations in the spatial and temporal resolution of RS data, difficulties in obtaining accurate and consistent ground truth data for calculating UCPs, the high cost associated with accessing high-quality RS data, etc. These challenges emphasize the need for a generalizable framework that addresses data availability issues. The WUDAPT team is actively working towards this goal and has curated a list of datasets for UCPs calculation, including building data, tree data, and urban population data, which can be accessed on the official website ( https://www.wudapt.org/third-party-data/ ).

ii) RS-based mapping: RS-based mapping predominantly relies on freely available Landsat satellite image data. However, the limited image resolution of Landsat data can compromise LCZs mapping accuracy. To mitigate this limitation, the use of low-cost and user-friendly unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) devices for high-resolution RS image capture is worth considering. This approach can mitigate the impact of weather conditions and cloud cover on images, ultimately enhancing the precision of training sample identification and LCZs classification.

iii) Training samples: The overall accuracy of the WUDAPT method depends on the precise identification of LCZ types within the training samples. However, challenges may arise during data collection and UCPs calculation due to limited professional knowledge among researchers, potentially leading to inaccurate LCZs identification. To mitigate these challenges, the accuracy of training sample recognition can be improved through the standardization of data collection and UCPs calculation processes. This will help reduce subjective errors and address expertise-related constraints that can hinder manual recognition.

iv) Classifier: Apart from training samples, the classifier’s ability to achieve high-precision LCZ type recognition is pivotal in LCZs mapping research. Recent advancements in artificial intelligence, particularly deep learning, have revolutionized image recognition and found widespread application in image classification tasks. Consequently, the emerging trend is to leverage neural network algorithms to achieve large-scale, efficient, and precise LCZs mapping.

By addressing these challenges and limitations, the LCZs framework can evolve into a more robust tool for urban climate research and planning, ensuring improved accuracy and consistency across studies.

Future prospects

The LCZs framework’s generality, simplicity, and objectivity make it remarkably versatile, positioning it for extensive application across various future research domains. Beyond its current role in UHI effect research, the framework exhibits potential for a plethora of other areas, such as urban design, outdoor thermal comfort, carbon emissions, building energy consumption. The trajectory of LCZs framework research can be delineated into the following directions:

i) Enhancing understanding of UHI: Previous studies evaluating UHI effects have predominantly relied on 2D planar analysis, which does not account for the 3D physical form of cities. The LCZs framework provides an avenue for 3D spatial analysis, facilitating a more comprehensive evaluation of UHII. This advancement can significantly enhance our understanding of UHI effects and foster the development of innovative UHI mitigation strategies.

ii) Urban design: The LCZs framework serves as a valuable tool for identifying climate risks within urban areas. Urban planners, government decision-makers, and stakeholders can leverage this framework to formulate plans for climate-sensitive urban development, thereby promoting the creation of sustainable and resilient cities. Through the utilization of the LCZs framework, these stakeholders can gain valuable insights into potential climate risks, enabling them to proactively implement measures that enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of urban planning and development.

iii) Exploring complex urban climates: While recent urban climate studies have started to consider the influence of complex geographical factors such as topography and water bodies, there remains a research gap concerning mountainous cities. These cities, characterized by unique topographical elements and complex urban climates, have received comparatively less research attention. Therefore, future urban climate research can delve into the analysis of urban climates in mountainous cities using the LCZs framework. By leveraging this framework, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the intricate interactions between topographical features and urban climates in these unique settings.

iv) LCZs-based economic-environmental analysis: Economic-environmental analysis aids policymakers and businesses in harmonizing economic growth with environmental sustainability by quantifying the environmental impacts of economic activities (Zhou 2022a ). Future LCZs research can evolve towards economic-environmental analysis. The LCZs framework provides a foundational understanding of urban physical characteristics and functions, which can be correlated with economic activities and environmental impacts. Integrating economic analysis into LCZ studies, such as integrating lifecycle assessment methods to quantify the environmental impacts of various urban development scenarios, enables researchers to investigate the cost-effectiveness of diverse urban development strategies, evaluate the economic implications of carbon emission reduction, and assess the financial advantages of sustainable building practices.

These future research directions promise to further amplify the applicability and impact of the LCZs framework in urban climate studies, urban planning, economic activities, and climate-conscious urban development.

Conclusions

This study provides a systematic and critical overview of LCZs framework research, exploring its evolution, current status, and future prospects based on recent advancements. It underscores the LCZs classification system’s effectiveness in guiding climate-responsive planning and design. The study’s key contributions are summarized as follows:

1) The proliferation of publications on the LCZs framework has been remarkable, escalating from 17 in 2013 to 300 in 2022. This surge in research reflects a prominent trend towards interdisciplinary collaboration, with LCZs research encompassing ten primary categories, including meteorology atmospheric sciences, environmental sciences ecology, and physical sciences among others.

2) The ongoing challenge of achieving large-scale, efficient, and accurate LCZs mapping remains a central concern in LCZs research. Efforts to address this challenge have been underway, with researchers integrating diverse benchmark datasets, employing UAVs, and utilizing deep learning classifiers.

3) In the realm of UHI studies, the LCZs framework has demonstrated its suitability for 3D UHI analysis, enriching the comprehension of UHI dynamics and their repercussions on urban environments. Recent LCZs framework investigations have evolved from single-city analyses to comparative studies encompassing multiple cities. Moving forward, the LCZs framework holds promise for deciphering the complexities of urban climates influenced by intricate geographical factors.

4) For climate-responsive urban design, the LCZs framework serves as an invaluable instrument for devising strategies that prioritize climate sensitivity in urban planning and development. The integration of green and blue infrastructure, building design principles, and innovative street design emerges as fundamental elements in fostering climate-conscious cities through the LCZs framework.

5) The LCZs framework exhibits versatility across various research domains, including outdoor thermal comfort, carbon emissions analysis, and building energy consumption assessments. Its application contributes significantly to advancing ecological urban construction and promoting sustainable urban development.

In summation, the LCZs framework stands out as a powerful instrument with broad implications for urban climate research, urban planning, and the advancement of climate-resilient and sustainable cities. Its ongoing evolution and refinement are poised to catalyze innovation and advancements in these crucial domains.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Innovation Project of Guangxi Graduate Education (YCSW2023306), Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi Province of China (No.2018GXNSFAA281212).

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School of Architecture and Transportation Engineering, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin, China

Jie Han, Nan Mo & Jingyi Cai

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, OH, USA

Leixin Ouyang

Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands

Zhengxuan Liu

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Jie Han: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—original draft. Nan Mo: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—original draft. Jingyi Cai: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—review & editing. Leixin Ouyang: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation. Zhengxuan Liu: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.

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Han, J., Mo, N., Cai, J. et al. Advancing the local climate zones framework: a critical review of methodological progress, persisting challenges, and future research prospects. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 538 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03072-8

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Received : 21 October 2023

Accepted : 17 April 2024

Published : 27 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03072-8

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