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World War II

By: History.com Editors

Updated: March 13, 2024 | Original: October 29, 2009

World War II, the largest and deadliest conflict in human history, involved more than 50 nations and was fought on land, sea and air in nearly every part of the world. Also known as the Second World War, it was caused in part by the economic crisis of the Great Depression and by political tensions left unresolved following the end of World War I.

The war began when Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939 and raged across the globe until 1945, when Japan surrendered to the United States after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. By the end of World War II, an estimated 60 to 80 million people had died, including up to 55 million civilians, and numerous cities in Europe and Asia were reduced to rubble.

Among the people killed were 6 million Jews murdered in Nazi concentration camps as part of Hitler’s diabolical “Final Solution,” now known as the Holocaust. The legacy of the war included the creation of the United Nations as a peacekeeping force and geopolitical rivalries that resulted in the Cold War.

Leading up to World War II

The devastation of the Great War (as World War I was known at the time) had greatly destabilized Europe, and in many respects World War II grew out of issues left unresolved by that earlier conflict. In particular, political and economic instability in Germany, and lingering resentment over the harsh terms imposed by the Versailles Treaty, fueled the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and National Socialist German Workers’ Party, abbreviated as NSDAP in German and the Nazi Party in English..

Did you know? As early as 1923, in his memoir and propaganda tract "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle), Adolf Hitler had predicted a general European war that would result in "the extermination of the Jewish race in Germany."

After becoming Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler swiftly consolidated power, anointing himself Führer (supreme leader) in 1934. Obsessed with the idea of the superiority of the “pure” German race, which he called “Aryan,” Hitler believed that war was the only way to gain the necessary “Lebensraum,” or living space, for the German race to expand. In the mid-1930s, he secretly began the rearmament of Germany, a violation of the Versailles Treaty. After signing alliances with Italy and Japan against the Soviet Union , Hitler sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 and the following year annexed Czechoslovakia. Hitler’s open aggression went unchecked, as the United States and Soviet Union were concentrated on internal politics at the time, and neither France nor Britain (the two other nations most devastated by the Great War) were eager for confrontation.

Outbreak of World War II (1939)

In late August 1939, Hitler and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact , which incited a frenzy of worry in London and Paris. Hitler had long planned an invasion of Poland, a nation to which Great Britain and France had guaranteed military support if it were attacked by Germany. The pact with Stalin meant that Hitler would not face a war on two fronts once he invaded Poland, and would have Soviet assistance in conquering and dividing the nation itself. On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland from the west; two days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany, beginning World War II.

On September 17, Soviet troops invaded Poland from the east. Under attack from both sides, Poland fell quickly, and by early 1940 Germany and the Soviet Union had divided control over the nation, according to a secret protocol appended to the Nonaggression Pact. Stalin’s forces then moved to occupy the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and defeated a resistant Finland in the Russo-Finnish War. During the six months following the invasion of Poland, the lack of action on the part of Germany and the Allies in the west led to talk in the news media of a “phony war.” At sea, however, the British and German navies faced off in heated battle, and lethal German U-boat submarines struck at merchant shipping bound for Britain, sinking more than 100 vessels in the first four months of World War II.

World War II in the West (1940-41)

On April 9, 1940, Germany simultaneously invaded Norway and occupied Denmark, and the war began in earnest. On May 10, German forces swept through Belgium and the Netherlands in what became known as “blitzkrieg,” or lightning war. Three days later, Hitler’s troops crossed the Meuse River and struck French forces at Sedan, located at the northern end of the Maginot Line , an elaborate chain of fortifications constructed after World War I and considered an impenetrable defensive barrier. In fact, the Germans broke through the line with their tanks and planes and continued to the rear, rendering it useless. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea from Dunkirk in late May, while in the south French forces mounted a doomed resistance. With France on the verge of collapse, Italy’s fascist dictator Benito Mussolini formed an alliance with Hitler, the Pact of Steel, and Italy declared war against France and Britain on June 10.

On June 14, German forces entered Paris; a new government formed by Marshal Philippe Petain (France’s hero of World War I) requested an armistice two nights later. France was subsequently divided into two zones, one under German military occupation and the other under Petain’s government, installed at Vichy France. Hitler now turned his attention to Britain, which had the defensive advantage of being separated from the Continent by the English Channel.

To pave the way for an amphibious invasion (dubbed Operation Sea Lion), German planes bombed Britain extensively beginning in September 1940 until May 1941, known as the Blitz , including night raids on London and other industrial centers that caused heavy civilian casualties and damage. The Royal Air Force (RAF) eventually defeated the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain , and Hitler postponed his plans to invade. With Britain’s defensive resources pushed to the limit, Prime Minister Winston Churchill began receiving crucial aid from the U.S. under the Lend-Lease Act , passed by Congress in early 1941.

Hitler vs. Stalin: Operation Barbarossa (1941-42)

By early 1941, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops overran Yugoslavia and Greece that April. Hitler’s conquest of the Balkans was a precursor for his real objective: an invasion of the Soviet Union, whose vast territory would give the German master race the “Lebensraum” it needed. The other half of Hitler’s strategy was the extermination of the Jews from throughout German-occupied Europe. Plans for the “Final Solution” were introduced around the time of the Soviet offensive, and over the next three years more than 4 million Jews would perish in the death camps established in occupied Poland.

On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Barbarossa . Though Soviet tanks and aircraft greatly outnumbered the Germans’, Russian aviation technology was largely obsolete, and the impact of the surprise invasion helped Germans get within 200 miles of Moscow by mid-July. Arguments between Hitler and his commanders delayed the next German advance until October, when it was stalled by a Soviet counteroffensive and the onset of harsh winter weather.

World War II in the Pacific (1941-43)

With Britain facing Germany in Europe, the United States was the only nation capable of combating Japanese aggression, which by late 1941 included an expansion of its ongoing war with China and the seizure of European colonial holdings in the Far East. On December 7, 1941, 360 Japanese aircraft attacked the major U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , taking the Americans completely by surprise and claiming the lives of more than 2,300 troops. The attack on Pearl Harbor served to unify American public opinion in favor of entering World War II, and on December 8 Congress declared war on Japan with only one dissenting vote. Germany and the other Axis Powers promptly declared war on the United States.

After a long string of Japanese victories, the U.S. Pacific Fleet won the Battle of Midway in June 1942, which proved to be a turning point in the war. On Guadalcanal, one of the southern Solomon Islands, the Allies also had success against Japanese forces in a series of battles from August 1942 to February 1943, helping turn the tide further in the Pacific. In mid-1943, Allied naval forces began an aggressive counterattack against Japan, involving a series of amphibious assaults on key Japanese-held islands in the Pacific. This “island-hopping” strategy proved successful, and Allied forces moved closer to their ultimate goal of invading the mainland Japan.

Toward Allied Victory in World War II (1943-45)

In North Africa , British and American forces had defeated the Italians and Germans by 1943. An Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy followed, and Mussolini’s government fell in July 1943, though Allied fighting against the Germans in Italy would continue until 1945.

On the Eastern Front, a Soviet counteroffensive launched in November 1942 ended the bloody Battle of Stalingrad , which had seen some of the fiercest combat of World War II. The approach of winter, along with dwindling food and medical supplies, spelled the end for German troops there, and the last of them surrendered on January 31, 1943.

On June 6, 1944–celebrated as “D-Day” –the Allies began a massive invasion of Europe, landing 156,000 British, Canadian and American soldiers on the beaches of Normandy, France. In response, Hitler poured all the remaining strength of his army into Western Europe, ensuring Germany’s defeat in the east. Soviet troops soon advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, while Hitler gathered his forces to drive the Americans and British back from Germany in the Battle of the Bulge (December 1944-January 1945), the last major German offensive of the war.

An intensive aerial bombardment in February 1945 preceded the Allied land invasion of Germany, and by the time Germany formally surrendered on May 8, Soviet forces had occupied much of the country. Hitler was already dead, having died by suicide on April 30 in his Berlin bunker.

World War II Ends (1945)

At the Potsdam Conference of July-August 1945, U.S. President Harry S. Truman (who had taken office after Roosevelt’s death in April), Churchill and Stalin discussed the ongoing war with Japan as well as the peace settlement with Germany. Post-war Germany would be divided into four occupation zones, to be controlled by the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States and France. On the divisive matter of Eastern Europe’s future, Churchill and Truman acquiesced to Stalin, as they needed Soviet cooperation in the war against Japan.

Heavy casualties sustained in the campaigns at Iwo Jima (February 1945) and Okinawa (April-June 1945), and fears of the even costlier land invasion of Japan led Truman to authorize the use of a new and devastating weapon. Developed during a top secret operation code-named The Manhattan Project, the atomic bomb was unleashed on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. On August 15, the Japanese government issued a statement declaring they would accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, and on September 2, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur accepted Japan’s formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

African American Servicemen Fight Two Wars

A tank and crew from the 761st Tank Battalion in front of the Prince Albert Memorial in Coburg, Germany, 1945. (Credit: The National Archives)

World War II exposed a glaring paradox within the United States Armed Forces. Although more than 1 million African Americans served in the war to defeat Nazism and fascism, they did so in segregated units. The same discriminatory Jim Crow policies that were rampant in American society were reinforced by the U.S. military. Black servicemen rarely saw combat and were largely relegated to labor and supply units that were commanded by white officers.

There were several African American units that proved essential in helping to win World War II, with the Tuskegee Airmen being among the most celebrated. But the Red Ball Express, the truck convoy of mostly Black drivers were responsible for delivering essential goods to General George S. Patton ’s troops on the front lines in France. The all-Black 761st Tank Battalion fought in the Battle of the Bulge, and the 92 Infantry Division, fought in fierce ground battles in Italy. Yet, despite their role in defeating fascism, the fight for equality continued for African American soldiers after the World War II ended. They remained in segregated units and lower-ranking positions, well into the Korean War , a few years after President Truman signed an executive order to desegregate the U.S. military in 1948.

World War II Casualties and Legacy

World War II proved to be the deadliest international conflict in history, taking the lives of 60 to 80 million people, including 6 million Jews who died at the hands of the Nazis during the Holocaust . Civilians made up an estimated 50-55 million deaths from the war, while military comprised 21 to 25 million of those lost during the war. Millions more were injured, and still more lost their homes and property.

The legacy of the war would include the spread of communism from the Soviet Union into eastern Europe as well as its eventual triumph in China, and the global shift in power from Europe to two rival superpowers–the United States and the Soviet Union–that would soon face off against each other in the Cold War .

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World War II Research Essay Topics

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Students are often required to write a paper on a topic as broad as World War II , but you should know that the instructor will expect you to narrow your focus to a specific thesis. This is especially true if you are in high school or college. Narrow your focus by making a list of words, much like the list of words and phrases that are presented in bold type below. Then begin to explore related questions and come up with your own cool WWII topics. The answer to questions like these can become a good starting point for a thesis statement .

Culture and People

When the U.S. entered into war, everyday life across the country changed drastically. From civil rights, racism, and resistance movements to basic human needs like food, clothing, and medicine, the aspects of how life was impacted are immense.

African-Americans and civil rights. What impact did the war years have on the rights of African-Americans? What were they allowed or not allowed to do?
Animals. How were horses, dogs, birds, or other animals used? Did they play a special role?
Art. What art movements were inspired by wartime events? Is there one specific work of art that tells a story about the war?
Clothing. How was fashion impacted? How did clothing save lives or hinder movement? What materials were used or not used?
Domestic violence. Was there an increase or decrease in cases?
Families. Did new family customs develop? What was the impact on children of soldiers?
Fashion. Did fashion change significantly for civilians? What changes had to be made during wartime?
Food preservation. What new preservation and packaging methods were used during and after the war? How were these helpful?
Food rationing. How did rationing impact families? Were rations the same for different groups of people? Were soldiers affected by rations?
Love letters. What do letters tell us about relationships, families, and friendships? What about gender roles?
New words. What new vocabulary words emerged during and after WWII?
Nutrition. Were there battles that were lost or won because of the foods available? How did nutrition change at home during the war because of the availability of certain products?
Penicillin and other medicine. How was penicillin used? What medical developments occurred during and after the war?
Resistance movements. How did families deal with living in an occupied territory?
Sacrifices. How did family life change for the worse?
Women's work at home. How did women's work change at home during the war? What about after the war ended?

Economy and Workforce

For a nation that was still recovering from the Great Depression, World War II had a major impact on the economy and workforce. When the war began, the fate of the workforce changed overnight, American factories were repurposed to produce goods to support the war effort and women took jobs that were traditionally held by men, who were now off to war.

Advertising. How did food packaging change during the war? How did advertisements change in general? What were advertisements for?
Occupations. What new jobs were created? Who filled these new roles? Who filled the roles that were previously held by many of the men who went off to war?
Propaganda. How did society respond to the war? Do you know why?
Toys. How did the war impact the toys that were manufactured?
New products. What products were invented and became a part of popular culture? Were these products present only during war times, or did they exist after?

Military, Government, and War

Americans were mostly against entering the war up until the bombing of Pearl Harbor, after which support for the war grew, as did armed forces. Before the war, the US didn't have the large military forces it soon became known for, with the war resulting in over 16 million Americans in service. The role the military played in the war, and the impacts of the war itself, were vast.

America's entry into the war. How is the timing significant? What factors are not so well known?
Churchill, Winston. What role did this leader play that interests you most? How did his background prepare him for his role?
Clandestine operations. Governments went to great lengths to hide the true date, time, and place of their actions.
Destruction. Many historic cities and sites were destroyed in the U.K.—Liverpool, Manchester, London, and Coventry—and in other nations.
Hawaii. How did events impact families or society in general?
The Holocaust. Do you have access to any personal stories?
Italy. What special circumstances were in effect?
" Kilroy was here ." Why was this phrase important to soldiers?
Nationalist Socialist movement in America. What impact has this movement had on society and the government since WWII?
Political impact. How was your local town impacted politically and socially?
POW camps after the war. Where were they and what happened to them after the war? Here's a starting point: Some were turned into race tracks after the war!
Prisoners of war. How many POWs were there? How many made it home safely? What were some long-lasting effects?
Spies. Who were the spies? Were they men or women? What side were they on? What happened to spies that were caught?
Submarines. Were there enemy submarines on a coast near you? What role did submarines play in the war?
Surviving an attack. How were military units attacked? How did it feel to jump from a plane that was disabled?
Troop logistics. How were troop movements kept secret? What were some challenges of troop logistics?
Views on freedom. How was freedom curtailed or expanded?
Views on government's role. Where was the government's role expanded? What about governments elsewhere?
War crime trials. How were trials conducted? What were the political challenges or consequences? Who was or wasn't tried?
Weather. Were there battles that were lost or won because of the weather conditions? Were there places where people suffered more because of the weather?
Women in warfare. What roles did women play during the war? What surprises you about women's work in World War II?

Technology and Transportation

With the war came advancements in technology and transportation, impacting communications capabilities, the spread of news, and even entertainment.

Bridges and roads. What transportation-related developments came from wartime or postwar policies?
Communication. How did radio or other types of communication impact key events?
Motorcycles. What needs led to the development of folding motorcycles? Why was there widespread use of military motorcycles by the government?
Technology. What technology came from the war and how was it used after the war?
TV technology. When did televisions start to appear in homes and what is significant about the timing? What TV shows were inspired by the war and how realistic were they? How long did World War II affect TV programming?
Jet engine technology. What advances can be traced to WWII needs?
Radar. What role did radar play, if any?
Rockets. How important was rocket technology?
Shipbuilding achievements. The achievements were quite remarkable during the war. Why and how did they happen?

"America's Wars Fact Sheet." U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, May 2017.

'Unbroken' by Laura Hillenbrand Book Club Discussion Questions
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Women and World War II: Women at Work
Women and Work in World War I
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America and World War II
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The US Economy in World War I
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World War II: In Depth

The mass murder of Europe’s Jews took place in the context of World War II. As German troops invaded and occupied more and more territory in Europe, the Soviet Union, and North Africa, the regime’s racial and antisemitic policies became more radical, moving from persecution to genocide.

World War II

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German and Japanese Expansion

Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan unleashed World War II with the intention of establishing, by military conquest, a permanent dominance over Europe and Asia respectively. These two nations were the most significant members of the Axis partnership, which was based on anti-Communism and dissatisfaction with the world order after World War I .

Under the leadership of dictator Adolf Hitler , Nazi Germany aimed at the acquisition of a vast, new empire of "living space" ( Lebensraum ) in eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. The Nazi leadership calculated that the realization of German hegemony in Europe would require war, and began planning a European war from the day the Nazis came to power in late January 1933.

Imperial Japan followed a policy of military conquest with support of its Emperor, military establishment, and many in the educated elite who sought Japanese rule and influence throughout East Asia and the Pacific Ocean. Germany and Japan formed an anti-Communist front aimed at the Soviet Union in 1936. That same year Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany formed the Axis alliance , shortly after Italy completed its brutal and successful conquest of Ethiopia.

Japan had initiated its policy of military conquest by invading Chinese Manchuria in September 1931. Six years later, in July 1937, Japan invaded China proper to unleash World War II in Asia.

Invasion of Poland

Germany incorporated Austria and the Czech lands without having to resort to war in 1938 and 1939. With a pact of nonaggression , Germany secured the neutrality of the Soviet Union, ruled by dictator Joseph Stalin. Germany then invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, beginning World War II in Europe.

Having permitted Nazi Germany to destroy the interwar Czechoslovak state, Britain and France had guaranteed the integrity of Poland's borders in April 1939. They responded to the German invasion of Poland by declaring war on Germany on September 3. Within a month, German and Soviet forces conquered Poland and partitioned the Polish state.

Invasion of Norway and Denmark

The lull which followed the defeat of Poland ended on April 9, 1940, when German forces invaded Norway and Denmark . Denmark surrendered that day. Norway held out until early June before German forces could occupy the entire country.

Invasion of Western Europe

On May 10, 1940, Germany began its assault on western Europe by invading France and the neutral Low Countries (the Netherlands , Belgium , and Luxembourg ). The Low Countries were under German occupation by the end of May. On June 22, 1940, France signed an armistice with Germany. The armistice provided for the German occupation of the northern half of France and permitted the establishment of a collaborationist regime in the south with its seat in Vichy. From July 10 to October 31, 1940, the Germans waged, and ultimately lost, an air war over England, known as the Battle of Britain.

Russo-Finnish War

In accordance with sphere of influence arrangements with Nazi Germany in 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Finland at the end of November 1939. After a bitterly fought winter war, the Soviets forced the Finns to cede territory along the northern shores of Lake Lagoda north of Leningrad (St. Petersburg) and on the Arctic coastline in March 1940.

Soviet Annexations

The Soviet Union occupied and annexed eastern Poland in 1939. With German encouragement, the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic states in June 1940 and annexed them in August 1940. The Soviets also seized Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from Romania in late June 1940.

Italy Enters the War

Italy entered the war on June 10, 1940, and invaded southern France on June 21. Dissatisfied with Italy's share in the spoils at the armistice negotiations, Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini attacked Greece in October 1940 from Albania (which the Italians had seized in April 1939). The Italians also attacked British forces in Egypt from Italian-controlled Libya in late October 1940. Both adventures resulted in military disaster that required German intervention.

Axis Advances

Germany enticed Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia in November 1940 and Bulgaria in March 1941 to join the Axis . In April 1941, Germany—supported by Italy, Hungary and Bulgaria—invaded and dismembered Yugoslavia . By mid-June, the Axis powers had subdued Greece. Out of the collapse of Yugoslavia arose the so-called Independent State of Croatia under the leadership of the fascist and terrorist Ustasa organization. The new state, which encompassed Bosnia and Herzegovina, formally joined the Axis on June 15. Germany occupied eastern Slovenia, the Serbian Banat and most of Serbia proper. Italy seized Istria and western Slovenia, attached Kosovo province to Albania, and occupied the Croat-Dalmatian coastline and Montenegro. Hungary annexed Backa in northeastern Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria occupied Macedonia and the Pirot province of Serbia. After permitting Bulgaria to occupy Greek Thrace, Germany and Italy divided Greece into occupation zones, with the Italians in the west and the Germans in the east.

Invasion of the Soviet Union

On June 22, 1941, the Germans and their Axis partners (except Bulgaria) invaded the Soviet Union in direct violation of the German-Soviet Pact of August 1939. Finland, seeking redress for its defeat in the winter war of 1939–1940, joined the Axis and the German invasion. By the end of October 1941, German troops had advanced deep into the Soviet Union, overrunning the Baltic states and laying siege to Leningrad in the north; capturing Smolensk and marching on Moscow in the center; and capturing Kiev (Kyiv) and approaching Rostov on the mouth of the Don River in the south. Stiffening Red Army resistance in August and again in November 1941 prevented the Germans from capturing the key cities of Leningrad and Moscow. On December 6, 1941, Soviet troops launched a significant counteroffensive that drove the Germans permanently from the outskirts of Moscow.

United States Enters World War II

One day later, on December 7, 1941, Japan, still engaged in warfare on the Chinese mainland, launched a surprise air attack on Pearl Harbor , Hawaii. The United States immediately declared war on Japan. Great Britain followed suit. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.

War in the Pacific

During the winter of 1941–1942, the Japanese attacked and conquered the Philippines, French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia), and British Singapore. In the late spring and early summer of 1942, the British were able to halt the Japanese advance in Burma; and the US soundly defeated the Japanese navy at Midway in the Pacific. In August 1942, US forces halted the Japanese advance in the Pacific islands towards Australia at Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.

Allied Bombing of Germany

In May 1942, the British Royal Air Force carried out a raid on the German city of Köln (Cologne) with a thousand bombers, for the first time bringing war home to Germany. For the next three years, Allied air forces systematically bombed industrial plants and cities all over the Reich, reducing much of urban Germany to rubble by 1945.

The War in North Africa

In late 1942 and early 1943, Anglo-American forces achieved a series of significant military triumphs in North Africa . The failure of Vichy French armed forces to resist enabled the Allies to quickly occupy French North Africa to the Tunisian border within days of landings on the beaches of Morocco and Algeria on November 8, 1942. It also triggered the German occupation of Vichy France on November 11, 1942. The British victory over the German Afrika Korps at El Alamein in Egypt in late October 1942 precipitated the flight of Axis military units west across Libya into eastern Tunisia. Trapped in Tunisia, the Axis forces in Africa, approximately 150,000 troops in all, surrendered in May 1943.

Soviet Counteroffensive

In June 1942, the Germans and their Axis partners resumed their offensive in the Soviet Union, reaching Stalingrad (Volgograd) on the Volga River, securing the Crimean peninsula, and penetrating deep into the Caucasus region by late September 1942. In November, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive northwest and southwest of Stalingrad that cut off the German forces in the city. On February 2, 1943, the German Sixth Army surrendered to the Soviets. The Germans mounted one more offensive at Kursk in July 1943, the biggest tank battle in history, but Soviet troops and tanks blunted the attack and assumed a military initiative that they would not again relinquish. By late 1943, the Germans were forced to evacuate the Caucasus and to relinquish Kiev.

Allied Landings in Italy

In July 1943, the western Allies successfully landed in Sicily. This precipitated the decision of the Italian Fascist Party Grand Council to depose Mussolini. Led by Field Marshal Pietro Badoglio, the Italian Army took advantage of the political vacuum to overthrow the Fascist regime, replacing it with a military dictatorship. In early September, just prior to the landing of Anglo-American forces in Salerno near Naples, the Badoglio government surrendered unconditionally to the Allies on September 8. German troops stationed in Italy seized control of northern Italy, and continued to resist. Mussolini, who had been arrested by Italian military authorities, was rescued by SS commandos in September and established (under German supervision) a neo-Fascist puppet regime in northern Italy.

The Allies successfully landed near Anzio, just south of Rome, but were not able to capture Rome until early June 1944. German troops continued to occupy northern Italy, and resisted tenaciously until they surrendered on May 2, 1945. After the liberation of Rome, Allied air forces could bomb German targets in eastern Europe, such as the synthetic fuel and rubber plants at Auschwitz-Monowitz in Silesia.

D-Day: Photographs On June 6, 1944 ( D-Day ), over 150,000 Allied soldiers landed on the Normandy beaches of France. Trapped on the Normandy coast for six weeks, the British and Americans broke loose on July 25 and liberated Paris by August 25. On September 11, 1944, the first US troops crossed into Germany. By December, all of France, most of Belgium, and part of the southern Netherlands had been liberated.

Soviet Advances

On June 22, 1944, Soviet forces destroyed the German Army Group Center in Eastern Belorussia. They swept west to the Vistula River across from Warsaw by August 1, 1944. In early August, Soviet troops, having conquered the eastern Romanian province of Bessarabia, appeared on the Prut River and prepared to strike into the heart of Romania, precipitating a Romanian surrender on August 23. The Bulgarians surrendered on September 8, 1944. These developments forced the Germans to evacuate Greece, Albania, and southern Yugoslavia.

To forestall Hungarian government efforts to pursue a separate peace, Germany had occupied Hungary on March 19, 1944. Germany had then, in October, sponsored a coup d'état of the radical Arrow Cross Party to prevent another Hungarian effort to surrender.

Finally, with the appearance of Soviet troops on the Finnish border, Finland sued for an armistice on September 12, 1944.

In August 1944, the underground Polish Home Army and the Slovak National resistance organizations rose against the Germans to liberate Warsaw and Slovakia from German rule; the Germans were able to quell both uprisings.

Defeat of Germany

On December 16, 1944, the Germans launched an unsuccessful counterattack in Belgium and northern France, known as the Battle of the Bulge . By New Year's Day, British and US troops had driven the Germans back into Germany. On January 12, 1945, the Soviets resumed the offensive, liberating Warsaw and western Poland. In December the Soviets had encircled Budapest, though the city did not fall until February 13, 1945. By early April, the Soviets had driven the remnants of the Arrow Cross regime out of Hungary and forced the surrender of the fascist Slovak Republic with the fall of Bratislava on April 4, 1945. On April 13, the Soviets captured Vienna, while Marshal Josip Tito's Partisans compelled the flight of the Ustasa leaders and the collapse of the so-called Independent State of Croatia.

In mid-February 1945, the Allies bombed Dresden, killing up to 25,000 German civilians. US troops crossed the Rhine River at Remagen on March 7, 1945. A final Soviet offensive on April 16, 1945, enabled Soviet forces to encircle Berlin. As Soviet troops fought their way towards the Reich Chancellery, Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. On May 7, 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally to the western Allies at Reims and on May 9 to the Soviets in Berlin.

Defeat of Japan

After clearing the Japanese from the Solomon Islands in November 1942, British and US forces began slowly to move northward, island-hopping toward the Japanese mainland, while British forces worked with the Nationalist Chinese government to fight the Japanese in China. In a parallel campaign, the Chinese Communist movement fought the Japanese, while it defended itself against attacks from the Nationalists. In October 1944, US troops landed in the Philippines; by May 1945, British and US troops had conquered Okinawa, the last major Japanese base before the mainland itself.

On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, following with a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki on August 9. On August 8, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Japanese-occupied Manchuria.

Less than a week later, on August 14, 1945, Japan agreed to surrender; the formal ceremony took place on September 2. World War II was over.

Deaths during World War II

World War II resulted in an estimated 55 million deaths worldwide. While many of the following statistics are subject to variation in the available source material, they serve as benchmarks for estimates. In battle, the United States lost 292,129 dead and 139,709 missing in action. The Soviet Union suffered 8,668,400 dead and another 4,559,000 missing. Germany lost 2,049,872 dead and 1,902,704 missing. China lost 1,324,516 dead and 115,248 missing. Japan lost 1,506,000 dead and 810,000 missing. Great Britain lost 397,762 dead and 90,188 missing.

The large number of civilian dead was equally appalling. The Soviet Union lost 14,012,000 civilians, including between 1.0 and 1.5 million Jews. China lost more than a million civilians; while Poland lost nearly five million civilians, including nearly three million Jews.

Series: World War II

World War II in Europe

World War II Dates and Timeline

The Holocaust and World War II: Key Dates

Axis Powers in World War II

Blitzkrieg (Lightning War)

Invasion of Poland, Fall 1939

German Invasion of Western Europe, May 1940

Allied Military Operations in North Africa

Invasion of the soviet union, june 1941.

World War II in Eastern Europe, 1942–1945

The Eastern Front: The German War against the Soviet Union

World War II in the Pacific

Pearl Harbor

Allied Military Advances in the West

Critical thinking questions.

What was the relationship between the progress of the war and the mass murder of Europe’s Jews?

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Skip to Main Content of WWII

Research starters.

Beginning a research paper on World War II can be daunting. With Research Starters, you can get a basic introduction to major WWII topics, see recommended secondary sources, and view primary sources you can use from the Museum’s collection.

Research Starters: Worldwide Deaths in World War II

See estimates for worldwide deaths, broken down by country, in World War II.

Research Starters: US Military by the Numbers

See a breakdown of numbers in the US military, by branch and year, in World War II.

Research Starters: The Draft and World War II

On September 16, 1940, the United States instituted the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, which required all men between the ages of 21 and 45 to register for the draft.

Research Starters: The GI Bill

Research Starters: Higgins Boats

In the late 1930s, the U.S. military began developing small boats that could carry troops from ships to open beaches.

Research Starters: The Battle of Midway

Fought between the U.S. and Japanese navies June 4-7, 1942, this battle turned the tide of the war in the Pacific in favor of the Americans.

Research Starters: Women in World War II

With ever-growing orders for war materials combined with so many men overseas fighting the war, women were called upon to work in ways previously reserved only for men.

Ration Books

Ask anyone who remembers life on the Home Front during World War II about their strongest memories and chances are they will tell you about rationing. You see, the war caused shortages of all sorts of things: rubber, metal, clothing, etc. But it was the shortages of various types of food that affected just about everyone on a daily basis.

Take A Closer Look: America Goes to War

America's isolation from war ended on December 7, 1941, when Japan staged a surprise attack on American military installations in the Pacific.

History At a Glance: Women in World War II

American women played important roles during World War II, both at home and in uniform.

Free World War 2 Essay Examples & Topics

World War 2 is an international war from 1939 to 1945. The conflict involved the Axis alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan against the Allied powers of France, Great Britain, the USA, the USSR, and China. WW2 remains the most significant conflict in history, with estimated 40,000,000–50,000,000 deaths.

Keep in mind that you should be politically correct and ethically proper while writing a WW 2 essay. Being one of the most crucial events in the world’s history, it has caused controversial interpretations.

In this article, our team has prepared some tips on how to write World War 2 in an essay or research paper. You’ll find great topics for practice or completing your assignment. Besides, there are World War 2 essay examples. They will be amazing for understanding the appropriate structure and argumentation.

To compose a paper about any war, you’ll have to use common techniques. In essence, writing WWII essays is similar to describing other tragic historical events. You should elaborate on the assigned timeline, refer to trustworthy sources, and be careful in stating your points.

WW2 essay writing includes the following aspects:

Sources . There are two types of sources that you can use. Primary sources are the first-hand retelling of the event. It might be the newspapers, documents, etc. Secondary sources are based on the primary ones. It might be researches or books. Remember that the sources should be trustworthy.
Citations . Make sure to cite all your quotes, even the paraphrased ones. Provide the context to each one and try to summarize information from different sources. If you do a quotation, remember to mention it in the reference list.
Historical context . While writing a paper about real events, it is crucial to provide historical context. You need to analyze the evidence and study various sources. Express your own thoughts based on what you’ve learned.
Thesis statement . In one sentence, summarize the point of your paper. That’s your thesis statement. It can be a question that you’ll answer in your essay. Our thesis generator can help you create one for your paper.
Outline. Writing about a war, you should follow the standard academic structure. It includes an introduction with a hook, three body paragraphs with arguments and evidence, and a conclusion. In the body paragraphs, write topic sentences that support the thesis.
Title . Your WW2 essay title should summarize the main idea of your paper. Make sure to capitalize the words according to the required format.

25 Word War 2 Essay Topics

You’ll have no trouble writing your WW2 essay if you use our tips. What you need to do now is to choose an idea to elaborate on. For that purpose, use our topic generator or check the list below.

There are 25 WW2 essay topics we can recommend to you:

Impact of World War 2 on the world’s economy.
What were the reasons for World War 2?
What are the results of WW2?
The military training process in the Second World War.
Versailles Treaty and the way it affected Germany.
What role did WW2 play in aircraft development?
The role of African American soldiers in WW2.
The ways rationing affected people’s lives during WW2.
WW2 sides and leaders, and their impact on world history.
The role of propaganda posters during WW2.
The way WW2 affected civil liberties.
How the creation of atomic bombs affected WW2.
The reason why WW2 caused Cold War.
What are the consequences of World War 2 for the USA?
Universal Declaration of Human Rights after WW2.
The reasons the USA entered WW2.
Causes and events that led to WW2.
What are the WW2 innovations that changed our lives?
What role did Penicillin play during WW2?
The WW2 impact on international alliances.
What was the women’s role in World War 2?
Activities for teaching younger students about WW2.
How WW2 influenced art and culture.
Could WW2 have been avoided?
The ways WW2 impacted the railroads.

Thanks for reading, and good luck with your World War 2 essay! You’ll find free samples below.

195 Best Essay Examples on World War II

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(page 123) p. 123 Conclusion

Published: November 2014
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The ‘Conclusion’ shows how the world was changed forever by World War II, during which around sixty million people had been killed, the majority of them civilians. There were huge losses in the Soviet Union and China, but the country most damaged was Poland. Massive destruction and economic dislocation characterized much of Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and portions of North Africa. The war and its ending also brought about enormous population movements. Countries faced massive reconstruction, the defeated had reparations to pay, and war criminals had to be dealt with. The war also provided new developments in technology and medicine, which transformed post-war life.

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War and Social Upheaval: World War II (1939-45)

Contemporary world view, horrific uniqueness, allied anti-militarism (1920s-30s), geo-political crisis, moral framework, 20th century watershed, collective security and disarmament, alliance systems, country military forces, military technology and tactics, logistics and transport, military strategy and campaigns, intelligence, specialized units, war conferences, biographies, the resistance, war economics, civil affairs and occupation policies, age of soldiers, unconditional surrender, territorial changes, clothing and fashion.

World War II also had an enormous impact on boys' fashions. Quite a range of fashion shifts occurred during and after World War II. Some of the major changes included: an increasing shift to casual dress, less elaborate fashions, the disappearance of knickers, short pants began to be worn as summer attire, American boys stop wearing knee socks and long stockings, American Scouts and Cubs begin wearing long pants, "T" shirts and jeans became a mainstay of American boyhood, short hair styles become popular for boys in America after the War. Some of these fashions changes are clearly traceable to the War. HBC can not, however, always connect changes changes that occurred during the War as an impact of the War. That may be, however, as the full ramifications of the War are yet to be assessed. Many of the changes were most pronounced in America, and only began appearing in Europe during the 1950s.HBC has noted several changes in boys' fashions during and after World War II. The following is not meant to be a comprehensive list, but only what HBC has noted to date. The following is the list with some preliminary musings that require much more thought and assessment. While many changes took place during and immediately after the War, it is not altogether clear how the war brought them about. Some of the changes were the continuation of long time trends such as the shift toward casual fashions and life styles.

War Crimes and Atrocities

While race was a major factor in World War II, religion played a more limited role. There were, however, some religious aspects of the War. Religion had played a major role in Western life since the Christianization of the Roman Empire. For many in the 19th and 20th century the separation of church and state was a major aspect of modernizing and creating a more just society. It thus came a shock that totalitarianism (Fascism and Communism), the most secular of political movements, were a rejection of Western civilization and a reversion to barbarity. Both sought to destroy religion and replace with a kind of state worship with religious trappings. Christianity in the West helped to develop and save democracy by carving out a space that was beyond the control of the modern secular state. [Burleigh] This is why both the the Communists and NAZIs targeted religion. There were religious leaders who cooperated with the NAZIs (most notably in Croatia, Romania, and Slovakia). German church leaders were often obsequious to the NAZIs who planed to replace Christianity with a state religion. Japan's state religion, Shintoism, was part of the cultural complex which led to Japanese militarism. The most vicious religious conflict was in Yugoslavia where the Catholic Croat Ustache waged war against the the Orthodox Serbs. Hitler made the destruction of the Jews a main German war objective, but the Holocaust was more of a racial than a religious onslaught. While church leaders were often willing to accommodate the NAZIs, there were individual churchmen who heroically resisted. The role of the papacy is a still debated aspect of the War. And the the devotion of individuals was a force to be reconvened with. Stalin after the NAZI invasion paused the atheism campaign to draw on support from the Church. Mussolini unlike Hitler did not attempt to destroy the Church. And in some occupied countries, especially Poland, the Church was a focal point of resistance. Islam was a minor factor in the War, and generally used to support the NAZIs in the Middle East, Balkans, and Soviet Union, an affinity that survived the War.

Medical Care

Destruction, liberation, surrender, and victory, deciding factors, limited allied victory, views of the war, peace treaties, photography.

The untold stories of World War II

Posted: 24 April 2024 | Last updated: 24 April 2024

<p>Historians have speculated for years that Hitler’s erratic behaviour, especially late in the war, might have had medical origins. One popular theory is that he had Parkinson’s disease, which could explain poor decision-making toward the end of the war as well as tremors and loss of coordination. Hitler was known to take a cocktail of drugs to manage his bipolar disorder, and he had a doctor inject him with glands from young bulls to increase his libido.</p>

It was humanity’s first experience with “total war.” The brutal six-year war that pitted Britain, the United States, the USSR and their allies against Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and their allies transformed Europe and the world. Tens of millions died, not only in battle but through genocide. Six million Jews, along with millions of homosexuals, dissidents and other ethnic minorities, died in Nazi concentration camps. Whatever side you were on – or if you were trying to save yourself – secrecy was essential. Historians are just starting to resolve some of the war’s enduring mysteries. Let’s have a look.

<p>The secret program with the most devastating consequences was the Manhattan Project, which led to the atomic bomb. German scientists were already working on nuclear theory in the 1930s. The Allies developed their own bomb in great secrecy. Workers who talked about the project faced 10-year prison sentences. The first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima in August 1945, killing over 70,000 people. After a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan surrendered. Before August 1945, only a few dozen people knew of the bomb’s catastrophic potential.</p>

The secret program with the most devastating consequences was the Manhattan Project , which led to the atomic bomb. German scientists were already working on nuclear theory in the 1930s. The Allies developed their own bomb in great secrecy. Workers who talked about the project faced 10-year prison sentences. The first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima in August 1945, killing over 70,000 people. After a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan surrendered. Before August 1945, only a few dozen people knew of the bomb’s catastrophic potential.

<p>Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia ended the war as enemies, but they had begun it as allies. With the infamous Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, Adolf Hitler and Josef Stalin agreed to “share” conquered Poland. After the country was overrun in early 1940, more than 4,400 Polish officers were executed in Katyn, near the Polish-Soviet border. For decades, the Soviets blamed the Nazis – after all, German weapons had been found at the site. An independent inquiry in 1944 blamed the Soviets, but the Allies buried the report. Only in 1990 did Russian authorities acknowledge that Soviet soldiers killed the officers... with weapons seized from the Germans.</p>

Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia ended the war as enemies, but they had begun it as allies. With the infamous Molotov-Ribbentrop pact , Adolf Hitler and Josef Stalin agreed to “share” conquered Poland. After the country was overrun in early 1940, more than 4,400 Polish officers were executed in Katyn, near the Polish-Soviet border. For decades, the Soviets blamed the Nazis – after all, German weapons had been found at the site. An independent inquiry in 1944 blamed the Soviets, but the Allies buried the report. Only in 1990 did Russian authorities acknowledge that Soviet soldiers killed the officers... with weapons seized from the Germans.

<p>German use of mustard gas in the First World War showed how effective chemical warfare could be. A secret Japanese military unit founded in the late 1930s, Unit 731, set out to make chemical weapons a high art. As many as 250,000 people, mainly Chinese prisoners of war, were subjected to medical experiments at a secret facility. Around 3,000 died. After Japan’s surrender, the U.S. granted the researchers immunity in exchange for their data, which was useful to America’s own bioweapons program.</p><p><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121201.JPG" rel="noreferrer noopener">See photo on Wikimedia Commons</a></p>

Japanese Chemical Warfare

German use of mustard gas in the First World War showed how effective chemical warfare could be. A secret Japanese military unit founded in the late 1930s, Unit 731 , set out to make chemical weapons a high art. As many as 250,000 people, mainly Chinese prisoners of war, were subjected to medical experiments at a secret facility. Around 3,000 died. After Japan’s surrender, the U.S. granted the researchers immunity in exchange for their data, which was useful to America’s own bioweapons program.

<p>Long before Adolf Hitler became the Führer, he dreamed of being <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-46991969" rel="noreferrer noopener">a painter</a>. He once sold his own watercolours on the streets of Vienna. He was rejected twice by the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts for ‘unfitness for painting.’ Around this time, he became homeless and began exploring the extremist philosophies that would form the foundation of Nazism. Had Hitler been allowed to pursue his artistic ambitions, history may have turned out very differently.</p>

Hitler’s first ambitions

Long before Adolf Hitler became the Führer, he dreamed of being a painter . He once sold his own watercolours on the streets of Vienna. He was rejected twice by the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts for ‘unfitness for painting.’ Around this time, he became homeless and began exploring the extremist philosophies that would form the foundation of Nazism. Had Hitler been allowed to pursue his artistic ambitions, history may have turned out very differently.

The mystery of Hitler’s health

Historians have speculated for years that Hitler’s erratic behaviour, especially late in the war, might have had medical origins . One popular theory is that he had Parkinson’s disease, which could explain poor decision-making toward the end of the war as well as tremors and loss of coordination. Hitler was known to take a cocktail of drugs to manage his bipolar disorder, and he had a doctor inject him with glands from young bulls to increase his libido.

<p>During the war, Hitler survived at least four assassination attempts, not by the Allies, but by German dissenters. One disgruntled military officer, Henning von Tresckow, smuggled a bomb onto Hitler’s plane in a box containing two bottles of Cointreau. The bomb had a defective fuse and never went off. Tresckow and a clique of other officers tried to kill the Führer at least two more times, once with a suicide bomb and once with a bomb in a briefcase. Nothing worked – Hitler took his own life in April 1945.</p><p><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-130-53,_Henning_v._Tresckow.jpg" rel="noreferrer noopener">See photo on Wikimedia Commons</a></p>

Assassination attempts on Hitler

During the war, Hitler survived at least four assassination attempts, not by the Allies, but by German dissenters. One disgruntled military officer, Henning von Tresckow , smuggled a bomb onto Hitler’s plane in a box containing two bottles of Cointreau. The bomb had a defective fuse and never went off. Tresckow and a clique of other officers tried to kill the Führer at least two more times. Nothing worked – Hitler took his own life in April 1945.

<p>Worried by Nazi plundering of Europe’s art, the Allies set up a special unit of archivists and historians to help soldiers protect museums and monuments. After the war, the “Monuments Men” travelled Europe in search of stolen treasure. In 1945, they found more than 6,000 paintings hidden in an Austrian salt mine. Despite their hard work, thousands of paintings stolen by the Nazis are still missing. Separately, staff at the Hermitage Museum (pictured), in what was then Leningrad, worked around the clock to evacuate works of art despite a brutal Nazi siege that caused widespread famine.</p>

The Monuments Men

Worried by Nazi plundering of Europe’s art, the Allies set up a special unit of archivists and historians to help soldiers protect museums and monuments. After the war, the “ Monuments Men ” travelled Europe in search of stolen treasure. In 1945, they found more than 6,000 paintings hidden in an Austrian salt mine. Despite their hard work, thousands of paintings stolen by the Nazis are still missing. Separately, staff at the Hermitage Museum (pictured), in what was then Leningrad, worked around the clock to evacuate works of art despite a brutal Nazi siege that caused widespread famine.

<p>If you’re a military history enthusiast, you may have read that Napoleon’s troops, in 1812, were stopped in their tracks by Russia’s brutal winter weather. The Nazis suffered a similar fate. Tens of thousands of German soldiers were stranded near Moscow as the winter of 1941 closed in, still dressed in their summer uniforms, stuffing straw and newspaper into their thin jackets for extra warmth. More than 15,000 soldiers lost limbs to frostbite. Technology, such as it was, didn’t help – many German tanks and jeeps failed to start in the cold weather. The Germans called their intangible enemy “General Winter.”</p>

“General Winter”

If you’re a military history enthusiast, you may have read that Napoleon’s troops, in 1812, were stopped in their tracks by Russia’s brutal winter weather. The Nazis suffered a similar fate. Tens of thousands of German soldiers were stranded near Moscow as the winter of 1941 closed in, still dressed in their summer uniforms, stuffing straw and newspaper into their thin jackets for extra warmth. More than 15,000 soldiers lost limbs to frostbite. Technology, such as it was, didn’t help – many German tanks and jeeps failed to start in the cold weather. The Germans called their intangible enemy “ General Winter .”

<p>Dictators, army leaders, monarchs, presidents, and totalitarian heads of state: the men and women on this list each ruled a country, kingdom, or empire and made life a living hell for those who lived during their reign. They had no qualms about resorting to repression, torture, propaganda, murder, and even genocide to stay in power.</p>

Friendly fire

Soviet leader Josef Stalin ordered his troops to fight ‘ to the last man .’ Special Soviet battalions were even positioned behind regular Russian troops, to shoot any of their own who tried to run away; as many as 150,000 deserters were shot by their own comrades. Soviet soldiers who surrendered or were captured faced execution or imprisonment on their return. In Alexander Solzhenitsyn’s famous novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich , the main character has been sent to the gulag after being captured by the Germans.

<p>Historians have long speculated that Stalin’s paranoia had medical roots. One of Stalin’s doctors seemed to believe so. In a diary entry written shortly after Stalin’s death and made public in 2011, Dr. Alexander Myasnikov writes: “The major (hardening of the arteries) in the brain, which we found at the autopsy, should raise the question of how much this illness ... affected Stalin's health, his character and his actions ... his ability to tell good from bad and friend from enemy.” Despite the cruelty of Stalin’s regime, many Russians still revere him as a wartime leader.</p>

In no condition to lead

Historians have long speculated that Stalin’s paranoia had medical roots . One of Stalin’s doctors seemed to believe so. In a diary entry written shortly after Stalin’s death and made public in 2011, Dr. Alexander Myasnikov writes: “The major (hardening of the arteries) in the brain, which we found at the autopsy, should raise the question of how much this illness ... affected Stalin's health, his character and his actions ... his ability to tell good from bad and friend from enemy.” Despite the cruelty of Stalin’s regime, many Russians still revere him as a wartime leader.

<p>One Allied code used over the Pacific was never broken by the enemy. Navajo-speaking Native American soldiers used their own language to communicate confidential information around the South Pacific, particularly during the Battle of Iwo Jima. Comanche, Hopi, Seminole and Meskwaki speakers were also called upon to use their language skills. Ironically, back in the United States, Native American children were being forced to attend boarding schools where they were forbidden to speak their language.</p>

The Code Talkers

One Allied code used over the Pacific was never broken by the enemy. Navajo-speaking Native American soldiers used their own language to communicate confidential information around the South Pacific, particularly during the Battle of Iwo Jima. Comanche, Hopi, Seminole and Meskwaki speakers were also called upon to use their language skills. Ironically, back in the United States, Native American children were being forced to attend boarding schools where they were forbidden to speak their language.

<p>Thousands of Nazis and Italian Fascists, presenting themselves as Catholic asylum seekers, arrived in Buenos Aires (pictured) after the war, through an agreement between the Vatican, Argentina, and fascist Spain, where many Nazis had fled immediately after the war. The escape routes were known as ratlines. Researchers believe as many as 10,000 Nazi war criminals and collaborators, including key Nazi leaders like Adolf Eichmann and Josef Mengele, eventually settled in South America. Large caches of stolen gold and Nazi memorabilia are still being found there.</p>

Thousands of Nazis and Italian Fascists, presenting themselves as Catholic asylum seekers, arrived in Buenos Aires (pictured) after the war, through an agreement between the Vatican, Argentina, and fascist Spain, where many Nazis had fled immediately after the war. The escape routes were known as ratlines . Researchers believe as many as 10,000 Nazi war criminals and collaborators, including key Nazi leaders like Adolf Eichmann and Josef Mengele, eventually settled in South America. Large caches of stolen gold and Nazi memorabilia are still being found there.

<p>Other ratlines led east to Syria. Alois Brunner, commandant of the internment camp at Drancy in occupied France, was believed to be alive and living in Damascus as late as 2007. The Simon Wiesenthal Center, an international research institute known for hunting Nazis, says it received a “credible” report that he died in 2010 in Damascus. He would have been 97 or 98 years old. Partly due to the chaos caused by Syria’s civil war, the date and circumstances of his death are unknown and his body may never be found. He was reportedly an advisor to the dictatorial Assad regime.</p>

Other ratlines led east to Syria. Alois Brunner , commandant of the internment camp at Drancy in occupied France, was believed to be alive and living in Damascus as late as 2007. The Simon Wiesenthal Center, an international research institute known for hunting Nazis, says it received a “credible” report that he died in 2010 in Damascus. He would have been 97 or 98 years old. Partly due to the chaos caused by Syria’s civil war, the date and circumstances of his death are unknown and his body may never be found. He was reportedly an advisor to the dictatorial Assad regime.

<p>When Paris fell in 1941, many French people initially went along with the pro-German puppet government installed at Vichy. Charles de Gaulle’s 1942 call to arms was heard by relatively few people. But by 1943, more and more French men and women were involved in <a href="https://history.howstuffworks.com/world-war-ii/french-resistance.htm" rel="noreferrer noopener">underground resistance</a>, including guerrilla warfare, sabotage and espionage. Spies transmitted intelligence over radio networks to the British. These radio installations were often blown up, and Résistance radio operators had a life expectancy of around six months. More than 27,000 Résistance fighters were killed.</p>

La Résistance

When Paris fell in 1941, many French people initially went along with the pro-German puppet government installed at Vichy. Charles de Gaulle’s 1942 call to arms was heard by relatively few people. But by 1943, more and more French men and women were involved in underground resistance , including guerrilla warfare, sabotage and espionage. Spies transmitted intelligence over radio networks to the British. These radio installations were often blown up, and Résistance radio operators had a life expectancy of around six months. More than 27,000 Résistance fighters were killed.

<p>Jean Moulin was the first Résistance leader to organize the scattered guerrilla units into a coherent force. He and other Résistance leaders were betrayed and captured in 1943. He was tortured for nearly two weeks and died before revealing any useful information. In 1988, Lydie Bastien, the former lover of another Résistance leader, revealed that she had betrayed Moulin in exchange for jewelry stolen from Jewish deportees. She wore the jewels until her death in 1994, after which her secret was revealed, ending decades of speculation.</p>

Moulin’s betrayal

Jean Moulin was the first Résistance leader to organize the scattered guerrilla units into a coherent force. He and other Résistance leaders were betrayed and captured in 1943. He was tortured for nearly two weeks and died before revealing any useful information. In 1988, Lydie Bastien , the former lover of another Résistance leader, revealed that she had betrayed Moulin in exchange for jewelry stolen from Jewish deportees. She wore the jewels until her death in 1994, after which her secret was revealed, ending decades of speculation.

<p>A small but resilient community of people who speak French as a first language (the Cajuns) has lived in the southwestern part of Louisiana since the 1700s. During the Second World War, French-speaking Cajun soldiers in the U.S. Army posed as civilians in French villages, helping Résistance sympathizers coordinate and distribute U.S. assistance to the Résistance.</p>

The Cajun Résistance

A small but resilient community of people who speak French as a first language (the Cajuns) has lived in the southwestern part of Louisiana since the 1700s. During the Second World War, French-speaking Cajun soldiers in the U.S. Army posed as civilians in French villages, helping Résistance sympathizers coordinate and distribute U.S. assistance to the Résistance.

<p>Throughout the war, units of soldiers exiled from Nazi-occupied countries fought alongside British, French and Soviet units. At least one of those units was from Germany itself. Militant German Communist and former politician Otto Kühne led 2,000 German soldiers into battle against the Nazis, alongside French Résistance fighters, on at least two occasions in 1944.</p>

The other German regiment

Throughout the war, units of soldiers exiled from Nazi-occupied countries fought alongside British, French and Soviet units. At least one of those units was from Germany itself. Militant German Communist and former politician Otto Kühne led 2,000 German soldiers into battle against the Nazis, alongside French Résistance fighters, on at least two occasions in 1944.

<p>However, the legacy of the heroic Résistance fighters suffered after the war, when many were involved in purges of suspected collaborators. After the collapse of the Vichy government, pro-Résistance forces executed nearly 11,000 suspected collaborators without trial. Single women who had slept with German soldiers, sometimes in exchange for food for their families, were humiliated by <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2009/jun/05/women-victims-d-day-landings-second-world-war" rel="noreferrer noopener">having their heads shaved</a> in front of their entire communities.</p>

However, the legacy of the heroic Résistance fighters suffered after the war, when many were involved in purges of suspected collaborators. After the collapse of the Vichy government, pro-Résistance forces executed nearly 11,000 suspected collaborators without trial. Single women who had slept with German soldiers, sometimes in exchange for food for their families, were humiliated by having their heads shaved in front of their entire communities.

<p>Diplomat Raoul Wallenberg was Sweden’s envoy in Nazi-occupied Hungary during the latter stages of the war. He bought properties in Budapest on behalf of the Swedish government and used the newly acquired “Swedish territory” to shelter thousands of Hungarian Jews until he was able to issue them documents to leave the country and settle in Sweden. In January 1945, as the Soviets occupied Budapest, Wallenberg was arrested for suspected espionage and subsequently disappeared. He is believed to have died in Soviet custody in 1947, although his body was never found. Sweden declared him legally dead in 2016.</p>

Missing and presumed dead

Diplomat Raoul Wallenberg was Sweden’s envoy in Nazi-occupied Hungary during the latter stages of the war. He bought properties in Budapest on behalf of the Swedish government and used the newly acquired “Swedish territory” to shelter thousands of Hungarian Jews until he was able to issue them documents to leave the country and settle in Sweden. In January 1945, as the Soviets occupied Budapest, Wallenberg was arrested for suspected espionage and subsequently disappeared. He is believed to have died in Soviet custody in 1947, although his body was never found. Sweden declared him legally dead in 2016.

<p>Although most Allied countries kept female service members in the background, Soviet women were encouraged to fight. Motivated partly by Marxist ideals of gender equality and partly by the Red Army’s desperate need for troops, women regularly volunteered for dangerous positions. Lydia Litvyak and Yekaterina Budanova were among the most successful fighter pilots of the war, with around a dozen kills each. Sniper Lyudmila Pavlichenko single-handedly killed more than 300 enemy soldiers. The Germans referred to the female fighter pilots as “the Night Witches” because of the near-soundless approach of their tiny planes.</p>

The Night Witches

Although most Allied countries kept female service members in the background, Soviet women were encouraged to fight. Motivated partly by Marxist ideals of gender equality and partly by the Red Army’s desperate need for troops, women regularly volunteered for dangerous positions. Lydia Litvyak and Yekaterina Budanova were among the most successful fighter pilots of the war, with around a dozen kills each. Sniper Lyudmila Pavlichenko single-handedly killed more than 300 enemy soldiers. The Germans referred to the female fighter pilots as “the Night Witches” because of the near-soundless approach of their tiny planes.

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The American Culture of the 1950s

This essay about the American culture of the 1950s explores how this decade was marked by prosperity and conformity, but also by significant social changes and cultural shifts. It discusses the impact of the Cold War, the rise of television and consumerism, the advent of rock ‘n’ roll, and the beginnings of the civil rights movement. The text reflects on how these elements contributed to shaping modern American identity and highlights the complexities and contradictions of the era.

How it works

The 1950s in America stand out as a decade of significant cultural transformation and identity formation, following the profound impacts of World War II. This era is often depicted as a period of prosperity and conformity, with the rise of the middle class, the spread of suburbia, and the embrace of consumer capitalism defining the cultural landscape. However, beneath the surface of this seemingly uniform cultural façade was a complex tapestry of social change, technological innovation, and ideological contestation that would shape the American identity for generations to come.

The decade began under the cloud of the Cold War, which influenced much of American culture through a lens of anti-communist sentiment. This was epitomized by the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) and the pervasive fear stoked by Senator Joseph McCarthy’s witch hunts for alleged communists. This political paranoia infiltrated Hollywood, leading to the infamous blacklisting of writers, directors, and actors accused of having communist ties. Despite this climate of fear, the 1950s were also a golden age for Hollywood cinema, with epic films like “Ben-Hur” and “The Ten Commandments” reflecting America’s self-image as a moral and powerful nation.

Television also emerged as a dominant cultural force in the 1950s. As TVs became affordable for the average American family, the medium reshaped entertainment and news media. Shows like “I Love Lucy” and “Leave It to Beaver” presented idealized visions of American family life, promoting values of loyalty, honesty, and the pleasures of domestic stability. These shows also reinforced traditional gender roles, with women depicted primarily as homemakers and men as breadwinners. This portrayal, however, was increasingly at odds with reality as more women remained in the workforce post-war.

The consumer culture of the 1950s was marked by an explosion in advertising and the proliferation of new products that promised to make life easier and more enjoyable. The automobile industry boomed as car ownership became synonymous with freedom and success. This led to the rapid expansion of the suburban landscape, exemplified by developments like Levittown, New York, where inexpensive, mass-produced homes were built on former agricultural lands to meet the housing needs of the growing middle class. This suburban migration was facilitated by advancements in infrastructure, such as the Interstate Highway System, which began construction in the mid-1950s.

Musically, the 1950s witnessed the birth of rock ‘n’ roll, which became a defining cultural phenomenon that challenged racial barriers and introduced a new era of social and musical mobility. Artists like Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry, and Little Richard brought African American musical styles to predominantly white audiences, disrupting traditional norms of music consumption and sparking a youth culture revolution. This music not only provided a soundtrack to the lives of millions of teenagers but also incited fears among the older generations of moral decline and cultural degradation.

The African American civil rights movement gained momentum during the 1950s, laying the groundwork for major legislative and social changes in the following decades. Key events, such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the desegregation of Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, tested the resolve of activists and the patience of those opposed to integration. These movements were not only central to the struggle for equality but also influenced American culture more broadly, challenging the complacency of the era’s apparent prosperity and highlighting the deep-seated racial divisions within the nation.

In conclusion, the 1950s in America were a period of contrasts—between conformity and change, prosperity and exclusion, optimism and fear. The cultural landscape was shaped by a complex interplay of technological innovation, social dynamics, and political tensions. This decade laid the foundational narratives and conflicts that would continue to shape American culture in subsequent decades. By understanding the cultural currents of the 1950s, one gains insight into the forces that molded modern American society, revealing the decade as not merely a time of simplicity and uniformity but as a pivotal era of transformation and challenge.

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Shadow War Between Iran and Israel: A Timeline

A recent round of strikes has brought the conflict more clearly into the open and raised fears of a broader war.

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A crowd of people, some carrying flags. Several hold a coffin.

By Cassandra Vinograd

April 19, 2024

For decades, Israel and Iran have fought a shadow war across the Middle East , trading attacks by land, sea, air and in cyberspace. A recent round of strikes — mainly an aerial barrage by Iran against Israel last weekend — has brought the conflict more clearly into the open and raised fears of a broader war.

A retaliatory Israeli strike on an Iranian air base on Friday, however, appeared limited in scope, and analysts said it suggested an effort to pull back from the dangerous cycle and potentially move the war back into the shadows.

Here is a recent history of the conflict:

August 2019: An Israeli airstrike killed two Iranian-trained militants in Syria, a drone set off a blast near a Hezbollah office in Lebanon and an airstrike in Qaim, Iraq, killed a commander of an Iran-backed Iraqi militia. Israel accused Iran at the time of trying to establish an overland arms-supply line through Iraq and northern Syria to Lebanon, and analysts said the strikes were aimed at stopping Iran and signaling to its proxies that Israel would not tolerate a fleet of smart missiles on its borders.

January 2020: Israel greeted with satisfaction the assassination of Maj. Gen. Qassim Suleimani , the commander of the foreign-facing arm of Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps, in an American drone strike in Baghdad.

Iran hit back by attacking two bases in Iraq that housed American troops with a barrage of missiles, wounding about 100 U.S. military personnel .

2021-22: In July 2021, an oil tanker managed by an Israeli-owned shipping company was attacked off the coast of Oman, killing two crew members, according to the company and three Israeli officials. Two of the officials said that the attack appeared to have been carried out by Iranian drones.

Iran did not explicitly claim or deny responsibility, but a state-owned television channel described the episode as a response to an Israeli strike in Syria.

In November 2021, Israel killed Iran’s top nuclear scientist, Mohsen Fakhrizadeh , and followed up with the assassination of a Revolutionary Guards commander, Col. Sayad Khodayee , in May 2022.

December 2023: After Israel’s bombardment of Gaza began in response to the Oct. 7 Hamas-led assault, Iranian-backed militias stepped up their own attacks . And late last year, Iran accused Israel of killing a high-level military figure, Brig. Gen. Sayyed Razi Mousavi , in a missile strike in Syria.

A senior adviser to the Revolutionary Guards, General Mousavi was described as having been a close associate of General Suleimani and was said to have helped oversee the shipment of arms to Hezbollah. Israel, adopting its customary stance, declined to comment directly on whether it was behind General Mousavi’s death.

January 2024: An explosion in a suburb of Beirut, Lebanon, killed Saleh al-Arouri , a Hamas leader, along with two commanders from that group’s armed wing, the first assassination of a top Hamas official outside the West Bank and Gaza in recent years. Officials from Hamas, Lebanon and the United States ascribed the blast to Israel , which did not publicly confirm involvement.

Hezbollah, which receives major support from Iran, stepped up its assaults on Israel after Mr. al-Arouri’s death. Israel’s military hit back at Hezbollah in Lebanon, killing several of the group’s commanders .

March: An Israeli drone strike hit a car in southern Lebanon, killing at least one person. Israel’s military said it had killed the deputy commander of Hezbollah’s rocket and missile unit. Hezbollah acknowledged the death of a man, Ali Abdulhassan Naim, but did not provide further details.

The same day, airstrikes killed soldiers near Aleppo, northern Syria, in what appeared to be one of the heaviest Israeli attacks in the country in years. The strikes killed 36 Syrian soldiers, seven Hezbollah fighters and a Syrian from a pro-Iran militia, according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, a British-based group that tracks Syria’s civil war.

Israel’s military did not claim responsibility. But the country’s defense minister, Yoav Gallant, wrote on social media, “We will pursue Hezbollah every place it operates and we will expand the pressure and the pace of the attacks.”

April: A strike on an Iranian Embassy building in Damascus on April 1 killed three top Iranian commanders and four officers. Iran blamed Israel and vowed to hit back forcefully.

Two weeks later, Tehran launched a barrage of more than 300 drones and missiles at Israel, an unexpectedly large-scale attack , although nearly all the weapons were shot down by Israel and allies. Israel said for days it would respond, before a strike on Friday hit a military air base near the central Iranian city of Isfahan.

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