essay on arts and literature

The Intersection of Art and Literature: Exploring the Connections Between Two Creative Forms

P Abigail Sadhana Rao

“Painting is poetry that is seen rather than felt, and poetry is painting that is felt rather than seen.”

― Leonardo da Vinci

Art and literature are two creative forms that have been intertwined throughout history. Both forms of expression seek to explore the human experience, conveying emotion and meaning through the use of language and imagery. In this blog post, we will explore the connections between art and literature, examining how these two forms of expression intersect and influence one another.

Visual Storytelling in Literature

Literature often involves visual storytelling, with writers using vivid descriptions and imagery to create a world that readers can visualise in their minds. This visual storytelling can be seen in works of fiction like J.R.R. Tolkien’s “The Lord of the Rings” trilogy, where the author’s detailed descriptions of Middle-earth bring the world to life. The visual imagery of literature can also inspire visual art, with artists like Gustave Doré and John Tenniel creating illustrations for classic works of literature like “The Divine Comedy” and “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland.”

Literary References in Visual Art

Literature has also influenced visual art, with many artists drawing inspiration from literary works. For example, in the 19th-century masterpiece by Millais , the artist explores Shakespeare’s Hamlet, presenting the poignant figure of Ophelia. Driven to madness after her father’s murder by Hamlet, the painting captures Ophelia in a haunting moment of serenity before her tragic drowning. Millais’s acclaimed artistic skill, particularly the realism in the landscape, distinguishes this portrayal. It stands as one of numerous interpretations immortalising Ophelia’s tragic narrative. The connection between literature and visual art can also be seen in the work of contemporary artist Nina Chanel Abney, who often incorporates literary references and themes into her vibrant and colourful paintings.

Collaborations Between Artists and Writers

Collaborations between artists and writers have resulted in some of the most iconic works of art and literature. For example, the famous collaboration between pop artist Andy Warhol and writer Truman Capote, who worked together on the magazine Interview in the 1970s. In 1969, Salva dor Dal í embarked on a captivating collaboration with Lewis Carroll’s timeless tale, Alice in Wonderland. The result was an extraordinary suite of illustrations that swiftly became one of the most coveted Dalí collections.

Art and Literature in Contemporary Culture

In contemporary culture, art and literature continue to intersect and influence one another. For example, graphic novels like “Watchmen” by Alan Moore and “Maus” by Art Spiegelman combine visual art and storytelling to create a unique and powerful form of expression. The intersection of art and literature can also be seen in the work of contemporary artists like Kara Walker and Jeff Koons, who incorporate literary themes and imagery into their work.

Impact on Society

The intersection of art and literature is important in society because it allows us to explore and express the human experience in different ways. Both forms of expression can challenge societal norms and provoke thought and reflection. By bringing together different creative forms, we can create new and innovative ways of understanding and interpreting the world around us.

Art and literature have a long history of intersecting and influencing one another. Whether it’s visual storytelling in literature, literary references in visual art, collaborations between artists and writers, or the importance of art and literature in contemporary culture, the connections between these two forms of expression are undeniable. As we continue to explore the intersection of art and literature, we can expect to see new and exciting developments that push the boundaries of both creative forms, contributing to the growth of art and literature.

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How to Write a Literary Analysis Essay | A Step-by-Step Guide

Published on January 30, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on August 14, 2023.

Literary analysis means closely studying a text, interpreting its meanings, and exploring why the author made certain choices. It can be applied to novels, short stories, plays, poems, or any other form of literary writing.

A literary analysis essay is not a rhetorical analysis , nor is it just a summary of the plot or a book review. Instead, it is a type of argumentative essay where you need to analyze elements such as the language, perspective, and structure of the text, and explain how the author uses literary devices to create effects and convey ideas.

Before beginning a literary analysis essay, it’s essential to carefully read the text and c ome up with a thesis statement to keep your essay focused. As you write, follow the standard structure of an academic essay :

• An introduction that tells the reader what your essay will focus on.
• A main body, divided into paragraphs , that builds an argument using evidence from the text.
• A conclusion that clearly states the main point that you have shown with your analysis.

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Table of contents

Step 1: reading the text and identifying literary devices, step 2: coming up with a thesis, step 3: writing a title and introduction, step 4: writing the body of the essay, step 5: writing a conclusion, other interesting articles.

The first step is to carefully read the text(s) and take initial notes. As you read, pay attention to the things that are most intriguing, surprising, or even confusing in the writing—these are things you can dig into in your analysis.

Your goal in literary analysis is not simply to explain the events described in the text, but to analyze the writing itself and discuss how the text works on a deeper level. Primarily, you’re looking out for literary devices —textual elements that writers use to convey meaning and create effects. If you’re comparing and contrasting multiple texts, you can also look for connections between different texts.

To get started with your analysis, there are several key areas that you can focus on. As you analyze each aspect of the text, try to think about how they all relate to each other. You can use highlights or notes to keep track of important passages and quotes.

Language choices

Consider what style of language the author uses. Are the sentences short and simple or more complex and poetic?

What word choices stand out as interesting or unusual? Are words used figuratively to mean something other than their literal definition? Figurative language includes things like metaphor (e.g. “her eyes were oceans”) and simile (e.g. “her eyes were like oceans”).

Also keep an eye out for imagery in the text—recurring images that create a certain atmosphere or symbolize something important. Remember that language is used in literary texts to say more than it means on the surface.

Narrative voice

Ask yourself:

• Who is telling the story?
• How are they telling it?

Is it a first-person narrator (“I”) who is personally involved in the story, or a third-person narrator who tells us about the characters from a distance?

Consider the narrator’s perspective . Is the narrator omniscient (where they know everything about all the characters and events), or do they only have partial knowledge? Are they an unreliable narrator who we are not supposed to take at face value? Authors often hint that their narrator might be giving us a distorted or dishonest version of events.

The tone of the text is also worth considering. Is the story intended to be comic, tragic, or something else? Are usually serious topics treated as funny, or vice versa ? Is the story realistic or fantastical (or somewhere in between)?

Consider how the text is structured, and how the structure relates to the story being told.

• Novels are often divided into chapters and parts.
• Poems are divided into lines, stanzas, and sometime cantos.
• Plays are divided into scenes and acts.

Think about why the author chose to divide the different parts of the text in the way they did.

There are also less formal structural elements to take into account. Does the story unfold in chronological order, or does it jump back and forth in time? Does it begin in medias res —in the middle of the action? Does the plot advance towards a clearly defined climax?

With poetry, consider how the rhyme and meter shape your understanding of the text and your impression of the tone. Try reading the poem aloud to get a sense of this.

In a play, you might consider how relationships between characters are built up through different scenes, and how the setting relates to the action. Watch out for  dramatic irony , where the audience knows some detail that the characters don’t, creating a double meaning in their words, thoughts, or actions.

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Your thesis in a literary analysis essay is the point you want to make about the text. It’s the core argument that gives your essay direction and prevents it from just being a collection of random observations about a text.

If you’re given a prompt for your essay, your thesis must answer or relate to the prompt. For example:

Essay question example

Is Franz Kafka’s “Before the Law” a religious parable?

Your thesis statement should be an answer to this question—not a simple yes or no, but a statement of why this is or isn’t the case:

Thesis statement example

Franz Kafka’s “Before the Law” is not a religious parable, but a story about bureaucratic alienation.

Sometimes you’ll be given freedom to choose your own topic; in this case, you’ll have to come up with an original thesis. Consider what stood out to you in the text; ask yourself questions about the elements that interested you, and consider how you might answer them.

Your thesis should be something arguable—that is, something that you think is true about the text, but which is not a simple matter of fact. It must be complex enough to develop through evidence and arguments across the course of your essay.

Say you’re analyzing the novel Frankenstein . You could start by asking yourself:

Your initial answer might be a surface-level description:

The character Frankenstein is portrayed negatively in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein .

However, this statement is too simple to be an interesting thesis. After reading the text and analyzing its narrative voice and structure, you can develop the answer into a more nuanced and arguable thesis statement:

Mary Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

Remember that you can revise your thesis statement throughout the writing process , so it doesn’t need to be perfectly formulated at this stage. The aim is to keep you focused as you analyze the text.

Finding textual evidence

To support your thesis statement, your essay will build an argument using textual evidence —specific parts of the text that demonstrate your point. This evidence is quoted and analyzed throughout your essay to explain your argument to the reader.

It can be useful to comb through the text in search of relevant quotations before you start writing. You might not end up using everything you find, and you may have to return to the text for more evidence as you write, but collecting textual evidence from the beginning will help you to structure your arguments and assess whether they’re convincing.

To start your literary analysis paper, you’ll need two things: a good title, and an introduction.

Your title should clearly indicate what your analysis will focus on. It usually contains the name of the author and text(s) you’re analyzing. Keep it as concise and engaging as possible.

A common approach to the title is to use a relevant quote from the text, followed by a colon and then the rest of your title.

If you struggle to come up with a good title at first, don’t worry—this will be easier once you’ve begun writing the essay and have a better sense of your arguments.

“Fearful symmetry” : The violence of creation in William Blake’s “The Tyger”

The introduction

The essay introduction provides a quick overview of where your argument is going. It should include your thesis statement and a summary of the essay’s structure.

A typical structure for an introduction is to begin with a general statement about the text and author, using this to lead into your thesis statement. You might refer to a commonly held idea about the text and show how your thesis will contradict it, or zoom in on a particular device you intend to focus on.

Then you can end with a brief indication of what’s coming up in the main body of the essay. This is called signposting. It will be more elaborate in longer essays, but in a short five-paragraph essay structure, it shouldn’t be more than one sentence.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel. This essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the creature views him.

Some students prefer to write the introduction later in the process, and it’s not a bad idea. After all, you’ll have a clearer idea of the overall shape of your arguments once you’ve begun writing them!

If you do write the introduction first, you should still return to it later to make sure it lines up with what you ended up writing, and edit as necessary.

The body of your essay is everything between the introduction and conclusion. It contains your arguments and the textual evidence that supports them.

Paragraph structure

A typical structure for a high school literary analysis essay consists of five paragraphs : the three paragraphs of the body, plus the introduction and conclusion.

Each paragraph in the main body should focus on one topic. In the five-paragraph model, try to divide your argument into three main areas of analysis, all linked to your thesis. Don’t try to include everything you can think of to say about the text—only analysis that drives your argument.

In longer essays, the same principle applies on a broader scale. For example, you might have two or three sections in your main body, each with multiple paragraphs. Within these sections, you still want to begin new paragraphs at logical moments—a turn in the argument or the introduction of a new idea.

Robert’s first encounter with Gil-Martin suggests something of his sinister power. Robert feels “a sort of invisible power that drew me towards him.” He identifies the moment of their meeting as “the beginning of a series of adventures which has puzzled myself, and will puzzle the world when I am no more in it” (p. 89). Gil-Martin’s “invisible power” seems to be at work even at this distance from the moment described; before continuing the story, Robert feels compelled to anticipate at length what readers will make of his narrative after his approaching death. With this interjection, Hogg emphasizes the fatal influence Gil-Martin exercises from his first appearance.

Topic sentences

To keep your points focused, it’s important to use a topic sentence at the beginning of each paragraph.

A good topic sentence allows a reader to see at a glance what the paragraph is about. It can introduce a new line of argument and connect or contrast it with the previous paragraph. Transition words like “however” or “moreover” are useful for creating smooth transitions:

… The story’s focus, therefore, is not upon the divine revelation that may be waiting beyond the door, but upon the mundane process of aging undergone by the man as he waits.

Nevertheless, the “radiance” that appears to stream from the door is typically treated as religious symbolism.

This topic sentence signals that the paragraph will address the question of religious symbolism, while the linking word “nevertheless” points out a contrast with the previous paragraph’s conclusion.

Using textual evidence

A key part of literary analysis is backing up your arguments with relevant evidence from the text. This involves introducing quotes from the text and explaining their significance to your point.

It’s important to contextualize quotes and explain why you’re using them; they should be properly introduced and analyzed, not treated as self-explanatory:

It isn’t always necessary to use a quote. Quoting is useful when you’re discussing the author’s language, but sometimes you’ll have to refer to plot points or structural elements that can’t be captured in a short quote.

In these cases, it’s more appropriate to paraphrase or summarize parts of the text—that is, to describe the relevant part in your own words:

The conclusion of your analysis shouldn’t introduce any new quotations or arguments. Instead, it’s about wrapping up the essay. Here, you summarize your key points and try to emphasize their significance to the reader.

A good way to approach this is to briefly summarize your key arguments, and then stress the conclusion they’ve led you to, highlighting the new perspective your thesis provides on the text as a whole:

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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By tracing the depiction of Frankenstein through the novel’s three volumes, I have demonstrated how the narrative structure shifts our perception of the character. While the Frankenstein of the first volume is depicted as having innocent intentions, the second and third volumes—first in the creature’s accusatory voice, and then in his own voice—increasingly undermine him, causing him to appear alternately ridiculous and vindictive. Far from the one-dimensional villain he is often taken to be, the character of Frankenstein is compelling because of the dynamic narrative frame in which he is placed. In this frame, Frankenstein’s narrative self-presentation responds to the images of him we see from others’ perspectives. This conclusion sheds new light on the novel, foregrounding Shelley’s unique layering of narrative perspectives and its importance for the depiction of character.

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The field of cultural production : essays on art and literature

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• Introduction: Pierre Bourdieu on Art, Literature and Culture. Part 1 The Field of Cultural Production: The Field of Cultural Production or The Economic World Reversed
• The Production of Belief
• Contribution to an Economy of Symbolic Goods
• The Market of Symbolic Goods. Part 2 Flaubert and the French Literary Field - Is the Structure of Sentimental Education an Instance of Social Self-analysis?
• Field of Power, Literary Field and Habitus Principles for a Sociology of Cultural Works
• Flaubert's Point of View. Part 3 The Pure Gaze: Essays on Art
• Outline of a Sociological Theory of Art Perception
• Manet and the Institutionalization of Anomie
• The Historical Genesis of a Pure Aesthetic.
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The Dehumanization of Art and Other Essays on Art, Culture, and Literature

• José Ortega y Gasset

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No work of philosopher and essayist José Ortega y Gasset has been more frequently cited, admired, or criticized than his response to modernism, “The Dehumanization of Art.” The essay, originally published in Spanish in 1925, grappled with the newness of nonrepresentational art and sought to make it more understandable to the public. Many embraced the essay as a manifesto extolling the virtues of vanguard artists and promoting efforts to abandon the realism and the romanticism of the nineteenth century. Others took it as a denunciation of everything that was radical about the avant-garde. This Princeton Classics edition makes this essential work, along with four of Ortega’s other critical essays, available in English. A new foreword by Anthony J. Cascardi considers how Ortega’s philosophy remains relevant and significant in the twenty-first century.

"José Ortega y Gasset is certainly the greatest philosophical essayist of the first half of the 20th century, and very likely one of its few genuinely seminal minds. . . . The Dehumanization of Art is still among the best efforts to define and interpret the radical break in continuity between modern art and the whole Renaissance tradition of representation which ended in the 19th century."—Joseph Frank, New Republic

"An erudite and magnanimous capitulation of the old to the young . . . both wise and noble."—Mark Helprin, New Criterion

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Art and Literature 

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Art and Literature are bound together in several ways. Great works of art have inspired great works of literature, great works of literature have inspired art, and together art and literature have simultaneously represented similar movements. Art and literature can be seen weaving around each other, influencing one and another, and being used as a tool to teach students about liberal arts and humanity.  Although the works I have selected range from several genres and five centuries, they are related because they refer to great works of literature.  All of these works have been used in my literature classrooms as tools to understand specific works or movements.  No matter how different they are, they aid in understanding the written world through visual imagery. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l3wz9wg0Dos The video that I have chosen shows an artist going through the steps of creating an expressionistic work.  This was important to me because the steps that he was taking reminded me very much of the steps that I as an English literature major were taught in creative writing when working through drafts of a written work.  It also shows expressionism which is still a very popular style and can be seen in my favorite writings, particularly great American plays. 

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Essays on Art and Literature (Goethe: The Collected Works, Vol. 3) Paperback – July 5, 1994

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Translated by Ellen von Nardroff and Ernest H. von Nardroff The reflections on art and literature that Goethe produced throughout his life are the premise and corollary of his work as poet, novelist, and man of science. This volume contains such important essays as "On Gothic Architecture," "On the Laocoon Group," and "Shakespeare: A Tribute." Several works in this collection appear for the first time unabridged and in fresh translations.

• Print length 268 pages
• Language English
• Publisher Princeton University Press
• Publication date July 5, 1994
• Dimensions 6 x 0.71 x 9 inches
• ISBN-10 0691036578
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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Princeton University Press; Reprint edition (July 5, 1994)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 268 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0691036578
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0691036571
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 14 ounces
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 6 x 0.71 x 9 inches
• #95 in German Literary Criticism (Books)
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• #2,187 in Essays (Books)

About the author

Johann wolfgang von goethe.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (/ˈgɜː(r)tə/; German: [ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfɡaŋ ˈɡøːtə] ( listen); 28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German writer and statesman. His body of work includes epic and lyric poetry written in a variety of metres and styles; prose and verse dramas; memoirs; an autobiography; literary and aesthetic criticism; treatises on botany, anatomy, and colour; and four novels. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters, and nearly 3,000 drawings by him exist. A literary celebrity by the age of 25, Goethe was ennobled by the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, Karl August in 1782 after first taking up residence there in November 1775 following the success of his first novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther. He was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. During his first ten years in Weimar, Goethe served as a member of the Duke's privy council, sat on the war and highway commissions, oversaw the reopening of silver mines in nearby Ilmenau, and implemented a series of administrative reforms at the University of Jena. He also contributed to the planning of Weimar's botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace, which in 1998 were together designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Bio from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Photo by Joseph Karl Stieler [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons.

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Human rights and justice

Beyond obscenity

A century after the trial against ‘Ulysses’, we must revisit the civil liberties arguments of its defender, Morris Ernst

Myths from Earth’s edge – what the Icelandic sagas reveal about Norse morality

Poet of impermanence

Enheduana is the first known named author. Her poems of strife and upheaval resonate in our own unstable times

Sophus Helle

Solace and saudade

In the face of an inscrutable, indifferent universe, Pessoa suggests we cultivate a certain longing for the elusive horizon

Jonardon Ganeri & Sarah Seymour

The diaries of Kafka

By day an insurance official, by night he was an incessant, insomniacal scribe of the space between waking and dreaming

Ross Benjamin

Quantum theory

All possible worlds

Long a matter of philosophical speculation, the idea of multiple realities has been given new artistic licence by physics

Timothy Andersen

What makes John Keats’s ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’ so enduringly powerful?

The sonnet machine

A sonnet contains an emotional drama of illusion and deception, crisis and resolution, crafted to make us think and feel

Timothy Hampton

Dance and theatre

Leaf through Shakespeare’s First Folio for a riveting journey into theatre history

Meaning beyond definition

In science our concepts have neat, hard edges. In poetry our concepts stretch and expand. Both are necessary for knowledge

James Camien McGuiggan

Language and linguistics

The problem with English

Is Earth’s most-spoken language a living ‘gift’ or a many-headed ‘monster’? Both views distract us from the real dilemma

Mario Saraceni

The key to a vampire’s immortality? Meeting the anxieties of the moment

The honesty of pornography

Often vilified as a weapon of male supremacy, pornography in fact has much to tell us about ourselves and our culture

Kathleen Lubey

Essays About Literature: Top 6 Examples and 8 Prompts

Society and culture are formed around literature. If you are writing essays about literature, you can use the essay examples and prompts featured in our guide.

It has been said that language holds the key to all human activities, and literature is the expression of language. It teaches new words and phrases, allows us to better our communication skills, and helps us learn more about ourselves.

Whether you are reading poems or novels, we often see parts of ourselves in the characters and themes presented by the authors. Literature gives us ideas and helps us determine what to say, while language gives form and structure to our ideas, helping us convey them.

6 Helpful Essay Examples

1. importance of literature by william anderson, 2. philippine literature by jean hodges, 3. african literature by morris marshall.

• 4.  Nine Questions From Children’s Literature That Every Person Should Answer by Shaunta Grimes

5. Exploring tyranny and power in Macbeth by Tom Davey

6. guide to the classics: homer’s odyssey by jo adetunji, 1. the importance of literature, 2. comparing and contrasting two works of literature  , 3. the use of literary devices, 4. popular adaptations of literature, 5. gender roles in literature, 6. analysis of your chosen literary work, 7. fiction vs. non-fiction, 8. literature as an art form.

“Life before literature was practical and predictable, but in the present-day, literature has expanded into countless libraries and into the minds of many as the gateway for comprehension and curiosity of the human mind and the world around them. Literature is of great importance and is studied upon as it provides the ability to connect human relationships and define what is right and what is wrong.”

Anderson writes about why an understanding of literature is crucial. It allows us to see different perspectives of people from different periods, countries, and cultures: we are given the ability to see the world from an entirely new lens. As a result, we obtain a better judgment of situations. In a world where anything can happen, literature gives us the key to enacting change for ourselves and others. You might also be interested in these essays about Beowulf .

“So successful were the efforts of colonists to blot out the memory of the country’s largely oral past that present-day Filipino writers, artists and journalists are trying to correct this inequity by recognizing the country’s wealth of ethnic traditions and disseminating them in schools through mass media. The rise of nationalistic pride in the 1960s and 1970s also helped bring about this change of attitude among a new breed of Filipinos concerned about the “Filipino identity.””

In her essay, Hodges writes about the history of Philippine literature. Unfortunately, much of Philippine literary history has been obscured by Spanish colonization, as the written works of the Spanish largely replaced the oral tradition of the native Filipinos. A heightened sense of nationalism has recently led to a resurgence in Filipino tradition, including ancient Philippine literature. 

“In fact, the common denominator of the cultures of the African continent is undoubtedly the oral tradition. Writing on black Africa started in the middle Ages with the introduction of the Arabic language and later, in the nineteenth century with introduction of the Latin alphabet. Since 1934, with the birth of the “Negritude.” African authors began to write in French or in English.”

Marshall explores the history of African literature, particularly the languages it was written over time. It was initially written in Arabic and native languages; however, with the “Negritude” movement, writers began composing their works in French or English. This movement allowed African writers to spread their work and gain notoriety. Marshall gives examples of African literature, shedding light on their lyrical content. 

4.   Nine Questions From Children’s Literature That Every Person Should Answer by Shaunta Grimes

“ They asked me questions — questions about who I am, what I value, and where I’m headed — and pushed me to think about the answers. At some point in our lives, we decide we know everything we need to know. We stop asking questions. To remember what’s important, it sometimes helps to return to that place of childlike curiosity and wonder.”

Grimes’ essay is a testament to how much we can learn from literature, even as simple as children’s stories. She explains how different works of children’s literature, such as Charlotte’s Web and Little Women, can inspire us, help us maximize our imagination, and remind us of the fleeting nature of life. Most importantly, however, they remind us that the future is uncertain, and maximizing it is up to us. 

“This is a world where the moral bar has been lowered; a world which ‘sinks beneath the yoke’. In the Macbeths, we see just how terribly the human soul can be corrupted. However, this struggle is played out within other characters too. Perhaps we’re left wondering: in such a dog-eat-dog world, how would we fare?”

The corruption that power can lead to is genuine; Davey explains how this theme is present in Shakespeare’s Macbeth . Even after being honored, Macbeth still wishes to be king and commits heinous acts of violence to achieve his goals. Violence is prevalent throughout the play, but Macbeth and Lady Macbeth exemplify the vicious cycle of bloodshed through their ambition and power. 

“Polyphemus is blinded but survives the attack and curses the voyage home of the Ithacans. All of Odysseus’s men are eventually killed, and he alone survives his return home, mostly because of his versatility and cleverness. There is a strong element of the trickster figure about Homer’s Odysseus.”

Adetunji also exposes a notable work of literature, in this case, Homer’s Odyssey . She goes over the epic poem and its historical context and discusses Odysseus’ most important traits: cleverness and courage. As the story progresses, he displays great courage and bravery in his exploits, using his cunning and wit to outsmart his foes. Finally, Adetunji references modern interpretations of the Odyssey in film, literature, and other media.

8 Prompts for Essays About Literature

In your essay, write about the importance of literature; explain why we need to study literature and how it can help us in the future. Then, give examples of literary works that teach important moral lessons as evidence. 

For your essay, choose two works of literature with similar themes. Then, discuss their similarities and differences in plot, theme, and characters. For example, these themes could include death, grief, love and hate, or relationships. You can also discuss which of the two pieces of literature presents your chosen theme better. 

Writers use literary devices to enhance their literary works and emphasize important points. Literary devices include personification, similes, metaphors, and more. You can write about the effectiveness of literary devices and the reasoning behind their usage. Research and give examples of instances where authors use literary devices effectively to enhance their message.  

Literature has been adapted into cinema, television, and other media time and again, with series such as Lord of the Rings and Harry Potter turning into blockbuster franchises. Explore how these adaptations diverge from their source material yet retain the key themes the writer composed the work with in mind. If this seems confusing, research first and read some essay examples. 

Literature reflects the ideas of the period it is from; for example, ancient Greek literature, such as Antigone, depicts the ideal woman as largely obedient and subservient, to an extent. For your essay, you can write about how gender roles have evolved in literature throughout the years, specifically about women. Be sure to give examples to support your points. 

Choose a work of literature that interests you and analyze it in your essay. You can use your favorite novel, book, or screenplay, explain the key themes and characters and summarize the plot. Analyze the key messages in your chosen piece of literature, and discuss how the themes are enhanced through the author’s writing techniques.

Literature can be divided into two categories: fiction, from the writer’s imagination, and non-fiction, written about actual events. Explore their similarities and differences, and give your opinion on which is better. For a strong argument, provide ample supporting details and cite credible sources.  

Literature is an art form that uses language, so do you believe it is more effective in conveying its message? Write about how literature compares to other art forms such as painting and sculpture; state your argument and defend it adequately. 

Tip: If writing an essay sounds like a lot of work, simplify it. Write a simple 5 paragraph essay instead.

For help picking your next essay topic, check out the best essay topics about social media .

Martin is an avid writer specializing in editing and proofreading. He also enjoys literary analysis and writing about food and travel.

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• Literary Terms
• Definition & Examples
• When & How to Write an Essay

I. What is an Essay?

An essay is a form of writing in paragraph form that uses informal language, although it can be written formally. Essays may be written in first-person point of view (I, ours, mine), but third-person (people, he, she) is preferable in most academic essays. Essays do not require research as most academic reports and papers do; however, they should cite any literary works that are used within the paper.

When thinking of essays, we normally think of the five-paragraph essay: Paragraph 1 is the introduction, paragraphs 2-4 are the body covering three main ideas, and paragraph 5 is the conclusion. Sixth and seventh graders may start out with three paragraph essays in order to learn the concepts. However, essays may be longer than five paragraphs. Essays are easier and quicker to read than books, so are a preferred way to express ideas and concepts when bringing them to public attention.

II. Examples of Essays

Many of our most famous Americans have written essays. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson wrote essays about being good citizens and concepts to build the new United States. In the pre-Civil War days of the 1800s, people such as:

• Ralph Waldo Emerson (an author) wrote essays on self-improvement
• Susan B. Anthony wrote on women’s right to vote
• Frederick Douglass wrote on the issue of African Americans’ future in the U.S.

Through each era of American history, well-known figures in areas such as politics, literature, the arts, business, etc., voiced their opinions through short and long essays.

The ultimate persuasive essay that most students learn about and read in social studies is the “Declaration of Independence” by Thomas Jefferson in 1776. Other founding fathers edited and critiqued it, but he drafted the first version. He builds a strong argument by stating his premise (claim) then proceeds to give the evidence in a straightforward manner before coming to his logical conclusion.

III. Types of Essays

A. expository.

Essays written to explore and explain ideas are called expository essays (they expose truths). These will be more formal types of essays usually written in third person, to be more objective. There are many forms, each one having its own organizational pattern.  Cause/Effect essays explain the reason (cause) for something that happens after (effect). Definition essays define an idea or concept. Compare/ Contrast essays will look at two items and show how they are similar (compare) and different (contrast).

b. Persuasive

An argumentative paper presents an idea or concept with the intention of attempting to change a reader’s mind or actions . These may be written in second person, using “you” in order to speak to the reader. This is called a persuasive essay. There will be a premise (claim) followed by evidence to show why you should believe the claim.

c. Narrative

Narrative means story, so narrative essays will illustrate and describe an event of some kind to tell a story. Most times, they will be written in first person. The writer will use descriptive terms, and may have paragraphs that tell a beginning, middle, and end in place of the five paragraphs with introduction, body, and conclusion. However, if there is a lesson to be learned, a five-paragraph may be used to ensure the lesson is shown.

d. Descriptive

The goal of a descriptive essay is to vividly describe an event, item, place, memory, etc. This essay may be written in any point of view, depending on what’s being described. There is a lot of freedom of language in descriptive essays, which can include figurative language, as well.

IV. The Importance of Essays

Essays are an important piece of literature that can be used in a variety of situations. They’re a flexible type of writing, which makes them useful in many settings . History can be traced and understood through essays from theorists, leaders, artists of various arts, and regular citizens of countries throughout the world and time. For students, learning to write essays is also important because as they leave school and enter college and/or the work force, it is vital for them to be able to express themselves well.

V. Examples of Essays in Literature

Sir Francis Bacon was a leading philosopher who influenced the colonies in the 1600s. Many of America’s founding fathers also favored his philosophies toward government. Bacon wrote an essay titled “Of Nobility” in 1601 , in which he defines the concept of nobility in relation to people and government. The following is the introduction of his definition essay. Note the use of “we” for his point of view, which includes his readers while still sounding rather formal.

 “We will speak of nobility, first as a portion of an estate, then as a condition of particular persons. A monarchy, where there is no nobility at all, is ever a pure and absolute tyranny; as that of the Turks. For nobility attempers sovereignty, and draws the eyes of the people, somewhat aside from the line royal. But for democracies, they need it not; and they are commonly more quiet, and less subject to sedition, than where there are stirps of nobles. For men’s eyes are upon the business, and not upon the persons; or if upon the persons, it is for the business’ sake, as fittest, and not for flags and pedigree. We see the Switzers last well, notwithstanding their diversity of religion, and of cantons. For utility is their bond, and not respects. The united provinces of the Low Countries, in their government, excel; for where there is an equality, the consultations are more indifferent, and the payments and tributes, more cheerful. A great and potent nobility, addeth majesty to a monarch, but diminisheth power; and putteth life and spirit into the people, but presseth their fortune. It is well, when nobles are not too great for sovereignty nor for justice; and yet maintained in that height, as the insolency of inferiors may be broken upon them, before it come on too fast upon the majesty of kings. A numerous nobility causeth poverty, and inconvenience in a state; for it is a surcharge of expense; and besides, it being of necessity, that many of the nobility fall, in time, to be weak in fortune, it maketh a kind of disproportion, between honor and means.”

A popular modern day essayist is Barbara Kingsolver. Her book, “Small Wonders,” is full of essays describing her thoughts and experiences both at home and around the world. Her intention with her essays is to make her readers think about various social issues, mainly concerning the environment and how people treat each other. The link below is to an essay in which a child in an Iranian village she visited had disappeared. The boy was found three days later in a bear’s cave, alive and well, protected by a mother bear. She uses a narrative essay to tell her story.

VI. Examples of Essays in Pop Culture

Many rap songs are basically mini essays, expressing outrage and sorrow over social issues today, just as the 1960s had a lot of anti-war and peace songs that told stories and described social problems of that time. Any good song writer will pay attention to current events and express ideas in a creative way.

A well-known essay written in 1997 by Mary Schmich, a columnist with the Chicago Tribune, was made into a popular video on MTV by Baz Luhrmann. Schmich’s thesis is to wear sunscreen, but she adds strong advice with supporting details throughout the body of her essay, reverting to her thesis in the conclusion.

VII. Related Terms

Research paper.

Research papers follow the same basic format of an essay. They have an introductory paragraph, the body, and a conclusion. However, research papers have strict guidelines regarding a title page, header, sub-headers within the paper, citations throughout and in a bibliography page, the size and type of font, and margins. The purpose of a research paper is to explore an area by looking at previous research. Some research papers may include additional studies by the author, which would then be compared to previous research. The point of view is an objective third-person. No opinion is allowed. Any claims must be backed up with research.

VIII. Conclusion

Students dread hearing that they are going to write an essay, but essays are one of the easiest and most relaxed types of writing they will learn. Mastering the essay will make research papers much easier, since they have the same basic structure. Many historical events can be better understood through essays written by people involved in those times. The continuation of essays in today’s times will allow future historians to understand how our new world of technology and information impacted us.

List of Terms

• Alliteration
• Amplification
• Anachronism
• Anthropomorphism
• Antonomasia
• APA Citation
• Aposiopesis
• Autobiography
• Bildungsroman
• Characterization
• Circumlocution
• Cliffhanger
• Comic Relief
• Connotation
• Deus ex machina
• Deuteragonist
• Doppelganger
• Double Entendre
• Dramatic irony
• Equivocation
• Extended Metaphor
• Figures of Speech
• Flash-forward
• Foreshadowing
• Intertextuality
• Juxtaposition
• Literary Device
• Malapropism
• Onomatopoeia
• Parallelism
• Pathetic Fallacy
• Personification
• Point of View
• Polysyndeton
• Protagonist
• Red Herring
• Rhetorical Device
• Rhetorical Question
• Science Fiction
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
• Synesthesia
• Turning Point
• Understatement
• Urban Legend
• Verisimilitude
• Essay Guide
• Cite This Website

• My Proposals
• Program Units
• CFP and Submission Instructions
• Call for Proposals (PDF)
• PAPERS Instructions (PDF)
• PUC Handbook

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Art and literation as intervention.

Work in the study of Arts, Literature, and Religion has tended most often to read and reflect on cultural expression through ideas, themes, and texts deemed religious, theological, spiritual, secular, philosophical, and ethical (to name a few). What would it mean to reverse this course, effectively understanding expressive texts, artifacts, repertoire, and phenomena to intervene actively in (rather than to respond to) discourses understood to be religious, theological, secular, philosophical, or ethical? What difference does this reversal of readings make? What aspects, functions, and significances of artistic expression, broadly construed, illuminate the condition or experience of being human, of living and working in community? Is art uniquely capable of doing this? How and why does this matter—both generally and within the particularities that generate identity and other social and political aspects of human experience? These papers take up this series of questions, turning their attention to a diverse array of interventions—ranging from neuroaesthetics, liturgical sign language, and theopoetical practice to expressions of indigeneity and combatting the dehumanization of incarceration—situated in a variety of religious contexts.

“Art of Racial Reconciliation: The Pneumatological Potential of Aesthetic Encounter in Reimagining Race, Reshaping the Brain, and Realizing the Kingdom”

This paper considers the role played by aesthetic experiences, including the act of creating, in challenging the dominant racial imaginary that shapes how we see the world, and how might these encounters be understood pneumatologically? Drawing upon research in neuroaesthetics, this paper considers the possibility of art’s intervention into how prejudicial ways of thinking shape the brain. How can meaningful aesthetic experiences move us beyond such racial imaginaries?

“Theopoetics and Praxis: Imagination and Poetic Expression as God-Talk”

This presentation considers what is lost within theological reflection and articulation when authors only analyze the poetry of an another within essay form instead of attempting their own poetic responses or reflections. What would it mean for theologians, especially those exploring the field of theopoetics, always to include poetic responses alongside essay text?

“The Sacred Presences in Taoltsin to nemilis , a Series Created by Mixteyot Vázquez”

This paper deploys Mixteyot Vázquez’s series of paintings, Taoltsin to nemilis, as a mode of understanding how Mesoamerican Religious traditions and Catholicism are intertwined in a contemporary indigenous community. The paintings encapsulate divine presences from the two religious’ worldviews and, imbued by these divine presences, were welcomed in the main religious feast of Tzinacapan as an offering to maintain the balance of the universe and guarantee human and non-human life.  

“Black American Sign Language as Liturgy”

Black American Sign Language (BASL) is an embodied language expressing emotion, culture, and spirituality. It is often seen as a poetic expression, invoking a dancer's narration. Black Church Liturgy, often expressed in song, word, and dance, has failed to recognize BASL as an element on par with these more historical elements. This paper invites the Black Deaf Community, Black interpreters, faith leaders, and interested Hearing community members to embrace Black ASL as a worship praxis.

“How Art Resists: Creative Expressions of Incarcerated Artists at Maximum-Security Prison for Women”

This paper reflects on an art class at a women's maximum-security prison, where art stands as a defiant counterpoint to the system's dehumanization. Merleau-Ponty argues that our bodies are central to how we experience the world, but prisons, a site of bodily confinement, disrupt this. In this context art becomes a "second layer of flesh," offering insights into reclaiming subjectivity and developing interpersonal connection in a way that challenges the prison system’s imposition of dehumanizing singular narratives.

Abstract for Online Program Book (maximum 150 words)

Art has long been utilized by people of color to express and even bring healing to the wounds inflicted by racism. But what of art as a tool of reconciliation? What role might aesthetic experiences, including the act of creating, play in challenging the dominant racial imaginary that shapes how we see the world? And how might these encounters be understood pneumatologically? Art can rewire our brains, reshaping the weight or meaning given to people, places, and things. It can prime pathways for new meaning making. Drawing upon research in neuroaesthetics, this paper considers more than the potential of art to address the negative effects of racial trauma, but, pushing beyond current literature, it entertains the possibility of art’s intervention into how prejudicial ways of thinking shape the brain. Delightfully improvisational and often messy, meaningful aesthetic experiences, like the Spirit, have a way of moving us beyond ourselves, beyond our expectations and comfortable boundaries, and toward significant encounter that can then give rise to something new – to a new narrative, to a new conception of family, to a new way of seeing that moves us beyond our given racial imaginary.

Contemporary conversations around theopoetics tend to define it as a critical method for theologizing and engaging God-talk that is attentive to the limitations of language. Given the mysterious and creative nature of the divine, creative arts generally, and poetry specifically, provide an imaginative framework to engage the divine. I argue that the field of theopoetics must be more attentive to the dynamic of praxis through the practice of art and poetry creation amidst analysis and theological God talk, lest theopoetics confine artistic expression and imaginative creation to professionalism and expertise. This presentation challenges current understandings of theopoetics by centering praxis, names theologians and theorists who craft poetry amidst their theoretical work, and invites participants to a time of imaginative reflection and artistic creation.

How might God meet you here? In your own creative wisdom and response?

On the evening of the 28th of September of 2023, Mixteyot Vázquez inagurated his first solo exhibition with the painting series Taoltsin to Nemilis . Mixteyot Vázquez is a Maseual artist from San Miguel Tzinacapan, an indigenous community in central Mexico. His exhibition featured six oleo paintings, five of them depicting scenes from the liturgical dance Danza de los Tejoneros . The last painting is a portrait of the sculpture of Tzinacapan’s patron saint, St. Michael Archangel.

In this paper, I examine Taoltsin to nemilis as an actor that allows us to understand how Mesoamerican Religious traditions and Catholicism are intertwined in a contemporary indigenous community. Furthermore, I argue that the paintings encapsulate divine presences from the two religious’ worldviews. Imbued by these divine presences, the paintings were welcomed in the main religious feast of Tzinacapan, as an offering to maintain the balance of the universe and guarantee human and non-human life.  

Black American Sign Language (BASL) is an embodied language expressing language, emotion, culture, and spirituality. It is often seen as a poetic expression and invoking a dancer's narration. Black Church Liturgy, often expressed in song, word, and dance, disproportionately recognizes BASL as an equal function. This paper invites the Black Deaf Community, Black interpreters, faith leaders, and interested Hearing community members to embrace Black ASL as a worship praxis.

This paper reflects on an art class at a women's maximum-security prison. Here, art stands as a defiant counterpoint to the system's dehumanization. Prisons reduce individuals to numbers and enforce singular narratives. Philosopher Merleau-Ponty argues that our bodies are central to how we experience the world, but prisons, a site of bodily confinement, disrupt this. Art becomes a "second layer of flesh," offering two key insights: 1) Reclaiming Subjectivity: incarcerated artists express their inner selves through art, defying the prison's narrative. Paintings become a window into their complexities and experiences. 2) Social Connection: The act of creation fosters connection. It's not just about the physical act of creating, but the web of experiences and relationships woven into the art. This reminded the incarcerated artists that they were part of a larger social fabric, not isolated units. While art doesn't offer simple solutions, it challenges the prison's one-dimensional view. Art pushes us to re-imagine systems that value the whole person.

Sabbath Observance

Full papers available, session length.

Perspectives Black History

Harlem is everywhere : episode 3, art & literature.

How did the literature of the Harlem Renaissance play a central role in conversations around Black identity?

Jessica Lynne , Monica L. Miller and John Keene

How did the literature of the Harlem Renaissance play a central role in conversations around Black identity? In this episode we’ll learn about publications like Opportunity , The Crisis , and Fire!! which each promoted a unique political and aesthetic perspective on Black life at the time. We’ll learn about Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston before they became household names and explore how collaboration and conversation between artists, writers, and scholars came to define the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance.

View the objects discussed in the episode and read the complete transcript below .

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VOICE 1 : Night wears a garment, VOICE 2 : All velvet soft, all violet blue . . . VOICE 3 : And over her face she draws a veil VOICE 1 : As shimmering fine as floating dew . . . VOICE 4 : And here and there In the black of her hair,

JESSICA LYNNE : The subtle hands of Night Move slowly in their gem-starred light.

That was “Street Lamps in Early Spring ” written by Gwendolyn Bennett in 1926.

Welcome to Harlem Is Everywhere brought to you by The Metropolitan Museum of Art. I’m your host Jessica Lynne. I’m a writer and art critic. This is episode three: Art and Literature.

Today writers like Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston seem fully present in our minds as staples in the canon of American literature. But there was a time when they were young and eager, stretching their wings and finding a voice, hoping to place their work in publications like The Crisis , Opportunity ,and Fire!! .

All three of these publications shared a goal of amplifying the voices and images emerging from the Harlem Renaissance. But they didn’t always agree on what stories to tell or who they wanted to tell them to. It was beautiful and it was complicated.

There are just too many talented people from this era to cover in one episode. We’ll speak about members of the younger generation like Hughes and Hurston and we’ll point out foundational figures like Alain Locke, W. E. B. Du Bois, Charles Spurgeon Johnson and Jessie Redmon Fauset.

We’ll hear from researcher and educator Monica L. Miller:

MONICA L. MILLER:   When Hurston walked in the door, she famously had a red feather boa on, threw that feather boa over her shoulder, and said the words, “Color struck!”

LYNNE: We’ll also speak with writer and professor John Keene:

JOHN KEENE : The writers of Fire!! were not concerned with presenting neat bourgeois representations of Black people.

LYNNE: In the fall of my junior year of high school, all the adults around me wanted a real answer to that existential question: “So, what do you want to do with your life?”

Everyone needed an answer to this question and I was drawing a blank.

Around this time my English teacher assigned Zora Neale Hurston’s novel  Their Eyes Were Watching God . I still have my high-school copy with the black-and-white portrait of Hurston taken by the photographer Carl Van Vechten. In it, Hurston wears a wide-brimmed hat tilted slightly to the right side of her face and a chunky, beaded necklace. I still need this necklace. Her smile is alluring, almost mischievous.

I felt so alive after reading Hurston’s words. I wanted to know everything about this Black Southern woman who depicted on the page so much of what was familiar to me as a Black Southern girl—even if I was living almost sixty years in the future.

Her characters were speaking a Black American English that I’d heard all my life and Hurston took special care to write dialogue in that vernacular throughout the novel.

Zora Neale Hurston (American, 1891–1960). Their Eyes Were Watching God , 1937. Walter O. and Savannah Evans Collection

You know that opening scene when Pheoby meets Janie on the back porch with a plate of food, ready to sit and visit a while? I had seen all the women in my life problem solve and caretake or gather together in much the same way.

So, what did I want to do with my life? I wanted to do whatever Hurston had done. And that included living in New York.

I had known what the Harlem Renaissance was, but immersing myself in Hurston’s life gave me a better sense of the Harlem that she’d encountered in the 1920s, and how it impacted her as an artist.

This was a Harlem that was opening its arms to Black folks from everywhere, including the South, and in doing so was fundamentally changing the cultural landscape of a nation.

If Harlem, if New York, was a place that was special enough for my newfound literary hero, it was special enough for me, too. What was it about these streets and avenues that made Hurston feel at home? How did this uptown neighborhood become the epicenter of the world’s first Black-led modern art movement? In a way, if I wanted to understand Hurston, I needed to understand Harlem.

LYNNE: Monica L. Miller is a professor of English and Africana studies at Barnard College, Columbia University.

MILLER: I teach and research African American literature and cultural studies, as well as Afro-diasporic literature and cultural studies. So, my work spans Black identity and culture from the United States into Europe.

LYNNE: In the early 1900s two major civil rights organizations created and distributed literary publications—the National Urban League promoted Opportunity m agazine while the NAACP released The Crisis . These publications had two main goals: to promote the values of the organizations and to offer a platform for established as well as younger Black artists to shine.

MILLER: What was really important about those magazines is that they were as part of the sort of early Black press movement magazines that included news, that included history, artwork, and often literature. So they were really important in terms of being a place where African American community was actually sort of talking to itself, right? And then ultimately you could sort of get the pulse of what was happening.

LYNNE: Not only what was happening in Harlem, but also in other major urban centers in the Northeast. These cities were becoming the home of so many people as a result of the Great Migration. These magazines were knitting together a community of people, similar to how Black-owned newspapers had done in the late 1800s.

MILLER: What was different about these journals, though, is precisely the way that they included the arts and literature.

LYNNE: These publications, like the people they represented and spoke to, weren’t a monolith. They were a mosaic of different styles and themes, ideals, and voices.

Opportunity was almost an extension of The New Negro anthology. This was a publication that looked to shape Black modernity in a powerful way. Charles S. Johnson acted as the editor while Alain Locke helped develop the magazine and was a frequent contributor.

The Crisis was created by W. E. B. Du Bois with Jessie Redmond Fauset acting as the editor.

MILLER: The Crisis is ultimately a relatively—I mean, I think we think about it now, but not at the time—a relatively conservative publication in the way that it balanced both, sort of, internal and external politics.

Du Bois was a proponent of respectability politics, which meant that he was really interested in putting, sort of, the best foot forward. He was very concerned about remaking the image of African Americans, both for themselves, but particularly for a sort of outside audience. So, The Crisis was a magazine that reflected those ideals and ideologies.

Left: Laura Wheeler Waring (American, 1887–1948). Egypt and Spring, Cover of The Crisis , April 1923. Collection of Walter O. and Linda Evans; Right: Laura Wheeler Waring (American, 1887–1948). The Strength of Africa, Cover of The Crisis , September 1924. Collection of Walter O. and Linda Evans

MILLER : When I look at the cover of The Crisis what I’m seeing there is this idea about Africa being the sort of classical base for African American art and culture. If Europe has the Greek and Roman past, African America has the African past. So, we see Egypt and a kind of Africanized version of Greece, which is really fascinating.

LYNNE: The cover of the February 1925 issue of Opportunity by artist Winold Reiss represented a new approach to thinking about West African aesthetics.

The cover features an illustration of a traditional mask framed by geometric patterns in yellow and black.

Winold Reiss (American, born Germany 1886–1953). Cover of Opportunity: Journal of Negro Life , February 1925. Collection of Walter O. and Linda Evans

MILLER: We’re being asked to think about African America as modern, but almost as modern sort of being borrowed and in conversation with the way that Modernist—capital M Modernist—artists had been thinking about and using African aesthetic forms.

LYNNE: Fire!! was something altogether different. The November 1926 cover by Aaron Douglas is of a sphinx and other abstract symbols on a completely black background. This cover demands attention.

MILLER: Here we’re sort of thinking about Africa in an avant-garde way, Like it’s really we’re supposed to be thinking like, oh, you know, this is exciting, this is maybe a little kind of outré. Like, it’s exotifying in some ways, but for the purpose of attraction.

LYNNE: While Opportunity and The Crisis represented more “respectable” values on their covers and in their pages, Fire!! was not at all remotely interested in respectability. It was a place for younger artists to discuss controversial topics like sexuality that the older guard might deem taboo. Here’s John Keene.

KEENE: The writers of Fire!! were not concerned with presenting neat bourgeois representations of Black people. They were interested in—you know, and of course it’s to our benefit—presenting a richer and fuller portrait of Black life at that moment.

So you get representations of working-class and poor Black people. You get representations of the struggles of the Black bourgeoisie. You get overt critiques of racism and White supremacy. You get, for example, with Richard Bruce Nugent, one of the very first works that deals with Black queer sexuality.

MILLER: The legend around Fire!! is that Wallace Thurman, who was a young writer who had come to Harlem from Los Angeles, and Bruce Nugent—who was perhaps the youngest person who was active in the Harlem Renaissance at that time, who had just come to New York from Washington, D.C.—both of them queer men, that they flipped a coin. And whoever got heads was going to write the story about prostitution and whoever got tails was going to write a story about homosexuality. And those were the two stories that they wanted to sort of anchor Fire!! magazine around, which was going to be which was going to be and ultimately turned out to be incredibly controversial at the time.

LYNNE: The artists and writers of Fire!! weren’t simply trying to find an audience amongst their peers. They represented the interests and ideas of an entire generation. A generation less concerned with signaling middle-class values and more concerned with honest expression.

Keene: The Harlem Renaissance writers and artists represented really, you know, Black America at that moment in the urban North in New York. So, you had writers, you know, who were from the West Indies, you had the Caribbean, you had writers who were born in the South. You had writers from New York itself, right, and other northern urban centers. So, you get this incredible mixture of people. And so respectability kind of went out the window!

MILLER: So Fire!! is for the younger Negro artists who want to, as Langston Hughes said in his essay, “The Negro Artists in the Racial Mountain,” who want to express themselves freely. And they don’t care if Black people like it, they don’t care if White people like it. That they’re doing it, right, to be what he said, “free within themselves.”

So, Fire!! is this magazine that includes just like The Crisis and Opportunity essays, poetry, artwork, history. But it does it from a decidedly radical point of view. Ironically, there was only one issue of Fire!! because the issues that were being stored to be sold all over the East Coast or as far as they could get the magazine burned up in a fire.

LYNNE: Yes… Fire!! magazine’s life was cut short due to a fire. But the bond and creative energy that existed amongst the younger generation stayed intact.

MILLER: The younger group of Negro artists who were part of Fire!! magazine were all kind of located in an apartment that was rented out by a sort of older woman in Harlem who was really interested in fostering the arts. Her name was Iolanthe Sydney. She rented apartments at a discount to artists. Aaron Douglas lived in this apartment. I think Bruce Nugent lived there on and off. Hurston was there occasionally. Wallace Thurman was there, Langston Hughes was there.

So, this apartment was was a place where… that was a salon of the younger Negro artists. Important, though, in that apartment was, because of Aaron Douglas and also Bruce Nugent, who were visual artists. The walls were painted by Douglas. There were drawings all over the place that were made by Bruce Nugent. He was the only, sort of, out gay man in the Harlem Renaissance, so his drawings and artwork were very provocative at the time. A lot of naked bodies and sensual depictions of the African American body.

So, they lived in a space that was filled with art, the writers. And the artists lived in a space that was filled with words.

LYNNE: The collaborative spirit of these visual and literary artists allowed their mediums to collide. A chance to explore subjects considered scandalous, and to simply let go.

John Keene has seen this in his own projects.

KEENE: I’ve done two books with visual artists, one of whom is also an amazing poet and one of them is an amazing photographer. I just did a poster with another wonderful photographer. And I feel like one of the things that I gain is a sense of depth, a deeper appreciation for the other mediums and for the medium I’m working in, right?

So, working with a visual artist you come to understand how they see the world, how they see the process of making art. And it informs my own work as a writer, and I believe the reverse is true, as well. The other thing too, I think, that I love about collaboration is it involves a certain amount of surrendering of the ego. You have to step back from the “I” and think in terms of “we”—how can we create—which I think is a great spur for creativity.

LYNNE: Ultimately, these publications were more similar than they were different. Each was dedicated to promoting the arts and literature of the Harlem Renaissance and the artists central to this movement and each had important figures behind their success.

One of them is Jessie Redmond Fauset, a novelist, poet, critic, and editor of The Crisis who is sometimes overshadowed by her male counterparts.

MILLER: Fauset is an incredibly important person in the Renaissance because of the way that she edited that magazine and also solicited work from writers and also encouraged them—like Charles Johnson and Alain Locke did for the Opportunity contest—really fostered a kind of literary environment. And ultimately, she and other people were part of many different kinds of salons that were taking place both in New York and also in Washington, D.C.

LYNNE: The Crisis and Opportunity not only provided a platform through commissioning artists for cover illustrations, they also sponsored contests for writers.

MILLER: And these contests were important because they not only supported artistic work and recognized it, but they were often the vehicle through which many of the writers that we associate with the Renaissance came to New York.

LYNNE: James Mercer Langston Hughes was born in Missouri and grew up in various midwestern towns. Raised mainly by his maternal grandmother he developed a love of words early.

While in high school he began to compose the first of a lifetime of short stories, poetry and plays. In his early twenties Hughes moved to New York City to attend Columbia University. Around this time he submitted a poem to The Crisis . It was called “The Negro Speaks of Rivers.”

He’d written it as a teenager on a train crossing the Mississippi River. Writing the poem down on the back of an envelope, it seemed to flow out of him like the waters below. You can almost picture him reading the poem softly under his breath as the train headed south.

Here’s Hughes in his own voice reading the “The Negro Speaks of Rivers”:

LANGSTON HUGHES:

I’ve known rivers: I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than the flow of human blood in human veins.

My soul has grown deep like the rivers.

I bathed in the Euphrates when dawns were young. I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled me to sleep. I looked upon the Nile and raised the pyramids above it. I heard the singing of the Mississippi when Abe Lincoln went down to New Orleans, and I’ve seen its muddy bosom turn all golden in the sunset.

I’ve known rivers: Ancient, dusky rivers.

LYNNE: Did he realize that what he’d just written would catapult his career and become one of the defining poems of the era? Hughes ended up submitting this poem to The Crisis after arriving in New York as a twenty year old.

MILLER: There are these moments, famous moments, when we think about the Renaissance.

LYNNE: One of those is when, after reading the poem, Du Bois turns to Fauset and says, “What colored person is there, do you suppose, in the United States who writes like that and is yet unknown to us?”

Langston Hughes has been close to John Keene’s heart throughout his own career. Here’s Keene reflecting on a portrait of a then twenty-four-year-old Hughes by German-born artist Winold Reiss.

This portrait features a young Hughes in a sharp suit seated at a desk with a notebook open… as if the viewer is watching the writer at work. Hughes looks into the distance, in contemplation.

Winold Reiss (American, born Germany, 1886–1953). Langston Hughes , 1925. Pastel on illustration board. National Portrait Gallery, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington D.C.; Gift of W. Tjark Reiss, in memory of his father, Winold Reiss

KEENE: One of the things that it sort of signifies is his centrality, right? He was someone who was a kind of connecting figure for so many different members in what became the Harlem Renaissance, right? But even at his very young age, he was, I think, sort of establishing himself as one of the premier poets of his generation. So it’s sort of fascinating to see, you know, someone capture him at that young age, but also to kind of show the range of who he was through the juxtaposition of the images in the painting. The Cubism in the background and, of course, the pensive young poet in the foreground.

LYNNE: John Keene loves Hughes’s poems, for their approachability, humor, and lyricism.

KEENE: I think it was a combination of the poems’ musicality, their artistry. He’s very gifted in concision, their humor. And also the poems have a political bite. And you don’t have to be, you know, super sophisticated, you can be a child and pick up what he’s saying. So you get all of those elements together, and they make for very powerful and compelling poetry.

I probably encountered Langston Hughes’s poetry first as a small child from my parents and godparents and had been a fan of and loved Hughes’s work ever since.

LYNNE: John Keene didn’t need any prompting recalling Langton Hughes’s poem “Harlem.”

KEENE: So, the opening line, of course, is:

What happens to a dream deferred? Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun? — Which, of course, provided Lorraine Hansberry with the title for her great play… Or fester like a sore— And then run? Does it stink like rotten meat? Or crust and sugar over— like a syrupy sweet?

Maybe it just sags like a heavy load.

And then that final line:

Or does it explode?

LYNNE: Hughes had caught the attention of Du Bois and Fauset at The Crisis . Meanwhile, Hurston made a splash with the editors of Opportunity .

Hurston had previously been published in Opportunity . But in 1925 she entered a short story called “Spunk” and a play called Color Struck to one of the magazine’s literary contests. She won second place in both categories.

Another one of those famous moments in the history of the Harlem Renaissance was at the party celebrating this contest, when Hurston made her debut.

MILLER: When Hurston walked in the door, she famously had a red feather boa on, threw that feather boa over her shoulder, and said the words, “Color struck!” Which was actually the name of the play that she had won second prize for. The whole room turned to look at her. She announced her presence in Harlem with that gesture.

LYNNE: Zora Neale Hurston would become a force of the Harlem Renaissance and American literature more broadly. That night she met Langston Hughes, who would become a great friend. And she made another connection with Barnard College founder and trustee Annie Nathan Meyer.

Monica: And Annie Nathan Meyer, after seeing Hurston circulating in the party, said, you know what? I think that woman is the woman I want to see if I can integrate Barnard College with.

Hurston became Barnard’s first Black student after meeting Annie Nathan Meyer that evening. And for Hurston, securing an education was actually sort of everything. So moving into that room, making that impression, meeting her sort of, you know, soulmate in Langston Hughes, and this vehicle towards education and her ultimate career as both a writer and an anthropologist… Opportunity magazine gave her that opportunity.

LYNNE: She would go on to study anthropology and become the first Black graduate of Barnard College. After getting her degree Hurston wanted to return to the South, where she’d grown up, to document Southern Black life: its folk tales, songs, and stories.

After receiving funding, Hurston drove down South in a little coup nicknamed “Sassy Susie.”

MILLER: There’s a great photograph of her in front of her car with a gun in a holster because she was traveling through the South primarily alone and occasionally needed to to feel protected. Also the car, because sometimes there were not places where a Black person or Black woman in particular could stay—she would stay in the car.

This photograph is a beautiful contrast to a painting found in the exhibition titled Miss Zora Neale Hurston . The portrait, by Aaron Douglas, not only captures another side of Hurston but also a different style than the modern, geometric approach typically associated with Douglas.

Aaron Douglas (American, 1899–1979). Miss Zora Neale Hurston , 1926. Pastel on canvas. Fisk University Galleries, Nashville

MILLER: We have Hurston sitting in a chair and there’s a certain kind of dark brownness to the wood. So I’m really interested in the many many tones of brown that are in the painting. She’s wearing a brown kind of cloche hat, she’s got a little fur, and her coat is brown. So, it’s a sort of study in brown, which I think is really beautiful because it’s bringing out her skin tone.

What I also really like about this painting is the expression on Hurston’s face. She seems like she is relaxed and thinking and in the company of a friend. We think of Hurston as a person who has a lot of energy. Like, she just had tremendous energy. And this portrait is one of her where she’s calm, relaxed, and at ease.

LYNNE: It’s a refined, quiet portrait—a far cry from Hurston the pistol-totin’, Sassy Susie–driving, anthropological researcher….

During this time Langston Hughes was also down South.

MILLER: So Hurston was down in the South doing field work, collecting stories and folk songs. Trying to sort of study African American culture in a way that it hadn’t really ever been studied before and preserve it. And Langston Hughes was visiting Tuskegee Institute and giving a reading of his poetry. And they kind of got on the road together.

And the way that Hurston was traveling is that she was not traveling to universities. She was traveling to, you know, work camps, work sites, small Black communities where she could listen to stories and talk to ordinary Black people about their lives, you know, record their speech, their metaphors. I mean, all of the things that she called the characteristics of Negro expression. So they were really sort of out in smaller communities and rural communities driving around in Hurston’s car.

LYNNE: These two writers and their lives embody how the writings of the Renaissance traveled. It wasn’t work that only found an audience in the cosmopolitan North. It spoke to and resonated with these rural communities in a way that’s not surprising.

MILLER: Hurston’s collecting stories. Hughes is reading his work and interacting with people. So, in terms of how some of the Harlem Renaissance poetry and literature was received in other places, it was embraced.

LYNNE: The writings of the Harlem Renaissance traveled far and wide and covered many themes. The essays, novels, short stories, poems, and plays created during this time spoke to audiences in Europe, the Caribbean, and beyond about life in the rural South as well as the industrialized cities of the North.

The writer Nella Larsen tackled topics like colorism in her classic novel Passing . Other writers, like Claude McKay or Countee Cullen, found inspiration in themes of sexuality, alienation, and racial pride. There are so many incredible writers from the Harlem Renaissance to research and enjoy. Their contributions radically changed and inspired the written word and we can see, feel, and read their influence in so many writers today.

KEENE: We get a deeper sense of Black experience, Black interiority, Black subjectivity in a way that we had not seen before. So, I think that the Harlem Renaissance writers really opened up a lot of doors, a lot of windows for their peers and for all the writers who follow. Because we’re still, in a sense, walking through the doors that they opened up for us.

[Zora Neale Hurston singing “Halimufack”]

LYNNE: You may have had the chance to read Zora Neale Hurston’s work as a writer and an author. But I wanted to share something that feels really special to me as a self-identified Hurston fangirl. Here’s her singing.

[Zora Neale Hurston continues singing]

LYNNE: There’s something about hearing her voice that makes me realize—oh wow. She was a human being, with her own emotions and lived experience and singing voice.

LYNNE: “Halimufack” performed by Zora Neale Hurston is available in the Library of Congress .

LYNNE: A big thank you to Monica L. Miller and John Keene for spending time with us today. Our next episode will focus on the music and nightlife of the Harlem Renaissance. We’ll talk about the musicians, the brilliant ballrooms, and smokey bars, and the freedom that people found in challenging conventional understandings of sexuality.

Harlem Is Everywhere  is produced by The Metropolitan Museum of Art in collaboration with Audacy’s Pineapple Street Studios.

Our senior producer is Stephen Key. Our producer is Maria Robins-Somerville. Our editor is Josh Gwynn. Mixing by our senior engineer, Marina Paiz. Additional engineering by senior audio engineer Pedro Alvira. Our assistant engineers are Sharon Bardales and Jade Brooks.

I’m your host, Jessica Lynne. Fact checking by Maggie Duffy. Legal services by Kristel Tupja. Original music by Austin Fisher and Epidemic Sound

The Met’s production staff includes producer Rachel Smith; managing producer Christopher Alessandrini; and executive producer Sarah Wambold.

This show would not be possible without Denise Murrell, the Merryl H. & James S. Tisch Curator at Large and curator for the Harlem Renaissance and Transatlantic Modernism exhibition; research associate is Tiarra Brown.

Special thanks to Inka Drögemüller, Douglas Hegley, Skyla Choi, Isabella Garces, David Raymond, Ashley Sabb, Tess Solot-Kehl, Gretchen Scott, and Frank Mondragon.

Asha Saluja and Je-Anne Berry are the executive producers at Pineapple Street.

More from Harlem Is Everywhere

Harlem Is Everywhere : Episode 5, Art as Activism

Harlem Is Everywhere : Episode 4, Music & Nightlife

Harlem Is Everywhere : Episode 2, Portraiture & Fashion

About the contributors, jessica lynne.

Host, Harlem Is Everywhere

Monica L. Miller

Professor of English and Africana Studies, Barnard College, Columbia University

The Harlem Renaissance and Transatlantic Modernism

Harlem Is Everywhere

Behind the Scenes

For Families

From the Archives

In Circulation

Notes from Museum Leadership

Religion and Spirituality

Essay on Indian Art and Culture

Students are often asked to write an essay on Indian Art and Culture in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Indian Art and Culture

Introduction.

Indian Art and Culture is a rich tapestry of diverse traditions, practices, and art forms. It has been shaped by the country’s long history and unique geographical features.

Indian Art manifests in various forms like paintings, sculptures, and architecture. From the intricate carvings of temples to the vibrant Madhubani paintings, Indian Art is a visual treat.

Indian Culture

Indian Culture is a blend of various customs and traditions. It is reflected in the country’s languages, cuisines, music, dance, and festivals, celebrating India’s diversity.

Indian Art and Culture, with its rich diversity, offers a unique perspective into the country’s history, tradition, and values. It is the soul of India, making it a fascinating country.

Also check:

• Paragraph on Indian Art and Culture

250 Words Essay on Indian Art and Culture

Indian Art and Culture is a reflection of the country’s rich and diverse history. It is a blend of various traditions and customs that have evolved over thousands of years.

Indian Art, with its intricate carvings and stunning architecture, is a testament to the creativity and skill of its artisans. The Ajanta-Ellora caves, the Sun Temple at Konark, and the intricate marble carvings of the Taj Mahal are just a few examples. Indian art also extends to a variety of forms including painting, sculpture, pottery, and textile arts, each with its unique style and regional variations.

Indian culture, on the other hand, is a complex amalgamation of diverse customs, traditions, rituals, and philosophies. It is characterized by its religious diversity, linguistic variation, and a wide array of music, dance, and cuisine. The deep-rooted philosophies of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Islam, and Christianity have significantly influenced the cultural fabric of the country.

Interplay of Art and Culture

In India, art and culture are not independent entities but are intertwined in a beautiful tapestry. Art is often a reflection of cultural beliefs and societal norms. The depiction of gods and goddesses in Indian art, the portrayal of epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata in various art forms, and the use of art in religious rituals and festivals, all attest to this symbiotic relationship.

Indian Art and Culture, with its rich diversity and deep roots, offers a fascinating study for scholars and enthusiasts alike. It is a testament to India’s historical richness and cultural vibrancy, serving as a bridge between the past and the present.

500 Words Essay on Indian Art and Culture

Indian Art and Culture is a rich tapestry of diverse traditions and practices that have evolved over thousands of years. It is a vibrant amalgamation of various art forms, philosophies, rituals, and customs that have been passed down through generations, reflecting the country’s historical and cultural evolution.

Indian Art is a diverse and multi-faceted domain, encompassing a wide range of forms, styles, and themes. It ranges from the intricate carvings of ancient temples and the vibrant frescoes of Ajanta and Ellora, to the sophisticated Mughal miniatures and the bold, abstract works of modern and contemporary artists.

Classical Indian art is deeply rooted in religious and philosophical beliefs. The motifs and iconography often depict deities, mythological narratives, and spiritual concepts. The sculptures of Khajuraho, the murals of Ajanta, and the bronze idols of Chola period, all exemplify this spiritual essence.

In contrast, modern Indian art, influenced by western styles and concepts, explores diverse themes such as social issues, personal experiences, and abstract ideas. Artists like M.F. Husain, S.H. Raza, and Amrita Sher-Gil have made significant contributions to this field.

Indian Culture is a complex mosaic of diverse traditions, rituals, and customs. It is characterized by its pluralistic nature, with numerous languages, religions, and cuisines coexisting harmoniously. The culture is deeply ingrained in everyday life, influencing social norms, moral values, and personal identities.

Religion plays a pivotal role in shaping Indian Culture. The practices of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, Christianity, and Sikhism, among others, have significantly influenced the societal framework, festivals, and rituals.

Indian literature, with its rich corpus of epics, poetry, drama, and folktales, has been a significant cultural influencer. Works like the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and the writings of Kalidasa, Tagore, and Premchand, among others, offer profound insights into the Indian ethos.

Indian Art and Culture is a fascinating realm that mirrors the country’s historical evolution, philosophical depth, and social diversity. It is a testament to the country’s resilience in preserving its rich heritage while embracing change and diversity. Understanding and appreciating this dynamic interplay of tradition and modernity is crucial for any comprehensive study of Indian society.

In the face of globalization, it is more important than ever to preserve and promote this cultural wealth. It is not just a matter of national pride, but also a means to foster a more pluralistic, inclusive, and empathetic global society. Through its art and culture, India continues to contribute to the world’s cultural tapestry, underscoring the universal human capacity for creativity, expression, and mutual respect.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on India’s Natural Beauty
• Essay on India the Land of Diversity
• Essay on India Pakistan Relations

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Arts & Culture | April 4, 2024

The Long History of Art Inspired by Solar Eclipses

For centuries, curious artists have been trying to make sense of the celestial event

Elissaveta M. Brandon

Contributing Writer

Drivers in Dallas earlier this year may have noticed a curious trio of billboards on the side of Highway 67. Instead of advertising for the nearest brisket or “the world’s most refreshing beer,” the signs depicted a black disc ringed by a nebulous, fiery red circle.

The billboards were actually works of art. They were part of a five-billboard series called View Finder , in which American video artist Brian Fridge portrays a solar eclipse. To create his images, Fridge used a desktop lamp for the sun, an opaque disc for the moon, and a little motor pulling the disc on a string for the gravitational pull that steers the moon around the sun.

Fridge is one of many artists looking in the shadow of the moon for inspiration, ahead of the solar eclipse set to cross the United States on April 8 . At the Dallas Art Fair, Ashley Zelinskie will unveil an eerie sculpture depicting a bitumen-black moon cloaking a tentacled sun, plus a hologram of a floating black moon. Meanwhile, in New York City, Angela Lane , who has been creating postcard-sized oil paintings depicting eclipses, twin suns and other celestial phenomena for almost a decade, will present another exhibition of such paintings at the gallery Anat Ebgi later this year. And at her solo show at Hollis Taggart, Rachel MacFarlane will display The Event , a fantastical depiction of hurricane-battered Prince Edward Island in Canada that is coupled with an abstract depiction of a solar eclipse to imbue the landscape with a sense of foreboding. MacFarlane is also planning to view the upcoming eclipse, then rebuild the scene from memory back in her New York City studio.

That the solar eclipse has become a favorite muse for artists isn’t all that surprising considering the theatrical allure of the phenomenon. What is remarkable is just how long artists have tried to make sense of the celestial event, and just how much their interpretations have evolved with our own understanding of eclipses.

“I think it brings us, in a visceral, time-limited way, in touch with these cosmic-scale things that really pull us out of ourselves and our own, little, tiny world and bring us into some kind of interface with the infinite,” says Karl Kusserow , a curator of American art at the Princeton University Art Museum who contributed to a 2017 exhibition about eclipses called “ Transient Effects .” “Eclipses have been happening for billions of years, and they engage us, in a very fundamental way, with that ineffable hugeness of the world beyond our daily routines.”

As it happens, the cyclical occurrence of a total solar eclipse (which, contrary to popular belief, isn’t all that rare and happens every 18 months or so somewhere in the world) makes this extraordinary phenomenon an ideal platform to explore the changing ways that humans perceive the world around them. These perceptions vary based on geography and culture, but also on time.

The solar eclipse hasn’t always been the entertaining tourist magnet it promises to be on April 8, when the path of totality will extend from Mexico, across the United States from Texas to Maine, and into Canada. People didn’t flock to rooftop viewing parties. They didn’t travel thousands of miles to watch the sky go dark. To ancient civilizations, an eclipse was seen as a dark omen that often signified the wrath of their gods. It wasn’t exhilarating; it was unsettling.

This might explain why, according to some experts, the solar eclipse wasn’t depicted much in the early days. In many ancient cultures, the sun was seen as a deity and a source of life that helped the crops grow every season. By the same token, the absence of a sun was fraught with danger—so why turn it into art?

“To make an illustration was not as easy as just picking up a ballpoint pen,” says Kusserow. “If you’re carving in stone, you’re going to focus on things that are not the worst of all times.”

Early depictions of the solar eclipse are few and far in between, but they do exist. In Norse mythology , the eclipse takes the form of two wolves—Skoll and Hati—chasing the sun and the moon. The story goes that if one of the wolves caught the sun, and a solar eclipse occurred, it would bring about the end of the world. And in Chinese mythology , the eclipse has often been depicted as a dragon devouring the sun.

In Western art, one of the most recurring representations of the eclipse has been in Christian art. But as the director of London’s Science Museum, Ian Blatchford, thoroughly outlines in a 2016 article in a Royal Society journal , there, too, the eclipse is more of a symbol than a literal depiction.

For example, the crucifixion was believed to have taken place during a total solar eclipse, so the Salerno Ivories from the 11th or 12th century show the dying Christ flanked by the sun and the moon, hinting to a verse from the Bible stating that “darkness fell over the whole land … because the sun was obscured.” In the Echternach Gospels , which illustrate the moment of Christ’s death on the cross, the sun and the moon take the form of human figures shrouding their faces in grief.

Depictions of eclipses became more and more realistic during the Renaissance, a period known for its convergence of art and science. Around 1518, Raphael and his workshop created a striking fresco titled Isaac and Rebecca Spied Upon by Abimelech . Located in a loggia at the Vatican Palace, the fresco features a detailed version of a solar eclipse, including the sun’s fiery streamers. Some experts believe that Raphael used the eclipse as a complex metaphor for Isaac and Rebecca’s stealthy deception and lovemaking, which occurred during totality.

In more recent years, various artists have explored celestial themes with increasing detail—from Etienne Trouvelot’s captivating astronomical drawings (1878) to Roy Lichtenstein’s cosmic pop art (1975). But the most important among them remains the early 20th-century painter Howard Russell Butler, whose eclipse paintings stand out both for their artistic and scientific merit.

Butler is most famous for his portraits of Andrew Carnegie, but he studied physics and law before turning to art. When the painter was 62 years old, he was invited to join a U.S. Naval Observatory expedition to Oregon, where he chronicled the 1918 solar eclipse. “I generally asked for ten sittings of two hours each,” he later wrote of that expedition. “But all the time they would allow me on this occasion was 112 1/10 seconds.”

Butler would go on to paint three different eclipse paintings after observing the phenomenon in 1918, 1923 and 1925. By that time, photographers had attempted to document the eclipses with varying levels of success . But where photographers had struggled to capture the nuances and fiery hues of the sun’s corona, Butler succeeded by taking meticulous shorthand notes during the eclipses, then filling in the gaps later, a bit like a paint by numbers kit. (By some accounts, Butler had mastered this technique while painting 13 portraits of Carnegie, who reportedly could not sit still for long.)

Today, capturing a solar eclipse is no longer a herculean effort. Almost anyone with a digital camera, a solar lens filter and the patience to read explainers online can get a decent photo of it. The event has been documented in all its evanescent glory, and from every single angle. Yet, artists continue to be enthralled by it.

For visual artist Zelinskie, to make art that is inspired by science means to grapple with existential questions like “Why are we here?” and “What’s out there?” “We’ve been asking these questions since we were able to think, so to be answering these questions as an artist is basic human curiosity,” she says.

A little over two years ago, Zelinskie partnered with NASA scientists to produce a range of artworks, like a pair of marble gloves modeled after retired NASA astronaut Mike Massimino’s hands. This year, she’s unveiling Eclipse , a 3D-printed sculpture that doubles as a pinhole viewer, plus a hologram of the event. “[The solar eclipse] is something you have to see for yourself. You can’t describe it to somebody,” she says. “That’s why I chose to make a hologram of it. People see the hologram I’m making and take photos of it, but it doesn’t look right; you can’t tell that it’s 3D, and that’s the perfect medium.”

“It’s something you have to physically be there for,” she adds.

For her sculpture Eclipse , Zelinskie tried to convey the eerie feeling that washes over during a solar eclipse. “The birds freak out, the crickets come out, the animals think it’s nighttime, there’s a weird lighting situation,” she says. Zelinskie fashioned her moon using data from NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, which has been mapping the lunar surface for 15 years. She then sheathed the sphere in a dark black patina, and she 3D-printed flares to represent the corona.

The resulting sculpture is somewhat sinister, which goes back full circle to the dawn of eclipse art. “Every culture has eclipse artwork, but it’s always, ‘God is punishing us,’” says Zelinskie. “I didn’t find one instance of, ‘Yay, an eclipse.’ I guess this is how humanity is interpreting it, so I’m staying true to that doom and gloom.”

Meanwhile, video artist Fridge has long been fascinated with light, matter and the passing of time, but his View Finder series marks the first time that he has made eclipse-inspired artwork. Fridge is known for his abstract images and films depicting natural processes that he records in his home—like seeded clouds he created in his own freezer or, in this case, desktop lamps that stand in for the sun. “I never really leave the house, and I don’t record anything outside in nature,” he told me on a recent video call from his house, which is also his studio. “I find things on the domestic scale, then try to imbue some kind of meaning to it.”

To make View Finder , Fridge used a little device that plugs into an iPhone to pick up the heat signature of any given object and create what is known as thermographic imaging. He created a six-minute film retracing the evolution of his makeshift eclipse, captured stills from various stages of an eclipse, then blew them up to fit the size of five billboards in and around Dallas.

The result was convincing enough that when the film, also titled View Finder , premiered at Dallas Contemporary on March 10, Fridge felt the need to clarify this wasn’t footage from “the actual thing” as some viewers had assumed. It was an artistic interpretation, an illusion that was intentionally created with the constraints of household objects. “I like the meaning that could come from something that’s this limited, and you feel those limits,” he says, referring to the highly realistic renderings one can achieve with a computer or artificial intelligence today.

With View Finder , Fridge says he wanted to explore different ways in which humans see things. You can don a pair of safety glasses and look up at the solar eclipse, or you can drive past a billboard on the side of a highway and find meaning in a still image.

“Hopefully that would do what art does,” he says, “which, to me, is to contribute to a sense of curiosity and wonder, and hopefully more complex and diverse ways of seeing the world.”

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Elissaveta M. Brandon | | READ MORE

Elissaveta M. Brandon is a Brooklyn-based freelance writer whose work has appeared in Curbed , Metropolis , Architectural Digest and more. She writes about architecture, cities and the life in between.

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100 Topics to Inspire Your Next Definition Essay

May 8, 2023 //  by  Lauren Du Plessis

In today’s rapidly changing world, it’s more important than ever for students to be well-informed and adaptable. In this article, we present 100 definition essay topics covering diverse areas such as art, literature, technology, leadership, education, health, environmental issues, and ethics. These topics will not only help learners develop a deeper understanding of the world around them but also challenge their critical thinking skills and help them make informed decisions.

Definition Essay Topics About Art and Literature

In this category, we will explore the various aspects of art and literature, delving into the meaning and significance of different forms, genres, and movements. By defining these concepts, we can gain a deeper understanding of the cultural and artistic expressions that shape our world.

1. Defining the concept of a literary classic: What makes a work of literature stand the test of time?

2. The essence of romanticism in art: How does this movement differ from other artistic styles?

3. The role of symbolism in literature: Exploring the power of symbols in conveying deeper meanings.

4. Understanding magical realism: What sets this literary genre apart from others?

5. The characteristics of a tragic hero in literature: How do tragic heroes differ from other protagonists?

6. Defining the elements of a successful short story: What distinguishes a short story from other forms of fiction?

7. The significance of the modernist movement in literature: How did it redefine literary norms?

8. The principles of abstract expressionism in visual art: What defines this artistic style, and how does it differ from other forms of abstract art?

9. The impact of postmodernism on literature and art: What are the key characteristics of postmodern works?

10. The role of the graphic novel in contemporary literature: How do graphic novels challenge traditional definitions of literature?

Definition Essay Topics About Technology and the Digital World

In this category, we will examine various aspects of technology and the digital world, looking into the meaning and implications of different technological advancements, concepts, and trends. By defining these topics, we can better understand the impact of technology on our lives and society as a whole.

11. Defining artificial intelligence: What distinguishes AI from other types of computer systems?

12. The concept of the Internet of Things (IoT): How does this technology revolutionize our daily lives?

13. The role of cybersecurity in the digital age: What are the key elements of effective cybersecurity measures?

14. Understanding the principles of virtual reality: How does this technology differ from other forms of digital media?

15. The impact of social media on communication and relationships: How has social media redefined human interaction?

16. The concept of digital privacy: What are the essential components of safeguarding our personal information online?

17. The evolution of e-commerce: How has online shopping transformed the retail landscape?

18. The role of cryptocurrencies in the global economy: What makes cryptocurrencies unique compared to traditional currencies?

19. Defining the principles of net neutrality: Why is this concept important for maintaining a free and open internet?

20. The impact of automation on the workforce: How does the rise of automation technologies redefine the world of work?

Definition Essay Topics About Leadership and Management

In this category, we will explore the intricacies of leadership and management, delving into the meaning and implications of various leadership styles, management approaches, and organizational structures. By defining these topics, we can better understand the dynamics that drive successful teams, organizations, and businesses.

21. Defining leadership: What are the essential qualities that distinguish a leader from a manager?

22. The concept of transformational leadership: How does this leadership style inspire and motivate employees?

23. The role of emotional intelligence in effective leadership: Why is emotional intelligence critical for leaders in today’s workplace?

24. Understanding the principles of servant leadership: How does this leadership style prioritize the needs of team members?

25. The impact of autocratic leadership: What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of this leadership style?

26. The concept of democratic leadership: How does this leadership style foster collaboration and decision-making among team members?

27. The role of strategic management in organizational success: What are the key elements of an effective strategic management process?

28. The importance of organizational culture in management: How does a company’s culture influence its performance and success?

29. Defining the principles of change management: Why is effective change management crucial for organizations in today’s rapidly evolving business landscape?

30. The role of conflict resolution in management: How can effective conflict resolution strategies improve workplace relationships and productivity?

Definition Essay Topics About Education and Learning

31. The concept of experiential learning: How does this educational approach emphasize hands-on experiences and real-world application of knowledge?

32. Defining multiple intelligences theory: What are the different types of intelligence, and how do they shape learning preferences?

33. The role of technology in modern education: How have digital tools and resources transformed teaching and learning?

34. The Montessori method of education: What are the key principles of this child-centered approach to learning?

35. The importance of critical thinking in education: How does developing critical thinking skills benefit students in the long term?

36. The concept of the flipped classroom: How does this instructional strategy shift the traditional classroom dynamic?

37. Understanding the impact of standardized testing on education: What are the benefits and drawbacks of standardized assessments?

38. The role of arts education in fostering creativity and cognitive development: How do the arts contribute to well-rounded learning experiences?

39. Defining the principles of inclusive education: How can schools promote equitable learning opportunities for all students, regardless of their individual needs?

40. The impact of homeschooling on academic achievement and social development: How does this alternative educational approach compare to traditional schooling?

Definition Essay Topics About Career and Professional Development

In this category, we explore various aspects of career and professional development, highlighting the importance of lifelong learning, personal growth, and acquiring new skills in the ever-evolving world of work. By defining these topics, we can gain insights into how individuals can navigate their careers and achieve professional success.

41. The concept of lifelong learning: How do ongoing personal and professional development contribute to career success?

42. Defining career mentorship: How can experienced professionals guide and support others in their career journey?

43. The role of networking in professional growth: How does building connections and relationships contribute to career opportunities?

44. Understanding the importance of soft skills in the workplace: How do interpersonal and communication skills influence professional success?

45. Defining the concept of work-life balance: How can individuals manage their personal and professional responsibilities effectively?

46. The impact of continuing education on career advancement: How does acquiring new knowledge and skills help professionals stay relevant in their fields?

47. The role of internships and apprenticeships in professional development: How do these hands-on experiences benefit individuals entering the workforce?

48. Understanding the concept of career pivoting: How can individuals transition from one career path to another successfully?

49. The importance of personal branding in career development: How can professionals showcase their unique skills and experiences to stand out in the job market?

50. Defining the concept of job satisfaction: What factors contribute to a fulfilling and rewarding professional life?

51. The significance of career planning: How can individuals create a roadmap for achieving their professional goals and aspirations?

52. Understanding the concept of transferable skills: How can professionals leverage their existing skillset when transitioning to new roles or industries?

53. The role of professional certifications in career advancement: How do industry-recognized credentials contribute to professional credibility and marketability?

54. Defining the concept of career resilience: How can individuals overcome setbacks and challenges in their professional journey?

55. The importance of adaptability and flexibility in the workplace: How do these traits contribute to long-term career success in a rapidly changing job market?

56. The role of goal setting in professional development: How can individuals establish and work towards achievable career objectives?

57. Understanding the concept of job security: How can professionals ensure stability and longevity in their chosen career path?

58. The impact of workplace culture on career satisfaction: How do a company’s values and environment influence employee engagement and success?

59. Defining the concept of professional growth: How can individuals continuously evolve and progress in their careers?

60. The importance of self-assessment in career development: How can regular self-reflection and evaluation contribute to professional improvement and advancement?

Definition Essay Topics About Health and Well-being

In this category, we will explore the various facets of health and well-being, delving into concepts related to the physical, mental, and emotional aspects of our lives. These topics aim to help you better understand the complexities of maintaining a healthy lifestyle, as well as the challenges and triumphs associated with personal well-being.

61. Defining holistic health: How do physical, mental, emotional, and social aspects contribute to an individual’s overall well-being?

62. The concept of mental health: How can we better understand its importance in maintaining a balanced lifestyle?

63. The role of resilience in overcoming life’s challenges: How does resilience contribute to personal growth and well-being?

64. Defining mindfulness: Exploring the benefits and techniques for cultivating mindfulness in everyday life

65. The impact of social support networks on overall well-being: How do friends, family, and community shape our health?

66. The role of nutrition in maintaining good health: An in-depth look at the importance of a balanced diet

67. Defining self-care: How can taking care of ourselves contribute to a better quality of life?

68. The importance of sleep in maintaining physical and mental health: What does it mean to have a healthy sleep pattern?

69. Defining body positivity: How can embracing our bodies and accepting imperfections contribute to mental well-being?

70. The concept of work-life balance: How does finding the right balance between personal and professional life impact overall health and happiness?

71. The role of physical activity in promoting overall health and well-being: What are the benefits of regular exercise on the body and mind?

72. Defining emotional intelligence: How can understanding and managing our emotions lead to improved well-being and interpersonal relationships?

73. The impact of stress on health: How can we better cope with stress to maintain a healthy lifestyle?

74. The concept of self-esteem: How does one’s self-perception affect their overall well-being and life satisfaction?

75. Defining happiness: What factors contribute to a person’s overall sense of happiness and fulfillment in life?

76. The role of hobbies and leisure activities in promoting mental health: How can engaging in enjoyable activities contribute to our well-being?

77. The importance of social connections in maintaining mental health: How do our relationships with others shape our overall well-being?

78. Defining self-compassion: How can practicing self-compassion lead to improved mental health and resilience?

79. The impact of environmental factors on health and well-being: How does our environment affect our physical and mental health?

80. The role of spirituality and religion in promoting well-being: How can spiritual beliefs and practices contribute to overall health and happiness?

Definition Essay Topics About Environmental Issues and Conservation

Environmental issues and conservation are at the forefront of global concerns. As we try to understand and mitigate the impact of human activities on our planet, it becomes essential to define the key terms and concepts related to the environment. These definition essay topics will help you explore the terminology and ideas that shape the conversation around environmental issues and conservation.

81. Defining sustainable development: What are the key principles behind sustainable development, and how can it be achieved?

82. The concept of an ecological footprint: How do our individual choices affect the environment?

83. The meaning of biodiversity: Why is it essential for maintaining a healthy planet?

84. Climate change: What is the scientific definition, and how does it impact our lives?

85. Renewable energy sources: Define and compare various types of clean energy.

86. Deforestation: Explain the causes and consequences of deforestation, and how it affects our planet.

87. The role of recycling in waste management: How does recycling help reduce waste and protect the environment?

88. Environmental justice: Define the concept and its importance in today’s society.

89. The importance of conservation: What does it mean to conserve our natural resources, and why is it vital?

90. Ocean pollution: Define the different types of ocean pollution and their impact on marine life and ecosystems.

Definition Essay Topics About Ethics and Morality

Ethics and morality are essential components of human society that guide our decision-making and behavior. Defining these concepts helps us understand the values and principles that shape our interactions with others and our environment. These definition essay topics will allow you to delve into the nuances of ethics and morality.

91. Defining utilitarianism: What is the principle of “the greatest good for the greatest number” and how does it influence ethical decision-making?

92. The concept of deontology: Explain the duty-based ethical theory and its implications for personal and societal conduct.

93. The meaning of moral relativism: Explore the idea that moral values and principles can vary across cultures and societies.

94. Defining altruism: What motivates selfless acts, and how do they contribute to human well-being?

95. The ethical implications of lying: When is lying considered morally justifiable, and when is it not?

96. The role of empathy in moral decision-making: How does the ability to understand and share others’ feelings impact our choices and actions?

97. The significance of personal integrity: Define the concept and explain its importance in maintaining trust and credibility.

98. The ethics of animal rights: What is the moral basis for considering the rights and welfare of non-human animals?

99. Defining moral courage: What does it mean to stand up for one’s principles in the face of adversity or backlash?

100. The concept of virtue ethics: How do character traits and virtues shape our moral decisions and behavior?

2024 Literature Award Winners

Literature awards, the carol kay memorial essay prize.

(Dealing with British Literature from 1500 to 1900)

First Place: Liam Tinker, “ Double-Gifting and the Enacting of Self-Interested Charity in The Merchant of Venice ”

Second Place: Timothy Koons, “Reinterpretation and The Merchant of Venice ”

The James Snead Award for Best Undergraduate Essays

(Dealing with one or more of the following: Film, African-American Literature, American Literature, German Literature)

First Place: Daniel Marcinko, “ Twain’s  Huckleberry Finn , Chopin’s  The Awakening , and the Paradox of the Great American Novel ”

Second Place: Zain Adamo, “ Discovering Socialist Realism Along the Volga ”

Second Place: Gabriel Hanley, “ Fear of the Unknown: The Speculative Past, Present, and Future of Speculative Fiction”

The Marlee and James Myers Award

(For Outstanding Students in the Department of English)

Isabella Gibson

The J.K. and Gertrude Miller Prize

(For students who show special ability in English literature)

Hattie Lindey

Liam Tinker

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John Barth, Writer Who Pushed Storytelling’s Limits, Dies at 93

His sprawling and boisterous novel “The Sot-Weed Factor,” published in 1960, projected him into the ranks of the country’s most innovative writers.

By Michael T. Kaufman and Dwight Garner

John Barth, who, believing that the old literary conventions were exhausted, extended the limits of storytelling with imaginative and intricately woven novels like “The Sot-Weed Factor” and “Giles Goat-Boy,” died on Tuesday at a hospice facility in Bonita Springs, Fla. He was 93.

His death was confirmed by his wife, Shelly Barth. Before entering hospice care, Mr. Barth had lived in the Bonita Bay neighborhood of Bonita Springs.

Mr. Barth was 30 when he published his sprawling third novel, the boisterous “The Sot-Weed Factor” (1960). It projected him into the ranks of the country’s most innovative writers, drawing comparisons to contemporaries like Thomas Pynchon, Jorge Luis Borges and Vladimir Nabokov.

He followed up with another major work, “Giles Goat-Boy” (1966), which he summarized as a story “about a young man who is raised as a goat, who later learns he’s human and commits himself to the heroic project of discovering the secret of things.” It was also an erudite and satirical parable of the Cold War, in which campuses of a divided university confronted each other in hostility and mutual deterrence.

Mr. Barth was a practitioner and a theoretician of postmodern literature. In 1967, he wrote a critical essay for The Atlantic Monthly, “The Literature of Exhaustion,” which continues to be cited as the manifesto of postmodernism, and which has inspired decades of debate over its central contention: that old conventions of literary narrative can be, and indeed have been, “used up.”

As his foremost inspiration, Mr. Barth cited Scheherazade, the tale-spinning enchantress who nightly wove stories to keep her master from executing her at dawn. He said it was she who first bewitched him when he worked as a page in the stacks of the Johns Hopkins University library in Baltimore as an undergraduate.

From 1965 to 1973, Mr. Barth taught at the State University of New York at Buffalo (now the University at Buffalo), where he was a member of a renowned English department that also included the critic Leslie Fiedler .

Mr. Barth’s creative output was prodigious: He published nearly 20 novels and collections of short stories, three books of critical essays and a final book of short observational pieces. In his teaching and in his writing, he stressed the force of narrative imagination in the face of death, or even just boredom.

When the university was thrown into chaos by a long and shapeless student upheaval in early 1970, Mr. Barth was asked by a young reporter what the experience had taught him.

In the Tidewater accent of his native Maryland, Mr. Barth acknowledged that by temperament he was not likely to get involved in campus protests and “the casuistries that people evolve.” He volunteered laconically that what he had learned was that “the fact that the situation is desperate doesn’t make it any more interesting.”

Mr. Barth was a distinctive presence. “He is a tall man with a domed forehead; a pair of very large-rimmed spectacles give him a professorial, owlish look,” George Plimpton wrote in the introduction to an interview he conducted with Mr. Barth for The Paris Review in 1985. “He is a caricaturist’s delight.”

“In manner,” Mr. Plimpton continued, “Barth has been described as a combination of British officer and Southern gentleman.”

John Simmons Barth was born on May 27, 1930, in Cambridge, Md., on Chesapeake Bay, to John Jacob and Georgia (Simmons) Barth. His father ran a candy store. He had a twin sister, Jill, who once told The Washington Post that he had “gotten a lot of things without trying very hard at school.” An older brother, William, said that as a child John “always had an overactive imagination.” He added, “What amazes me is how he imagines so much when he’s experienced so little.”

In high school Mr. Barth was drawn to music; he played drums in the school band and hoped to become a jazz arranger. He was accepted to join a summer program run by the Juilliard School in New York before enrolling at Johns Hopkins.

“I found out very quickly in New York,” he said in a 2008 interview , “that the young man to my right and the young woman to my left were going to be the real professional musicians of their generation, and that what I had hoped was a pre-professional talent was really just an amateur flair.”

Mr. Barth graduated from Johns Hopkins in 1951 and received a master’s degree there the next year. He taught at Pennsylvania State University from 1953 to 1965.

His first published novel, “The Floating Opera” (1956), was narrated by a character who considers killing himself out of existential boredom before realizing that this choice would be as meaningless as any other. In 1969, Mr. Barth’s “Lost in the Funhouse,” an experimental collection of short stories, was a finalist for the National Book Award. He won the award in 1973 for “Chimera,” another collection.

After the publication of “The End of the Road,” a campus novel filled with parodies of psychiatric and academic jargon, in 1958, Mr. Barth set out in a new and less realistic direction with “The Sot-Weed Factor,” a huge picaresque written in neo-Elizabethan style and laden with puns. It tells the story of Ebenezer Cooke, the “sot-weed factor” (tobacco peddler) of the title, who travels through a sinful late-17th-century world with his twin sister and his tutor, struggling to maintain his virtue.

“The book is a bare-knuckled satire of humanity at large and the grandiose costume romance,” Edmund Fuller wrote in a review in The New York Times, “done with meticulous skill in an imitation of such 18th-century picaresque novelists as Fielding, Smollett and Sterne.”

He added, “For all the vigor of these models, we have to go back to Rabelais to match its unbridled bawdiness and scatological mirth.”

Mr. Fiedler, Mr. Barth’s colleague in Buffalo, said “The Sot-Weed Factor” was “closer to the Great American Novel than any other book of the last decade.” Time magazine called it “that rare literary creation: a genuinely serious comedy.”

Mr. Barth took another gamble with his next book, saying it would be “a souped-up Bible.”

“What I really wanted to write after ‘The Sot-Weed Factor’ was a new Old Testament, a comic Old Testament,” he told an interviewer.

What emerged was “Giles Goat-Boy,” the story of a young man who, having recognized that he is human and not a goat, seeks to promote moral conduct on the west campus of a university and redeem its student body by reprogramming a computer, WESCAC, that dominates that portion of the campus, even while the machine is in a dangerous standoff with the equally threatening EASCAC, a deus ex machina that controls life on the east campus.

The book was generally received with enthusiasm and won Mr. Barth new admirers. But it was also criticized for what some called its artifice and contrivance. While Newsweek said it “confirms Barth’s standing as perhaps the most prodigally gifted comic novelist writing in English today,” Michael Dirda, writing in The Washington Post, called it “more than a little overwrought and too clever by half.”

The criticism would continue. Writing in The Times in 1982, Michiko Kakutani noted that over the years Mr. Barth had been “praised, on the one hand, for creating daring, innovative texts” and “damned, on the other, by critics as disparate as John Gardner and Gore Vidal, for substituting high-tech literary gimmicks for real characters and moral passion.”

Mr. Barth was clearly sensitive to such views and seemingly addressed them in one of his best-known statements: “My feeling about technique in art is that it has the same value as technique in lovemaking. That is to say, heartfelt ineptitude has its charm and so has heartless skill, but what you really want is passionate virtuosity.”

He defended his use of postmodern devices like jokes, irony and exaggeration to punctuate, comment on, and even ridicule and undermine a narrative. Such techniques, he insisted, provided the tools to replenish and build on what he considered to be the moribund realism of the 19th-century novel.

When an interviewer for Bookforum asked him in 2004 if he read his reviews, Mr. Barth replied: “Oh, sure. As I used to tell my apprentices, what you want most of all is intelligent praise. If you can’t have intelligent praise, you’ll take stupid praise. If you can’t have stupid praise, then the third-best thing is intelligent criticism. And, of course, the worst thing is stupid criticism.”

He especially disliked it when he was accused of writing spoofs. He once told Esquire magazine that the word “spoof” sounded like imperfectly suppressed flatulence.

Mr. Barth often tinkered with his own work and prepared revised editions of many of his books. One of his novels, “Letters” (1979), consisted of letters to and from the characters of his earlier novels. He revisited the essay “The Literature of Exhaustion” in another essay, written in 1980, titled “The Literature of Replenishment.” His “Tidewater Tales: A Novel” (1987) was conceived as a mirror-image twin to “Sabbatical: A Romance,” published five years earlier. Both dealt with couples on a sailboat trip, but with key characters making opposite life choices.

Mr. Barth’s novel “Coming Soon!!!” (2001) was a riff on his first book, “The Floating Opera.” It concerned a writing competition between an aging writer identified only as the “novelist emeritus” and a student at the Johns Hopkins writing department, where Mr. Barth had taught from 1973 to 1995.

As he grew older, so did his characters. “The Development” (2008) was a set of linked stories about the elderly residents of a gated community called Heron Bay Estates. There were toga parties and high spirits in these stories, but also pain and loss. One story was titled “Assisted Living,” another “The End.”

His last book, a collection of short nonfiction pieces, “Postscripts,” was published in 2022.

Mr. Barth married Harriette Anne Strickland in 1950. They had three children, Christine, John and Daniel, and divorced in 1969. He married Shelly I. Rosenberg in 1970. In addition to her, he is survived by his children.

Mr. Barth often sailed in the Chesapeake, as did many of his characters. He regularly played the drums with a neighborhood jazz band in Baltimore.

He confided to Ms. Kakutani that his experience in the world at large had been somewhat limited. He said he had “led a serene, tranquil and absolutely non-Byronic life.”

Michael T. Kaufman , a former Times editor and correspondent, died in 2010. Alex Traub and Orlando Mayorquín contributed reporting.

Dwight Garner has been a book critic for The Times since 2008, and before that was an editor at the Book Review for a decade. More about Dwight Garner

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Bachelors’ Theses

Dramatic criticism: its place in the american theater and a discussion of its exponents.

Rowena M. Devine , Marquette University

Date of Award

Degree type.

Bachelors Essay

Degree Name

Bachelor of Arts (BA)

Criticism is as essential to the theater as it is to literature, art or music. It is a connecting link between the theater and the theater-goer. Most authorities today concede that without criticism the theater would wane in popularity.

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Philosophy from Marquette University

Recommended Citation

Devine, Rowena M., "Dramatic Criticism: Its Place in the American Theater and a Discussion of Its Exponents" (1929). Bachelors’ Theses . 71. https://epublications.marquette.edu/bachelor_essays/71

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