critical reflection on relationship between society and education

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Conceptualizing the complexity of reflective practice in education

Misrah mohamed.

1 Centre for Enhancement of Learning and Teaching, University of West London, London, United Kingdom

Radzuwan Ab Rashid

2 Faculty of Languages and Communication, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia

Marwan Harb Alqaryouti

3 Department of English Language, Literature and Translation, Zarqa University, Zarqa, Jordan

In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth. While it is now a prominent part of educators, many still find it challenging to apply the concept for it carries diverse meaning for different people in different contexts. This article attempts to (re)conceptualize the complexity of reflective practice in an educational context. Scholars in this field have taken different approaches to reflective practice, but all these approaches consist of four main components in common: (i) reflecting; (ii) planning for future action; (iii) acting; and (iv) evaluating the outcomes. We extend the existing literature by proposing a model which integrates these four components with three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation, and criticality. The novelty of this model lies within its alignment of the three key aspects with different levels of criticality in a comprehensive framework with detailed descriptors provided. The model and its descriptors are useful in guiding individuals who directly or indirectly involve in critical reflection, especially educators, in appraising their levels of criticality and consequently engage in a meaningful reflection.

Introduction

In the field of education, reflective practice has been recognized as an important aspect in continuing professional development. Through reflective practice, we can identify the factors, the consequences of and the assumptions that underlie our actions. In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process ( Ai et al., 2017 ) that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth ( McAlpine et al., 2004 ; De Geest et al., 2011 ; Davies, 2012 ; Marshall, 2019 ). It enables professional judgment ( Day, 1999 ) and fosters professional competence through planning, implementing and improving performance by rethinking about strengths, weaknesses and specific learning needs ( Huda and Teh, 2018 ; Cirocki and Widodo, 2019 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ; Seyed Abolghasem et al., 2020 ; Huynh, 2022 ). Without routinely engaging in reflective practice, it is unlikely that educators will comprehend the effects of their motivations, expectations and experiences upon their practice ( Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). Thus, reflective practice becomes an important tool that helps educators to explore and articulate lived experiences, current experience, and newly created knowledge ( Osterman and Kottkamp, 2004 ). Educators are continually recommended to apply reflective practice in getting a better understanding of what they know and do as they develop their knowledge of practice ( Loughran, 2002 ; Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). In fact, reflective practice is now a prominent part of training for trainee teachers (e.g., Shek et al., 2021 ; Childs and Hillier, 2022 ; Ruffinelli et al., 2022 ) because it can help future teachers review their own practices and develop relevant skills where necessary.

Despite the wide acceptance of the concept of reflective practice, the notion of ‘reflection’ in itself is still broad. Our review of literature reveals that reflection is a term that carries diverse meaning. For some, “it simply means thinking about something” or “just thinking” (e.g., Loughran, 2002 , p. 33), whereas for others, it is a well-defined practice with very specific purpose, meaning and action (e.g., Dewey, 1933 ; Schön, 1983 ; Grimmett and Erickson, 1988 ; Richardson, 1990 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Spalding et al., 2002 ; Paterson and Chapman, 2013 ). We found many interesting interpretations made along this continuum, but we believe the most appealing that rings true for most people is that reflection is useful and informing in the development and understanding of teaching and learning (e.g., Seitova, 2019 ; McGarr, 2021 ; Huynh, 2022 ). This, however, is not enough to signify the characteristics of reflection. Consequently, many teachers find it hard to understand the concept and engage in reflective practice for their professional development ( Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ; Kovacs and Corrie, 2022 ). For example, some teachers from higher arts education have considered reflective practice as antithetical to practical learning ( Guillaumier, 2016 ; Georgii-Hemming et al., 2020 ) as they often frame explicit reflection as assessed reflective writing, which is “disconnected from the embodied and non-verbal dimensions of making and reflecting on art” ( Treacy & Gaunt, 2021 , p. 488). The lack of understanding of the concept has created disengagement in reflection and reflective practice ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ) which resulted in poor insight and performance in practice ( Davies, 2012 ). To overcome this, educators should foster their understanding of the reflective practice, so they not only can reap its benefits for their own learning, but also facilitate and maximize reflective skills within their students.

In this paper, we aim to provide an overview of the concepts of effective reflective practice and present the value of reflective practice that can help teachers to professionally develop. First, we situate our conceptual understanding of reflective practice by discussing key issues surrounding reflection and reflective practice. Second, we present the key aspects of effective reflective practice. Finally, based on our discussion of key aspects of effective reflective practice, we introduce a revised model of reflective practice that may serve as a guide for educators to professionally develop. Although the model is but one approach, we believe it holds promise for others grappling as we are with efforts to encourage reflective practices among educators who find reflection in and on their practices a complex concept.

Key issues in reflective practice

The concepts of “reflection,” “reflective thought,” and “reflective thinking” have been discussed since 1904, when John Dewey claimed that an individual with good ethical values would treat professional actions as experimental and reflect upon their actions and consequences. Dewey defined reflection as the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” ( Dewey, 1904 , p. 10). His basic notion is that reflection is an active, deliberative cognitive process involving a sequence of interconnected ideas that include the underlying beliefs and knowledge of an individual.

Following Dewey’s original work and its subsequent interpretation, four key thought-provoking issues are worthy of discussion: reflective thinking versus reflective action; time of reflection; reflection and problem solving; and critical reflection. The first concern is whether reflection is a process limited to thinking about action or also bound up in action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). There seems to be broad agreement that reflection is a form of thought process ( Ross, 1989 ; McNamara, 1990 ; Sparks-Langer et al., 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ) even though some do not lead to action. However, Dewey’s first mention of “reflective action” suggests he was concerned with the implementation of solutions after thinking through problems. Therefore, reflective practice, in our view, is bound up with the constant, careful consideration of practice in the light of knowledge and beliefs. The complete cycle of reflection should then lead to clear, modified action and this needs to be distinguished from routine action derived from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ).

The time frames within which reflection takes place, needs to be addressed—relatively immediate and short term, or rather more extended and systematic. Schön (1983) holds that professionals should learn to frame and reframe the problems they often face and after trying out various interpretations, modify their actions as a result. He proposes “reflection-in-action,” which requires conscious thinking and modification, simultaneously reflecting and doing almost immediately. Similar to this concept is “technical reflection,” involving thinking about competencies or skills and their effectiveness and occurs almost immediately after an implementation and can then lead to changes in subsequent action ( Cruickshank, 1985 ; Killen, 1989 ). While the notion of immediacy in reflective practice seems appropriate, some argue that the process should involve conscious detachment from an activity after a distinct period of contemplation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ). This is because reflection demands contemplating rational and moral practices in order to make reasoned judgments about better ways to act. Reflective practice often involves looking back at actions from a distance, after they have taken place ( Schön, 1983 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ). While immediate and extended “versions” of reflections are both recognized, we suppose no one is better than another. However, we believe that being able to think consciously about what is happening and respond instantaneously makes for a higher level of reflective competence.

The third issue identified from our literature review is whether reflection by its very nature is problem orientated ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ). Reflection is widely agreed to be a thought process concerned with finding solutions to real problems ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, it is unclear whether solving problems is an inherent characteristic of reflection. For example, Schön’s (1983) reflection-in-action involves thought processing simultaneously with a group event taking place, and reflection-on-action refers to a debriefing process after an event. Both aims to develop insights into what took place—the aims, the difficulties during the event or experience and better ways to act. While focusing on reacting to practical events, these practices do not often intend to find solutions to specific practical problems. Instead, reflective practitioners are invited to think about a new set of actions from if not wider, at least different perspectives.

The fourth issue in the literature revolves around “critical reflection.” Very often critical reflection is concerned with how individuals consciously consider their actions from within wider historical, cultural and political beliefs when framing practical problems for which to seek solutions ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). It is a measure of a person’s acceptance of a particular ideology, its assumptions and epistemology, when critical reflection is developed within reflective practice ( McNamara, 1990 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). It implies the individual locates any analysis of personal action within her/his wider socio-historical and political-cultural contexts ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). While this makes sense, critical reflection in the literature appears to loosely refer to an individual’s constructive self-criticism of their actions to improve in future ( Calderhead, 1989 ), not a consideration of personal actions with both moral and ethical criteria ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ). Thus, we see a need to define critical reflection in line with the key characteristics of reflective practice.

Effective reflective practice

Reflecting on the issues discussed above, we conclude that for reflective practice to be effective, it requires three key aspects: problem-solving, critical reflection and action-orientation. However, these aspects of reflective practice have different levels of complexity and meaning.

Problem-solving

A problem is unlikely to be acted upon if it is not viewed as a problem. Thus, it is crucial to problematize things during reflection, to see concerns that require improvement. This is not a simple process as people’s ability to perceive things as problems is related to their previous experiences. For example, a senior teacher with years of teaching experience and a rapport with the students s/he teaches will be immediately aware of students experiencing difficulties with current teaching strategies. However, a junior teacher whose experience is restricted to a three-month placement and who has met students only a few times will be less aware. The differences in experience also influence the way people interpret problems. For example, the senior teacher may believe his/her teaching strategy is at fault if half the students cannot complete the given tasks. A junior teacher with only 2 weeks teaching experience may deduce that the students were not interested in the topic, and that is why they cannot complete the tasks given. This example illustrates the range of ways a problem can be perceived and the advantages of developing the ability to frame and reframe a problem ( Schön, 1983 ). Problems can also be perceived differently depending on one’s moral and cultural beliefs, and social, ethical and/or political values ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). This could be extended to other factors such as institutional, educational and political system ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ).

Framing and reframing a problem through reflection can influence the practice of subsequent actions ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Treacy and Gaunt, 2021 ). In the example above, the junior teacher attributes the problem to the students’ attitude, which gives her/him little to no incentive to address the situation. This is an ineffective reflective practice because it has little impact on the problem. Thus, we believe it is crucial for individuals to not only recognize problems but to examine their practices ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ) through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. This requires critical reflection.

Critical reflection

We believe it is the critical aspect of reflection that makes reflective practice effective and more complex, formulated by various scholars as different stages of reflection. Zeichner and Liston (1987) proposed three stages of reflection similar to those described by Van Manen (1977) . They suggested the first stage was “technical reflection” on how far the means to achieve certain end goals were effective, without criticism or modification. In the second stage, “practical reflection,” both the means and the ends are examined, with the assumptions compared to the actual outcomes. This level of reflection recognizes that meanings are embedded in and negotiated through language, hence are not absolute. The final stage, “critical reflection,” combined with the previous two, considers both the moral and ethical criteria of the judgments about professional activity ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ).

While the three stages above capture the complexity of reflection, individuals will only reach an effective level of reflection when they are able to be self-critical in their judgments and reasoning and can expand their thinking based on new evidence. This aligns with Ross’ (1989) five stages of reflection (see Table 1 ). In her five stages of reflection, individuals do not arrive at the level of critical reflection until they get to stages 4 and 5, which require them to contextualize their knowledge and integrate the new evidence before making any judgments or modification ( Van Gyn, 1996 ).

Five stages of reflections ( Ross, 1989 ).

Action-orientation

We believe it is important that any reflections should be acted upon. Looking at the types and stages of reflection discussed earlier, there is a clear indication that reflective practice is a cyclical process ( Kolb, 1984 ; Richards and Lockhart, 2005 ; Taggart and Wilson, 2005 ; Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Babaei and Abednia, 2016 ; Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ; Oo and Habók, 2020 ). Richards and Lockhart (2005) suggest this cyclical process comprises planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. This is further developed by Hulsman et al. (2009) who believe that the cyclical process not only involves action and observation, but also analysis, presentation and feedback. In the education field, reflective practice is also considered cyclical ( Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Kennedy-Clark et al., 2018 ) because educators plan, observe, evaluate, and revise their teaching practice continuously ( Pollard et al., 2014 ). This process can be done through a constant systematic self-evaluation cycle ( Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ) which involves a written analysis or an open discussion with colleagues.

From the descriptions above, it seems that cyclical reflective practice entails identifying a problem, exploring its root cause, modifying action plans based on reasoning and evidence, executing and evaluating the new action and its results. Within this cyclical process, we consider action as a deliberate change is the key to effective reflective practice, especially in the field of education. Reflection that is action-oriented is an ongoing process which refers to how educators prepare and teach and the methods they employ. Educators move from one teaching stage to the next while gaining the knowledge through experience of the importance/relevance of the chosen methods in the classroom situation ( Oo and Habók, 2020 ).

While reflection is an invisible cognitive process, it is not altogether intuitive ( Plessner et al., 2011 ). Individuals, especially those lacking experience, may lack adequate intuition ( Greenhalgh, 2002 ). To achieve a certain level of reflection, they need guidance and this can be done with others either in groups ( Gibbs, 1988 ; Grant et al., 2017 ) or through one-on-one feedback ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). The others, who can be peers or mentors, can help provide different perspectives in exploring alternative interpretations and behaviors. Having said this, reflecting with others may not always feasible as it often requires investment of time and energy from others ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). Therefore, teachers must learn how to scaffold their own underlying values, attitudes, thoughts, and emotions, and critically challenge and evaluate assumptions of everyday practice on their own. With this in mind, we have created a cyclical process of reflective practice which may help in individual reflections. It captures the three key aspects of reflective practice discussed above. This model may help teachers having a range of experience enhance their competence through different focus and levels of reflection (see Figure 1 ).

Cyclical reflective practice model capturing problem-solving, action-oriented critical reflection.

The model illustrates the cyclical process with three stages: reflection, modification and action. At the reflection stage, a problem and the root of the problem is explored so it can be framed as it is/was and then reframed to identify a possible solution. This is followed by a modification for change based on the reasoning and evidence explored during the reflection stage. Finally, the action stage involves executing action (an event), followed by the reflection stage to begin another cycle and continue the process.

As presented earlier, it is crucial for individuals to be able to frame and reframe problems through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. Thus, the model above expands Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan’s (1994) framework by adding together the element of problematizing. The current revised framework highlights the four focuses of reflection; technical addresses the management or procedural aspects of teaching practice; situational addresses the context of teaching; sensitizing involves reflecting upon the social, moral, ethical or political concerns of teaching; and problematizing concerns the framing and reframing of the problem identified within the teaching context. Considering the different levels of critical reflection, we extend the four focuses of reflection to three different levels of critical reflection: descriptive involves reflection of the four focuses without reasoning or criticism; descriptive with rationale involves reflection of the four focuses with reasoning; and descriptive with rationale and evaluation involves reflection of the four focuses with both reasoning and criticism (see Table 2 ). Each of these levels requires different degrees of critical analysis and competence to extract information from actions and experiences. Overall, level three best captures effective critical reflection for each focus.

A framework of reflection.

This revised model that we proposed encompasses different levels of critical reflection and is action-oriented. There is also a clear link to problem-solving which requires framing and reframing problems to accurately identify them, which may influence the value and effectiveness of the actions that follow ( Loughran, 2002 ). Thus, this model may help people, especially those with lack experience to recognize the different aspects of reflection so they can make better assessments of and modifications to their procedures ( Ross, 1989 ; Van Gyn, 1996 ).

The meaning of reflection and reflective practice is not clear cut. However, we believe a reflective educator should cultivate a set of responses to how their teaching operates in practice. As Dewey (1933) suggested, educators must find time to reflect on their activity, knowledge, and experience so that they can develop and more effectively serve their community, nurturing each student’s learning. However, this does not always happen. Some educators do not reflect on their own practice because they find the concept of reflective practice difficult to put into practice for their professional development ( Jay and Johnson, 2002 ; Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ).

Our review of the literature indicates that reflective practice is a complex process and some scholars argue that it should involve active thinking that is more bound up with action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). Thus, the complete cycle of reflective practice needs to be distinguished from routine action which may stem from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). In addition, some also argue that reflective practice involves the conscious detachment from an activity followed by deliberation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ), and therefore reflective practice should not occur immediately after action. Although this is acceptable, we believe that instant reflection and modification for future action can be a good indicator of an individual’s level of reflective competence.

Reflective practice is an active process that requires individuals to make the tacit explicit. Thus, it is crucial to acknowledge that reflection is, by its very nature, problem-centered ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). Only with this in mind can individuals frame and reframe their actions or experiences to discover specific solutions. Reflective practice is also complex, requiring critical appraisal and consideration of various aspects of thought processes. Individuals must play close attention to what they do, evaluate what works and what does not work on a personal, practical and professional level ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, some would consider critical reflection as no more than constructive self-criticism of one’s actions with a view to improve ( Calderhead, 1989 ). Consequently, scholars have taken different approaches to reflective practice in teaching areas that include critical thinking (e.g., Ross, 1989 ; Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan, 1994 ; Loughran, 2002 ). These approaches had four components in common: reflecting (observing actions, reviewing, recollecting), planning for future action (thinking and considering), acting (practice, experience, and learning), and evaluating (interpreting and assessing outcomes). We propose a model that embraces these four sub-areas and three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation and critical reflection. We align these key aspects with level of criticality in a framework with detailed descriptors. It is hoped that these elements, combined together, demonstrate the complexities of reflection in a better, clearer way so that those struggling to adopt reflective practice will now be able to do so without much difficulty.

Author contributions

MM contributed to conception and written the first draft of the manuscript. RR contributed in the discussion of the topic. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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The relationship between education and society (7040 words).

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Society may be viewed as a system of interrelated mutually dependent parts which cooperate (more or less) to preserve a recognisable whole and to satisfy some purpose or goal. Social system refers to the orderly arrangement of parts of society and plurality of individuals interacting with each other. Social system presupposes a social structure consisting of different parts which are interrelated in such a way as to perform its functions.

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To perform its functions every society sets up various institutions. Five major complexes of institutions are identified: familial institutions, religious institutions, educational institutions, economic institutions and political institutions. These institutions form sub-systems within social system or larger society.

Education as a Sub-System:

Education is a sub-system of the society. It is related to other sub-systems. Various institutions or sub-systems are a social system because they are interrelated. Education as a sub-system performs certain functions for the society as whole. There are also functional relations between education and other sub-systems. For example, Education trains the individuals in skills that are required by economy. Similarly education is conditioned by the economic institutions.

The effectiveness of organised activities of a society depends on the interaction and inter relationships of these institutions which constitute the whole. Now we will examine the role of education for the society and the relationship between education and other sub-system of society in terms of functionalist perspective. The functionalist view of education tends to focus on the positive contributions made by education to the maintenance of social system.

Emile Durkheim says that the major function of education is the transmission of society’s norms and values. He maintains that, “society can survive only if there exists among its members a sufficient degree of homogeneity; education perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the child from the beginning the essential similarities which collective life demands”. Without these essential similarities, cooperation, social solidarity and therefore social life would be impossible. The vital task of all society is the creation of solidarity.

This involves a commitment to society, a sense of belonging and feeling that the social unit is more important than the individual. Durkheim argues that to become attached to society the child must feel in it something that is real, alive and powerful, which dominates the person and to which he also owes the best part of himself.

Education in particular the teaching of history, provides this link between the individual and society. If the history of his society is brought alive to the child, he will come to see that he is a part of something larger than himself, he will develop a sense of commitment to the social group.

Durkheim argues that in complex industrial societies, the school serves a function which cannot be provided either by family or peer groups. Membership of the family is based on kinship relationship, membership of the poor group on the personal choice.

Membership of society as a whole is based neither of these principles. Individuals must learn to cooperate with those who are neither their kin nor their friends. The school provides a context where these skills can be learned. As such, it is society in miniature, a model of the social system. In school, the child must interact with other members of the school in terms of fixed set of rules.

Drawing on Durkheim’s ideas, Talcott Parsons argues that after primary socialisation within the family, the school takes over as the ‘focal socialising agency’. School acts a bridge between the family and society as a whole, preparing the child for his adult role. Within the family, the child is judged and treated largely in terms of ‘particularistic’ standards.

In the wider society the individual is treated and judged in terms of ‘Universalistic’ standards. Within the family the child’s status is ascribed, it is fixed by birth. However, in advanced industrial society, status in adult life is largely achieved. Thus, the child must move from particularistic standards and ascribed status of the family to universalistic standards and achieved status of adult society.

The school prepares young people for this transition. Schools operates on meritocratic principle, status is achieved on the basis of merit. Like Durkheim, Parsons also argue that the school represents society in miniature. By reflecting the operation of society as a whole, the school prepares young people for their adult roles.

As part of this process, schools socialise young people into the basic values of society. These values have important functions in society as a whole.

Finally, Parsons sees the educational system as an important mechanism for the selection of individuals for their future role in society. In his words, it “functions to allocate these human resources within the role structure of adult society”. Thus, schools, by testing and evaluating students, match their talents, skills and capacities to the jobs for which they are best suited. The school is therefore seen as the major mechanism for role allocation.

Like Parsons, Davis and Moore see education as means of role allocation. But they link the educational system more directly with the system of social stratification. According Davis and Moore social stratification is a mechanism for ensuring that most talented and able members of society are allocated to those positions which are functionally most important for the society. High rewards which act as incentives are attached to these positions which means that all will win through. The education system is one important part of this process.

Scholars have also analysed the relationship of education and society in terms of ‘Marxian perspective’. Chief among them are Louis Althusser, Samuel Bowels and Herbert Gintis. According to Althusser, a French philosopher, as a part of the superstructure, the educational system is ultimately shaped by infrastructure. It will therefore reflect the relations of production and serve the interests of the capitalist ruling class.

For the ruling class to survive and prosper, the reproduction of labour power is essential. He argues that the reproduction of labour involves two processes. First, the reproduction of the skills necessary for an efficient labour force. Second, the reproduction of ruling class ideology and the socialisation workers in terms of it.

These processes combine to reproduce a technically efficient and submissive and obedient work force. The role of education in capitalist society is the reproduction of such a work force. Althusser argues that the reproduction of labour power requires not only reproduction of its skills, but also, at the same time a reproduction of its submission to the ruling ideology.

The submission is reproduced by a number of ideological State Apparatuses”, such as mass media, law, religion and education. Ideological State Apparatus transmit ruling class ideology thereby creating false class consciousness.

Education not only transmits a general ruling class ideology which justifies and legitimates the capitalist system. It also reproduces the attitudes and behaviour required by the major groups in the division of labour. It teaches workers to accept and submit to their exploitation, it teaches the agents of ‘exploitation and repression’, the managers, administrators and politicians, how to practise their crafts and rule the work force as agents of ruling class.

Like Althusser, the American economists Bowels and Gintis argue that the major role of education in capitalist society is the reproduction of labour power. In particular, they maintain that education contributes to the reproduction of workers with the kind of personalities, attitudes and outlooks which will fit them for their exploited status. They argue that social relationships in schools replicate the hierarchical division of labour in their work place.

It can be stated here that education performs certain role for the society. At the same time education is also conditioned by the social structure. Society crates educational institutions such as schools, colleges and universities to perform certain functions in accomplishing its end. The educational system may be viewed as a part of the total social system.

It reflects and influences the social and cultural order of which it is a part. The class system, the cultural values, the power structure, the balance between individual freedom and social control, the degree of urbanisation and industrialisation all these factors exercise a profound influence on school system of any society.

Functional Relationships between Education and other Sub-Systems:

What are the functional relationships between education and other sub-systems of society. Many functionalists have argued that there is functional relationship between different sub-systems. For example there is a functional relationship between education and economic system. Skills and values learned in education are directly related to the way in which the economy and the occupational structure operate. Education trains the individuals in skills that are required by the economy. Similarly, education is also influenced by economy.

Throughout the twentieth century, the rapid expansion of the tertiary occupation in industrial societies has produced an increasing demand for clerical, technical’, professional and managerial skills. Education reflects these changes in the economy.

In this context Halsey and Floud argue that, the educational system is bent increasingly to the service of the labour force. This can be seen from the steady increase in the school leaving age, the increasing specialisation of educational provision and the rapid expansion of higher and vocational education.

Various institutions or sub-Systems – familial, political, economic, educational institutions – may be viewed as a ‘whole cluster of institutions’. These institutions are social system because they are interrelated. A social system reveals a balance between its parts which facilitates its operation. Occasionally it may reveal imbalance, but it tends towards equilibrium.

In a changing society the interdependence of social institutions has a good deal of significance, to quote Ogburn and Nimkoff, for a change in one institution may affect other institutions”. For example, when a country changes its Constitution, the change is never confined to its political institutions. Corresponding changes take place in economic relationships, in the educational system, in the class structure and so on. All the social institutions would be in balance, each being adjusted to other, forming a single unified scheme.

Social Origins and Orientation of Students and Teachers:

Education is a social concern. It is a social process. Its objective is to develop and awaken in the child those physical, intellectual and moral states which are acquired of the individual by his society as a whole and the milieu for which he is specially destined. It is the significant means of socialisation. The function of education is to socialise the young by imparting to them norms and values, culture and heritage, and to provide them with skills and placement. This is traditionally, the accepted role of education.

In the West, for long, literacy was not considered essential for all. It remained confined to the priests, ruling classes and to commercial class. The education imparted was literary and religious. The valuation of education was not very high. In the Indian social milieu, education has been traditionally given significant importance.

Education has been given greater prominence in India than in Western or Islamic societies or in China. Referring to eighteenth century education in France, Helvelius observed that men “are born ignorant, not stupid; they are made stupid by education.” In England, where, there did not exist a well organized education system, there were the public schools for the higher strata of the society.

But in these schools, “nothing worked except flogging.” In our country too, education suffered great fall and decline down the centuries. Eighteenth century, witnessed the total disruption of educational system. The British introduced their “own language gradually and eventually the language of public business throughout the country.”

In fulfillment of the provisions of Charter Act 1833, the resolution of Governor General’s Council, provided that education be imparted in English ‘alone’. In this Macarlays’ aim was, “to form a class who may be… Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes.” It ultimately arrested Indian intellectuality, alienated the educated from their mooring and gave to the society an educational system not representing the educational personality.

The modern industrial society with its advance technology, division of labour, job differentiation, assumes a general standard of literacy. It cannot carry on with handful of education and mass illiteracy. The technological advancement has necessitated the re-orientation of education.

The environmental effect of the education of child is now given special stress and attention. J.W.B. Douglas, in The Home and the School has specially developed this aspect of child education.

“The advantages which first children have over latter siblings in Douglas’s study, are best understood in terms of the greater degree of attention and responsibility which most first children are likely to receive from their parents as well as the greater responsibilities they have to shoulder. Likewise, children from smaller families generally have higher educational attainment, since they are also likely to receive more parental attention than children in large families.”

“Focussing on parental attention in this way helps us understand why apparently unconnected factors all tend to work in the same direction. They also affect the child’s behaviour at school as well as within the home. The amount and quality of child-adult interactions influence the development of the child’s linguistic capacity, e.g., the range of his vocabulary.

Likewise, the child’s own interest in schooling, as distinct from that of this parents, and his sense of being at ease when at school, are affected both directly and indirectly by his awareness of the importance and value his parents explicitly and implicitly place on schooling.

“The family itself thus constitutes a learning situation for the child. Nor is the child simply ‘moulded’ by the family environment. He or she is an active agent who has to learn to interpret that environment… Consequently, when considering the effects of the home on educational attainment. It is not enough to see this simply as the result of the occupation and education of the parents. Family insecurity, for example, is not only produced by poverty but also results when professional parents with busy lives spend little time with their children. Resentments built up through such family interactions may undermine the good intentions of parents to help their children perform well in school”.

In USA, there does not exist a national system of education. It is not a Federal subject. It is left entirely to the care of the local administration. There, therefore, exists diversity of institutions and of standards. Even within the same State, educational standards and the quality of schools varies.

The American elementary and high school education is comprehensive, and in the schools are conducted commercial, vocational and college preparatory programmes. There are schools, which exclusively conduct college preparatory courses. In England, there are elementary schools for the working class, Grammar schools for middle class children, and public school education, for the children of the upper class.

This pattern has remained more or less unchanged, since long time. The Education Act of 1944, did not bring about any change in this differentiation. There is, however, effort being made to bring about the changes in the system, to develop comprehensive school system. Education in our country under the British Raj did not make much progress.

In 1939, literacy did not cover more than 10 per cent of the population. Since independence much extension has been given to education and literacy. Efforts are afoot to extend education both at the primary and adult levels.

In the five decades since independence much advance has been made in education at secondary, college and university levels. Under the new pattern Ten plus Two system at the secondary and senior secondary levels, emphasis is now being laid on vocational and technical education.

In the traditional society, teacher was taken to symbolise the best in social values. He was accepted as a moral authority. But this position has now undergone a distinct change. Teacher in an educated society is not the only person who can be said to have intellectual competence and school too is not the only institution to impart education.

The normative aspect of education is not attended to. In fact it has remained neglected. The emphasis in learning is on the accumulation of knowledge or acquiring a qualification, vocational or otherwise.

Equality of Educational Opportunity:

The equalisation of educational opportunities is essentially linked with the notion of equality in the social system. In a social system if all the individuals are treated as equal, they get equal opportunities for advancement. Since education is one of the most important means of upward mobility, it is through an exposure to education one can aspire to achieve higher status, position and emoluments.

But for getting education he must have equal opportunities like other members of the society. In case educational opportunities are unequally distributed, the inequalities in the social structure continue to be perpetuated, it is in this light the quality of educational opportunity has been visualised.

The need for emphasising the equality of opportunity in education arise due to number of reasons. Some of these reasons are enumerated below:

(a) It is needed because it is through the education to all the people in a democracy; the success of democratic institutions is assured.

(b) The equality of educational opportunities will ensure rapid development of a nation.

(c) A closer link between the manpower needs of a society and the availability of a skilled personnel will develop.

(d) People with specialised talents for specialised jobs in a large number will be available and the society will be benefited.

A society which hold high promise of “Equality of status and of opportunity” for all and assures” the dignity of individual and the unity and integrity of the Nations”, has to attend to the mass spreading of learning much in the interest of creating the appropriate ground work for the social advancement. Education is supposed to eliminate social and economic inequality.

The relationship between education and inequality is a result of the historical particulars of the educational system. There are two factors in this (1) the available opportunities which structure individual choices and (2) the social and economic process which structure individual choices while the above factors point out that the educational system is a product of the social structure it must be remembered that it is not a one-way process because the educational system itself and the values it stands for influences individual decisions.

Educational Inequality:

The major problem with respect to the equality of educational opportunity is the perpetuation of inequalities through education. It is through a system of education in which elite control is predominant that the inequalities are perpetuated. In an elite controlled system the schools practise segregation. This segregation may be on the basis of caste, colour or class etc. In South Africa schools practise segregation on the basis of colour.

Equality of educational opportunity is more talked about, than really believed. In all modern industrially advanced countries there is the total inequality of educational opportunity. Educational opportunities for a child are determined by his family, class, neighborhood consideration.

A comprehensive school system free from these considerations is the demand all over the world. There is a move to this effect in U.S.A., France and Britain, and among the East European countries, especially in (Zechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Sweden, where comprehensive school system is followed. But the movement is comparatively weak in Britain and France.

The size of the family and the parental attitude makes a lot of difference to the educational career of a child. The educated parents give due attention to the education of the children. The family influence determines the educational goal of the children.

Inequality of educational opportunity also occurs due to the poverty of a large section of the population and the relative affluence of small minority. The poor cannot pay the fees and their children do not find chances of continuing in schools. Children from the families that cannot provide the economic support and other perquisite, suffer badly. From this group, there is the maximum number of dropouts.

Education and social status have close connection. Social class position includes income, occupation and life style. These have impact on the upbringing of the child.

In the U.S.A. “Negros make up a disproportionately high percentage of school dropouts and their educational level is below that of whites. Under the segregated schooling that long prevailed in the United States, officially in the South and informally elsewhere, Negroes received an inferior education. Racially segregated schools have simply been poorer schools and children in these schools are not given the same opportunity to learn to the same level as white schools.

The neighborhood environment has much to do with the education of the children. Low income families concentrate in the inner city, live in old and decaying houses. Families with similar level of income, and similar vocation live in neighborhood. This sort of inequality is found everywhere in the West. The residential segregation is a factor that produces class structures. Neighborhood has its impact on the school, and on the peer group.

The attitude of the teacher has much to do with education of the children. The very real measurable differences between middle class and lower class children in tests, as well as the differences between white and Negro children, are to be accounted for, not by innate differences in ability, but by differences of cultural exposure and bearing opportunities.

The children in rural areas studying in poorly equipped schools have to compete with the children in urban areas where there are well-equipped schools and more informative environment for getting admission to the schools for higher bearing on professional colleges.

In Indian situation educational inequality due to sex is also very much visible. Girls’ education at all stages of education is not given the same encouragement as boys. The social customs and taboos hinder the progress of girls’ education. They are given inferior position in the family and their education is neglected.

Educational inequality is due to the system itself and also on account of conditions prevailing in society. It is multi-sided affair and is continuing both in developed and developing societies. In many societies it finds expression in the form of public schools.

Some of the societies including our own, run public schools which provide much better education than the type of education provided by State run and controlled educational institutions. The education in the former institutions being much costly as compared with the latter and admission obviously open to only few privileged. This creates educational inequality in its own way.

It is a paradox that education which should be the catalyst of change very often reflects the structured inequalities present ‘in the social system. It is really strange that education aimed at social transformation reflects the structured inequalities in our social system.

Education is supposed to eliminate social and economic inequality. Educational institutions are in a sense closed systems since opportunities that elite has for excellent educational system is not available for the unfortunate masses. Obviously this system breeds inequality of opportunities.

In many cities there is a definite status hierarchy in primary education and to a large extend, the choice of a primary school determines career opportunities. Top priority is given to English medium schools sponsored by missionaries since they offer the best education. Next in the hierarchy are non-English medium schools run by religious organisations and charitable trusts.

At the bottom of the hierarchy are the schools run by the Government. Naturally the choice of English medium schools is the forerunner for lucrative and prestigious careers for a particular segment of society. Various State Governments provide primary education free of cost, but since such education is in regional language medium, where the standard of instruction is on par with that of private-school’s the rates of drop-outs are high in such schools.

We have at present a stratified society and a stratified pattern of schooling and they compete each other. Dual system of education has to be done away with through legislation and thereby evolve a common pattern of schooling to build a strong and unified democratic system in India. Educational privileges must reach down to the poor and particularly it should benefit members of the Scheduled Castes.

Rapid expansion of education among women is achieved although they are still at a disadvantage compared to men. To some extent education has proved to be a source of social mobility for the depressed groups.

Education is a double-edged instrument which can eliminate the effects of socio-economic inequalities but it can also introduce a new kind of inequality.

Education can influence the process of social change among the weaker sections of society. Persistent and planned efforts by the Government and voluntary agencies will go a long way toward elimination of educational inequalities.

Education as Medium of Cultural Reproduction, Indoctrination:

The enduring function of education is the cultural reproduction. It has been recognised to be its main role. It is by education that the newborn is initiated in the social ways. It transmits culture to him. At the early stages the aim is to introduce the child to the normative order of his group. In the traditional society kinship group worked for the child to this end. In complex modern industrial society of the West, this work is undertaken by specialized agencies such as school.

In traditional society, cultural reproduction may take place by oral teaching of heritage and culture; history and legend, and in a practical way by participating in the celebration of festivals. One may at a successive stage be introduced to culture through books. Yet one may not be in a position to appreciate it. It is only after one has been initiated and motivated that one gets cultivated in the cultural ways. As indicated above it is a lifelong educational process.

But in present time’s family, school and teachers are no longer the only institutions that influence the growing generations. The movies, radio, record industry, and the television are strong instruments to impart education. Their appeal is direct. But these are not bound to any normative standard. Their basic standard is the marketability. The cultivated morality is challenged; established values are disregarded; mockery is made of humility and decency.

With the disregarding of the traditional values, the growing children find themselves like the waves in the boundless sea, and the older feel to have been left high and dry. “Perhaps nothing disturbs the basic function of cultural transmission by the institution of education as does this growth of a mass media that is not normatively regulated, and indeed that has not been consciously assigned such a function within the society. It throws into critical relief the whole issue of whether the culture is to be transmitted effectively within the frame work of recognized institutions or whether a disparate set of unlinked and unregulated structures and processes are to carry out competitive even contradictory cultural transmission, and whatever unanticipated consequences.”

The role of education as an agent of the transmission of culture is thus diminishing. It is becoming a specialized process.

Indoctrination:

Education is a process of indoctrination. It has been so and it shall remain so. A child is trained in the accepted values to fit in the social milieu. The training of child has been such down the ages. Education and the class room have been used for the perpetuation of the values, beliefs and faith in East and West alike. Pulpit throughout the Christiandom, has been the great instrument of indoctrination. Ecclesiastical order, which for long controlled the education, had generally been fanatic. They had vested interest in perpetuating fanaticism.

The French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, held that school has always been used as an ideological apparatus. “The ruling ideology thus determines the dominated culture of society, influencing what is taught in school and universities and determining through education and the mass media what types of thought and language are seen as normal and are ‘rewarded’ by society.”

In France the Third Republic took church to be its worst enemy, since in the church schools was conducted anti-republican propaganda. Gambetta observed, “Clericalism, that is our enemy.” This position was further elaborated by Premier Waldeck Rousseau, a follower of Gambetta. He said that the real peril was the growing power of religious orders of monks and nuns and from the character of the teaching given by them in the religious schools they were conducting.

They were doing their best to make the children hostile to the Republic. In 1902, Combos, the successor of Waldeck Rousseau observed. “Clericalism is, in fact to be found at the bottom of every agitation and every intrigue from which Republican France has suffered during the last thirty five years.”

The present day educational institutions are not free from it. But the role of education in India was regarded humanist. In ancient Indian schools, emphasis was laid on pure values. It is worth quoting. “The aim of learning are settled to be Sraddha (faith), Praja (progeny), dhana (wealth), ayuh (longevity), and amritatva (immortality).

Education and Social Change:

Education is considered the most powerful instrument of social change. It is through education that the society can bring desirable changes and modernise itself. Various studies have revealed the role of education in bringing about social changes.

The relation between education and changes in social structure has been examined in rural contexts. Allen R. Holmberg and Dobyns jointly as well as separately reported the Vicos action research project. The project was a study of the role of enlightenment in social development. The findings of this project were that education became enmeshed in wider social changes as knowledge became the means to status and effective participation.

It was also found that the most modernised citizens in the community were the youngsters, who had attended school. In another study by Daniel Lerner, it was found that the key to modernisation lies in the participant society, i.e. one in which people go to school, red newspapers, participate politically through elections. It is important to note that literacy not only proved to be key variable in moving from a traditional to a transitional society but also the pivotal agent in the transition to a fully participant’ society.

The studies of Philip Foster in Ghana and Edward Shils in India have also revealed the role of education in social change. According to Foster it was formal Western Schooling in Ghana that created a cultural environment in which innovations could take place. Shils making a study of the intellectuals in India came to conclusion that if there is to be any successful bridging in the gap between tradition and modern societies, it is the Western educated intellectual who must perform the task.

James S. Coleman, Foster, Lipset and many others have shown that education plays a very vital role in political change. It is held that political development is largely dependent on education. It provides the skills required by modern political bureaucracies, in many emergent nations it has provided a common language, it helps to recruit elite and provides a central force in movements for independence.

It may be said that social change may be brought about by political situation, economic development, technological development etc. By whatever mans the change may be brought about; education always plays an import role in its propagation.

The political situation may lead to democratic or totalitarian form of Government. The changes in keeping with the form of the government in the society can only be brought about through education. Even the acceptance of the form of Government by the majority will be dependent on how it is being educated.

The economic growth leads to social change. It is however, education which leads to economic growth. The development in science and technology are also dependent on education. Education is a ‘condition’ for economic change.

It is an important means of attaining economic standard of society. It is essential for the economy. Change in the educational system result in social and economic changes, greater social mobility and more skilled and well-trained manpower for technologically based industries.

Education has been playing in important role in getting occupations which are key determinants of general social status. Therefore, the schools are agent in realisation of the desire for upward mobility. The schools are instrumental in transforming the occupational structure as well as class structure. In most developing countries education is regarded as the ‘gateway’ to an improved social status.

Education increases political awareness and political participation of the people. This brings about wider political changes with the increasingly organised participation of the people in national politics.

Education is expected to contribute to ‘progress’. In modern societies educational organisations act as innovators. These organisations disseminate new knowledge and ideas and promote the processes of social change.

According to Alex Inkeles, different levels of education have different levels of effects. In the developing countries primary education is enabling the people to do things they would never have been able to do before. Basic literacy brings a society into world.

Higher education is not only an aid for individual development, but also for the all-round development of the society. In addition, university student’s movements have often been the major force demanding social change in many societies. In China, India, Japan, America and many other countries students agitation have resulted in vast changes.

In some cases, the students movements are found to discredit, transform or topple governments. As Drucker has pointed out, “highly educated man has become the central resource of today’s society and the supply of such men are the true measure of its economic, military and even its political potential”.

Modern Education changes our attitude and values. It affects our customs, traditions, beliefs and manners. It removes our superstitious beliefs and irrational fear about the supernatural things. Now education aims at imparting knowledge about science, technology and other secular knowledge. It has been universally acknowledged that through the promotion of education modern values in social, economic, political and cultural fields can be inculcated.

Education has contributed to the improvement in the status of women. So far as the importance of modern education is concerned, according Inkeles, it helps them in moving away from traditionalism to modernity. It has helped them to seek employment and to come out of the family.

To conclude, education is the driving force behind the phenomenon of social change. The role of education as a factor or instrument of social change and development is universally recognised today. Education can initiate and accelerate the process of change by changing the attitude and values of man. It can change man and his style of living and hence can change the society.

But education follows social changes. Changes in education take place due to the impact of social changes. Changes in content and methods of education become a necessity for education to be relevant and effective. When changes occur in needs of the society. Technology and values of society, education also undergoes changes.

Society has various needs and these need are subject to change. The changing needs of the society bring changes in the educational system. It means that educational changes occur because of social needs and aspirations. Universal education, adult education, vocational and scientific education are the various forms and varieties of education which have been brought about by the needs of modern Indian society.

Many changes occur in education because of cultural changes.

To conclude, education and social change are very intimately related. They influence each other mutually.

Education and Modernisation:

Modernisation denotes total transformation of traditional or pre-modern society into the types of technology and associated social organisation that characterise the advanced economically prosperous and relatively politically stable nations of the West. Modernisation is defined as a conscious set of plans and policies pursued by the leaders or elites of developing countries for changing their societies in the direction of modern developed societies.

Modernisation is the process of transforming the old traditional societies and nations to modernity in the fields of economic, technological, industrial and social advancement. It is to bring a less advanced nation at par with the advanced country. It is the result of the growing recognition of the need for global harmonisation in the larger interests of humanity.

The process modernisation is viewed as one time historical process which was started by the Industrial Revolution in England and the political Revolution in France. Modernisation first occurred in the West through the twin process of commercialization and industrialisation. Early in the twentieth century Japan, the first Asian country, joined the race for industrialisation. Latter U.S.S.R. as well as other countries tried to achieve different degree of modernisation.

The process is to be viewed as an all-in-all process but not a compartmentalised one. Hence, technical, economic, social, industrial and political orders are to be changed radically. Modernisation takes place in different spheres – political, economic, social and educational.

Industrialisation, urbanisation, secularisation, rapid growth of transport and communication, educational revolutions etc. are the steps in the progressive direction of modernisation of a nation.

Modernisation involves not only changes at structural level but also fundamental changes at the personal level, a change in modes of thinking, beliefs, opinion, attitudes and action. Several interacting transformations are involved in the process of modernisation.

Education is a great force in modernisation. It plays a crucial role in various spheres of modernisation. Education has been recognised as the most important factor connected with rise and growth of modernisation process of a society irrespective of cultural milieu in which it finds itself.

It has been universally acknowledged that through the promotion of education, modern values in social economic, political and cultural fields can be inculcated. Rationality and scientific temper being the preponderant characteristics of modernisation can be acquired through constant learning.

Emphasis has been given on education as an instrument for social reconstruction and modernisation. It is particularly the Western education that enabled many to develop and inculcate the sense of modern outlook. Such an evidence was visible enough when India was under British rule.

It was educated population who took the leadership and contributed in bringing many policies and programmes that were sought after before the British. They inculcated the values of patriotism, nativism, humanitarianism only through education and these ideas were employed as tools against the British.

Highly productive economies, distributive justice, people’s participation in decision-making bodies, adoption of scientific technology in industry, agriculture and other professions are accepted as the goals of for modernising a society. These goals are to be achieved through education.

Education prepares the mentality of the people to accept changes. It creates conducive environment for modernisation. By promoting democratic values and progressive attitudes in the people, education makes them capable to participate and strengthen the process of modernisation. It teaches them to fight against social evils, blind beliefs and superstitions.

Education is not only aid for individual development, but also for the all-round development of society and the country. It helps for the development of the qualities of an individual such as mental and emotional makeup as well as his temperament and character. For the individual it provides rational and scientific thinking, reasoning, skills and capabilities to adjust to new situations. Modern education helps people in moving away from traditionalism to modernity.

Education is considered the most powerful instrument of modernisation. It is through education that the society can bring desirable change and modernise itself. Learner says that the key to modernisation lies in the participant society; that is one in which people go through school, read newspapers, are in the wage and market economy, participate politically through elections and change opinions on matters of public business.

The importance of education as an instrument of modernisation needs no special reiteration. Similarly, none can deny the fact that modernisation has its significance to education. They influence mutually. There is a close relationship between education and modernisation.

Modernisation takes place in educational sphere for the effectiveness of education in a society. This involves change in content and methods of education. Modern society is characterised by very rapid and extensive changes. In such a changing society, education aims at communicating empirical knowledge, that is knowledge about science, technology and other types of such specialised knowledge.

In -keeping with the demands of changing society, there has been a corresponding transformations in the contents and methods of instruction. The inclusion of heavy study materials on modern science and technology into the syllabus makes it imperative that course of study on classical language and literature should be abridged or altogether drooped.

In educational sphere, modernisation involves growing specialisation of educational roles and organisations, growing unification and interrelation of different educational activities within the frameworks of one common system.

According to S.N. Isenstadt, “perhaps the best starting point for analysis of the characteristics in the educational institutions in modern societies is the pattern of demands for and the supply of educational services that tended to develop with modernisation.

In the field of demand we can distinguish between the demand for ‘the products’ and the ‘rewards’ of education. Among the most important products of education are, first, various skills, be they general skill such as of occupations or more specific professional and vocational skills, the number of which has continually increased and become diversified with growing economic, technical and scientific development.

“A second major product of education is identification with various cultural, socio-political symbols and values and relatively active commitment to various cultural, social and political groups and organisations.”

The supply side of educational services also become greatly diversified. According to him it includes the supply of manpower to be educated at different levels of educational system and adequate motivation and preparation for education and it includes the supply of various schooling facilities -schools at different levels, ranging from kinder garden to universities, of technical personnel (greatly dependent on fluctuation in the labour market) and of various facilities for the maintenance of such institutions and organisations.

Education plays a crucial role in the process, of modernisation in various fields and modernisation in these fields really enhances the evolvement of education technically which calls for in great need for imparting modern education and for producing capable and resourceful manpower.

It can rightly be concluded that education and modernisation are the two sides of the same coin and these mutually influence each other.

Related Articles:

• Relationship between Education and Social Change
• Relationship between Education, Social Change and Modernization

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International Handbook of Comparative Education pp 619–631 Cite as

Education in Network Society: Critical Reflections

• Eva Gamarnikow  

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Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE,volume 22))

The main aim of this chapter is to raise a number of key questions about the current ‘education and globalisation’ policy discourse. This discussion is contextualised in critical reflections on how the thesis underpinning Castells' (2000) Network Society has been appropriated as a claim about the knowledge society and its significance in the era of globalisation. The main argument of the chapter is that Network Society is a treatise focusing primarily on changes in the economy, technology and work, and on the importance of the nation state, of the sphere of politics, in mediating economic and social changes. The focus of Network Society requires educational researchers to address issues which tend to be elided in discussions about education, namely the nature of the link between education and economy, technology and work. There is a tendency in policy sociology to treat economy, technology and work as taken-for-granted givens, occasionally under the conceptual umbrella of globalisation, whose main role is to act as a source of policy imperatives for expanding or otherwise intervening in education. The aim of this chapter is to explore the discourses constituting these sites of the policy trajectory, namely, the context of influence (Ball, 2006) of the contours and shape of education policy.

The chapter is organised in six main parts. The first three engage with the themes of Network Society which articulate with education policy. The following three sections are concerned with employment, education as human capital development and social mobility as key elements in policy discourses. The main focus of the argument is on the policy tensions which arise from the failure of current education policy to address the central theme identified in Network Society , namely its capitalist form.

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Gamarnikow, E. (2009). Education in Network Society: Critical Reflections. In: Cowen, R., Kazamias, A.M. (eds) International Handbook of Comparative Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education, vol 22. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6403-6_39

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Relationship Between Education and Social Change (Latest-2024)

Briefly Review

Now here, Relationship Between Education and Social Change (Latest-2024). Education is one of the most important drivers of social change. Education can enable individuals and societies to transform themselves by providing access to knowledge, skills, and critical thinking. It can help people break out of poverty, discrimination, and inequality cycles by providing opportunities for personal and social development. Education can also promote social mobility by creating a level playing field for people from different backgrounds.

One of the key ways in which education can bring about social change is by promoting a more informed and engaged citizenry. Education can help people understand and engage with the political, social, and economic issues that affect their lives. By equipping people with the skills to evaluate information critically, education can also help to counter misinformation and propaganda and promote a more informed public discourse.

Education can also help to challenge traditional social norms and practices that may be discriminatory or harmful. For example, education can promote gender equality by challenging stereotypes and promoting the rights of women and girls. Education can also promote cultural diversity by exposing people to different perspectives and cultures and promoting mutual respect and understanding.

Overall, education plays a critical role in promoting social change. By providing people with the knowledge, skills, and values to participate in society, education can help to create a more inclusive, equitable, and just society.

Education as a State of Social Change

Education can be seen as a state of social change because it has the power to transform individuals and societies by providing access to knowledge, skills, and critical thinking. Here, Education is not only a means to acquiring technical knowledge or skills, but it is also a means to achieve personal and social development and promote social change.

In society, education is considered an essential part of the social structure, and the level of education attained by individuals can have a significant impact on their life outcomes. Education can contribute to social change by promoting individual empowerment, social mobility, and economic development. Education can also challenge traditional social norms and practices that may be discriminatory or harmful.

In many countries, the provision of education is a key responsibility of the state. The state is responsible for ensuring that every individual has access to quality education regardless of their socioeconomic status. This is because education is seen as a crucial tool for promoting social change, fostering economic growth, and achieving social justice.

Through education policies and initiatives, the state can promote social change by addressing issues such as poverty, inequality, and discrimination. For example, the state can provide access to free education for marginalized communities, promote gender equality, and create opportunities for lifelong learning.

Overall, education is a state of social change because it has the power to transform individuals and societies. The state plays a critical role in promoting education and ensuring that every individual has access to quality education as a means of achieving personal and social development and promoting social change.

Education as a Tool of Social Change

Education is a powerful tool for social change because it has the potential to transform individuals and societies by providing access to knowledge, skills, and critical thinking. Guys, Education can help individuals to challenge existing norms and beliefs, and to develop new perspectives and ways of thinking. Education can also provide individuals with the tools to participate in their communities and to effect positive change.

Education can be a tool for social change in many ways. First, education can promote individual empowerment. By providing individuals with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in their personal and professional lives, education can help break down barriers to success and promote social mobility.

Second, education can help to promote economic development. By providing individuals with the skills and knowledge they need to participate in the workforce, education can help to create a more productive and innovative economy.

Third, education can challenge traditional social norms and practices that may be discriminatory or harmful. By promoting critical thinking and exposing individuals to new ideas and perspectives, education can help to challenge stereotypes and promote equality and social justice.

Fourth, education can promote civic engagement and participation. By providing individuals with the knowledge and skills they need to participate in their communities and to effect positive change, education can help to promote democracy and civic engagement.

Overall, education is a powerful tool for social change because it has the potential to transform individuals and societies. Education can promote individual empowerment, economic development, equality and social justice, and civic engagement and participation by providing access to knowledge, skills, and critical thinking.

Education as the Effect of Social Change

Education can also be seen as the effect of social change. As social changes can create new demands and opportunities for education. As society changes, new needs arise for knowledge and skills. And education can be one of the means to fulfill those needs.

For example, during the Industrial Revolution, the demand for skilled workers increased. Which led to the development of new educational institutions that focused on technical education. Similarly, during the civil rights movement, there was a demand for education that promoted social justice and equality. Which led to the development of new educational programs and policies.

Social changes can also create education opportunities that were previously unavailable. For example, as societies become more democratic and inclusive, more individuals may have access to education. And educational institutions may become more diverse and accessible.

Education can also be an effect of social change in the sense. That it can reflect the values and beliefs of society. For example, as societies become more diverse, education may reflect this diversity by promoting multiculturalism and inclusivity. Similarly, as society becomes more focused on sustainability and environmentalism, education may reflect. These values by promoting environmental education and sustainability.

In summary, education can be both a driver and an effect of social change. Social changes can create new demands and opportunities for education, and education can reflect the values and beliefs of society.

Education and social change are closely intertwined, with education playing a critical role in promoting social change. Education can be seen as a state of social change, a tool of social change, and an effect of social change.

As a state of social change, education is essential for creating a more inclusive, equitable, and just society. Through education policies and initiatives, the state can promote social change by addressing issues such as poverty, inequality, and discrimination.

As a tool of social change, education can help individuals to challenge existing norms and beliefs. And to develop new perspectives and ways of thinking. Education can also provide individuals with the tools to participate in their communities and to effect positive change.

As an effect of social change, education can reflect the values and beliefs of society. And can create new opportunities for personal and social development. As society changes, new needs arise for knowledge and skills. Education can be one of the means to fulfill those needs.

Overall, education and social change are deeply connected. And education can play a vital role in creating a more just, equitable, and sustainable world.

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