biography is primary or secondary

Primary vs. Secondary Sources: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary sources.

Primary sources are materials that are eyewitness accounts or as close to the original source as possible.

Qualitative data:

• What people say. They are usually Speeches , Interviews and Conversations, and they may be captured in Videos, Audio Recordings, or transcribed into text.
• What people write.  These include Autobiographies, Memoirs, Personal Journals and Diaries, Letters, Emails, Blogs, Twitter Feeds and other forms of Social Media.
• Images and Videos.
• Government Documents-- U.S . and rest of the world.
• Laws, Court Cases and Decisions, Treaties.
• Newspapers.

Quantitative data:

• Statistics and Data .
• Polls and Public Opinions .

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find both primary and secondary sources published in book form.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are interpretations and analyses based on primary sources.

For example, an autobiography is a primary source while a biography is a secondary source.

Typical secondary sources include:

• Scholarly Journal Articles.  Use these and books exclusively for writing Literature Reviews.
• Encyclopedias.
• Dictionaries.
• Documentaries.

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find primary and secondary sources published in book form.

When Secondary Sources Become Primary Sources

Often secondary and primary sources are relative concepts.  Typical secondary sources may be primary sources depending on the research topic.

• Intellectual history topics. For example, although scholarly journal articles are usually considered secondary sources, if one's topic is the history of human rights, then journal articles on human rights will be primary sources in this instance.  Similarly, research on the thinking of a scholar will include her published journal articles as primary sources.  
• Historical topics. Magazine articles are secondary sources, but for someone researching the view of judicial punishment in the 1920s, magazines from that time period are primary sources.  Indeed, any older publication, such as those prior to the 20th century, is very often automatically considered a primary source.  
• Newspapers may be either primary or secondary. Most articles in newspapers are secondary, but reporters may be considered as witnesses to an event.  Any topic on the media coverage of an event or phenomenon would treat newspapers as a primary source.  There are so many articles and types of articles in newspapers that newspapers can often be considered either primary or secondary.
• Last Updated: Aug 11, 2023 3:44 PM
• URL: https://subjectguides.library.american.edu/primary

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Is a Biography a Primary Source? Details Every Author Should Know

POSTED ON Oct 1, 2023

Written by Shannon Clark

Is a biography a primary source? Good question.

When writing for an audience, adding relevant quotes, excerpts, and data provides credibility to your work. Primary sources reign supreme because information that comes from the original source leaves little room for error. In our digital age, where so much information is repeated from website to website, it's easy for data to be mistyped, quotes to be misattributed, and information to just be wrong.

It's similar to the group game, Telephone, that kids play. One person starts the game by whispering a phrase into the person's ear next to them. The phrase is repeated until it gets to the last person who says the phrase out loud to see if the message changed. When I played it as a little girl, the phrase hardly ever came out like the original. We run the same risk when we copy statistics or information from random websites that aren't the primary or original source.

In the first half of this article, we'll answer the question, “Is a biography a primary source?” define what the answer means, and then take a closer look at why biographies are categorized as such. In the second part, we’ll look at what to consider before writing one.

Table of Contents

Is a biography a primary source.

The short answer is no. In most cases, a biography is considered a secondary source; however, there’s a little more to it than that.

A primary source is a first-person account (e.g., direct quote, diary entry) or the original source of information (e.g., a research organization that creates original data for an industry.).

A secondary source is a third-party account where the person or company sharing the information, got it from somewhere else. As I mentioned in the Telephone example, the problem with secondary sources is that since they aren't the first hands to touch the information, there's no guarantee that it's correct. Primary sources aren't always available, but if you have a choice between the two, do the extra research to find the primary source. It will pay off in the long run.

A biography is a third-person account of another person’s life written by a biographer whose name appears on the cover. The subject of the biography can be living or deceased and the work can be authorized or unauthorized. For these reasons, biographies are classified as secondary sources. 

Related: Biography vs Memoir

The rare occasion when a biography can be used as a primary source is when the biographer is the subject of the content being written.

For example, if one were to write an article that analyzed the works of the American biographer Jean Strouse, her best biographies , Alice James: A Biography or Morgan: American Financier would be considered primary sources.

The source status of her biographies changes from secondary to primary because it is her writing that's being analyzed not the personal knowledge of what she wrote (unless that was part of the review).

What’s the Difference Between an Authorized and an Unauthorized Biography? 

With an authorized biography, the subject of the work is either involved in the writing process or they’ve given permission for the biographer to write the book. The biographer works with the person to ensure that the information included is correct and approved. This can include talking to close family members and friends to get a more well-rounded, objective view of the person's life.

Unauthorized biographies are not approved by the subject. Anyone can write an unauthorized biography about anyone they’d like. You don’t need permission, and the final book doesn’t have to be approved to be published; however, unauthorized biographies can be seen as less reliable than approved ones. Content presented as fact may come into question exposing the work to libel, invasion of privacy claims, and other legal issues. To be clear, biographies, autobiographies, and memoirs can all be vulnerable to legal claims, so tread lightly when writing them. 

According to the Writer’s GPS: A guide for navigating the legal landscape of publishing by intellectual property attorney Matt Knight, securing life story rights is key to protecting yourself and your book from legal claims. Regarding life story rights, he says the following:

Life story rights are a collection of legal rights held by an individual regarding a story about someone's life. The purpose for securing these rights or the permission to use the facts of someone's life is to protect the writer and publisher from being sued for defamation, invasion of privacy, or the misappropriation of the right to publicity. Life story rights agreements, depending on the breadth of the contract language, allows the writer to use and potentially change or dramatize the life story for entertainment purposes (whether in print or on screen). Knight, M. (2020). The Writer’s Legal GPS: A Guide for Navigating the Legal Landscape of Publishing (A Sidebar Saturdays Desktop Reference) . Sidebar Saturdays Desk Referen.

If you're considering writing a biography (authorized or unauthorized), it's important to understand potential liability issues and how they can impact you as the writer.

It's interesting that for every authorized biography, it is not uncommon to find many unauthorized ones. For actress Elizabeth Taylor, the book on the left (below) was released in December 2022 and listed as “ the first ever authorized biography of the most famous movie star of the twentieth century, Elizabeth Taylor “; however, I found many biographies listed for her over the years (I stopped counting at 20).

Is it Possible to Write a Biography about Yourself? 

No. If you write a biography about yourself it is called an autobiography (different from a memoir). If you get a ghostwriter to write it, it is still an autobiography. Autobiographies are primary sources because they are first-hand accounts based on the subjects' memories and recall of past experiences. 

Unlike a biography, the subject of the autobiography is viewed as the author , whether they wrote it or used a ghostwriter . Autobiographies are considered subjective compared to biographies since they are a single person's account of events (not friends, family, or other third-party references like with a biography.)

How do You Write a Biography About Someone Who Has Passed?

As previously mentioned, if you can get permission to write the biography, do so. If the person is deceased, look for a representative, like a family member, or an executor of their estate. It’s important to share with them your plan for writing the person’s life story and hopefully get the green light to move forward. Getting approval can open the door to accessing archives and other personal details about the person to create a more in-depth work. This can include personal photos, diaries, and other information. Compare this to an unauthorized biography where you may only have access to what has already been talked about or uncovered. 

If the person passed a long time ago, getting permission might be a challenge, but you can still write the biography. Just do your research, save your notes, and try to write a biography that is thorough, objective, and professional. Prioritize primary sources over secondary and cite all of your sources to add credibility. It may be tempting to try to rush through the process, especially when you've been staring at the same information day after day, but doing a thorough job can pay big dividends.

In the writing of the Pulitzer Prize-winning biography American Prometheus: The Triumph and Trajedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer , it took author, Martin J. Sherwin, 25 years to complete the work. The first 20 years were spent doing interviews and collecting over fifty boxes of archives (some received through the Freedom of Information Act). The last five years he partnered with author Kai Bird to complete the work . While it doesn't take every biographer that long to write a biography, it does add a weighty perspective to what writing an in-depth book about someone's life could entail.

Whether you write an authorized or unauthorized biography, the quality and objectivity of your writing are what matter most. Although biographies are considered secondary sources, it doesn’t mean that they can’t make a significant contribution to the tapestry of a person’s public life record. 

Seek out the permission of the person you want to write about if they are living or their family or representative if they are incapacitated or deceased. People’s life stories are personal, so the best advice from one writer to another is to write their stories with the same respect you’d want someone to write yours. This will add a strong entry to your book portfolio, save you a lot of headaches in the long run, and help keep you out of a courtroom.

Note: In this article, we touched on nonfiction life stories, but there are also biographical novels (fictitious) and autobiographical fiction that are not within the scope of this article. For more information on creative nonfiction, start here . 

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Frequently asked questions

How can you tell if a source is primary or secondary.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

Frequently asked questions: Citing sources

A scientific citation style is a system of source citation that is used in scientific disciplines. Some commonly used scientific citation styles are:

• Chicago author-date , CSE , and Harvard , used across various sciences
• ACS , used in chemistry
• AMA , NLM , and Vancouver , used in medicine and related disciplines
• AAA , APA , and ASA , commonly used in the social sciences

There are many different citation styles used across different academic disciplines, but they fall into three basic approaches to citation:

• Parenthetical citations : Including identifying details of the source in parentheses —usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if available ( author-date ). The publication date is occasionally omitted ( author-page ).
• Numerical citations: Including a number in brackets or superscript, corresponding to an entry in your numbered reference list.
• Note citations: Including a full citation in a footnote or endnote , which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

A source annotation in an annotated bibliography fulfills a similar purpose to an abstract : they’re both intended to summarize the approach and key points of a source.

However, an annotation may also evaluate the source , discussing the validity and effectiveness of its arguments. Even if your annotation is purely descriptive , you may have a different perspective on the source from the author and highlight different key points.

You should never just copy text from the abstract for your annotation, as doing so constitutes plagiarism .

Most academics agree that you shouldn’t cite Wikipedia as a source in your academic writing , and universities often have rules against doing so.

This is partly because of concerns about its reliability, and partly because it’s a tertiary source. Tertiary sources are things like encyclopedias and databases that collect information from other sources rather than presenting their own evidence or analysis. Usually, only primary and secondary sources are cited in academic papers.

A Wikipedia citation usually includes the title of the article, “Wikipedia” and/or “Wikimedia Foundation,” the date the article was last updated, and the URL.

In APA Style , you’ll give the URL of the current revision of the article so that you’re sure the reader accesses the same version as you.

There’s some disagreement about whether Wikipedia can be considered a reliable source . Because it can be edited by anyone, many people argue that it’s easy for misleading information to be added to an article without the reader knowing.

Others argue that because Wikipedia articles cite their sources , and because they are worked on by so many editors, misinformation is generally removed quickly.

However, most universities state that you shouldn’t cite Wikipedia in your writing.

Hanging indents are used in reference lists in various citation styles to allow the reader to easily distinguish between entries.

You should apply a hanging indent to your reference entries in APA , MLA , and Chicago style.

A hanging indent is used to indent all lines of a paragraph except the first.

When you create a hanging indent, the first line of the paragraph starts at the border. Each subsequent line is indented 0.5 inches (1.27 cm).

APA and MLA style both use parenthetical in-text citations to cite sources and include a full list of references at the end, but they differ in other ways:

• APA in-text citations include the author name, date, and page number (Taylor, 2018, p. 23), while MLA in-text citations include only the author name and page number (Taylor 23).
• The APA reference list is titled “References,” while MLA’s version is called “ Works Cited .”
• The reference entries differ in terms of formatting and order of information.
• APA requires a title page , while MLA requires a header instead.

A parenthetical citation in Chicago author-date style includes the author’s last name, the publication date, and, if applicable, the relevant page number or page range in parentheses . Include a comma after the year, but not after the author’s name.

For example: (Swan 2003, 6)

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

APA Style distinguishes between parenthetical and narrative citations.

In parenthetical citations , you include all relevant source information in parentheses at the end of the sentence or clause: “Parts of the human body reflect the principles of tensegrity (Levin, 2002).”

In narrative citations , you include the author’s name in the text itself, followed by the publication date in parentheses: “Levin (2002) argues that parts of the human body reflect the principles of tensegrity.”

In a parenthetical citation in MLA style , include the author’s last name and the relevant page number or range in parentheses .

For example: (Eliot 21)

A parenthetical citation gives credit in parentheses to a source that you’re quoting or paraphrasing . It provides relevant information such as the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number(s) cited.

How you use parenthetical citations will depend on your chosen citation style . It will also depend on the type of source you are citing and the number of authors.

APA does not permit the use of ibid. This is because APA in-text citations are parenthetical and there’s no need to shorten them further.

Ibid. may be used in Chicago footnotes or endnotes .

Write “Ibid.” alone when you are citing the same page number and source as the previous citation.

When you are citing the same source, but a different page number, use ibid. followed by a comma and the relevant page number(s). For example:

• Ibid., 40–42.

Only use ibid . if you are directing the reader to a previous full citation of a source .

Ibid. only refers to the previous citation. Therefore, you should only use ibid. directly after a citation that you want to repeat.

Ibid. is an abbreviation of the Latin “ibidem,” meaning “in the same place.” Ibid. is used in citations to direct the reader to the previous source.

Signal phrases can be used in various ways and can be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.

To use signal phrases effectively, include:

• The name of the scholar(s) or study you’re referencing
• An attributive tag such as “according to” or “argues that”
• The quote or idea you want to include

Different citation styles require you to use specific verb tenses when using signal phrases.

• APA Style requires you to use the past or present perfect tense when using signal phrases.
• MLA and Chicago requires you to use the present tense when using signal phrases.

Signal phrases allow you to give credit for an idea or quote to its author or originator. This helps you to:

• Establish the credentials of your sources
• Display your depth of reading and understanding of the field
• Position your own work in relation to other scholars
• Avoid plagiarism

A signal phrase is a group of words that ascribes a quote or idea to an outside source.

Signal phrases distinguish the cited idea or argument from your own writing and introduce important information including the source of the material that you are quoting , paraphrasing , or summarizing . For example:

“ Cognitive psychologist Steven Pinker (1994) insists that humans possess an innate faculty for comprehending grammar.”

If you’re quoting from a text that paraphrases or summarizes other sources and cites them in parentheses , APA and Chicago both recommend retaining the citations as part of the quote. However, MLA recommends omitting citations within a quote:

• APA: Smith states that “the literature on this topic (Jones, 2015; Sill, 2019; Paulson, 2020) shows no clear consensus” (Smith, 2019, p. 4).
• MLA: Smith states that “the literature on this topic shows no clear consensus” (Smith, 2019, p. 4).

Footnote or endnote numbers that appear within quoted text should be omitted in all styles.

If you want to cite an indirect source (one you’ve only seen quoted in another source), either locate the original source or use the phrase “as cited in” in your citation.

In scientific subjects, the information itself is more important than how it was expressed, so quoting should generally be kept to a minimum. In the arts and humanities, however, well-chosen quotes are often essential to a good paper.

In social sciences, it varies. If your research is mainly quantitative , you won’t include many quotes, but if it’s more qualitative , you may need to quote from the data you collected .

As a general guideline, quotes should take up no more than 5–10% of your paper. If in doubt, check with your instructor or supervisor how much quoting is appropriate in your field.

To present information from other sources in academic writing , it’s best to paraphrase in most cases. This shows that you’ve understood the ideas you’re discussing and incorporates them into your text smoothly.

It’s appropriate to quote when:

• Changing the phrasing would distort the meaning of the original text
• You want to discuss the author’s language choices (e.g., in literary analysis )
• You’re presenting a precise definition
• You’re looking in depth at a specific claim

To paraphrase effectively, don’t just take the original sentence and swap out some of the words for synonyms. Instead, try:

• Reformulating the sentence (e.g., change active to passive , or start from a different point)
• Combining information from multiple sentences into one
• Leaving out information from the original that isn’t relevant to your point
• Using synonyms where they don’t distort the meaning

The main point is to ensure you don’t just copy the structure of the original text, but instead reformulate the idea in your own words.

“ Et al. ” is an abbreviation of the Latin term “et alia,” which means “and others.” It’s used in source citations to save space when there are too many authors to name them all.

Guidelines for using “et al.” differ depending on the citation style you’re following:

To insert endnotes in Microsoft Word, follow the steps below:

• Click on the spot in the text where you want the endnote to show up.
• In the “References” tab at the top, select “Insert Endnote.”
• Type whatever text you want into the endnote.

If you need to change the type of notes used in a Word document from footnotes to endnotes , or the other way around, follow these steps:

• Open the “References” tab, and click the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the “Footnotes” section.
• In the pop-up window, click on “Convert…”
• Choose the option you need, and click “OK.”

To insert a footnote automatically in a Word document:

• Click on the point in the text where the footnote should appear
• Select the “References” tab at the top and then click on “Insert Footnote”
• Type the text you want into the footnote that appears at the bottom of the page

Footnotes are notes indicated in your text with numbers and placed at the bottom of the page. They’re used to provide:

• Citations (e.g., in Chicago notes and bibliography )
• Additional information that would disrupt the flow of the main text

Be sparing in your use of footnotes (other than citation footnotes), and consider whether the information you’re adding is relevant for the reader.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page they refer to. This is convenient for the reader but may cause your text to look cluttered if there are a lot of footnotes.

Endnotes appear all together at the end of the whole text. This may be less convenient for the reader but reduces clutter.

Both footnotes and endnotes are used in the same way: to cite sources or add extra information. You should usually choose one or the other to use in your text, not both.

An in-text citation is an acknowledgement you include in your text whenever you quote or paraphrase a source. It usually gives the author’s last name, the year of publication, and the page number of the relevant text. In-text citations allow the reader to look up the full source information in your reference list and see your sources for themselves.

If you are reusing content or data you used in a previous assignment, make sure to cite yourself. You can cite yourself just as you would cite any other source: simply follow the directions for that source type in the citation style you are using.

Keep in mind that reusing your previous work can be considered self-plagiarism , so make sure you ask your professor or consult your university’s handbook before doing so.

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Peer review is a process of evaluating submissions to an academic journal. Utilizing rigorous criteria, a panel of reviewers in the same subject area decide whether to accept each submission for publication. For this reason, academic journals are often considered among the most credible sources you can use in a research project– provided that the journal itself is trustworthy and well-regarded.

Academic dishonesty can be intentional or unintentional, ranging from something as simple as claiming to have read something you didn’t to copying your neighbor’s answers on an exam.

You can commit academic dishonesty with the best of intentions, such as helping a friend cheat on a paper. Severe academic dishonesty can include buying a pre-written essay or the answers to a multiple-choice test, or falsifying a medical emergency to avoid taking a final exam.

Academic dishonesty refers to deceitful or misleading behavior in an academic setting. Academic dishonesty can occur intentionally or unintentionally, and varies in severity.

It can encompass paying for a pre-written essay, cheating on an exam, or committing plagiarism . It can also include helping others cheat, copying a friend’s homework answers, or even pretending to be sick to miss an exam.

Academic dishonesty doesn’t just occur in a classroom setting, but also in research and other academic-adjacent fields.

To apply a hanging indent to your reference list or Works Cited list in Word or Google Docs, follow the steps below.

Microsoft Word:

• Highlight the whole list and right click to open the Paragraph options.
• Under Indentation > Special , choose Hanging from the dropdown menu.
• Set the indent to 0.5 inches or 1.27cm.

Google Docs:

• Highlight the whole list and click on Format >  Align and indent >  Indentation options .
• Under  Special indent , choose Hanging from the dropdown menu.

When the hanging indent is applied, for each reference, every line except the first is indented. This helps the reader see where one entry ends and the next begins.

For a published interview (whether in video , audio, or print form ), you should always include a citation , just as you would for any other source.

For an interview you conducted yourself , formally or informally, you often don’t need a citation and can just refer to it in the text or in a footnote , since the reader won’t be able to look them up anyway. MLA , however, still recommends including citations for your own interviews.

The main elements included in a newspaper interview citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the names of the interviewer and interviewee, the interview title, the publication date, the name of the newspaper, and a URL (for online sources).

The information is presented differently in different citation styles. One key difference is that APA advises listing the interviewer in the author position, while MLA and Chicago advise listing the interviewee first.

The elements included in a newspaper article citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author name, the article title, the publication date, the newspaper name, and the URL if the article was accessed online .

In APA and MLA, the page numbers of the article appear in place of the URL if the article was accessed in print. No page numbers are used in Chicago newspaper citations.

Untitled sources (e.g. some images ) are usually cited using a short descriptive text in place of the title. In APA Style , this description appears in brackets: [Chair of stained oak]. In MLA and Chicago styles, no brackets are used: Chair of stained oak.

For social media posts, which are usually untitled, quote the initial words of the post in place of the title: the first 160 characters in Chicago , or the first 20 words in APA . E.g. Biden, J. [@JoeBiden]. “The American Rescue Plan means a $7,000 check for a single mom of four. It means more support to safely.”

MLA recommends quoting the full post for something short like a tweet, and just describing the post if it’s longer.

The main elements included in image citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the image’s creator, the image title, the year (or more precise date) of publication, and details of the container in which the image was found (e.g. a museum, book , website ).

In APA and Chicago style, it’s standard to also include a description of the image’s format (e.g. “Photograph” or “Oil on canvas”). This sort of information may be included in MLA too, but is not mandatory.

The main elements included in a lecture citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the speaker, the lecture title, the date it took place, the course or event it was part of, and the institution it took place at.

For transcripts or recordings of lectures/speeches, other details like the URL, the name of the book or website , and the length of the recording may be included instead of information about the event and institution.

The main elements included in a YouTube video citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the author/uploader, the title of the video, the publication date, and the URL.

The format in which this information appears is different for each style.

All styles also recommend using timestamps as a locator in the in-text citation or Chicago footnote .

Each annotation in an annotated bibliography is usually between 50 and 200 words long. Longer annotations may be divided into paragraphs .

The content of the annotation varies according to your assignment. An annotation can be descriptive, meaning it just describes the source objectively; evaluative, meaning it assesses its usefulness; or reflective, meaning it explains how the source will be used in your own research .

Any credible sources on your topic can be included in an annotated bibliography . The exact sources you cover will vary depending on the assignment, but you should usually focus on collecting journal articles and scholarly books . When in doubt, utilize the CRAAP test !

An annotated bibliography is an assignment where you collect sources on a specific topic and write an annotation for each source. An annotation is a short text that describes and sometimes evaluates the source.

The elements included in journal article citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name(s) of the author(s), the title of the article, the year of publication, the name of the journal, the volume and issue numbers, the page range of the article, and, when accessed online, the DOI or URL.

In MLA and Chicago style, you also include the specific month or season of publication alongside the year, when this information is available.

In APA , MLA , and Chicago style citations for sources that don’t list a specific author (e.g. many websites ), you can usually list the organization responsible for the source as the author.

If the organization is the same as the website or publisher, you shouldn’t repeat it twice in your reference:

• In APA and Chicago, omit the website or publisher name later in the reference.
• In MLA, omit the author element at the start of the reference, and cite the source title instead.

If there’s no appropriate organization to list as author, you will usually have to begin the citation and reference entry with the title of the source instead.

The main elements included in website citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author, the date of publication, the page title, the website name, and the URL. The information is presented differently in each style.

When you want to cite a specific passage in a source without page numbers (e.g. an e-book or website ), all the main citation styles recommend using an alternate locator in your in-text citation . You might use a heading or chapter number, e.g. (Smith, 2016, ch. 1)

In APA Style , you can count the paragraph numbers in a text to identify a location by paragraph number. MLA and Chicago recommend that you only use paragraph numbers if they’re explicitly marked in the text.

For audiovisual sources (e.g. videos ), all styles recommend using a timestamp to show a specific point in the video when relevant.

The abbreviation “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”) is used to shorten citations of sources with multiple authors.

“Et al.” is used in APA in-text citations of sources with 3+ authors, e.g. (Smith et al., 2019). It is not used in APA reference entries .

Use “et al.” for 3+ authors in MLA in-text citations and Works Cited entries.

Use “et al.” for 4+ authors in a Chicago in-text citation , and for 10+ authors in a Chicago bibliography entry.

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

• APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
• MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
• Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

The main elements included in all book citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author, the title, the year of publication, and the name of the publisher. A page number is also included in in-text citations to highlight the specific passage cited.

In Chicago style and in the 6th edition of APA Style , the location of the publisher is also included, e.g. London: Penguin.

A block quote is a long quote formatted as a separate “block” of text. Instead of using quotation marks , you place the quote on a new line, and indent the entire quote to mark it apart from your own words.

The rules for when to apply block quote formatting depend on the citation style:

• APA block quotes are 40 words or longer.
• MLA block quotes are more than 4 lines of prose or 3 lines of poetry.
• Chicago block quotes are longer than 100 words.

In academic writing , there are three main situations where quoting is the best choice:

• To analyze the author’s language (e.g., in a literary analysis essay )
• To give evidence from primary sources
• To accurately present a precise definition or argument

Don’t overuse quotes; your own voice should be dominant. If you just want to provide information from a source, it’s usually better to paraphrase or summarize .

Every time you quote a source , you must include a correctly formatted in-text citation . This looks slightly different depending on the citation style .

For example, a direct quote in APA is cited like this: “This is a quote” (Streefkerk, 2020, p. 5).

Every in-text citation should also correspond to a full reference at the end of your paper.

A quote is an exact copy of someone else’s words, usually enclosed in quotation marks and credited to the original author or speaker.

The DOI is usually clearly visible when you open a journal article on an academic database. It is often listed near the publication date, and includes “doi.org” or “DOI:”. If the database has a “cite this article” button, this should also produce a citation with the DOI included.

If you can’t find the DOI, you can search on Crossref using information like the author, the article title, and the journal name.

A DOI is a unique identifier for a digital document. DOIs are important in academic citation because they are more permanent than URLs, ensuring that your reader can reliably locate the source.

Journal articles and ebooks can often be found on multiple different websites and databases. The URL of the page where an article is hosted can be changed or removed over time, but a DOI is linked to the specific document and never changes.

When a book’s chapters are written by different authors, you should cite the specific chapter you are referring to.

When all the chapters are written by the same author (or group of authors), you should usually cite the entire book, but some styles include exceptions to this.

• In APA Style , single-author books should always be cited as a whole, even if you only quote or paraphrase from one chapter.
• In MLA Style , if a single-author book is a collection of stand-alone works (e.g. short stories ), you should cite the individual work.
• In Chicago Style , you may choose to cite a single chapter of a single-author book if you feel it is more appropriate than citing the whole book.

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

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• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on 4 September 2022 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on 15 May 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. A primary source gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . A secondary source describes, interprets, or synthesises primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

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Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews, surveys, experiments) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyses information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesise information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopaedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyse it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in analysing the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesise a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review , you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of sources are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analysing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyse language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analysing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 15). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 9 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/working-sources/primary-vs-secondary-sources/

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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources

Search catalog, what are the differences.

Sources of information or evidence are often categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary material. These classifications are based on the originality of the material and the proximity of the source or origin. This informs the reader as to whether the author is reporting information that is first hand or is conveying the experiences and opinions of others which is considered second hand. Determining if a source is primary, secondary or tertiary can be tricky. Below you will find a description of the three categories of information and examples to help you make a determination.

Primary Sources

These sources are records of events or evidence as they are first described or actually happened without any interpretation or commentary. It is information that is shown for the first time or original materials on which other research is based.  Primary sources display original thinking, report on new discoveries, or share fresh information.

Secondary Sources

These sources offer an analysis or restatement of primary sources. They often try to describe or explain primary sources. They tend to be works which summarize, interpret, reorganize, or otherwise provide an added value to a primary source.

Tertiary Sources

These are sources that index, abstract, organize, compile, or digest other sources. Some reference materials and textbooks are considered tertiary sources when their chief purpose is to list, summarize or simply repackage ideas or other information. Tertiary sources are usually not credited to a particular author.

Primary Sources

• What are Primary Sources?
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What are Primary and Secondary Sources?

Primary Sources Primary sources are the "materials on a topic upon which subsequent interpretations or studies are based, anything from firsthand documents such as poems, diaries, court records, and interviews to research results generated by experiments, surveys, ethnographies, and so on."*

Primary sources are records of events as they are first described, usually by witnesses or people who were involved in the event. Many primary sources were created at the time of the event but can also include memoirs, oral interviews, or accounts that were recorded later.  

Visual materials, such as photos, original artwork, posters, and films are important primary sources, not only for the factual information they contain, but also for the insight they may provide into how people view their world.   Primary sources may also include sets of data, such as census statistics, which have been tabulated but not interpreted. However, in the sciences or social sciences, primary sources report the results of an experiment. 

It can sometimes be difficult to determine whether a particular source is primary or secondary, because the same source can be a primary source for one topic and a secondary source for another topic.   David McCullough’s biography, John Adams , could be a secondary source for a paper about John Adams but a primary source for a paper about how various historians have interpreted the life of John Adams.

*From Hairston, Maxine and John J. Ruszkiewicz. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers. 4th ed. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1996, pg. 547.

Secondary Sources Secondary sources offer an analysis or a restatement of primary sources. They often attempt to describe or explain primary sources. Some secondary sources not only analyze primary sources, but also use them to argue a contention or persuade the reader to hold a certain opinion. Examples of secondary sources include dictionaries, encyclopedias, textbooks, and books and articles that interpret, analyze, or review research works.

More Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

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Looking for a book, article, database or something else for your research, primary sources.

A  primary source  is an  original  document containing  firsthand  information about a topic.

Different fields of study may use different types of primary sources. Common examples of a primary source are:

• Autobiographies
• Eyewitness Accounts
• Interview Transcripts
• Legal Documents
• Original works of art
• Photographs of the topic
• Original Research
• Video Footage of the topic event
• Works of literature

Secondary Sources

A  secondary source  contains commentary on or discussion about a primary source. The most important feature of secondary sources is that they offer an  interpretation  of information gathered from primary sources.

Common examples of a secondary source are:

• Biographies
• Indexes, Abstracts, Bibliographies (used to locate a secondary source)
• Journal Articles
• Literary Criticism
• Monographs written about the topic
• Reviews of books, movies, musical recordings,. works of art, etc.

Primary vs. Secondary Information

Primary sources are first hand sources; secondary sources are second-hand sources. For example, suppose there had been a car accident. The description of the accident which a witness gives to the police is a primary source because it comes from someone who was actually there at the time. The next day's newspaper story is a secondary source because the reporter who wrote the story did not actually witness the event.  The reporter is presenting a way of understanding the accident or an interpretation.

*From North Park University, History Department

However , the distinctions between primary and secondary sources can be ambiguous. It is important to remember that you cannot determine whether a source is primary or secondary solely based on the document type. An individual document may be a primary source in one context and a secondary source in another. For example, the movie  Love, Marilyn  is a secondary source when the topic is Marilyn Monroe; it would be considered a primary source if the topic of research was the works of Liz Garbus (the film's director).

Additionally, time can be a defining element. For example, a recent newspaper article is not usually a primary source; but a newspaper article from the 1860’s may be a primary source for United States Civil War research.

*From CBB Library and IT Consortium

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Sometimes, the same source might be a primary source for one research paper and a secondary source for another. It all depends on the relationship of the source to your research question. For example, if you are researching Franklin Roosevelt's life, the book  No ordinary time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The home front in World War II  by Doris Kearns Goodwin would be a secondary source. If you were researching the literary style of Ms. Goodwin, it would be a primary source.

*From Joyner Library, East Carolina University

More on Primary Sources

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Primary Sources and Original Research

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When evaluating the quality of the information you are using, it is useful to identify if you are using a Primary, Secondary, or Tertiary source . By doing so, you will be able recognize if the author is reporting on his/her own first hand experiences, or relying on the views of others.

Source Type Examples

Primary A primary source is a first person account by someone who experienced or witnessed an event.

This original document has not been previously published or interpreted by anyone else.

• First person account of an event
• First publication of a scientific study
• Speech or lecture
• Original artwork
• Handwritten manuscript
• Letters between two people
• Historical documents, e.g. Bill of Rights

Secondary A secondary source is one step removed from the primary original source. The author is reexamining, interpreting and forming conclusions based on the information that is conveyed in the primary source.

• Newspaper reporting on a scientific study
• Review of a music CD or art show

Tertiary A tertiary source is further removed from primary source.

It leads the researcher to a secondary source, rather than to the primary source.

• Bibliography
• Index to articles
• Library catalog 

Note :  Determining whether a source is primary or secondary can be tricky, as the same source could sometimes be primary or secondary depending on how you use it.  ex: Ken Burns' documentary of the Civil War is a secondary source for Civil War researchers, but a primary source for those studying documentary filmmaking.

REMEMBER - you cannot always tell what kind of source it is based on where it appears (book, newspaper, academic journal, etc.) -  when in doubt ask your instructor or a librarian.

Finding Primary Sources--Non-history topics

• Primary vs. Secondary Sources: Biology This handout by the Xavier University libraries offers definitions of primary vs. secondary sources with examples of each for this field. Used with the permission of Xavier University Libraries
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources: Nursing This handout by the Xavier University libraries offers definitions of primary vs. secondary sources with examples of each for this field. Used with the permission of Xavier University Libraries
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources: Social Work This handout by the Xavier University libraries offers definitions of primary vs. secondary sources with examples of each for this field. Used with the permission of Xavier University Libraries
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2.4: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

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Another information category is called publication mode and has to do with whether the information is:

• Firsthand information (information in its original form, not translated or published in another form).
• Secondhand information (a restatement, analysis, or interpretation of original information).
• Thirdhand information (a summary or repackaging of original information, often based on secondary information that has been published).

The three labels for information sources in this category are, respectively, primary sources, secondary sources, and tertiary sources . Here are examples to illustrate the first- handedness, second-handedness, and third-handedness of information:

When you make distinctions between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, you are relating the information itself to the context in which it was created. Understanding that relationship is an important skill that you’ll need in college, as well as in the workplace. Noting the relationship between creation and context helps us understand the “big picture” in which information operates and helps us figure out which information we can depend on. That’s a big part of thinking critically, a major benefit of actually becoming an educated person.

As a reminder, recall one of the frames of the Framework for Information Literacy is Authority is Constructed and Contextual . Information does not occur in a vacuum, but within a context that impacts its meaning. Part of that context will be how you as an information consumer will process the different facets in which that information exists. So, with this in mind, recognize that primary sources as defined below are not cut and dried, nor black or white. For example, to a historian, an image or a representation of a piece of sculpture might be considered a primary source for the purposes of historical analysis; however, to a sculpture or an archaeologist, anything short of the physical piece of sculpture itself would not be considered a primary source. So, in this case, the “context” to consider is how the source of information itself is perceived by a particular discipline (history vs. sculpture or archaeology). More on this below when we consider the “format” of a source.

Primary Sources – Because it is in its original form, the information in primary sources has reached us from its creators without going through any filter. We get it firsthand. Here are some examples that are often used as primary sources:

• Any literary work, including novels, plays, and poems.
• Breaking news (first formal documentation of event–remember the Information Cycle).
• Advertisements.
• Music and dance performances.
• Eyewitness accounts, including photographs and recorded interviews.
• Blog entries that are autobiographical.
• Scholarly blogs that provide data or are highly theoretical, even though they contain no autobiography.
• Artifacts such as tools, clothing, or other objects.
• Original documents such as tax returns, marriage licenses, and transcripts of trials.
• Websites, although many are secondary.
• Correspondence, including email.
• Records of organizations and government agencies.
• Journal articles that report original research for the first time (at least the parts about the new research, plus their data).

Secondary Source – These sources are sources about the sources, such as analysis or interpretation of the original information, the primary source. Thus, the information comes to us secondhand, or through at least one filter. Here are some examples that are often used as secondary sources:

• Nonfiction books and magazine articles except autobiography.
• An article or website that critiques a novel, play, painting, or piece of music.
• An article or web site that synthesizes expert opinion and several eyewitness accounts for a new understanding of an event.
• The literature review portion of a scholarly journal article.

Tertiary Source – These sources further repackage the original information because they index, condense, or summarize the original.

Typically, by the time tertiary sources are developed, there have been many secondary sources prepared on their subjects, and you can think of tertiary sources as information that comes to us “third-hand,” that is, pre -processed. Tertiary sources are usually publications that you are not intended to read from cover to cover but to dip in and out of for the information you need. You can think of them as a good place for background information to start your research but a bad place to end up. Here are some examples that are often used as tertiary sources, which are also considered “reference sources” in the library world:

• Dictionaries.
• Guide books, like the MLA Handbook
• Survey articles.
• Bibliographies.
• Encyclopedias, including Wikipedia.
• Most textbooks, including the one you are now reading.

Tertiary sources are usually not acceptable as cited sources in college research projects because they are so far removed from firsthand information. That’s why most professors don’t want you to use Wikipedia as a citable source: the information in Wikipedia is far from original information. Other people have considered it, decided what they think about it, rearranged it, and summarized it–all of which is actually what your professors want you , not another author, to do with information in your research projects.

The Details Are Tricky — A few things about primary or secondary sources might surprise you:

• Sources have the potential of becoming primary rather than always exist as primary sources.

It’s easy to think that it is the format of primary sources that makes them primary. But that’s not all that matters. When you see lists like the one above of sources that are often used as primary sources, it’s wise to remember that the ones listed are not automatically already primary sources. Firsthand sources get that designation only when researchers actually find their information relevant and use it.

For instance: Here is an illustration of the frame, Authority is Constructed and Contextual. Records that could be relevant to those studying government are created every day by federal, state, county, and city governments as they operate. But until the raw data are actually used by a researcher, they cannot be considered primary sources. How this data is used is what gives these sources the designation, and authority, as primary sources.

Another example that references the frame, Authority is Constructed and Contextual : A diary about his flying missions kept by an American helicopter pilot in the Vietnam War is not a primary source until, say, a researcher uses it in her study of how the war was carried out. But it will never be a primary source for a researcher studying the U.S. public’s reaction to the war because it does not contain information relevant to that study.

• Primary sources, even eyewitness accounts, are not necessarily accurate. Their accuracy has to be evaluated, just like that of all sources.
• Something that is usually considered a secondary source can be considered a primary source, depending on the research project and the context in which something is used .

Here is another example where the context of the use of the source dictates whether or not the source is primary or secondary. For instance, movie reviews are usually considered secondary sources. But if your research project is about the effect movie reviews have on ticket sales, the movie reviews you study would become primary sources.

• Deciding whether to consider a journal article a primary or a secondary source can be complicated for at least two reasons.

First, scholarly journal articles that report new research for the first time are usually based on data. So some disciplines consider the data to be the primary source, and the journal article that describes and analyzes them is considered a secondary source.

However, particularly in the sciences, the original researcher might find it difficult or impossible (he or she might not be allowed) to share the data. So sometimes you have nothing more firsthand than the journal article, which argues for calling it the relevant primary source because it’s the closest thing that exists to the data.

Second, even scholarly journal articles that announce new research for the first time usually contain more than data. They also typically contain secondary source elements, such as a literature review, bibliography, and sections on data analysis and interpretation. So they can actually be a mix of primary and secondary elements. Even so, in some disciplines, a journal article that announces new research findings for the first time is considered to be, as a whole, a primary source for the researchers using it.

ACTIVITY: Under What Circumstances?

Instructions: Look at each of the sources listed below and think of circumstances under which each could become a primary source. (There are probably many potential circumstances for each.) So just imagine you are a researcher with projects that would make each item firsthand information that is relevant to your work. What kind of project would make each of the following sources relevant firsthand information? Our answers are at the bottom of the page, but remember that there are many more–including the ones you think of that we didn’t!

• Fallingwater, a Pennsylvania home designed and constructed by Frank Lloyd Wright in the 1930s.
• Poet W.H. Auden’s elegy for Y.S. Yeats.
• An arrowhead made by (Florida) Seminole Native Americans but found at Flint Ridge outside Columbus, Ohio.
• E-mail between the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, Nikki Haley, and her staff about North Korea.
• A marriage license.

Despite their fluidity, what primary sources usually offer is too good not to consider using because:

• They are original. This unfiltered, firsthand information is not available anywhere else.
• Their creator was a type of person unlike others in your research project, and you want to include that perspective.
• Their creator was present at an event and shares an eyewitness account.
• They are objects that existed at the particular time of the project you are studying.

Particularly in humanities courses, your professor may require you to use a certain number of primary sources for your project. In other courses, particularly in the sciences, you may be required to use only primary sources.

What is considered primary and secondary sources can vary from discipline to discipline. If you are required to use primary sources for your research project, before getting too deep into your project, check with your professor to make sure he or she agrees with your choices. After all, it’s your professor who will be grading your project. A librarian, too, can verify your choices. Just remember to take a copy of your assignment with you when you ask, because the librarian will want to see the original assignment. After all, that’s a primary source!

POSSIBLE AnswerS TO ACTIVITY: Under What Circumstances?

• You are doing a study of the entrances Wright designed for homes, which were smaller than other architects of the time typically designed entrances.
• Your research project is about the Auden-Yeats relationship.
• Your research project is about trade among 19th century Native Americans east of the Mississippi River.
• Your research project is on how Ambassador Haley conveyed a decision about North Korea to her staff.
• You are writing about the life of a person who claimed to have married several times, and you need more than her statements about when those marriages took place and to whom.

Libraries | Research Guides

Primary sources/secondary sources, what is a primary source, primary source examples.

• Secondary Sources
• Finding Primary Sources
• Library Primary Resources

Need more help?

Primary sources provide the raw data you use to support your arguments. Some common types of primary resources include manuscripts, diaries, court cases, maps, data sets, experiment results, news stories, polls, or original research.  In many cases what makes a primary resource is contextual.  For example, a biography about Abraham Lincoln is a secondary resource about Lincoln. However, if examined as a piece of evidence about the nature of biographical writing, or as an example of the biographer's writing method it becomes a primary resource.

• Next: Secondary Sources >>
• Last Updated: Dec 7, 2022 12:52 PM
• URL: https://libguides.northwestern.edu/primarysecondary

Identifying Primary and Secondary Sources

• Examples: Primary Sources
• Examples: Secondary Sources

The materials, evidence, or data used in your research are known as sources. As foundations of your research, these sources of information are typically classified into two broad categories— primary and secondary.

Primary Sources

A  primary source  provides direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object, person or work of art. Characteristically, primary sources are contemporary to the events and people described and show minimal or no mediation between the document/artifact and its creator. As to the format, primary source materials can be written and non-written, the latter including sound, picture, and artifact. Examples of primary sources include:

Secondary Sources

A  secondary source , in contrast, lacks the immediacy of a primary record. As materials produced sometime after an event happened, they contain information that has been interpreted, commented, analyzed or processed in such a way that it no longer conveys the freshness of the original. History textbooks, dictionaries, encyclopedias, interpretive journal articles, and book reviews are all examples of secondary sources. Secondary sources are often based on primary sources. Primary and Secondary Sources Compared An example from the printed press serves to further distinguish primary from secondary sources. In writing a narrative of the political turmoil surrounding the 2000 U.S. presidential election, a researcher will likely tap newspaper reports of that time for factual information on the events. The researcher will use these reports as primary sources because they offer direct or firsthand evidence of the events, as they first took place. A column in the Op/Ed section of a newspaper commenting on the election, however, is less likely to serve these purposes. In this case, a columnist’s analysis of the election controversy is considered to be a secondary source, primarily because it is not a close factual account or recording of the events. Bear in mind, however, that primary and secondary sources are not fixed categories. The use of evidence as a primary or secondary source hinges on the type of research you are conducting. If the researcher of the 2000 presidential election were interested in people’s perceptions of the political and legal electoral controversy, the Op/Ed columns will likely be good primary sources for surveying public opinion of these landmark events.

Primary Source Searching 

The chart below illustrates possible uses of primary and secondary sources by discipline, primary source searching in iucat.

Use the IU online library ca

talog (IUCAT) to look for primary source materials. Employ the Library of Congress subject heading subdivisions below to retrieve primary materials from IUCAT. These subdivisions indicate the form in which the material is organized and presented.

Subject Heading Subdivisions

Source Search Examples

Use the subject subdivisions to build search statements that may include names, events or topics. Below is a select sample of library catalog searches. Enter these terms and search for as Subject in IUCAT. You may also wish to try search for a ALL Fields which will give you a larger but less focused result. Use the AND operator (or the + sign) to combine ideas; for example, novelists and correspondence. AND will find your search words in any section of the subject headings and will increase the likelihood that you will find relevant material

• Next: Examples: Primary Sources >>
• Last Updated: Jan 20, 2023 10:50 AM
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Explore Information — Primary & Secondary Sources - Humanities & Social Sciences

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Primary & Secondary Sources in the Humanities - Overview

Primary and Secondary Sources are understood in different ways by different subject areas. When you think about primary and secondary sources in your own life, those examples are probably most similar to the way the Humanities and Social Sciences generally understand primary and secondary sources.  See the guide What is a Primary Source for a concise overview.

Primary Sources

Primary sources are original materials on which research is based. They present information in its original form, neither interpreted nor condensed nor evaluated by other writers.  In the humanities and social sciences, these are the direct or first-hand evidence of events, objects, people, or works of art. 

Depending upon the context, primary sources can include items such as original artwork, manuscripts, sales receipts, speeches, e-mails,  photos, diaries, personal letters, spoken stories/tales/interviews, diplomatic records.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources provide commentary upon, interpretation of, or analysis of primary sources.  They put primary sources in context.  Because they are often written significantly after events by parties not directly involved but who have special expertise, they may provide historical context or critical perspectives.

Secondary sources can include items such as scholarly books; articles in newspapers, scholarly journals, and magazines; movie reviews; biographies.

Finding Primary Sources

• Using Library Search (Catalog) to Find Primary Sources

There are lots of places to start searching for primary sources in the Humanities and Social Sciences. Below are some places to start your search.

Library Search

Library Search finds items in the UConn Library Collection, including archival materials, print materials with original text, printed facsimiles, and online resources that link to digital facsimiles. 

For help finding primary sources using Library Search, see the Using the Library Search (Catalog) to Find Primary Sources tab.

Archives & Special Collections holds over 1000 collections of archival materials and primary sources. Primary sources from cultural institutions around the state of Connecticut can also be found in the Connecticut Digital Archive .

Research Guides

Library Subject Specialists create Research Guides that provide information and instruction on research within specific subjects.  Each guide varies, and may include primary source databases and other helpful resources in that field.  For additional help finding primary sources in a subject, contact the subject specialist profiled in the specific research guide.

Selected Primary Source Library Databases and Websites

• Historical Newspapers from ProQuest Search for historical articles in a variety of major American and international newspapers published between 1764-2019. See more info for complete list of newspapers included. more... less... Includes: Arizona Republican (1870-2007)*, Atlantic Constitution (1868-1984), Atlanta Daily World (1931-2010), Baltimore Afro-American (1893-2010), Baltimore Sun (1837-1997)*, Boston Globe (1872-1991), Chicago Defender (1909-2010), Chicago Tribune (1849-2013), Chinese Newspapers Collection (1832-1953), Christian Science Monitor (1908-2009)*, Cleveland Call & Post (1934-2010), Detroit Free Press (1831-1999)*, The Globe and Mail (1844-2019)*, The Guardian and the Observer (1791-2003)*, Hartford Courant (1764-1997), Irish Times and the Weekly Irish Times (1859-2021)*, Jerusalem Post (1932-2008)*, Jewish Advocate (1905-1990)*, Korea Times (1956-2016)*, Leftist Newspapers and Periodicals (1845-2015)*, Los Angeles Sentinel (1934-2010), Los Angeles Times (1881-1999), Louisville Defender (1951-2010), Michigan Chronicle (1939-2010), Minneapolis Star Tribune (1867-2001)*, New York Amsterdam News (1922-2010), New York Times (1851-2019), New York Tribune / Herald Times (1841-1962), Norfolk Journal and Guide (1916-2010), Philadelphia Inquirer (1860-2001)*, Philadelphia Tribune (1912-2010), Pittsburgh Courier (1911-2010), Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (1786-2003)*, The Scotsman (1817-1950), Times of India (1838-2010), Vermont Collection, Wall Street Journal (1889-2011), Washington Post (1877-2007) *=available through June 30, 2024, unlimited users have access to this material. Continued access beyond that date is not guaranteed and is subject to a purchase decision by the UConn Library.
• Manuscript Women's Letters and Diaries Includes personal writings of women of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, displayed as high-quality images of the original manuscripts.
• Popular Culture in Britain and America, 1950-1975 Includes manuscripts, images, and video content highlighting popular culture from 1950-1975.
• Revolution and Protest Online Includes scholarly books and articles, documentary films and interviews covering revolutions, protests, and social movements from the French Revolution to the Arab Spring.
• Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600-2000 Includes books, images, essays, book and website reviews, and other primary sources covering various women's and social movements between 1600-2000.
• Black Freedom Struggle in the United States: A Selection of Primary Sources Select primary source documents related to critical people and events in African American history. Contains approximately 1,600 documents focused on different phases of Black Freedom.
• Connecticut Digital Archives Wide range of digital resources for scholars, students and the general public from UConn, the Connecticut State Library and other Connecticut institutions and agencies in Connecticut.
• Library of Congress Digital Collections 339 digital collections from the Library of Congress; includes photos, manuscripts, audio, film, and more.
• Primary Source Sets (Digital Public Library) Primary source collections exploring topics in history, literature, and culture developed by educators

Library Search finds items in the UConn Library Collection

Search Using Primary Document-Related Terms

Add words that identify types of primary sources. These are often part of the Subject Heading , a search option in Advanced Search.  These terms may include:

In the Advanced Search, type your topic on the 1st line. On the 2nd line, change the Any field drop-down to Subject and use of the the subject headings that specify primary sources.

Search Using Date

Narrow your search to the year of publication to find contemporary materials.

Search Using Author

Search a person's name as an author (changing the Any field drop-down to Author ).  Search by author, not as a subject or keyword, as that will find materials about the person, not works by the person.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Caption: Fugazi Playing the Anthrax Club, Joe Snow Punk Rock Collection. Archives & Special Collections at the Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, University of Connecticut Library. Caption: Dunn, K. (2008). Never mind the bollocks: The punk rock politics of global communication. Review of International Studies, 34(S1), 193-210.

It's All About Context

There is nothing that definitively makes a source "primary" or "secondary" - it's all about the relationship between your research topic and the source material .  The same source can be a primary source OR a secondary source, depending on how you are studying it.

For example, Stephen Oates' 1977 biography of Abraham Lincoln, With Malice Toward None: A Life Of Abraham Lincoln , could be considered a

• Secondary Source, if you are studying the life of Lincoln
• Primary Source, if you are studying texts accused of plagiarism

Check Yourself!

Identifying Primary and Secondary Sources for Humanities

Test your ability to identify items as primary or secondary sources in this quick, interactive exercise!

• << Previous: Primary & Secondary Sources
• Next: Primary & Secondary Sources - Sciences >>
• Last Updated: Mar 19, 2024 4:03 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uconn.edu/exploreinfo

Using Sources

Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.

When searching for information on a topic, it is important to understand the value of primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.

Primary sources allow researchers to get as close as possible to original ideas, events, and empirical research as possible. Such sources may include creative works, first hand or contemporary accounts of events, and the publication of the results of empirical observations or research.

Secondary sources analyze, review, or summarize information in primary resources or other secondary resources. Even sources presenting facts or descriptions about events are secondary unless they are based on direct participation or observation. Moreover, secondary sources often rely on other secondary sources and standard disciplinary methods to reach results, and they provide the principle sources of analysis about primary sources.

Tertiary sources provide overviews of topics by synthesizing information gathered from other resources. Tertiary resources often provide data in a convenient form or provide information with context by which to interpret it.

The distinctions between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources can be ambiguous. An individual document may be a primary source in one context and a secondary source in another. Encyclopedias are typically considered tertiary sources, but a study of how encyclopedias have changed on the Internet would use them as primary sources. Time is a defining element.

While these definitions are clear, the lines begin to blur in the different discipline areas.

In the Humanities & Social Sciences

In the humanities and social sciences, primary sources are the direct evidence or first-hand accounts of events without secondary analysis or interpretation. A primary source is a work that was created or written contemporary with the period or subject being studied. Secondary sources analyze or interpret historical events or creative works.

Primary sources

• Original works of art
• Photographs
• Works of literature

A primary source is an original document containing firsthand information about a topic. Different fields of study may use different types of primary sources.

Secondary sources

• Biographies
• Dissertations
• Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies (used to locate a secondary source)
• Journal articles

A secondary source contains commentary on or discussion about a primary source. The most important feature of secondary sources is that they offer an interpretation of information gathered from primary sources.

Tertiary sources

• Dictionaries
• Encyclopedias

A tertiary source presents summaries or condensed versions of materials, usually with references back to the primary and/or secondary sources. They can be a good place to look up facts or get a general overview of a subject, but they rarely contain original material.

In the Sciences

In the sciences, primary sources are documents that provide full description of the original research. For example, a primary source would be a journal article where scientists describe their research on the genetics of tobacco plants. A secondary source would be an article commenting or analyzing the scientists’ research on tobacco.

• Conference proceedings
• Lab notebooks
• Technical reports
• Theses and dissertations

These are where the results of original research are usually first published in the sciences. This makes them the best source of information on cutting edge topics. However the new ideas presented may not be fully refined or validated yet.

These tend to summarize the existing state of knowledge in a field at the time of publication. Secondary sources are good to find comparisons of different ideas and theories and to see how they may have changed over time.

• Compilations

These types of sources present condensed material, generally with references back to the primary and/or secondary literature. They can be a good place to look up data or to get an overview of a subject, but they rarely contain original material.

• Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources. Provided by : Virginia Tech University Libraries. Located at : http://www.lib.vt.edu/help/research/primary-secondary-tertiary.html . Project : Introduction to Academic Research. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

MLA Style 9th edition: Primary Sources vs. Secondary Sources

• Formatting Your Paper
• In-text Citation Basics
• In-text Citation Formats for Different Mediums
• Works Cited Basics
• Periodicals
• Electronic Resources
• Other Common Sources
• Primary Sources vs. Secondary Sources

Primary Sources

Primary Sources consist of first-hand accounts of a topic from people who had a direct connection to it. Some examples of primary sources are:

Texts of law and other original documents

Datasets, survey data such as census statistics

Speeches, diaries, letters, interviews, and memoirs (Direct information stated or written from those involved.)

Newspaper reports by reports who witnessed an event and/or quote people who did.

Original research

Photographs, videos, or audios that capture a specific event.

Examples of Primary Sources

Performance

Examples of Secondary Sources

Dissertation

Review of a play

Article critiquing a piece of art

Book about a specific subject

Treatise on a particular genre of poetry

Essay on a treaty

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources although they can quote or otherwise use primary sources. Secondary sources cover the same topic but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include:

Analysis or interpretation of data.

Most books about a topic.

Documentaries (though they often include photographic or video portions often considered as primary sources).

Scholarly or other articles about a topic by people not directly involved.

"Infographic explaining what a Primary Source is, and some of the many different formats in which they appear"  by  Shonnmharen  is licensed under  CC BY 4.0

"Infographic explaining what a Secondary Source is, and some of the many different formats in which they appear"  by  Shonnmharen  is licensed under  CC BY 4.0

• << Previous: Other Common Sources
• Last Updated: May 18, 2023 1:06 PM
• URL: https://libguides.cccua.edu/c.php?g=1225326

• University Libraries
• Research Guides
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Historiography

• Type of Sources
• Books & E-books
• Scholarly Articles & Journals
• Primary Resources - UNM
• Internet Primary Resources
• Current & Historical Newspapers
• Citation Software

Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources*

* Created by: Teaching & Learning Services, University of Maryland Libraries Scope: As you conduct research, you will consult different sources of information. A professor may request primary , secondary , or tertiary sources. What does that mean? This guide explains these terms and gives examples for each category.

IMPORTANT NOTE:

The types of information that can be considered primary sources may vary depending on the subject discipline, and also on how you are using the material.

For example:

• A magazine article reporting on recent studies linking the reduction of energy consumption to the compact fluorescent light bulb would be a secondary source.
• A research article or study proving this would be a primary source.
• However, if you were studying how compact fluorescent light bulbs are presented in the popular media, the magazine article could be considered a primary source

Primary sources

Definition:

Primary sources are original materials. They are from the time period involved and have not been filtered through interpretation or evaluation. Primary sources are original materials on which other research is based. They are usually the first formal appearance of results in physical, print or electronic format. They present original thinking, report a discovery, or share new information.

Note: The definition of a primary source may vary depending upon the discipline or context.

Examples include:

• Audio rececordings (e.g. radio programs)
• Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant specimens, fossils, furniture, tools, clothing, all from the time under study);
• Internet communications on email, listservs;
• Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail);
• Journal articles published in peer-reviewed publications;
• Newspaper articles written at the time;
• Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript);
• Photographs
• Proceedings of Meetings, conferences and symposia;
• Records of organizations, government agencies (e.g. annual report, treaty, constitution, government document);
• Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls);
• Video recordings (e.g. television programs);
• Works of art, architecture, literature, and music (e.g., paintings, sculptures, musical scores, buildings, novels, poems).

For more information about identifying and analyzing primary sources, visit this guide .

Secondary sources

Secondary sources are less easily defined than primary sources. Generally, they are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather commentary on and discussion of evidence. However, what some define as a secondary source, others define as a tertiary source. Context is everything.

Note: The definition of a secondary source may vary depending upon the discipline or context.

• Bibliographies (also considered tertiary);
• Biographical works;
• Commentaries, criticisms;
• Dictionaries, Encyclopedias (also considered tertiary);
• Journal articles (depending on the disciple can be primary);
• Magazine and newspaper articles (this distinction varies by discipline);
• Monographs, other than fiction and autobiography;
• Textbooks (also considered tertiary);
• Web site (also considered primary).

Tertiary sources

Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillation and collection of primary and secondary sources.

• Bibliographies (also considered secondary);
• Chronologies;
• Dictionaries and Encyclopedias (also considered secondary);
• Directories;
• Fact books;
• Guidebooks;
• Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources;
• Textbooks (also be secondary).

Comparison across the disciplines

Searching unm catalog.

You can search WorldCat UNM to find primary, secondary and tertiary sources. Here are some sample word/s anywhere searches in WorldCat UNM:

Need help in determining the difference between primary, secondary and tertiary sources? Contact your librarian

Primary / Secondary?

https://historygcp.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/lo17_primary-v-secondary.jpg

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Course: US history   >   Unit 1

• Thinking like a historian

How to read a document: source identification

• How to read a document: analyzing a historical text
• Avoiding common mistakes in historical essays

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Video transcript

Primary Sources: Primary vs. Secondary

• Primary vs. Secondary
• American History
• World History

Humanities and Social Sciences

Primary Sources are immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic, from people who had a direct connection with it. Primary sources can include:

• Texts of laws and other original documents.
• Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did.
• Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or wrote.
• Original research.
• Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic statistics.
• Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event.

Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include:

• Most books about a topic.
• Analysis or interpretation of data.
• Scholarly or other articles about a topic, especially by people not directly involved.
• Documentaries (though they often include photos or video portions that can be considered primary sources).

When is a Primary Source a Secondary Source?

Whether something is a primary or secondary source often depends upon the topic and its use.

A biology textbook would be considered a secondary source if in the field of biology, since it describes and interprets the science but makes no original contribution to it.

On the other hand, if the topic is science education and the history of textbooks, textbooks could be used a primary sources to look at how they have changed over time.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary Sources

• Performance

         Secondary Sources

• Article critiquing a piece of art
• Book about a specific subject
• Dissertation
• Review of play
• Treatise on a particular genre of poetry
• Essay on a treaty

* Content borrowed from The University of Massachusetts Boston Healy Library's Primary Sources: A Research Guide .

• Next: American History >>
• Last Updated: Nov 8, 2023 7:33 PM
• URL: https://libguides.oberlin.edu/primary-sources

History: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

• Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• Primary Source Databases
• Web Resources
• E-Books This link opens in a new window

Definitions (from Pennington School)

A primary source is an original material created during the time under study. Primary sources can be original documents, creative works, published materials of the times, institutional and government documents or relics and artifacts

Secondary sources put primary sources in context. They comment, summarize, interpret or analyze information found in primary sources. Secondary sources are usually written by individuals who did not experience firsthand the events about which they are writing.

Examples (from Penington School)

Selected sources.

• Primary, Secondary or Tertiary Sources Tertiary sources: good for an overview; can help narrow a topic Secondary sources: sources created after the time of the event and not contemporaneous with the lifetime of the person Primary sources: original objects or documents created near the time being studied.

Analyzing Primary Sources

• (3-D Pyramid) Five Steps to Analyze Primary Sources

Determining Primary vs. Secondary Sources (from Fresno State Univ.)

Primary vs. Secondary Sources: A Questionnaire

Answer the questions below about your source. If you answer, “yes” to any of the following questions, there is a good chance the source is PRIMARY.

Did the author personally witness or experience the subject in question? Does the author know about this subject because of personal experience rather than having just read about it? Is this source a diary, letter, memoir, autobiography, oral history, or interview of a person with first hand experience of the subject? Is this source an official document or record published at the time of the event by the government, courts, or another organization? Is this source a newspaper or magazine article written at the time of the event? Is this a creative work such as a novel, poem, art or music piece created by a firsthand witness of the subject in question? Is this an excerpt from a primary source, such as the constitution or a letter written by a Civil War soldier that has been imbedded in a secondary source, such as a textbook?Remember, secondary sources may include reprints of primary sources. Is this an artifact or relic such as jewelry, pottery, clothing, music, art, architecture, dance or weaponry that was used by witnesses of the subject in question? Is this a compilation of raw scientific data or statistics, such as census statistics published by the U.S. Census Bureau, that is being published without commentary or interpretation?

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• Next: Books >>
• Last Updated: Mar 20, 2024 10:13 AM
• URL: https://libguides.lehman.edu/history

Is a biography a primary source or a secondary?

A biography is considered a secondary source because it is a written account of someone's life created by someone else, rather than the person themselves. It is based on a combination of primary sources, such as letters or diary entries, and the biographer's interpretation of those sources.

It is a secondary source simply because it's a book. The internet is a primary source.

It's a primary source only if the biographer had personal knowledge of the events, etc. in question.

A biography is a secondary source, since the author is a different person from the subject.

Add your answer:

Is biography a second source?

Yes, it is a primary source.

Is a modern biography of Julius Caesar a primary source?

No this is a secondary source. A primary sourced is something written in documents or by authors of the time of the subject of the study.

Is biography primary or secondary sources?

It's a primary source only if the biographer had personal knowledge of the events, etc. in question.

How do historians use primary and secondary sources?

A primary source is like a diary of somebody that has experienced something or the person them self (autobiography) A secondary source is when somebody has heard the story and retells it or writes about it. (biography) A primary source is the most reliable because information can be lost or changed by a secondary source so historians favor primary sources.

Is a autobiography a primary source or secondary source?

If we are using his original words, from documents that he personally wrote, those are primary sources. If we are using other people's interpretations (whether scholars or researchers or historians), those are secondary sources.

Is Pericles speech considered a primary or a secondary source?

is pericles primary source or secondary source

Is a diary primary or secondary?

It is a primary source.

Is an encyclopedia a primary source?

No, an encyclopedia is a secondary source.

What are some example of secondary sources?

Newspapers encyclopedias, dictionaries and textbooks are all examples of secondary sources .Another answerA secondary source can be explained most coherently by starting with the definition of a primary source:A primary source is written or created by a person. For example, Thomas Paine was the author of COMMON SENSE just as James Madison was one of the authors of THE FEDERALIST PAPERS.Those are primary sources.Any commentary, reference to, biography of the author which quotes or other wise uses these primary sources is a secondary source.Think of the primary source being a straight-on view, while a secondary source relates to the primary source obliquely.

Is the Rosetta stone secondary or primary source?

it is a primary source

What do you call a secondary source which has primary sources in it?

It is a secondary source.

Is film of an event a primary source or a secondary source?

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Free, Public Delivery Lockers Available 24/7 on City Sidewalks Will Allow New Yorkers to Receive Secure Package Deliveries

Pilot Program Aims to Reduce Number of Delivery Trucks on Narrow Streets by Centralizing Delivery Locations

Mayor Adams, DOT Commissioner Rodriguez Launch LockerNYC To Combat Package Theft And Reduce Delivery Truck Traffic

April 10, 2024

Watch the video here at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VUeUe8mcpR4

NEW YORK – New York City Mayor Eric Adams and New York City Department of Transportation (DOT) Commissioner Ydanis Rodriguez today launched LockerNYC , a free pilot program that will utilize lockers installed on public sidewalks throughout multiple boroughs to allow New Yorkers to receive secure package deliveries. Statistics show that 80 percent of households in New York City receive at least one delivery per week and 20 percent receive four or more deliveries — and, each day, 90,000 packages are reported stolen or lost in transit in New York City, as many buildings lack secure areas for package deliveries. The LockerNYC pilot includes seven units, each with the capacity to securely hold 25 packages at a time and has the potential to further expand this year. The pilot is open to the public and the LockerNYC program will be available across multiple delivery carriers. New Yorkers can sign up for free and manage orders online .

"We are taking on porch pirates and cutting down on emissions by unwrapping LockerNYC, our pilot program that will combat package theft and reduce delivery truck traffic in our city," said Mayor Adams . "Reducing crime, fighting climate change, and providing a convenience to New Yorkers all at the same time is a package deal that New Yorkers can be proud of. This is a part of our broader efforts to reimagine how New Yorkers get their goods and services, including through our forthcoming Department of Sustainable Delivery that was announced in this year's State of the City."

"COVID changed the way we shop; now, 80 percent of us get one package delivered per week," said Deputy Mayor for Operations Meera Joshi . "This administration is taking a holistic look at green solutions for this very modern challenge with delivery lockers and microhubs, and using our waterways, rather than trucks, to get goods where they need to go. The green revolution starts here."

"New York City is leading the way on making deliveries greener, safer, and more secure," said DOT Commissioner Rodriguez . "The LockerNYC initiative will help cut down on package thefts and reduce the number of big delivery trucks clogging up our streets."

In addition to providing a convenience to New Yorkers, the LockerNYC pilot program also aims to reduce delivery truck traffic by consolidating deliveries at central locations. It builds upon recent administration efforts to reimagine deliveries in New York City, restructure freight distribution, and create a sustainable last-mile delivery system for getting goods where they need to go. In his State of the City address this year, Mayor Adams proposed establishing the New York City Department of Sustainable Delivery to harness the potential of non-traditional transportation modes like e-bikes, mopeds, cargo bikes, and more while prioritizing worker and public safety. Additionally, last month, the city released new rules to allow for more deliveries to occur using electric cargo bikes , a safer and more sustainable alternative to large delivery trucks. Likewise, DOT previously announced a local delivery hub pilot program to reduce negative environmental and safety effects of truck deliveries that will launch this year. DOT is also expanding the number of dedicated loading zones for deliveries across the five boroughs, with over 2,000 loading zones installed in the past two years.

LockerNYC setups can currently be found at:

• Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn — 830 Lafayette Avenue, outside Ideal Food Basket grocery
• Canarsie, Brooklyn — 1380 Rockaway Parkway
• East Flatbush, Brooklyn — 1086 Brooklyn Avenue, outside Ideal Food Basket grocery
• Prospect Lefferts Gardens, Brooklyn — 2036 Bedford Avenue, outside Ideal Food Basket grocery
• Sunnyside, Queens — 47-01 49th Street, outside the Cosmopolitan Houses apartments

LockerNYC lockers will soon arrive at these locations:

• Bushwick, Brooklyn — 72-80 Wyckoff Avenue, outside Key Food
• Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan — 778 9 th Avenue at West 52 nd Street

Locations were selected based on land use, concentration of buildings lacking mail or package rooms, and New York City Police Department package theft data, among other criteria. Other priorities in the selection process included providing adequate circulation space, avoiding conflicts with street furniture, ensuring smooth pedestrian flow, and avoiding the obstruction of windows, fire escapes, or public art. Each locker location is visibly equipped with two security cameras, LED lighting, and anti-theft mechanisms on locker compartments. The lockers will be operated and maintained by GoLocker , the vendor selected by the city for this initiative, and GoLocker will oversee customer support and overall management of the technology.

The pilot will be in place for a year, with the potential to be extended upon evaluation, allowing DOT to test and evaluate the technology and delivery model. DOT welcomes additional program partners to foster a culture of best practices for safety and efficiency. DOT will collect anonymized data on locker usage to assess the overall success of the pilot and the potential for expansion. Shared use locker programs have proven successful in other cities, yielding significant reductions in delivery vehicles travel distances, the amount of time delivery vehicles dwell at a curb, failed deliveries, carbon dioxide gas emissions released, and congestion. A delivery locker pilot in Seattle found that carrier lockers can reduce the amount of time delivery trucks dwell at the curb by as much as 33 percent and reduce delivery times by as much as 78 percent.

"As package theft continues to adversely impact our communities, LockerNYC is an innovative solution that will provide every New Yorker with the safe and secure deliveries they deserve," said New York State Assemblymember Rodneyse Bichotte Hermelyn. "Moreover, free public delivery lockers will reduce truck traffic, making our commutes easier and the environment greener. I applaud Mayor Eric Adams and DOT Commissioner Ydanis Rodriguez for this pivotal program to protect our packages as we continue working to combat theft."

"LockerNYC is a vital tool to reduce crime and speed up our deliveries," said New York State Assemblymember Jenifer Rajkumar . "It addresses one of the most common crimes in our city: package theft. Ever since online purchasing skyrocketed during the pandemic, at least two-thirds of New Yorkers have reported having a package stolen. This pilot program ensures that we all have a secure and convenient option to receive packages. The lockers will also reduce traffic congestion by allowing delivery vehicles to drop off packages at centralized locations instead of going door-to-door. This embodies Mayor Adams' plan to use the latest technology for fast and efficient last mile delivery, so that we all get our packages in a New York minute."

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