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Elements Of Communication Essay Examples

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Communication , Culture , Media , Society , Skills , Knowledge , Information , Body

Words: 1000

Published: 12/23/2019

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Communication process involves transmission of message or information from the sender to the receiver through understandable medium.

Although communication starts with the sender and ends with the receiver, there are four major components of communication process namely encoding, channel of transmission, decoding and feedback. The sender initiates the communication and may be individual; a group or organization .The success or failure of the message is influenced by attitude, experience, knowledge, culture, skills and perception of the sender. Before imparting information the sender must encode the message into symbolized ideas e.g. words, languages, or gestures. The sender decides on what is to be transmitted based on the receiver’s knowledge and assumption with the mode of coding familiar to the receiver with the sender mentally visualizing the communication from the receiver’s point of view. The message transmission must be through proper channel. The channels may be oral e.g. telephone, written e.g. letters, memos and reports with visual channels increasingly advancing due to technology. The medium used to convey message must be effective although the effectiveness fluctuate as per the characteristics of communication for example when immediate feedback is needed, oral communication is more appropriate and when message is intended to larger audience the written communication may be more effective. Before settling on which medium to be used, the choice may be influenced by urgency of message, destination, receiver’s ability to understand the channel used and need for confidentiality and immediate feedback. The entity that receives the information becomes the receiver who decodes the message generating meaning or purpose out of it. Successful communication is when the receiver correctly interprets the sender’s message depending on the receiver’s cognitive ability. The receiver’s ability to comprehend the message may be influenced by culture, knowledge, receptivity to the message, relationship and trust between the receiver and the sender. When the sender’s idea is understood, the receiver in response communicates back to the sender. The sender will use the feedback to evaluate whether the receiver interpreted the message correctly giving the sender opportunity to take corrective action incase of misunderstanding. Verbal communication involves expressing thoughts with words as people communicate face to face using sounds, words and spoken language. Vocal cords produce sounds which turn into words .words are signed meaning to develop language resulting into speaking. Speaking may be interpersonal or public depending on the type of information to be imparted. With visual communication, the message is decoded through reading or looking upon through visible medium like texts or images. The eyes primarily sense by selecting and perceiving ideas using theories of cognition, perception and color, physics of light and eye anatomy. Visual communication may be in form of pictures, charts graphs, signs, signals and other forms of body expression. The message imparted may be analyzed by personal, technical, historical, ethical, historical, critical, cultural perceptions based on the interest of society. To understand the information being presented, visual aids must be in cooperated ranging from handouts to power points. The visual aids are to enhance effecting communication but may distort information when used incorrectly. Visual aids may be tables, maps, graphs, photographs, drawings or diagrams conveyed through chalkboard, handouts, video excerpts and projectors .body language shows how we react and act to others and vice versa. Reflects what’s on and may vary depending on an individual, culture and nationality. For example to convey disengagement or dissatisfaction audience may heads down, glazed eyes gazing differently, audience doodling or sitting slumped in the chair. To show being defensive the sender will arms closed in front of the body, down casting or showing little or no eye contact with body physically turned away. While to convey message of confidence, the sender will stand tall, have solid smiling face, slow and clear speech at a moderate tone. Social relationships when communicating in multicultural society should be considered since communication across cultures will depend on ability to communicate competently with people from other cultures whose ethics, behaviors, and languages may be totally different from one’s own way of life. Difference in words and behavior may increase chances of misunderstandings doubts and conflicts when communication is not effective. Size of the society should be given consideration as smaller the society the more effective communication becomes but, increasing cultural diversity due to migration of people with different cultural backgrounds create more barriers to communication. Duration of existence should be looked into since the longer the stay, the more visibility of co-cultures resulting into cultural assimilation with arrival of new emigrants hence possibility of universal culture emerging enhancing communication since a single mode can reach wide receivers. Intercultural communication to bring diverse groups in pluralistic society achieving national cohesion with creation of common goal while preserving cultural integrity bearing in mind the multiplicity of meanings, modes of living and sets of mind. The ambiguities that may arise due to shared meanings in a multicultural society and the ability to handle any miscommunication should also be taken into account. Effective communication should be accurate, relevant, brief, precise, and goal oriented to create good self- image of both the sender and the receiver. Communication across borders should be nurtured for democratic life in global multicultural society.

Colorado Services to Children with Deaf blindness. (2009)Fact Sheet, Receptive Communication, retrieved from http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdesped/download/pdf/dbReceptiveCommunication.pdf IQPC Worldwide.COM .The Importance of Effective Communication – Part 2 http://www.iqpc.com/uploadedFiles/Training/Asia_Training/The_Gateway/Article2_EffectiveCommunication2.pdf Lewis .C (2008).Intercultural Focus, Successful Communication in Multicultural Environments, retrieved from http://www.luthais.com/index_files/papers/Chad%20Lewis%20-%20Successful%20Communication%20in%20Multicultural%20Environments.pdf WordPress.com Elements of the Communication Process, retrieved from http://rodrigo75.wordpress.com/2011/01/23/elements-of-the-communication-process/

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Essays About Communication: Top 5 Examples and Prompts

Are you writing essays about communication? Check out our top essay examples and writing prompts to help you get started.

Communication is power and is critical to building a well-connected society. Communicating well is vital in working with people and shedding light on problems and solutions. Practical communication skills can help build relationships. 

If you’re writing an essay on communication and are having a hard time choosing a topic to focus on, here is our round-up of the best essay examples to get you started:  

1. The Benefits of Communication and Teamwork by Karenina Loayza

2. it’s time to tune in: why listening is the real key to communication by kate murphy, 3. a love language spoken with hands by ross showalter, 4. the role of body language in communication by ashley tulio, 5. the power of storytelling in marketing by dylan jacob, 1. how-to develop communication skills, 2. how-to write an inspiring speech, 3. should all leaders be good communicators, 4. theories of mass communication, 5. how are schools developing children’s communication skills, 6. communicating face-to-face vs. online , 7. marketing communications: what are they, 8. is communicating on social media effective, 9. is it possible to communicate effectively on virtual workplace platforms, 10. how-to communicate in the workplace.

“In one task, we were blindfolded and had to describe a set of irregular pieces. With varying degrees of English and different experiences of the world, it was like explaining an elephant to an alien.” 

Loayza narrates an exercise in class where they have to describe surrounding objects as accurately as possible to keep others from stumbling on them. The writer said the exercise demonstrated effectively the need for good communication skills for teams to succeed.

“Schools and universities have courses in debate, rhetoric and elocution, but rarely classes that teach listening. You can get a doctorate in speech communication and join Toastmasters International to perfect your speaking skills, but who strives for excellence in listening?”

Murphy muses on a world that glorifies the speakers but leaves no room for the listeners like her. She points out how social media has created a generation that prefers interacting behind the screen and filtering out opinions that do not resonate with theirs. Instead, Murphy emphasizes listening as a foundation for better human relations and offers solutions for how others can develop their listening for successful communication. 

“Will showed me that not everyone makes promises they don’t intend to fulfil. I don’t have to invest in someone who promises an action they’ll never do. Relationships only move forward once the work of communication begins.”

Showalter, a deaf man, laments how non-deaf ex-lovers have promised to learn sign language to better communicate with him – only to see these promises broken. Then, one morning, a remarkable man in his life sends a video message reviving hopes for Showalter and redefines his standard in relationships for the better. 

“Non-verbal communication can affect our words as it can reiterate our message, contradict our words, reinforce our statement, substitute the meaning of what we are trying to say, and complement what we are trying to say. Body language is something that is usually natural and is often done instinctively rather than consciously.”

Tulio, a communications specialist, stresses the importance of using body language for expression. She provides tips on maximizing gestures and body movement to convey emotions in person and through videoconferencing. 

“In marketing, storytelling provides an avenue to connect to consumers unlike any other. Brands are empowered to share and sell their values and personality in a form that feels less like advertising and more like a concerted effort to strengthen relationships with customers.

The author cites the viewpoints of a business school professor who explains how storytelling can shape the world’s perception of a brand. Finally, the author outlines the vital elements that make an exciting story capable of connecting with an audience and effecting action among consumers.

10 Writing Prompts On essays about communication

To further expand your horizon on the subject, you can work around our list of prompts that are interesting and relevant to date:

You can narrow down this essay to target employees, students, aspiring leaders, or those who want to improve their conversation skills. First, list down recommendations such as expanding their vocabulary and listening. Then, explain how they can incorporate this into their daily routine. 

Writing a speech that strikes a chord requires extra work in developing empathy and understanding the audience. Next, you can focus on providing recommendations for your essay, such as putting in a personal touch and linking this story to the broader subject. Make sure you also offer simple writing tips such as using the active voice as much as possible, keeping sentences short, and keeping the tone conversational. 

Cite research studies that detail why effective communication is a critical skill that makes a leader. Then, write about the organizational pitfalls of poor communication. Later, leaders who can speak engagingly and listen attentively to their team members can address these pitfalls. 

Communication theory is the study of processes in sending and receiving information. Discuss the four main theories of mass communication: the Authoritarian Theory, the Libertarian Theory, the Soviet-Communist Theory, and the Social-Responsibility Theory. Explain each one. Explain how each remains relevant in understanding modern communication processes. 

Interview schools within your community and learn about their language curriculum and other efforts to empower children to communicate well. You can also interview child development experts. Find out the biggest challenges in helping children improve how they express their thoughts and ideas. Then, find out what schools and parents are doing to address them. 

While you’d hear many people expressing a preference for face-to-face meetings, there are undoubtedly benefits to online meetings, which some usually dismiss. Weigh in on the pros and cons of in-person and online meetings, especially in the current scenario of an ongoing pandemic. 

What are the new marketing channels marketers are leveraging to reach their audience? Several surveys and studies show where most marketing campaigns allocate their budgets. One example is video content. 

An interesting angle would also involve looking at epic brand fails. Cite two or more cases, find a communication mishap common between them and provide what lessons can today’s brands learn from these epic fails. 

From interacting with loved ones and finding someone to date and love, social media has dramatically changed our ways of communication. It might be great to interview the elders who have experienced communicating through snail mail. Dive into their nostalgia and discover how they compare the experience of letter writing against instant chatting through mobile apps. 

Several apps today aim to transform workplaces to be more connected for interaction and communication. First, list down the top apps most used in the corporate world and discuss why these communication forms are preferred over email. Then, delve into the drawbacks and aspects of the apps that need improvements according to what business users say. 

Recent studies show that employees quit their jobs when they feel unable to talk about their needs in the workplace. Research the communication culture in the top companies in a specific field. How are they engaging with their employees? How are they driving conversations toward critical concerns?

TIP: You don’t have to write an extended essay. Here is a guide to writing a concise and organized five-paragraph essay.

For more help with writing, check out our best essay writing tips for a stress-free writing process. 

Yna Lim is a communications specialist currently focused on policy advocacy. In her eight years of writing, she has been exposed to a variety of topics, including cryptocurrency, web hosting, agriculture, marketing, intellectual property, data privacy and international trade. A former journalist in one of the top business papers in the Philippines, Yna is currently pursuing her master's degree in economics and business.

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The Basic Elements of the Communication Process

ThoughtCo / Hilary Allison

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Whenever you've had a conversation, texted a friend, or given a business presentation, you have engaged in communication . Any time two or more people get together to exchange messages, they are engaging in this basic process. Although it seems simple, communication is actually quite complex and has a number of components.

Communication Process Definition

The term communication process refers to the exchange of information (a message ) between two or more people. For communication to succeed, both parties must be able to exchange information and understand each other. If the flow of information is blocked for some reason or the parties cannot make themselves understood, then communication fails.

The communication process begins with the sender , who is also called the communicator or source . The sender has some kind of information — a command, request, question, or idea — that he or she wants to present to others. For that message to be received, the sender must first encode the message in a form that can be understood, such as by the use of a common language or industry jargon, and then transmit it.

The Receiver

The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter . To comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the sender's information and then decode or interpret it. 

The Message

The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver. Additional subtext can be conveyed through body language and tone of voice. Put all three elements together — sender, receiver, and message — and you have the communication process at its most basic.

Also called the channel , the  medium  is the means by which a message is transmitted. Text messages, for example, are transmitted through the medium of cell phones.

The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been successfully transmitted, received, and understood. The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as a written or verbal response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response (indirect).

Other Factors

The communication process isn't always so simple or smooth, of course. These elements can affect how information is transmitted, received, and interpreted:

• Noise : This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being sent, received, or understood. It can be as literal as static over a phone line or radio or as esoteric as misinterpreting a local custom.
• Context : This is the setting and situation in which communication takes place. Like noise, context can have an impact on the successful exchange of information. It may have a physical, social, or cultural aspect to it. In a private conversation with a trusted friend, you would share more personal information or details about your weekend or vacation, for example, than in a conversation with a work colleague or in a meeting.

The Communication Process in Action

Brenda wants to remind her husband, Roberto, to stop by the store after work and buy milk for dinner. She forgot to ask him in the morning, so Brenda texts a reminder to Roberto. He texts back and then shows up at home with a gallon of milk under his arm. But something's amiss: Roberto bought chocolate milk when Brenda wanted regular milk. 

In this example, the sender is Brenda. The receiver is Roberto. The medium is a text message. The code is the English language they're using. And the message itself is "Remember the milk!" In this case, the feedback is both direct and indirect. Roberto texts a photo of milk at the store (direct) and then came home with it (indirect). However, Brenda did not see the photo of the milk because the message didn't transmit (noise) and Roberto didn't think to ask what kind of milk (context).

• A Receiver's Role in Clear, Effective Communication Is an Important One
• What Is a Message in Communication?
• Definition and Examples of Senders in Communication
• What Does Medium Mean in the Communication Process?
• What Is Communication?
• Noise and Interference in Various Types of Communication
• Science Says You Should Leave the Period Out of Text Messages
• Feedback in Communication Studies
• The Definition of Listening and How to Do It Well
• Text Message Smishing Scams
• Multiple Literacies: Definition, Types, and Classroom Strategies
• What Is Wei Xin?
• What is a Rhetorical Situation?
• Email Message
• Definition and Examples of Discourse
• Texting (Text Messaging)

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1.3: The Communication Process and Models

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Learning Objectives

• Identify and define the components of the communication process
• Identify and define the components of the linear, interactional and transactional models of communication.
• Compare and contrast the three models of communication.
• Use the transactional model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter.

The Communication Process

Human communication is essentially a process of sending and receiving information. Every verbal and non-verbal interaction that we have goes through this process. Essentially, the process is transactional, in which each of the components overlaps simultaneously. The components of the communication process are as follows:

• Source : Sender of the message
• Receiver : Recipient of the message
• Encoding: The process of turning thoughts into communication
• Decoding:  The process of turning communication into thoughts
• Feedback : Reply or response (verbal or non-verbal) to the message
• Message : Content of communication
• Channel: Vehicle through which communication travels
• Noise : Interference in communication

Any interference in the communication process is considered noise. Noise hampers the source from sending out a clear message and the receiver from taking in the message as it was intended. Noise is ever present in each of the three models of communication.

The following types of noise can negatively impact the communication process:

• Environmental noise: Noise present in the physical environment, like loud music or the noise of traffic can impact communication.
• Semantic noise: This refers to the differences in the understanding of meaning by the sender and the receiver. For example, the meaning of the word ‘fat’ (phat) can have different connotations for different groups of people.
• Syntactical noise: Grammatical mistakes in formation of sentences can hamper the correct understanding of messages. A common example is the incorrect use of tense.
• Organizational noise: If the message is not appropriately structured and ordered, it can lead to miscommunication. An example is when someone receives unclear instructions to complete a task.
• Cultural noise: Differences in cultural norms, such as ethnic, religious, or gender differences, can lead to misinterpretation of a message. For example, eye contact in some contexts can be seen as disrespectful and rude, while in others it is a sign that you are paying attention and being respectful.
• Psychological noise: Internal feelings, like being hungry, upset, elated, angry, or discouraged, can affect communication.

Communication Models

Three models are used to explain the communication process. These are discussed here.

The linear model of communication describes communication going in only one direction. The sender encodes a message and channels it to the receiver. The components at work include sending and receiving, and encoding and decoding a message, but there is no feedback loop.  

For example: Receiving a letter in the mail or an email.

The interactional model reflects more of a back-and-forth conversation, in which a person waits for the feedback loop to be completed before responding. Conversation is interactive when the source sends a message to the receiver, it is encoded, and a message is sent back, creating a two-way conversation. There is no time lag in communication. 

The interactional model of communication describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process.

For example: A question-and-answer session, in which a question is asked and a response given, is an example of an interactional model of communication.  Feedback and context help make the interactive model a more useful illustration of the communication process.  Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process.  Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going, we alternate between the roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.

All our natural day-to-day conversation takes the form of the transactional model . In this model, there is a simultaneous flow of communication between the sender and receiver of information. There is an overlap in the encoding and decoding of information. While the sender is completing a sentence the receiver is already thinking of what to say next. Short of cutting one another off during conversation, intrapersonal communication and feedback is also occurring with this process. The key phrase here is ‘at the same time’.

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds.  

To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what communication is and what communication does. The linear model views communication as a thing, like an information packet, that is sent from one place to another. From this view, communication is defined as sending and receiving messages. The interactional model views communication as an interaction in which a message is sent and then followed by a reaction (feedback), which is then followed by another reaction, and so on.  The transactional model views communication as integrated into our social realities and displays the all components of the communication process.

Key Takeaways

• The Communication Process outlines the many facets that take place during communication.
• The linear model of communication describes communication as a one-way, linear process in which a sender encodes a message and transmits it through a channel to a receiver who decodes it. 
• The interactional model of communication describes communication as a two-way process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending and receiving feedback. 
• The transactional model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators are simultaneously senders and receivers.
• Understanding how noise is always present in communication.
• Getting integrated: How might knowing the various components of the communication process help you in your day-to-day life?
• What communication situations does the linear model best represent? The interactional model? The transactional model?
• Use the transactional model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter you had. Sketch out the communication encounter and make sure to label each part of the model (communicators; message; channel; feedback; and physical, psychological, social, relational, and cultural contexts).

Schramm, W., The Beginnings of Communication Study in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).

Wood, J.T., Communication in Our Lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA (Thomson-Wadsworth, 2009).

Communication Studies

What this handout is about.

This handout describes some steps for planning and writing papers in communication studies courses.

Courses in communication studies combine material from the humanities, fine arts, and social sciences in order to explain how and why people interact in the ways that they do. Within communication studies, there are four different approaches to understanding these interactions. Your course probably falls into one of these four areas of emphasis:

• Interpersonal and organizational communication: Interpersonal communication concerns one-on-one conversations as well as small group behaviors. Organizational communication focuses on large group dynamics.
• Rhetoric: Rhetoric examines persuasion and argumentation in political settings and within social movements.
• Performance studies: Performance studies analyze the relationships among literature, theater, and everyday life.
• Media/film studies: Media and film studies explore the cultural influences and practical techniques of television and film, as well as new technologies.

Understanding your assignment

The content and purpose of your assignments will vary according to what kind of course you are in, so pay close attention to the course description, syllabus, and assignment sheet when you begin to write. If you’d like to learn more about deciphering writing assignments or developing your academic writing, see our Writing Center handouts on these topics. For now, let’s see how a general topic, same-sex friendships, might be treated in each of the different areas. These illustrations are only examples, but you can use them as springboards to help you identify how your course might approach discussing a broad topic.

Interpersonal communication

An interpersonal communication perspective could focus on the verbal and nonverbal differences and similarities between how women communicate with other women and how men communicate with other men. This topic would allow you to explore the ways in which gender affects our behaviors in close relationships.

Organizational communication

Organizational communication would take a less personal approach, perhaps by addressing same-sex friendships in the form of workplace mentoring programs that pair employees of the same sex. This would require you to discuss and analyze group dynamics and effectiveness in the work environment.

A rhetorical analysis could involve comparing and contrasting references to friendship in the speeches of two well-known figures. For instance, you could compare Aristotle’s comments about Plato to Plato’s comments about Aristotle in order to discover more about the relationship between these two men and how each defined their friendship and/or same-sex friendship in general.

Performance studies

A performance approach might involve describing how a literary work uses dramatic conventions to portray same-sex friendships, as well as critiquing how believable those portrayals are. An analysis of the play Waiting for Godot could unpack the lifelong friendship between the two main characters by identifying what binds the men together, how these ties are effectively or ineffectively conveyed to the audience, and what the play teaches us about same-sex friendships in our own lives.

Media and film studies

Finally, a media and film studies analysis might explain the evolution of a same-sex friendship by examining a cinematic text. For example, you could trace the development of the main friendship in the movie Thelma and Louise to discover how certain events or gender stereotypes affect the relationship between the two female characters.

General writing tips

Writing papers in communication studies often requires you to do three tasks common to academic writing: analyze material, read and critique others’ analyses of material, and develop your own argument around that material. You will need to build an original argument (sometimes called a “theory” or “plausible explanation”) about how a communication phenomenon can be better understood. The word phenomenon can refer to a particular communication event, text, act, or conversation. To develop an argument for this kind of paper, you need to follow several steps and include several kinds of information in your paper. (For more information about developing an argument, see our handout on arguments ). First, you must demonstrate your knowledge of the phenomenon and what others have said about it. This usually involves synthesizing previous research or ideas. Second, you must develop your own original perspective, reading, or “take” on the phenomenon and give evidence to support your way of thinking about it. Your “take” on the topic will constitute your “argument,” “theory,” or “explanation.” You will need to write a thesis statement that encapsulates your argument and guides you and the reader to the main point of your paper. Third, you should critically analyze the arguments of others in order to show how your argument contributes to our general understanding of the phenomenon. In other words, you should identify the shortcomings of previous research or ideas and explain how your paper corrects some or all of those deficits. Assume that your audience for your paper includes your classmates as well as your instructor, unless otherwise indicated in the assignment.

Choosing a topic to write about

Your topic might be as specific as the effects of a single word in conversation (such as how the use of the word “well” creates tentativeness in dialogue) or as broad as how the notion of individuality affects our relationships in public and private spheres of human activity. In deciding the scope of your topic, look again at the purpose of the course and the aim of the assignment. Check with your instructor to gauge the appropriateness of your topic before you go too far in the writing process.

Try to choose a topic in which you have some interest or investment. Your writing for communications will not only be about the topic, but also about yourself—why you care about the topic, how it affects you, etc. It is common in the field of communication studies not only to consider why the topic intrigues you, but also to write about the experiences and/or cognitive processes you went through before choosing your topic. Including this kind of introspection helps readers understand your position and how that position affects both your selection of the topic and your analysis within the paper. You can make your argument more persuasive by knowing what is at stake, including both objective research and personal knowledge in what you write.

Using evidence to support your ideas

Your argument should be supported with evidence, which may include, but is not limited to, related studies or articles, films or television programs, interview materials, statistics, and critical analysis of your own making. Relevant studies or articles can be found in such journals as Journal of Communication , Quarterly Journal of Speech , Communication Education , and Communication Monographs . Databases, such as Infotrac and ERIC, may also be helpful for finding articles and books on your topic (connecting to these databases via NC Live requires a UNC IP address or UNC PID). As always, be careful when using Internet materials—check your sources to make sure they are reputable.

Refrain from using evidence, especially quotations, without explicitly and concretely explaining what the evidence shows in your own words. Jumping from quote to quote does not demonstrate your knowledge of the material or help the reader recognize the development of your thesis statement. A good paper will link the evidence to the overall argument by explaining how the two correspond to one another and how that relationship extends our understanding of the communication phenomenon. In other words, each example and quote should be explained, and each paragraph should relate to the topic.

As mentioned above, your evidence and analysis should not only support the thesis statement but should also develop it in ways that complement your paper’s argument. Do not just repeat the thesis statement after each section of your paper; instead, try to tell what that section adds to the argument and what is special about that section when the thesis statement is taken into consideration. You may also include a discussion of the paper’s limitations. Describing what cannot be known or discussed at this time—perhaps because of the limited scope of your project, lack of new research, etc.—keeps you honest and realistic about what you have accomplished and shows your awareness of the topic’s complexity.

Communication studies idiosyncrasies

• Using the first person (I/me) is welcomed in nearly all areas of communication studies. It is probably best to ask your professor to be sure, but do not be surprised if you are required to talk about yourself within the paper as a researcher, writer, and/or subject. Some assignments may require you to write from a personal perspective and expect you to use “I” to express your ideas.
• Always include a Works Cited (MLA) or References list (APA) unless you are told not to. Not giving appropriate credit to those whom you quote or whose ideas inform your argument is plagiarism. More and more communication studies courses are requiring bibliographies and in-text citations with each writing assignment. Ask your professor which citation format (MLA/APA) to use and see the corresponding handbook for citation rules.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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2 Introduction to Communication

What is communication, learning objectives.

Upon completing this chapter | module, you should be able to:

• describe the communication process and the eight elements of communication listed.
• categorize given premises as one of the eight elements of communication.

Think about communication in your daily life. When you make a phone call, send a text message, or like a post on Facebook, what is the purpose of that activity? Have you ever felt confused by what someone is telling you or argued over a misunderstood email? The underlying issue may very well be a communication deficiency.

There are many current models and theories that explain, plan, and predict communication processes and their successes or failures. In the workplace, we might be more concerned about practical knowledge and skills than theory. However, good practice is built on a solid foundation of understanding and skill. For this reason this module will help you develop foundational skills in key areas of communication, with a focus on applying theory and providing opportunities for practice.

Defining Communication

The word communication is derived from a Latin word meaning “to share.” Communication can be defined as “purposefully and actively exchanging information between two or more people to convey or receive the intended meanings through a shared system of signs and (symbols)” (“Communication,” 2015, para. 1).

Let us break this definition down by way of example. Imagine you are in a coffee shop with a friend, and they are telling you a story about the first goal they scored in hockey as a child. What images come to mind as you hear their story? Is your friend using words you understand to describe the situation? Are they speaking in long, complicated sentences or short, descriptive sentences? Are they leaning back in their chair and speaking calmly, or can you tell they are excited? Are they using words to describe the events leading up to their big goal, or did they draw a diagram of the rink and positions of the players on a napkin? Did your friend pause and wait for you to to comment throughout their story or just blast right through? Did you have trouble hearing your friend at any point in the story because other people were talking or because the milk steamer in the coffee shop was whistling?

All of these questions directly relate to the considerations for communication in this module:

• Analyzing the Audience
• Choosing a Communications Channel
• Using Plain Language
• Using Visual Aids
• Evaluating Communication via Feedback

Before we examine each of these considerations in more detail, we should consider the elements of the communication process.

The communication process includes the steps we take in order to ensure we have succeeded in communicating. The communication process comprises essential and interconnected elements detailed in the figure above. We will continue to reflect on the story of your friend in the coffee shop to explore each element in detail.

Source: The source comes up with an idea and sends a message in order to share information with others. The source could be one other person or a group of people. In our example above, your friend is trying to share the events leading up to their first hockey goal and, likely, the feelings they had at the time as well.

Message: The message is the information or subject matter the source is intending to share. The information may be an opinion, feelings, instructions, requests, or suggestions. In our example above, your friend identified information worth sharing, maybe the size of one of the defence players on the other team, in order to help you visualize the situation.

Channels: The source may encode information in the form of words, images, sounds, body language, etc. There are many definitions and categories of communication channels to describe their role in the communication process. This module identifies  the following channels: verbal, non-verbal, written, and digital. In our example above, your friends might make sounds or use body language in addition to their words to emphasize specific bits of information. For example, when describing a large defence player on the other team, they may extend their arms to explain the height or girth of the other team’s defence player.

Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended. This person is charged with decoding the message in an attempt to understand the intentions of the source. In our example above, you as the receiver may understand the overall concept of your friend scoring a goal in hockey and can envision the techniques your friend used. However, there may also be some information you do not understand—such as a certain term—or perhaps your friend describes some events in a confusing order. One thing the receiver might try is to provide some kind of feedback to communicate back to the source that the communication did not achieve full understanding and that the source should try again.

Environment: The environment is the physical and psychological space in which the communication is happening (Mclean, 2005). It might also describe if the space is formal or informal. In our example above, it is the coffee shop you and your friend are visiting in.

Context: The context is the setting, scene, and psychological and psychosocial expectations of the source and the receiver(s) (McLean, 2005). This is strongly linked to expectations of those who are sending the message and those who are receiving the message. In our example above, you might expect natural pauses in your friend’s storytelling that will allow you to confirm your understanding or ask a question.

Interference: There are many kinds of interference (also called “noise”) that inhibit effective communication. Interference may include poor audio quality or too much sound, poor image quality, too much or too little light, attention, etc. In our working example, the coffee shop might be quite busy and thus very loud. You would have trouble hearing your friend clearly, which in turn might cause you to miss a critical word or phrase important to the story.

Those involved in the communication process move fluidly between each of these eight elements until the process ends.

Key Takeaways and Check Ins

Now that we have defined communication and described a communication process, let’s consider communication skills that are foundational to communicating effectively.

Learning highlights

• The goal of the communication process is to share meaning between a source and a receiver.
• There are eight essential elements in the communication process: source, message, channel, receiver, feedback, environment, context, and interference.

Check Your Understanding

McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication . Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Communicatio n. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication .

Professional Communications Copyright © by Olds College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Five Elements of Communication Process

The five elements of the communication process are (1) a sender; (2) a message; (3) a channel; (4) a receiver; and (5) the outcome of the receiver (Kitson, Marshall, Bassett, & Zeitz, 2013). A sender is a person who is willing to convey a message. A message is a very idea that the sender wants to convey. A channel implicates the method of message conveying. A receiver is a person who is intended to be the audience for the message. The outcome or effect of the receiver is the impact that the message has on the receiver identifying whether he or she has received and was able to comprehend the message. Effective communication occurs when the effect of the receiver has met the expectations of the sender (Kitson et al., 2013).

Addressing the measures that one can implement to improve his or her communication, it is significant to note that the speaker should focus on the impact of the conveyed messages on the receiver. To ensure the ultimate result, one needs to study the needs of the audience and adapt the speaking style and communicational approach to the needs of the recipient (Kitson et al., 2013). To illustrate, if a nursing professional aims to educate a patient suffering from acute bronchitis about the measures that would help him improve his condition, this specialist will need to reflect on the patient’s educational background. For instance, if the patient is a high school graduate and has no background in medicine, the nurse will strive to use only the general terms and simple language without the specific concepts implemented in health care.

Health care professionals should be concerned about the communicational process because the patients’ outcomes depend on education to a large extent (Kitson et al., 2013). Ultimately, health care is an integrative process including medication and lifestyle modification.

Kitson, A., Marshall, A., Bassett, K., & Zeitz, K. (2013). What are the core elements of patient‐centred care? A narrative review and synthesis of the literature from health policy, medicine and nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing , 69 (1), 4-15.

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Essay on Communication in 100, 200 and 300 Words: The Essence of Survival

• Updated on  
• Oct 20, 2023

Do you know how important it is to communicate with others? Communication is the primary means through which individuals share information, ideas and thoughts. Communication fosters strong relationships. In this essence, writing an essay on communication becomes important where you highlight the importance of communication, how it affects our everyday lives and what skills are required to become a communication professional . Let’s explore all these questions with some essays on communication.

Table of Contents

• 1 Essay on Communication in 100 Words
• 2 Essay on Communication in 200 Words
• 3 Essay on Communication in 300 Words

Also Read: Essay on Freedom Fighters

Essay on Communication in 100 Words

Communication is the cornerstone of human interaction and is crucial to sharing ideas, thoughts and information. By communicating, people foster relationships, which is vital for personal and professional growth. Effective communication facilitates understanding, resolves conflicts, and promotes collaboration. Whether verbal or nonverbal, it forms the basis of successful teamwork, decision-making, and social integration.

Clear communication is key to a harmonious society, nurturing empathy, and building trust. It encourages brainstorming, creative thinking, and the development of new solutions to complex problems. Its impact is profound, shaping the way we interact, learn, and evolve, making it an indispensable tool for human connection and progress. 

Essay on Communication in 200 Words

What makes communication important is that it serves as the bedrock for exchanging ideas, information, and emotions. It is the essence of human interaction, enabling us to convey our thoughts, beliefs, and intentions to others. Effective communication is essential in every aspect of life, whether in personal relationships, professional environments, or social interactions.

Effective communication can form the basis of trust and mutual understanding and understanding. In personal relationships, communication fosters understanding and empathy, allowing individuals to express their feelings and needs, while also listening to and acknowledging others. 

In the professional realm. Communication allows the smooth functioning of organizations. With communication, individuals can disseminate information, set clear expectations and encourage collaboration among team members. Moreover, effective communication in the workplace enhances productivity and promotes a positive work culture.

The uses and benefits of communication are not limited to just personal and professional realms. In social environments also, communication allows diverse groups to understand each other’s cultures, beliefs, and values, promoting inclusivity and harmony in society.

You can call communication a fundamental pillar of human existence, as it helps in shaping our relationships, work environments, and societal interactions. Its effective practice is essential for nurturing empathy, building trust, and fostering a more connected and understanding world.

Also Read: Essay on the Importance of English Language

Essay on Communication in 300 Words

How crucial communication is can be explained by the fact that it allows the smooth transfer of ideas, thoughts, feelings and information. Communication is the lifeblood of human interaction, playing a crucial role in the exchange of ideas, information, and emotions. It serves as the cornerstone of relationships, both personal and professional, and is integral to the functioning of society as a whole. 

In personal relationships, it is essential to have effective communication for clear understanding and empathy. It allows individuals to express their thoughts, feelings, and needs, while also providing a platform for active listening and mutual support. Strong communication fosters trust and intimacy, enabling individuals to build meaningful and lasting connections with others.

Without communication, you might struggle for organizational success in the professional world. Clear and effective communication within a team or workplace ensures that tasks are understood, roles are defined, and goals are aligned. It enables efficient collaboration, problem-solving, and decision-making, contributing to a positive and productive work environment. Moreover, effective communication between employers and employees promotes a sense of transparency and fosters a healthy work culture.

In a broader sense, communication is vital for social integration and cultural understanding. It bridges the gaps between diverse groups, facilitating the exchange of values, beliefs, and perspectives. Effective communication fosters inclusivity and respect for cultural differences, contributing to a more harmonious and cohesive community.

However, communication is not just about sharing information and ideas. It also encompasses nonverbal cues such as body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice, all of which play a significant role in conveying meaning and emotions. It is the glue that binds individuals and communities together, fostering understanding, empathy, and collaboration. Practicing clear and empathetic communication is vital for creating a more connected, inclusive, and harmonious world.

Related Articles:

Communication is the process of exchanging ideas, information, thoughts and feelings between individuals or groups through the use of verbal and nonverbal methods.

To write an essay on communication, you need to describe what communication is, what the importance of communication in our lives and how it can help us know different aspects of life.

To become an effective communicator, you must become an active listener and understand what others have to say. You must learn to express your thoughts clearly and concisely. You also need to ensure your body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice perfectly align with your ideas.

For more information on such interesting topics, visit our essay writing page and follow Leverage Edu .

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With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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II. Getting Started

2.3 Purpose, Audience, Tone, and Content

Kathryn Crowther; Lauren Curtright; Nancy Gilbert; Barbara Hall; Tracienne Ravita; Kirk Swenson; and Terri Pantuso

Now that you have determined the assignment parameters , it’s time to begin drafting. While doing so, it is important to remain focused on your topic and thesis in order to guide your reader through the essay. Imagine reading one long block of text with each idea blurring into the next. Even if you are reading a thrilling novel or an interesting news article, you will likely lose interest in what the author has to say very quickly. During the writing process, it is helpful to position yourself as a reader. Ask yourself whether you can focus easily on each point you make. Keep in mind that three main elements shape the content of each essay (see Figure 2.3.1). [1]

• Purpose:   The reason the writer composes the essay.
• Audience:  The individual or group whom the writer intends to address.
• Tone: The attitude the writer conveys about the essay’s subject.

The assignment’s purpose, audience, and tone dictate what each paragraph of the essay covers and how the paragraph supports the main point or thesis.

Identifying Common Academic Purposes

The purpose for a piece of writing identifies the reason you write it by, basically, answering the question “Why?” For example, why write a play? To entertain a packed theater. Why write instructions to the babysitter? To inform him or her of your schedule and rules. Why write a letter to your congressman? To persuade him to address your community’s needs.

In academic settings, the reasons for writing typically fulfill four main purposes:

• to classify
• to synthesize
• to evaluate

A classification shrinks a large amount of information into only the essentials , using your own words; although shorter than the original piece of writing, a classification should still communicate all the key points and key support of the original document without quoting the original text. Keep in mind that classification moves beyond simple summary to be informative .

An analysis , on the other hand, separates complex materials into their different parts and studies how the parts relate to one another. In the sciences, for example, the analysis of simple table salt would require a deconstruction of its parts—the elements sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl). Then, scientists would study how the two elements interact to create the compound NaCl, or sodium chloride: simple table salt.

In an academic analysis , instead of deconstructing compounds, the essay takes apart a primary source (an essay, a book, an article, etc.) point by point. It communicates the main points of the document by examining individual points and identifying how the points relate to one another.

The third type of writing— synthesis —combines two or more items to create an entirely new item. Take, for example, the electronic musical instrument aptly named the synthesizer. It looks like a simple keyboard but displays a dashboard of switches, buttons, and levers. With the flip of a few switches, a musician may combine the distinct sounds of a piano, a flute, or a guitar—or any other combination of instruments—to create a new sound. The purpose of an academic synthesis is to blend individual documents into a new document by considering the main points from one or more pieces of writing and linking the main points together to create a new point, one not replicated in either document.

Finally, an evaluation judges the value of something and determines its worth. Evaluations in everyday life are often not only dictated by set standards but also influenced by opinion and prior knowledge such as a supervisor’s evaluation of an employee in a particular job. Academic evaluations, likewise, communicate your opinion and its justifications about a particular document or a topic of discussion. They are influenced by your reading of the document as well as your prior knowledge and experience with the topic or issue. Evaluations typically require more critical thinking and a combination of classifying , analysis , and synthesis skills.

You will encounter these four purposes not only as you read for your classes but also as you read for work or pleasure and, because reading and writing work together, your writing skills will improve as you read. Remember that the purpose for writing will guide you through each part of your paper, helping you make decisions about content and style .

When reviewing directions for assignments, look for the verbs that ask you to classify, analyze, synthesize, or evaluate. Instructors often use these words to clearly indicate the assignment’s purpose. These words will cue you on how to complete the assignment because you will know its exact purpose.

Identifying the Audience

Imagine you must give a presentation to a group of executives in an office. Weeks before the big day, you spend time creating and rehearsing the presentation. You must make important, careful decisions not only about the content but also about your delivery. Will the presentation require technology to project figures and charts? Should the presentation define important words, or will the executives already know the terms? Should you wear your suit and dress shirt? The answers to these questions will help you develop an appropriate relationship with your audience, making them more receptive to your message.

Now imagine you must explain the same business concepts from your presentation to a group of high school students. Those important questions you previously answered may now require different answers. The figures and charts may be too sophisticated, and the terms will certainly require definitions. You may even reconsider your outfit and sport a more casual look. Because the audience has shifted, your presentation and delivery will shift as well to create a new relationship with the new audience.

In these two situations, the audience —the individuals who will watch and listen to the presentation—plays a role in the development of presentation. As you prepare the presentation, you visualize the audience to anticipate their expectations and reactions. What you imagine affects the information you choose to present and how you will present it. Then, during the presentation, you meet the audience in person and discover immediately how well you perform.

Although the audience for writing assignments—your readers—may not appear in person, they play an equally vital role. Even in everyday writing activities, you identify your readers’ characteristics, interests, and expectations before making decisions about what you write. In fact, thinking about the audience has become so common that you may not even detect the audience-driven decisions. For example, you update your status on a social networking site with the awareness of who will digitally follow the post. If you want to brag about a good grade, you may write the post to please family members. If you want to describe a funny moment, you may write with your friends’ senses of humor in mind. Even at work, you send emails with an awareness of an unintended receiver who could intercept the message.

In other words, being aware of “invisible” readers is a skill you most likely already possess and one you rely on every day. Consider the following paragraphs. Which one would the author send to her parents? Which one would she send to her best friend?

Last Saturday, I volunteered at a local hospital. The visit was fun and rewarding. I even learned how to do cardiopulmonary resuscitation, or CPR. Unfortunately, I think I caught a cold from one of the patients. This week, I will rest in bed and drink plenty of clear fluids. I hope I am well by next Saturday to volunteer again.

OMG! You won’t believe this! My advisor forced me to do my community service hours at this hospital all weekend! We learned CPR but we did it on dummies, not even real peeps. And some kid sneezed on me and got me sick! I was so bored and sniffling all weekend; I hope I don’t have to go back next week. I def do NOT want to miss the basketball tournament!

Most likely, you matched each paragraph to its intended audience with little hesitation. Because each paragraph reveals the author’s relationship with the intended readers, you can identify the audience fairly quickly. When writing your own essays, you must engage with your audience to build an appropriate relationship given your subject.

Imagining your readers during each stage of the writing process will help you make decisions about your writing. Ultimately, the people you visualize will affect what and how you write.

While giving a speech, you may articulate an inspiring or critical message, but if you left your hair a mess and laced up mismatched shoes, your audience might not take you seriously. They may be too distracted by your appearance to listen to your words.

Similarly, grammar and sentence structure serve as the appearance of a piece of writing. Polishing your work using correct grammar will impress your readers and allow them to focus on what you have to say.

Because focusing on your intended audience will enhance your writing, your process, and your finished product, you must consider the specific traits of your audience members. Use your imagination to anticipate the readers’ demographics, education, prior knowledge, and expectations.

Demographics

These measure important data about a group of people such as their age range, their ethnicity, their religious beliefs, or their gender. Certain topics and assignments will require these kinds of considerations about your audience. For other topics and assignments, these measurements may not influence your writing in the end. Regardless, it is important to consider demographics when you begin to think about your purpose for writing.

Education considers the audience’s level of schooling. If audience members have earned a doctorate degree, for example, you may need to elevate your style and use more formal language. Or, if audience members are still in college, you could write in a more relaxed style. An audience member’s major or emphasis may also dictate your writing.

Prior Knowledge

This refers to what the audience already knows about your topic. If your readers have studied certain topics, they may already know some terms and concepts related to the topic. You may decide whether to define terms and explain concepts based on your audience’s prior knowledge. Although you cannot peer inside the brains of your readers to discover their knowledge, you can make reasonable assumptions . For instance, a nursing major would presumably know more about health-related topics than a business major would.

Expectations

These indicate what readers will look for while reading your assignment. Readers may expect consistencies in the assignment’s appearance such as correct grammar and traditional formatting like double-spaced lines and legible font. Readers may also have content-based expectations given the assignment’s purpose and organization. In an essay titled “The Economics of Enlightenment: The Effects of Rising Tuition,” for example, audience members may expect to read about the economic repercussions of college tuition costs.

Selecting an Appropriate Tone

Tone identifies a speaker’s attitude toward a subject or another person. You may pick up a person’s tone of voice fairly easily in conversation. A friend who tells you about her weekend may speak excitedly about a fun skiing trip. An instructor who means business may speak in a low, slow voice to emphasize her serious mood. Or, a coworker who needs to let off some steam after a long meeting may crack a sarcastic joke.

Just as speakers transmit emotion through voice, writers can transmit a range of attitudes and emotions through prose –from excited and humorous to somber and critical. These emotions create connections among the audience, the author, and the subject, ultimately building a relationship between the audience and the text. To stimulate these connections, writers convey their attitudes and feelings with useful devices such as sentence structure, word choice, punctuation, and formal or informal language. Keep in mind that the writer’s attitude should always appropriately match the audience and the purpose.

Read the following paragraph and consider the writer’s tone. How would you describe the writer’s attitude toward wildlife conservation?

“Many species of plants and animals are disappearing right before our eyes. If we don’t act fast, it might be too late to save them. Human activities, including pollution, deforestation, hunting, and overpopulation, are devastating the natural environment. Without our help, many species will not survive long enough for our children to see them in the wild. Take the tiger, for example. Today, tigers occupy just seven percent of their historical range, and many local populations are already extinct. Hunted for their beautiful pelts and other body parts, the tiger population has plummeted from one hundred thousand in 1920 to just a few thousand. Contact your local wildlife conservation society today to find out how you can stop this terrible destruction.”

Choosing Appropriate, Interesting Content

Content refers to all the written substance in a document. After selecting an audience and a purpose, you must choose what information will make it to the page. Content may consist of examples, statistics, facts, anecdotes , testimonies , and observations, but no matter the type, the information must be appropriate and interesting for the audience and purpose. An essay written for third graders that summarizes the legislative process, for example, would have to contain succinct and simple content.

Content is also shaped by tone . When the tone matches the content, the audience will be more engaged, and you will build a stronger relationship with your readers. When applied to that audience of third graders, you would choose simple content that the audience would easily understand, and you would express that content through an enthusiastic tone.

The same considerations apply to all audiences and purposes.

This section contains material from:

Crowther, Kathryn, Lauren Curtright, Nancy Gilbert, Barbara Hall, Tracienne Ravita, and Kirk Swenson. Successful College Composition . 2nd edition. Book 8. Georgia: English Open Textbooks, 2016. http://oer.galileo.usg.edu/english-textbooks/8 . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .

• “The Rhetorical Triangle” was derived by Brandi Gomez from an image in: Kathryn Crowther et al., Successful College Composition, 2nd ed. Book 8. (Georgia: English Open Textbooks, 2016), https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/english-textbooks/8/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . ↵

The bounds, limits, or confines of something.

A statement, usually one sentence, that summarizes an argument that will later be explained, expanded upon, and developed in a longer essay or research paper. In undergraduate writing, a thesis statement is often found in the introductory paragraph of an essay. The plural of thesis is theses .

The essence of something; those things that compose the foundational elements of a thing; the basics.

A brief and concise statement or series of statements that outlines the main point(s) of a longer work. To summarize is to create a brief and concise statement or series of statements that outlines the main point(s) of a longer work.

To give or relay information; explanatory.

The fusion, combination, or integration of two or more ideas or objects that create new ideas or objects.

To copy, duplicate, or reproduce.

To organize or arrange.

The process of critically examining, investigating, or interpreting a specific topic or subject matter in order to come to an original conclusion.

The subject matter; the information contained within a text; the configuration of ideas that make up an argument.

The choices that a writer makes in order to make their argument or express their ideas; putting different elements of writing together in order to present an argument. Style refers to the way an argument is framed, written, and presented.

To interrupt, stop, or prevent someone or something from coming to pass or getting from one place to the other.

Clear or lucid speech; the expression of an idea in a coherent or logical manner; the communication of a concept in a way that is easily understandable to an audience.

The person or group of people who view and analyze the work of a writer, researcher, or other content creator.

Qualities, features, or attributes relating to something, particularly personal characteristics.

Taking something for granted; an expected result; to be predisposed towards a certain outcome.

Consequences; the impact, usually negative, of an action or event.

Writing that is produced in sentence form; the opposite of poetry, verse, or song. Some of the most common types of prose include research papers, essays, articles, novels, and short stories.

A short account or telling of an incident or story, either personal or historical; anecdotal evidence is frequently found in the form of a personal experience rather than objective data or widespread occurrence.

Verbal or written proof from an individual; the statement made by a witness that is understood to be truth. Testimony can be a formal process, such as a testimony made in official court proceedings, or an informal process, such as claiming that a company’s product or service works.

To express an idea in as few words as possible; concise, brief, or to the point.

The feeling or attitude of the writer which can be inferred by the reader, usually conveyed through vocabulary, word choice, and phrasing; associated with emotion.

2.3 Purpose, Audience, Tone, and Content Copyright © 2022 by Kathryn Crowther; Lauren Curtright; Nancy Gilbert; Barbara Hall; Tracienne Ravita; Kirk Swenson; and Terri Pantuso is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Home — Essay Samples — Life — Communication Skills — The Importance of Communication in Professionalism

The Importance of Communication in Professionalism

• Categories: Communication Skills Professionalism

About this sample

Words: 440 |

Published: Sep 19, 2019

Words: 440 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, clarity and precision in communication, non-verbal communication, adaptability and contextual awareness, collaboration and team dynamics, continuous learning and professional development, the importance of elements of communication.

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• Essay On Importance Of Communication

Importance of Communication Essay

500+ words importance of communication essay.

For every human being, communication is one of the essential parts of our lives. People build relationships in their personal and professional lives based on communication. Effective communication works as a foundation for respect and trust to grow. It helps in better understanding a person and the context of the conversation. People always believe that their way of communication is better than others. To communicate effectively, individuals should understand the motion behind the said information. We know that communication is effortless, but miscommunication between two or more individuals sometimes leads to conflicts and distress. Building relationships at home, work, and social affairs will be easier if you know the right way to communicate effectively. It is required to have better communication skills such as non-verbal communication, listening and managing stress can improve the relationship between individuals.

Meaning of Communication

Communication is essential for all of us, whether humans or animals. Communication is a part of written and spoken language, and altogether it completes the communication process. Both use different languages to communicate because it’s hard to survive in this world without communication.

Good communication skills are all about exchanging ideas and thoughts to convey information. It is a two-way conversation that includes vocalisation as well as a gesture. One of the crucial purposes of communication is to express ideas, needs or thoughts, and one’s beliefs with clarity for a mutually accepted solution.

Communication skills cannot be underestimated. Before languages were invented, people communicated with their hand gestures, body language, etc. We all require better communication skills at every step of our life. Personal and professional life will get hampered if you lack practical communication.

Importance of Effective Communication

People understand the importance of communication, but sometimes they cannot communicate through communication. It happens due to a lack of better communication skills. Below, we have discussed a few ways to communicate effectively.

• Interruption: It becomes very annoying when someone disrupts you while talking. It looks pretty unethical to disrupt someone while talking constantly, and the conversation can take a different turn. So, while talking, let the other person complete their talk before you start talking.
• Listen patiently: Listen patiently when someone tries to make a healthy conversation. It is one of the ways to do effective communication, as it gives a clear understanding of what the person is trying to say.
• View your body language: Body language speaks about your personality. Some people make uncomfortable gestures through their body language. So, you should keep your body language friendly and warm rather than keeping it arrogant.
• Do not go over your point: Communication is all about expressing thoughts so that the other person can understand. It is not that you are trying to prove something correct and the other person incorrect. Some people try to win the conservation, which leads to struggles and arguments.
• Watch your words: Before telling someone something, make sure you know what you are saying. We often say things that we should not do out of anger or anxiety. Remember, once spoken, words can not be withdrawn. Thus, it is suggested that you do not say something that you can regret later.
• Practice: If there is a professional meeting where you need to communicate about your product or work, it is recommended to practise already. Practise in front of the mirror or with a friend only. Choose how your conversation will begin, all the points you cover, and how you will end it.

As many people may feel comfortable communicating, communication is an art developed through practice and evaluation; every good communicator passes through a process to learn communication and practice skills, review themselves, and decrease where they can be.

Communication is essential to share our thoughts and feelings to live a happy life. Better communication makes us feel better about everything surrounding us and makes us suffer less. So, it is necessary to learn the art of communication to put across one point well.

Therefore, communication is a vital aspect of our existence. Effective communication can be achieved by being mindful of different elements of communication. Using appropriate communication in appropriate settings is essential for effective communication.

From our BYJU’S website, students can also access CBSE Essays related to different topics. It will help students to get good marks in their exams.

Frequently asked Questions on the Importance of communication Essay

How important is communication.

Communication of ideas, and thoughts is an important skill to be acquired. Conveying things in an effective manner is necessary for both our personal and professional lives.

What are types of communication?

There are 4 main types of communication are verbal, non verbal, visual and written forms of communication.

What are the factors that act as a barrier for communication?

Language is obviously the biggest barrier for communication between peoples of the world. Then comes the physical barrier. Geographical separation hinders communication. There are other factors like the gender barrier, cultural differences that prevail in the society. Last but not the least, emotional barriers too hinder proper understanding between persons involved in communication.

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Essay on Communication: Meaning, Process and Objectives

After reading this essay you will learn about:- 1. Meaning of Communication 2. Definition of Communication 3. Process 4. Objectives 5. Modes 6. The Organisational Context 7. Directions 8. Channels 9. Patterns 10. Barriers 11. Organisation-Level Improvements.

Essay on the Meaning of Communication:

The word communication has been derived from the Latin word communis which means common, besides commonality, communication involves the concept of transfer, meaning and information transfer. Thus communication means sharing ideas in common to one or many.

It means a verbal or written message, an change of information, a system of communicating, and a process by which meanings are exchanged between individuals/groups of individuals through a common system of symbols. It also means technique for expressing ideas effectively and quickly.

Essay on the Definition of Communication:

Communication is the process of transferring information, meaning and understanding from sender to receiver and vice versa. And carrying out that process convincingly, meaningfully and proficiently is an absolute essential for a manager to exercise leadership efficiently.

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In fact, it is hard to conceive of successful leadership in the absence of excellent communication skills. The first step for a manager to become an outstanding leader, therefore, is to become an outstanding communicator or perhaps best communicator.

Communication is defined as “the process of passing information in oral or written form and understanding from one person to another in oral or written form.” It means transmitting and sharing of ideas, opinions, facts, figures and information in a manner that is perceived and understood by the receiver of the communication.

F.E.X. Dance defined communication as “the process by which people seek to share meaning via the transmission of symbolic messages.”

Essay on the Process of Communication:

The communications involves four actions and five components. The four actions are encoding, sending, receiving, and decoding. The five components are sender, message, medium, noise and receiver. The actions and components combine to transfer meaning from the sender who sends the message to the receiver. The sender who sends message originates the message by encoding it, that is, by constructing the message.

The message is the content of the communication. The sender then transmits the message through a medium. A medium is the mode or form of transmission of message, not the message itself. Examples of media are spoken words, gestures and fiscal expressions video.

Telephones, written memos, faxes and e-mail messages. The receiver acquires, or receives, the message by hearing it, reading it, or having it appear on a fax or computer through e-mail or voice mail.

The receiver then begins decoding the message, that is, interpreting it using various tools. Sometimes distractions interfere with the message; these interferences are called noise which leads to misunderstanding, noise contributes to misinterpretations of the original message, and it is only through feedback, or verification of the original message, that communication problems may be located, corrected and understood properly.

The basic model of communication is called as fundamental and universal model. That is, it occurs whenever communication takes place regardless of the culture or organisation and location.

However, while the basic acts and components of the communication process are the same everywhere, how the acts are carried out and the nature of the components are deeply influenced by cultural, organisational, and even personal contexts through this type of communication.

Who can send messages to whom, what kinds and what volumes of messages are sent, by what medium are messages transmitted what sort of interference or noise is likely to occur, and what cues are available for decoding are just some of the many examples of the types of communication issues that can vary from manager to manager, from organisation to organisation, from media to media and from country to country.

Essay on the Objectives of Communication:

Modern Organisation cannot exist without communication. If there is no communication, employees can’t know what their co-workers are doing, management can’t receive information inputs, and supervisors and team leaders cannot dive instructions and therefore communication is needed for effective management of the organisation.

Thus the followings are the objectives/importance of communication in the present context:

1. To develop information and understanding among all workers in the organisation.

2. To foster any attitude which is necessary for motivation and cooperation in the organization.

3. To encourage better performance and job satisfaction in the organization.

4. To prepare workers in the organization for a change in methods or environment by giving them the necessary information in advance.

5. To discourage misinformation, ambiguity and rumours in the organisation.

6. To encourage subordinates in the organisation to supply ideas and suggestions for improving upon the product or work environment, and taking these suggestions seriously.

7. To improve labour-management relations in the organization.

8. To encourage social relations among workers in the organisation by encouraging into communication.

9. To accomplish all the basic management functions— Planning, Organizing, Leading/directing and controlling in the organization.

10. To achieve their goals and meet challenges in the organization.

Essay on the Modes of Communication:

Communication can occur in the organization either a verbal mode or a non-verbal mode as given below. Each mode has particular characteristics in the organisation and issues that an effective manager must understand.

1. Verbal Communication:

Spoken words, which are called as verbal communication, mean both oral and written communication in the organization.

(i) Oral Communication:

The spoken word has the potential advantages of being vivid, stimulating and commanding attention in the organisation. In most organizational situations, it is difficult for receivers—the listeners—to ignore the words spoken or the person speaking to them in oral type of communication.

Just think about the last time someone spoke to you directly. Even if you weren’t interested in what the person had to say, wouldn’t it have been difficult to simply ignore the person, turn and walk away? Certainly not possible, hence, here it is mandatory to listen the person.

Also, oral communication is exceptionally flexible for both the sender and receiver in the organization. While you are speaking with another person, you may try to make a point a certain way but along the way change your words in order for the listener to understand you in a better way.

Because oral communication is generally interactive in the organisation, it can be quite responsive and adaptive to circumstances. However, this mode of communication in the organisation has the major disadvantages of being transistor and subject to considerable misinterpretation of messages.

Even when individuals use the same language in the oral communication, the subtle nuances of the spoken word may be missed or incorrect meaning attached to them. Oral communication between those whose First language differ in the organisation, as in many management situations today, simply multiplies the chances of intended meaning going away.

Advantages of Oral Communication in the Organisation:

1. It is direct, simple, timesaving and least expensive for any organisation.

2. It helps in avoiding delays, red tape and other formalities in the organization.

3. Feedback and spontaneous thinking are available in this type of communication which benefits organisation growth.

4. We can clear any misunderstanding between speakers.

5. It develops a sense of belonging because of personalized contacts in the organization.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication:

1. There is no any formal record for transaction in the organization.

2. Lengthy and distant communications cannot be effectively conveyed verbally in the organization.

3. The receiver may receive the message in his own perception and thus misunderstand the intent of the message in the organization.

4. The spirit of authority cannot be transmitted effectively in verbal transaction unless trust between speakers.

5. Different meaning may occur by manner of speaking, tune of voice and facial expressions in the organization.

(ii) Written Communication in Organisation:

Written communication is one when messages are put in writing, as in letters, memos, electronic mail, and the like, the opportunity for misunderstanding the words of the sender are decreased. The receiver of the message sent may still misinterpret the intended message, of course, but there is no uncertainty about exactly what words the sender has used.

In that sense, written communication has precision. However, not everyone writes well, and so greater precision does not necessarily lead to greater understanding in the organisation.

This is further complicated when the words need translation from one language to another for better understanding. The writer/sender does not know immediately how well or poorly the message is getting across, written communication has the disadvantage of not being very flexible in the organization.

In addition, it is often not as vivid or compelling as oral communication. Although you might find it difficult to ignore someone speaking to you, it would probably be much easier to ignore a letter you received in your organisation.

Advantages of Written Communication in the Organization:

1. It can easily verify and more precisely defined in the organization.

2. It is likely to be a permanent record and uses for future references in the organization.

3. It reduces the possibility of misunderstanding and misinterpretation in the organization.

4. It is reliable for transmitting lengthy statistical data in the organization.

5. The time can be saved when many persons should be contacted in the organization at the same time.

Disadvantages of Written Communication in the Organization:

1. It is very slow and causes delay in the organization.

2. Written material may leak out before time, causing disruption in its effectiveness in many organization.

3. More dependence of written communication can lead to too much of paper-work in the organization.

4. It leads to excessive formality in personal relations in the organization.

2. Nonverbal Communication in the Organization:

In direct interpersonal communication, nonverbal actions and behaviors often constitute significant messages in the organization. A whole range of actions, or lack of them, has the potential for communicating in the organization.

The way you dress, speak words, use gestures, handle utensils, exhibit facial expressions, and set the physical distance to the receiver are just some of the many forms of nonverbal communication in the organization.

Electronic Communication:

Now a day, electronic mail, or e-mail, has emerged as one of the fastest-growing forms of communication in the organisation. In the recent nationwide survey, 79 per cent of the responding executives indicated that e-mail was their number-one choice for business communication in their organisation.

With e-mail or faxes, you can send a message simultaneously to dozens or even hundreds of people throughout the world. Recently, Videoconferences have also emerged as a business communication too.

Essay # The Organisational Context of Communication:

Managers in the organization do not deal with communication in the abstract. Rather they deal with it within an organizational context. The structure of organisations and the process of organisations powerfully shape the nature and effectiveness of communication that takes place within and between them.

In the present setup Organizations, whether business, hospitals or government agencies, have a set of defining characteristics, all of which affect communication in one way or another.

Thus, organizations:

a) Are composed of individuals and groups.

b) Are oriented towards goals

c) Have differentiated functions.

d) Has intended coordination.

e) Have continuity through time.

Organizations of any size, regardless of country, are not simply a random set of individuals who by chance come together for a brief period with no purpose. The fact that they have goal orientations, structures, and coordination greatly influences the nature and amount of communication that takes place in the organization.

This influence can be analyzed in terms of directions, channels and patterns of communication in the organization.

Essay # Directions of Communication within Organizations:

Because organizations of any degree of complexity have both differentiated functions and more than one level in the organisation, the directions of communication within them can be classified according to the level for which they are intended.

Downward communication is sent from higher organizational levels to lower levels in the organisation; for example, from the organization’s top executives like to its employees, or from supervisors to subordinates.

Upward Communication is sent from lower organizational levels to higher levels; for example, from non-management employees like workers to their supervisors, or from a manager to her CEOs.

Lateral Communication is sent across essentially equivalent levels of an organization; for example, from one clerical to another, from the manager of product X to the manager of product Y, or from the marketing department to the engineering design department in the organisation.

The topics covered in organizational communication vary according to their direction. Downward communication typically involves such matters as goals, objectives, directions, decisions, and feedback in the organisation.

Upward communication usually focuses on information, suggestions, questions, problems and requests for clarification in the organisation. Lateral communication typically involves changes of information-both formal and informal-that assist or affect coordination and joint problem solving in the organization.

While the subject matter of communication in particular direction tends to be fairly similar in most medium to large organizations, the culture of the organization can affect the process. For example, in an organization where authority and hierarchy are stressed, upward communication might be more formal than in an organization with more egalitarian culture.

As a simple illustration, in the hierarchical organization, a conversion might start with the subordinate addressing a superior several levels above as Mr. Or Ms. James.

In many countries, for example in Korea, the conversion might start by addressing the superior by his or her title, such as Director Park. In organizations with less emphasis on hierarchy, the conversation might start by addressing the superior by his or her first name.

Likewise, organizational or country culture can influence the frequency and flavor of upward communications. For example, in organizations with strong hierarchical values, upward communication tends to be less frequent.

In summary, organizational communications flow upward, laterally, and downward in every organization. The direction of the communication has a significant impact on the type of communication that is likely to take place frequently.

However, the culture of the organization and the region or country in which the organization is located can further determine the exact from that communication will have and even the frequency of each direction of communication will take place in organization.

Essay # Channels of Communication within Organizations:

Organizational channels, or routes of communication, consist of two fundamental types namely formal and informal. Both types are essential for organizational functioning, and neither types can easily substitute for the other.

Formal Communication channels are those that are authorized planned and regulated by the organization and that are directly connected to its official structure. Thus, the organization’s designated structure indicates the normal paths for downward, upward and lateral formal communication. Formal communication channels are like highlighted roads on road map.

They specify organizational members who are responsible for tasks and communicating information to levels above and below them and back and forth to adjacent units. Also, formal channels indicate the persons or positions to whom work-related messages should be sent in the organization. Formal channels can be modified, and thus they have some flexibility, but they can seldom be disregarded in the organization.

The wheel or star network refers to an administrator and four subordinates with whom he interacts in the organisation. There is no interaction among the subordinates in the organization.

In ‘y’ network; there are two subordinates reporting to the superior.

The “chain” in the network, denotes a five-level hierarchy in which communication can take place only upward and downward, and across organizational lines in modern organizations.

The circle network denotes a three level hierarchy in which there is communication between superiors and subordinates, with cross communication at the operative level.

Informal communication channels are communication routes that are not prescribed by the organization but that develop through typical interpersonal activities of people at work in the organisation. Channels can come into existence and change or disappear rapidly, depending on circumstances in the organization.

However, they may also endure in many work situations, especially where individuals have been working together over a period of time in the organization. If a specific pattern becomes well established, it would ordinarily be called a ‘network’ in the organisation.

There are four major type of informal communication in the organisation.

They are as follows:

(1) Single strand.

(2) Gossip.

(3) Probability.

(4) Cluster.

In the single stranded network, the individual communicates through intervening persons in the organisation. In the gossip network, the individual communicates or spreads like anything without a choice in the organisation. In probability network, the individual spreads the communication at random in the organisation.

But in the cluster network, the individual communicates with only those individuals whom he trusts in the organisation. Among these types of communication network, the cluster is most popular network in many organisation.

Essay # Formal and Informal Channels of Communication in Organization:

In a Plastic Bottle manufacturing company the CEO has got two immediate managers one is GM-marketing who markets plastic bottle and another one is GM-production who manufactures Plastic Bottle. The GM-marketing has got two subordinates one is advertising manager and the second one is promotions manager.

Likewise the GM-Production has got two immediate subordinates, one is supervisor design and another one is supervisor testing. If CEO communicates to GM-Marketing or GM-Production it is called as formal channels of communication. However, if CEO contacts Advertising manager or supervisor testing it is called INFORMAL channels of communication.

Formal Communication Channels:

a) Authorized, Planned and regulated by the organization.

b) Reflect the organization’s formal structure.

c) Define who has responsibility for information dissemination and indicate the proper recipients of work-related information in organization.

d) Maybe modified by the organization in future.

e) Minor to severe consequences for ignoring them unknowingly.

Informal Communication Channels:

a) Develop through interpersonal activities of organisation members

b) Hot specified by the organization

c) Man is short-lived or long lasting.

d) Are more often lateral than vertical in organization.

e) Information flow can be very fast in organization.

f) Used for both work-related and non-work information.

Some more informal communication Channels in the organization are as follows:

a) Informal Communication Channels tend to operate more often in the lateral than in the vertical direction compared to formal channels because they are not designated by the organization and its top officials.

b) Second, information flowing through informal channels in the organization often moves extremely fast, principally because senders are highly motivated to pass information on. The so-called grapevine is a classic example of rapid transmission of messages through informal channels.

c) A third feature is that informal channels carry work- related as well as non-work information in the organisation. Just because channels are informal does not mean that only gossip and other messages unrelated to jobs and tasks are carried by them. In fact, crucial work-related information is frequently communicated in this way.

Of course, some of the messages passed through the informal channels in the organisation may contain inaccuracies or be negative, and thus seen by some managers as a source of problems. However, few organizations could exist for long if they had to rely only on formal communication channels in the organisation.

Essay # Patterns of Organizational Communication in the Organisation:

Identifiable patterns of communication that occur with some regularity within and between organizations, whether using formal or informal channels, are typically called communication networks in any organisation. Put another way, communication networks are stable systems of interconnections in any organisation.

Thus, networks involve consistent linkages between particular sets of senders and receivers in the organisation. For example, a middle-level divisional marketing manager in New Delhi might have a particular network that involves her boss in Kolkata, three key managers in other departments in the Kolkata headquarters, her seven subordinates located in major Western cities, and two outside vendors of market research data.

Another network for the same manager might involve two lower-level managers in other units in the New Delhi office and their former colleague and old friend who is now a sales supervisor in Chennai and who has access to inside information on how well new marketing approaches are working in that region.

An example of a larger, more organization wide network could be the Coca Cola Company’s worldwide pattern of communication relationships between its headquarters in Atlanta and its bottlers and distributors throughout world. Of course, networks can also be formed across organizations as well as within the organisation.

The importance of communication networks to managers in any organisation is that they can provide significant and regular sources of information, both of the formal and informal type, that might otherwise take a much longer time to obtain if the various links had to set up from scratch each time some new topic or problem came up.

Also, when managers are members of established networks, it can make it easier for them to influence the other people or groups involved in the networks. Consequently, for both of these reasons, managers need to pay particular attention to what networks they can, and want to, be a part of and to the composition of those networks in the organisation.

It is no accident that the term networking has come to signify a process that has the potential for gaining advantages for a manger (or anyone for that matter) by having one or more sets of individuals in the organisation or groups with which one can interact easily and regularly, and with whom one can communicate a sense of confidence and trust in the organisation.

In traditional western organizations, it has always been relatively easy for males in management positions to establish various network with other males (thus providing the basis for the phase “old boys network” ) in their organisation. However, at least until very recently, it has been much harder for women and members of underrepresented ethnic groups to establish similar helpful networks in their organisations

Recent research suggests, in fact, that organizational networks involving individuals from these groups are different in terms of both composition and relationships from the traditional networks composed primarily of white males in the organisation.

It does not make such networks any less important or useful to managers from these groups, but docs serve to emphasize that network patterns to communication in organisations can vary based on a number of different situational circumstance, including the age, gender, and ethnicity of individuals in the organisation.

Essay # Barriers to Communication in the Organisation:

Although the organisational context provides numerous opportunities for managers to engage in effective and productive communication to assist in leadership efforts, there are likewise many barriers related to that context that can interfere with the communication process in the present organisation.

Such barriers can arise from several different sources, including interpersonal, organisational, organizational, and cultural in the organization.

Obstacles to interpersonal communication in the organisation can occur with either the sender or the receiver. The burden is simultaneously on both the sender and the receiver in any organisation to ensure accurate communication.

It is, however, the sender’s obligation to choose the language and words—to encode the message—carefully to carry the greatest precision of meaning. Precision in the organisation is especially important if the sender is trying to persuade the receiver to do something in a language or communication style different from what the receiver prefers.

For example, if you are talking with your boss style and choice of words, your boss may not be receptive if he or she prefers a more formal approach in the organisation. You will probably need to adjust your style for the communication to be effective in the organisation.

The receiver, of course, is often the source of communication breakdowns in the organisation. For example, the receiver might have a selective perception problem in the organisation. That is, the receiver may unintentionally screen out some parts of the intended message because they contradict his beliefs or desires in the organisation.

For example, you might stress the increased productivity in the organisation from a proposed project, but your boss is focusing on the estimated cost of the project. Although selective perception is a natural human tendency, it hinders accurate communication, especially when sensitive or highly important topics are being discussed in the organisation.

Another way to state this point is that individuals tend to adopt frames of reference, or quick ways of interpreting messages in the organisation that help them make sense of complex communications, but these shortcuts may prevent the intended message from being received.

Essay # Organisational Barriers:

Just as interpersonal barriers can limit communication, so can organisational barriers limit communication? Such barriers in the organisation can interfere with communication between individuals or groups within the same organisation, between individuals or groups from two different organisations, or between entire organizations.

The basis of these organisational barriers lies within the hierarchical structure of organizations.

All organisations of any complexity have specialized functions and more than one level of authority in the organisation. This specialization creates a situation that is ripe for communication difficulties in the organisation.

For example one person might come from marketing and the other form Production. The person in marketing might think nothing of exaggerating while the person from Production always understates her points.

Consequently, the marketer might see the Production Manager as unimaginative and boring, while the Production Manager might view the marketer as superficial and careless. In addition, the two parties might come from different levels in the organisation.

The differences between responsibility and level of authority could cause a senior executive to expect an explanation of the broad impacts on the entire organization of a proposed project and a junior technical expert to focus on the detailed schedule of the project in any organisation.

Essay # Cultural Burriers in Organization:

Communication and culture are tightly intervened in the organisation. Culture cannot exist without communication and human communication only within a cultural context in the organisation. Since the act of communicating is so closely connected to the surrounding environment, culture can ease or hinder it in the organisation.

Thus, similarity in culture between senders and receivers facilitates successful communication-the intended meaning has a higher probability of getting transferred in the organisation.

Differences in culture hinder the process of-any organisation. The greater the cultural differences between sender and receiver, the greater the expected difficulty in communicating within or outside the organisation. Therefore, other things being equal, it should be easier, for example, for an Indian manager to communicate with a Singapore subordinate than with a Malaysian subordinate.

Probably the greatest single cultural barrier that can affect communication across different departmental, organisational, regional, or national cultures is ethnocentrism in the organisation.

Ethnocentrism is the belief in the superiority of one’s own groups and the related tendency to view others in terms of the values of one’s own group in the organisation. Ethnocentrism leads individuals to divide their interpersonal worlds into in-groups and out-groups in the organisation.

A third major cultural barrier to communication I can be labeled cultural distance in the organisation. This concept refers to the overall difference between two cultures basic characteristics such as language, level of economic development, and entrenched traditions and customs in the organisation.

Cultural distance was illustrated by a study that gathered 21 senior executives from major corporations in Japan, the United States, Brazil, the United Kingdom and India for a five-week period of cultural explorations regarding communication.

The executives attended lecturers and seminars, built rafts and climbed riffs together, and even travelled in fact-finding teams to the countries represented to improve communication, nevertheless, observers reported that communication remained a problem the entire five weeks among them.

The various barriers that were discussed in the preceding section can interfere with effective communication, but there are ways of dealing with, or overcoming, them in the organisation. That is the subject of this section – approaches that will help to improve your communication in the organisation as a manager.

Essay # Organisation-Level Improvements in Communication:

Organisations can take steps to change their policies and methods for how and when managers should communicate in the organisation. Unfortunately, guidelines for this more structural approach are not as well developed as those for individual managers in the organisation.

A recent study of research and development laboratories within 14 large multinational firms, however, did provide some suggestions. The study produced strong evidence for the importance of gatekeepers, or so-called “boundary-spanning” individuals who are at the communication interface between separate organizations or between units within an organisation.

Large companies especially need to be able to structure the activities of gatekeepers to maximize their usefulness to the communication process and to make sure that the most critical information is both sent and received.

Finding from the study indicated that communication could be improved by implementing rules and procedures that increased formal communication, replacing some face-to-face communication with electronic communication, developing particular communication networks, and even creating a centralized office to manage communication activities in the organization.

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Essay on Importance of Communication for Students and Children

500+ words essay on importance of communication:.

Communication is one of the important tools that aid us to connect with people. Either you are a student or a working professional, good communication is something that will connect you far ahead. Proper communication can help you to solve a number of issues and resolve problems. This is the reason that one must know how to communicate well. The skills of communication essential to be developed so that you are able to interact with people. And able to share your thoughts and reach out to them. All this needs the correct guidance and self-analysis as well.

Meaning of Communication

The word communication is basically a process of interaction with the people and their environment . Through such type of interactions, two or more individuals influence the ideas, beliefs, and attitudes of each other.

Such interactions happen through the exchange of information through words, gestures, signs, symbols, and expressions. In organizations, communication is an endless process of giving and receiving information and to build social relationships.

Importance of Communication

Communication is not merely essential but the need of the hour. It allows you to get the trust of the people and at the same time carry better opportunities before you. Some important points are as follows –

Help to Build Relationships 

No matter either you are studying or working, communication can aid you to build a relationship with the people. If you are studying you communicate with classmates and teachers to build a relationship with them. Likewise in offices and organizations too, you make relationships with the staff, your boss and other people around.

Improve the Working Environment 

There are a number of issues which can be handled through the right and effective communication. Even planning needs communication both written as well as verbal. Hence it is essential to be good in them so as to fill in the communication gap.

Foster strong team

Communication helps to build a strong team environment in the office and other places. Any work which requires to be done in a team. It is only possible if the head communicates everything well and in the right direction.

Find the right solutions

Through communication, anyone can find solutions to even serious problems. When we talk, we get ideas from people that aid us to solve the issues. This is where communication comes into play. Powerful communication is the strength of any organization and can help it in many ways.

Earns more respect

If your communication skills are admirable, people will love and give you respect. If there is any problem, you will be the first person to be contacted. Thus it will increase your importance. Hence you can say that communications skills can make a big change to your reputation in society.

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Don’t Go Overboard With Your Point

The conversation is about to express your thoughts. And to let the other person know what you feel. It is not mean to prove that your point is correct and the other person is wrong. Don’t Overboard other With Your Point.

Watch Your Words

Before you say something to Watch Your Words. At times, out of anger or anxiousness, we say somethings that we must not say. Whenever you are in a professional meeting or in some formal place, where there is a necessity of communicating about your product or work then it is advised to practice the same beforehand

Communication is the greatest importance. It is important to sharing out one’s thoughts and feelings to live a fuller and happier life. The more we communicate the less we suffer and the better we feel about everything around. However, it is all the more necessary to learn the art of effective communication to put across ones point well.

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Understanding Rhetorical Appeals: the Art of Persuasion

This essay about rhetorical appeals outlines the foundational techniques of persuasion articulated by Aristotle: ethos, pathos, and logos. Ethos focuses on the credibility of the speaker, pathos appeals to the audience’s emotions, and logos relies on logical argumentation and evidence. The essay emphasizes the importance of understanding and utilizing these appeals for effective communication across various contexts, from political speeches to advertising. It suggests that successful persuasion often involves a combination of all three appeals, tailored to the audience’s preferences and the specific situation. By becoming more aware of these rhetorical tools, individuals can enhance their persuasive skills and become more critical consumers of information, navigating the world of communication with greater insight and capability.

How it works

The realm of persuasion encompasses a tapestry of intricate tools, where rhetorical appeals stand as foundational elements, weaving threads of ancient wisdom into the fabric of effective communication. At its essence, a rhetorical appeal serves as a conduit for convincing an audience, employing nuanced strategies that target diverse facets of human cognition and sentiment. These appeals find their origins in the philosophical musings of the ancient Greek sage Aristotle, who delineated three cardinal modes: ethos, pathos, and logos. Delving into these constructs transcends mere textual analysis, inviting one to immerse themselves in the rich tapestry of persuasive discourse that envelops our daily lives, from the pulpit of political rhetoric to the bustling marketplace of advertising and beyond.

Ethos, the inaugural pillar of rhetorical appeal, encapsulates the credibility and moral integrity of the speaker or writer, engendering a sense of trust and authority in the eyes of the audience. Mastery of ethos involves a deft display of expertise, a judicious citation of authoritative sources, or a steadfast demonstration of unyielding honesty and integrity.

Conversely, pathos, the emotive cornerstone, endeavors to stir the depths of the audience’s emotions, harnessing the raw power of sentiment to shape their response to the message at hand. Pathos, with its ability to evoke a myriad of emotional states, stands as a potent force, compelling action through the primal sway of human emotion. Advertisements, for instance, deftly wield pathos, evoking a spectrum of emotions—from joy to fear to nostalgia—in a bid to steer the audience towards a desired attitude or course of action.

In contrast, logos, the bastion of rationality, speaks to the audience’s logical faculties, presenting arguments steeped in coherence and supported by irrefutable evidence. This appeal hinges upon the meticulous structuring of the message, marshaling an arsenal of statistics, facts, and logical deductions to fortify the argument. Logos serves as the bedrock of persuasion grounded in evidence and reason, eschewing the trappings of authority or emotional manipulation.

Each rhetorical appeal boasts its own unique strengths and vulnerabilities, and effective communication often necessitates a delicate interplay of all three. The crux of a successful rhetorical strategy lies in the discernment of the audience’s predilections, discerning which appeal, or combination thereof, will yield the greatest impact in a given context. For instance, while a purely pathos-driven argument may sway certain segments of the audience, it may falter in the face of those who demand the solidity of evidence and the cogency of logos. Similarly, while ethos may establish credibility, bereft of the buttressing of logos or pathos, the message may fall short of resonating with or persuading the audience in its entirety.

In the contemporary landscape, rhetorical appeals abound, permeating every facet of discourse. Politicians meticulously craft their rhetoric, intertwining ethos to cement their credibility, while infusing pathos to forge emotional connections and logos to substantiate their policies. Marketers, likewise, deftly wield rhetorical appeals, leveraging pathos to evoke visceral responses, while employing logos to tout the pragmatic benefits of their offerings, all the while cultivating a brand ethos that resonates with their target demographic.

Understanding rhetorical appeals transcends the confines of academia, emerging as a vital skill for navigating the labyrinth of communication. By discerning these appeals in practice and mastering their strategic deployment, individuals can elevate their persuasive prowess across both personal and professional domains. Whether engaged in debate, presentation, or the simple art of persuasion, a firm grasp of ethos, pathos, and logos can serve as a potent catalyst, amplifying one’s persuasive impact manifold.

In essence, rhetorical appeals serve as the architect’s tools, shaping and disseminating ideas, exerting a profound influence on the dynamics of communication. They offer a window into the art of persuasion, illuminating the strategies that underpin the messages that shape our beliefs and attitudes. As our awareness of these rhetorical tools grows, we evolve not only as adept communicators but also as discerning consumers of information, capable of critically analyzing the myriad messages that vie for our attention in the cacophony of modern discourse.

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Communication and Its Importance in Everyday Life Essay

The concept of communication is primarily about exchanging various types of information between the subjects of communication. Even at the origins of sociality, the formation of community, and interaction, like communication, played a significant role. In the modern world, technologies and, consequently, the technological development of communications have begun to play an important role. The achievement of people’s understanding of one another is in many ways a condition for the development of both society and an individual.

A person’s need for communication is determined by natural life and constant presence in society, whether a family, a team of employees, a school, or a student class. If a person were deprived of an opportunity to communicate from birth, one would never grow up as a social person, civilized and culturally developed. Simply put, communication is the interaction of people in the process of their joint activities. It is the exchange of ideas, opinions, thoughts, feelings, the exchange of information (Flanagin, 2017). Without communications, no organizational group of people can exist.

The most critical components of communication are verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication is the transmission of information through spoken words and is necessary to convey information content. Non-verbal communication is a form of communication, including gestures, facial expressions, poses, eye contact, touch (Bambaeeroo, & Shokrpour, 2017). Verbal communication is the universal means of communication since when transmitting information using speech, the message’s meaning is least lost. As for non-verbal communication, the most popular non-verbal communication tools are gestures and facial expressions. Verbal communication is not always able to convey the emotional component of information, and this ability differs in different “sound” languages (Bambaeeroo & Shokrpour, 2017). Additional ways of non-verbal communication are poses, as well as touching. Such gestures can also tell much about person’s thoughts and attitude to what is happening.

Communication in itself is one of the main attributes of human activity. All means are essential: both verbal communication and non-verbal communication. Each means expresses its “share” of information, and the ability to read different “codes” helps assess the situation as a whole. Extra-verbal communication, in particular, becomes necessary when verbal mutual understanding is impossible. For example, if the interlocutors speak different languages or one of them is deaf and dumb. It is noted that a person perceives the most significant part of the information through non-verbal communication, and the least – with the help of spoken speech.

The factor of understanding plays an essential role in the conditions of interpersonal communication. In psychology, understanding is considered, first of all, as the ability to comprehend the meaning or meaning of something and a result achieved due to this. Barriers to misunderstanding arose when the information that the communicator was trying to convey was misunderstood for some reason. Misunderstanding can be caused by too quiet or too fast speech, cultural characteristics, features of a particular language. Misunderstanding can also be caused by the emotional experiences of the communication participants when one takes out negative emotions on the other. Thus, the developed skills of verbal and non-verbal communication play a huge role in a person’s life. Effective and pleasant communication is possible only if there is understanding and respect of the interlocutor.

Bambaeeroo, F., & Shokrpour, N. (2017). The impact of the teachers’ non-verbal communication on success in teaching. Journal of Advances in Medical Education & Professionalism , 5 (2), 51.

Flanagin, A. J. (2017). Online social influence and the convergence of mass and interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research , 43 (4), 450-463. Web.

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• Published: 23 September 2023

Educational interventions targeting pregnant women to optimise the use of caesarean section: What are the essential elements? A qualitative comparative analysis

• Rana Islamiah Zahroh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7831-2336 1 ,
• Katy Sutcliffe   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5469-8649 2 ,
• Dylan Kneale   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7016-978X 2 ,
• Martha Vazquez Corona   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2061-9540 1 ,
• Ana Pilar Betrán   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5631-5883 3 ,
• Newton Opiyo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2709-3609 3 ,
• Caroline S. E. Homer   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7454-3011 4 &
• Meghan A. Bohren   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4179-4682 1  

BMC Public Health volume  23 , Article number:  1851 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Caesarean section (CS) rates are increasing globally, posing risks to women and babies. To reduce CS, educational interventions targeting pregnant women have been implemented globally, however, their effectiveness is varied. To optimise benefits of these interventions, it is important to understand which intervention components influence success. In this study, we aimed to identify essential intervention components that lead to successful implementation of interventions focusing on pregnant women to optimise CS use.

We re-analysed existing systematic reviews that were used to develop and update WHO guidelines on non-clinical interventions to optimise CS. To identify if certain combinations of intervention components (e.g., how the intervention was delivered, and contextual characteristics) are associated with successful implementation, we conducted a Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA). We defined successful interventions as interventions that were able to reduce CS rates. We included 36 papers, comprising 17 CS intervention studies and an additional 19 sibling studies (e.g., secondary analyses, process evaluations) reporting on these interventions to identify intervention components. We conducted QCA in six stages: 1) Identifying conditions and calibrating the data; 2) Constructing truth tables, 3) Checking quality of truth tables; 4) Identifying parsimonious configurations through Boolean minimization; 5) Checking quality of the solution; 6) Interpretation of solutions. We used existing published qualitative evidence synthesis to develop potential theories driving intervention success.

We found successful interventions were those that leveraged social or peer support through group-based intervention delivery, provided communication materials to women, encouraged emotional support by partner or family participation, and gave women opportunities to interact with health providers. Unsuccessful interventions were characterised by the absence of at least two of these components.

We identified four key essential intervention components which can lead to successful interventions targeting women to reduce CS. These four components are 1) group-based delivery, 2) provision of IEC materials, 3) partner or family member involvement, and 4) opportunity for women to interact with health providers. Maternal health services and hospitals aiming to better prepare women for vaginal birth and reduce CS can consider including the identified components to optimise health and well-being benefits for the woman and baby.

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Introduction

In recent years, caesarean section (CS) rates have increased globally [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. CS can be a life-saving procedure when vaginal birth is not possible; however, it comes with higher risks both in the short- and long-term for women and babies [ 1 , 5 ]. Women with CS have increased risks of surgical complications, complications in future pregnancies, subfertility, bowel obstruction, and chronic pain [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Similarly, babies born through CS have increased risks of hypoglycaemia, respiratory problems, allergies and altered immunity [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. At a population level, CS rates exceeding 15% are unlikely to reduce mortality rates [ 1 , 12 ]. Despite these risks, an analysis across 154 countries reported a global average CS rate of 21.1% in 2018, projected to increase to 28.5% by 2030 [ 3 ].

There are many reasons for the increasing CS rates, and these vary between and within countries. Increasingly, non-clinical factors across different societal dimensions and stakeholders (e.g. women and communities, health providers, and health systems) are contributing to this increase [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Women may prefer CS over vaginal birth due to fear of labour or vaginal birth, previous negative experience of childbirth, perceived increased risks of vaginal birth, beliefs about an auspicious or convenient day of birth, or beliefs that caesarean section is safer, quick, and painless compared to vaginal birth [ 13 , 14 , 15 ].

Interventions targeting pregnant women to reduce CS have been implemented globally. A Cochrane intervention review synthesized evidence from non-clinical interventions targeting pregnant women and family, providers, and health systems to reduce unnecessary CS, and identified 15 interventions targeting women [ 18 ]. Interventions targeting women primarily focused on improving women’s knowledge around birth, improving women’s ability to cope during labour, and decreasing women’s stress related to labour through childbirth education, and decision aids for women with previous CS [ 18 ]. These types of interventions aim to reduce the concerns of pregnant women and their partners around childbirth, and prepare them for vaginal birth.

The effectiveness of interventions targeting women in reducing CS is mixed [ 18 , 19 ]. Plausible explanations for this limited success include the multifactorial nature of the factors driving increases in CS, as well as the contextual characteristics of the interventions, which may include the study environment, participant characteristics, intensity of exposure to the intervention and method of implementation. Understanding which intervention components are essential influencers of the success of the interventions is conducive to optimising benefits. This study used a Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) approach to re-analyse evidence from existing systematic reviews to identify essential intervention components that lead to the successful implementation of non-clinical interventions focusing on pregnant women to optimise the use of CS. Updating and re-analysing existing systematic reviews using new analytical frameworks may help to explore the heterogeneity in effects and ascertain why some studies appear to be effective while others are not.

Data sources, case selection, and defining outcomes

Developing a logic model.

We developed a logic model to guide our understanding of different pathways and intervention components potentially leading to successful implementation (Additional file 1 ). The logic model was developed based on published qualitative evidence syntheses and systematic reviews [ 18 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. The logic model depicts the desired outcome of reduced CS rates in low-risk women (at the time of admission for birth, these women are typically represented by Robson groups 1–4 [ 25 ] and are women with term, cephalic, singleton pregnancies without a previous CS) and works backwards to understand what inputs and processes are needed to achieve the desired outcome. Our logic model shows multiple pathways to success and highlights the interactions between different levels of factors (women, providers, societal, health system) (Additional file 1 ). Based on the logic model, we have separated our QCA into two clusters of interventions: 1) interventions targeting women, and 2) interventions targeting health providers. The results of analysis on interventions targeting health providers have been published elsewhere [ 26 ]. The logic model was also used to inform the potential important components that influence success.

Identifying data sources and selecting cases

We re-analysed the systematic reviews which were used to inform the development and update of World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. In 2018, WHO issued global guidance on non-clinical interventions to reduce unnecessary CS, with interventions designed to target three different levels or stakeholders: women, health providers, and health systems [ 27 ]. As part of the guideline recommendations, a series of systematic reviews about CS interventions were conducted: 1) a Cochrane intervention review of effectiveness by Chen et al. (2018) [ 18 ] and 2) three qualitative evidence syntheses exploring key stakeholder perspectives and experiences of interventions focusing on women and communities, health professionals, and health organisations, facilities and systems by Kingdon et al. (2018) [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Later on, Opiyo and colleagues (2020) published a scoping review of financial and regulatory interventions to optimise the use of CS [ 23 ].

Therefore, the primary data sources of this QCA are the intervention studies included in Chen et al. (2018) [ 18 ] and Opiyo et al. (2020) [ 23 ]. We used these two systematic reviews as not only they are comprehensive, but they were also used to inform the WHO guidelines development. A single intervention study is referred to as a “case”. Eligible cases were intervention studies focusing on pregnant women and aimed to reduce or optimise the use of CS. No restrictions on study design were imposed in the QCA. Therefore, we also assessed the eligibility of intervention studies excluded from Chen et al. (2018) [ 18 ] and Opiyo et al. (2020) [ 23 ] due to ineligible study designs (such as cohort study, uncontrolled before and after study, interrupted time series with fewer than three data points), as these studies could potentially show other pathways to successful implementation. We complemented these intervention studies with additional intervention studies published since the last review updates in 2018 and 2020, to include intervention studies that are likely to meet the review inclusion criteria for future review updates. No further search was conducted as QCA is suitable for medium-N cases, approximately around 10–50 cases, and inclusion of more studies may threaten study rigour [ 28 ].

Once eligible studies were selected, we searched for their ‘sibling studies’. Sibling studies are studies linked to the included intervention studies, such as formative research or process evaluations which may have been published separately. Sibling studies can provide valuable additional information about study context, intervention components, and implementation outcomes (e.g. acceptability, fidelity, adherence, dosage), which may not be well described in a single article about intervention effectiveness. We searched for sibling studies using the following steps: 1) reference list search of the intervention studies included in Chen et al. (2018) [ 18 ] and Opiyo et al. (2020) [ 23 ], 2) reference list search of the qualitative studies included in Kingdon et al. (2018) reviews [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]; and 3) forward reference search of the intervention studies (through “Cited by” function) in Scopus and Web of Science. Sibling studies were included if they included any information on intervention components or implementation outcomes, regardless of the methodology used. One author conducted the study screening independently (RIZ), and 10% of the screening was double-checked by a second author (MAB). Disagreements during screening were discussed until consensus, and with the rest of the author team if needed.

Defining outcomes

We assessed all outcomes related to the mode of birth in the studies included in the Chen et al. (2018) [ 18 ] and Opiyo et al. (2020) [ 23 ] reviews. Based on the consistency of outcome reporting, we selected “overall CS rate” as the primary outcome of interest due to its presence across studies. We planned to rank the rate ratio across these studies to select the 10 most successful and unsuccessful intervention studies. However, due to heterogeneity in how CS outcomes were reported across studies (e.g. odds ratios, rate ratios, percentages across different intervention stages), the final categorisation of successful or unsuccessful interventions is based on whether the CS rate decreased, based on the precision of the confidence interval or p-value (successful, coded as 1), or CS rate increased or did not change (unsuccessful, coded as 0).

Assessing risk of bias in intervention studies

All intervention studies eligible for inclusion were assessed for risk of bias. All studies included in Chen et al. (2018) and Opiyo et al. (2020) already had risk of bias assessed and reported [ 18 , 23 ], and we used these assessments. Additional intervention studies outside the included studies on these reviews were assessed using the same tools depending on the type of evidence (two randomized controlled trials and one uncontrolled before and after study), and details of the risk of bias assessment results can be found in Additional file 2 . We excluded studies with a high risk of bias to ensure that the analysis was based on high-quality studies and to enhance the ability of researchers to develop deep case knowledge by limiting the overall number of studies.

Qualitative comparative analysis (QCA)

QCA was first developed and used in political sciences and has since been extended to systematic reviews of complex health interventions [ 24 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Despite the term “qualitative”, QCA is not a typical qualitative analysis, and is often conceptualised as a methodology that bridges qualitative and quantitative methodologies based on its process, data used and theoretical standpoint [ 24 ]. Here, QCA is used to identify if certain configurations or combinations of intervention components (e.g. participants, types of interventions, contextual characteristics, and intervention delivery) are associated with the desired outcome [ 31 ]. These intervention components are referred to as “conditions” in the QCA methodology. Whilst statistical synthesis methods may be used to examine intervention heterogeneity in systematic reviews, such as meta-regression, QCA is a particularly suitable method to understand complex interventions like those aiming to optimise CS, as it allows for multiple overlapping pathways to causality [ 31 ]. Moreover, QCA allows the exploration of different combinations of conditions, rather than relying on a single condition leading to intervention effectiveness [ 31 ]. Although meta-regression allows for the assessment of multiple conditions, a sufficient number of studies may not be available to conduct the analysis. In complex interventions, such as interventions aiming to optimise the use of CS, single condition or standard meta-analysis may be less likely to yield usable and nuanced information about what intervention components are more or less likely to yield success [ 31 ].

QCA uses ‘set theory’ to systematically compare characteristics of the cases (e.g. intervention in the case of systematic reviews) in relation to the outcomes [ 31 , 32 ]. This means QCA compares the characteristics of the successful ‘cases’ (e.g. interventions that are effective) to those unsuccessful ‘cases’ (e.g. interventions that are not effective). The comparison is conducted using a scoring system based on ‘set membership’ [ 31 , 32 ]. In this scoring, conditions and outcomes are coded based on the extent to which a certain feature is present or absent to form set membership scores [ 31 , 32 ]. There are two scoring systems in QCA: 1) crisp set QCA (csQCA) and 2) fuzzy set QCA (fsQCA). csQCA assigns binary scores of 0 (“fully out” to set membership for cases with certain conditions) and 1 (“fully in” to set membership for cases with certain conditions), while fsQCA assigns ordinal scoring of conditions and outcomes, permitting partial membership scores between 0 and 1 [ 31 , 32 ]. For example, using fsQCA we may assign a five-level scoring system (0, 0.33, 0.5, 0.67, 1), where 0.33 would indicate “more out” than “in” to the set of membership, and 0.67 would indicate “more in” than “out”, and 0.5 would indicate ambiguity (i.e. a lack of information about whether a case was “in” or “out”) [ 31 , 32 ]. In our analysis, we used the combination of both csQCA and fsQCA to calibrate our data. This approach was necessary because some conditions were better suited to binary options using csQCA, while others were more complex, depending on the distribution of cases, and required fsQCA to capture the necessary information. In our final analysis, however, the conditions run on the final analysis were all using the csQCA scoring system.

Two relationships can be investigated using QCA [ 24 , 31 ]. First, if all instances of successful interventions share the same condition(s), this suggests these features are ‘necessary’ to trigger successful outcomes [ 24 , 31 ]. Second, if all instances of a particular condition are associated with successful interventions, this suggests these conditions are ‘sufficient’ for triggering successful outcomes [ 24 , 31 ]. In this QCA, we were interested to explore the relationship of sufficiency: that is, to assess the various combinations of intervention components that can trigger successful outcomes. We were interested in sufficiency because our logic model (explained further below) highlighted the multiple pathways that can lead to a CS and different interventions that may optimise the use of CS along those pathways, which suggested that it would be unlikely for all successful interventions to share the same conditions. We calculated the degree of sufficiency using consistency measures, which evaluate the frequency in which conditions are present when the desired outcome is achieved [ 31 , 32 ]. The conditions with a consistency score of at least 0.8 were considered sufficient in triggering successful interventions [ 31 , 32 ]. At present, there is no tool available for reporting guidelines in the re-analysis of systematic reviews using QCA, however, CARU-QCA is currently being developed for this purpose [ 33 ]. QCA was conducted using R programming software with a package developed by Thiem & Duşa (2013) and QCA with R guidebook [ 32 ]. QCA was conducted in six stages based on Thomas et al. (2014) [ 31 ] and explained below.

QCA stage 1: Identifying conditions, building data tables and calibration

We used a deductive and inductive process to determine the potential conditions (intervention components) that may trigger successful implementation. Conditions were first derived deductively using the developed logic model (Additional file 1 ). We then added additional conditions inductively using Intervention Component Analysis from the intervention studies [ 34 ], and qualitative evidence (“view”) synthesis [ 22 ] using Melendez-Torres’s (2018) approach [ 35 ]. Intervention Component Analysis is a methodological approach that examines factors affecting implementation through reflections from the trialist, which is typically presented in the discussion section of a published trial [ 34 ]. Examples of conditions identified in the Intervention Component Analysis include using an individualised approach, interaction with health providers, policies that encourage CS and acknowledgement of women’s previous birth experiences. After consolidating or merging similar conditions, a total of 52 conditions were selected and extracted from each included intervention and analysed in this QCA (Details of conditions and definitions generated for this study can be found in Additional files 3 and 4 ). We adapted the coding framework from Harris et al. (2019) [ 24 ] by adapting coding rules and six domains that were used, to organize the 52 conditions and make more sense of the data. These six domains are broadly classified as 1) context and participants, 2) intervention design, 3) program content, 4) method of engagement, 5) health system factors, and 6) process outcomes.

One author (RIZ) extracted data relevant to the conditions for each included study into a data table, which was then double-reviewed by two other authors (MVC, MAB). The data table is a matrix in which each case is represented in a row, and columns are used to represent the conditions. Following data extraction, calibration rules using either csQCA or fsQCA (e.g. group-based intervention delivery condition: yes = 1 (present), no = 0 (absent)) were developed through consultation with all authors. We developed a table listing the conditions and rules of coding the conditions, by either direct or transformational assignment of quantitative and qualitative data [ 24 , 32 ] (Additional file 3 depicts the calibration rules). The data tables were then calibrated by applying scores, to explore the extent to which interventions have ‘set membership’ with the outcome or conditions of interest. During this iterative process, the calibration criteria were explicitly defined, emerging from the literature and the cases themselves. It is important to note, that maximum ambiguity is typically scored as 0.5 in QCA, however, we decided it would be more appropriate to assume that if a condition was not reported it was unlikely to be a feature of the intervention, so we treated not reported as “absence” that is we coded it 0.

QCA stage 2: Constructing truth tables

Truth tables are an analytical tool used in QCA to analyse associations between configurations of conditions and outcomes. Whereas the data table represents individual cases (rows) and individual conditions (columns) – the truth table synthesises this data to examine configurations – with each row representing a different configuration of the conditions. The columns indicate a) which conditions are featured in the configuration in that row, b) how many of the cases are represented by that configuration, and c) their association with the outcome.

We first constructed the truth tables based on context and participants, intervention designs, program content, and method of engagement; however, no configurations to trigger successful interventions were observed. Instead, we observed limited diversity, meaning there were many instances in which the configurations were unsupported by cases, likely due to the presence of too many conditions in the truth tables. We used the learning from these truth tables to return to the literature to explore potential explanatory theories about what conditions are important from the perspectives of participants and trialists to trigger successful interventions (adhering to the ‘utilisation of view’ perspective [ 35 ]). Through this process, we found that women and communities liked to learn new information about childbirth, and desired emotional support from partners and health providers while learning [ 22 ]. They also appreciated educational interventions that provide opportunities for discussion and dialogue with health providers and align with current clinical practice and advice from health providers [ 22 ]. Therefore, three models of truth tables were iteratively constructed and developed based on three important hypothesised theories about how the interventions should be delivered: 1) how birth information was provided to women, 2) emotional support was provided to women (including interactions between women and providers), and 3) a consolidated model examining the interactions of important conditions identified from model 1 and 2. We also conducted a sub-analysis of interventions targeting both women and health providers or systems (‘multi-target interventions’). This sub-analysis was conducted to explore if similar conditions were observed in triggering successful interventions in multi-target interventions, among the components for women only. Table 1 presents the list of truth tables that were iteratively constructed and refined.

QCA stage 3: Checking quality of truth tables

We iteratively developed and improved the quality of truth tables by checking the configurations of successful and unsuccessful interventions, as recommended by Thomas et al. (2014) [ 31 ]. This includes by assessing the number of studies clustering to each configuration, and exploring the presence of any contradictory results between successful and unsuccessful interventions. We found contradictory configurations across the five truth tables, which were resolved by considering the theoretical perspectives and iteratively refining the truth tables.

QCA stage 4: Identifying parsimonious configurations through Boolean minimization

Once we determined that the truth tables were suitable for further analysis, we used Boolean minimisation to explore pathways resulting in successful intervention through the configurations of different conditions [ 31 ]. We simplified the “complex solution” of the pathways to a “parsimonious solution” and an “intermediate solution” by incorporating logical remainders (configurations where no cases were observed) [ 36 ].

QCA stage 5: Checking the quality of the solution

We presented the intermediate solution as the final solution instead of the most parsimonious solution, as it is most closely aligned with the underlying theory. We checked consistency and coverage scores to assess if the pathways identified were sufficient to trigger success. We also checked the intermediate solution by negating the outcome to see if it predicts the observed solutions.

QCA stage 6: Interpretation of solutions

We iteratively interpreted the results of the findings through discussions among the QCA team. This reflexive approach ensured that the results of the analysis considered the perspectives from the literature discourse, methodological approach, and that the results were coherent with the current understanding of the phenomenon.

Overview of included studies

Out of 79 intervention studies assessed by Chen et al. (2018) [ 18 ] and Opiyo et al. (2020) [ 23 ], 17 intervention studies targeted women and are included, comprising 11 interventions targeting only women [ 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ] and six interventions targeting both women and health providers or systems [ 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ]. From 17 included studies, 19 sibling studies were identified [ 43 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ]. Thus, a total of 36 papers from 17 intervention studies are included in this QCA (See Fig.  1 : PRISMA Flowchart).

PRISMA flowchart. *Sibling studies: studies that were conducted in the same settings, participants, and timeframe; **Intervention components: information on intervention input, activities, and outputs, including intervention context and other characteristics

The 11 interventions targeting women comprised of five successful interventions [ 37 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 ] and six unsuccessful interventions [ 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ] in reducing CS. Sixteen sibling studies were identified, from five out of 11 included interventions [ 37 , 41 , 43 , 70 , 71 ]. Included studies were conducted in six countries across North America (2 from Canada [ 38 ] and 1 from United States of America [ 71 ]), Asia–Pacific (1 from Australia [ 41 ]), 5 from Iran [ 39 , 40 , 68 , 69 , 70 ]), Europe (2 from Finland [ 37 , 42 ], 1 from United Kingdom [ 43 ]). Six studies were conducted in high-income countries, while five studies were conducted in upper-middle-income countries (all from Iran). All 11 studies targeted women, with three studies also explicitly targeting women’s partners [ 68 , 69 , 71 ]. One study delivering psychoeducation allowed women to bring any family members to accompany them during the intervention but did not specifically target partners [ 37 ]. All 11 studies delivered childbirth education, with four delivering general antenatal education [ 38 , 40 , 68 , 69 ], six delivering psychoeducation [ 37 , 39 , 41 , 42 , 70 , 71 ], and one implementing decision aids [ 43 ]. All studies were included in Chen et al. (2018), and some risks of bias were identified [ 18 ] (Additional file 2).

The multi-target interventions consisted of five successful interventions [ 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ] and one unsuccessful intervention [ 49 ]. Sibling studies were only identified from one study [ 48 ]. The interventions were delivered in five countries across: South America (1 from Brazil [ 46 ]), Asia–Pacific (4 from China [ 44 , 45 , 47 , 49 ]), Europe (1 from Italy [ 48 ], 1 from Ireland [ 48 ], and 1 from Germany [ 48 ]). Three studies were conducted in high-income countries and five studies in upper middle-income countries. The multi-target interventions targeted women, health providers and health organisations. For this analysis, however, we only consider the components of the intervention that targeted women, which was typically childbirth education. One study came from Chen et al. (2018) [ 18 ] and was graded as having some concerns [ 47 ], two studies from Opiyo et al. (2020) [ 23 ] were graded as having no serious concerns [ 45 , 46 ], and three studies are newly published studies assessed as low [ 44 ] and some concerns about risk of bias [ 48 , 49 ] Table 2 and 3 show characteristics of included studies.

The childbirth education interventions included information about mode of birth, birth process, mental health and coping strategies, pain relief methods, and partners’ roles in birth. Most interventions were delivered in group settings, and only in three studies they were delivered on a one-to-one basis [ 38 , 41 , 42 ]. Only one study explicitly stated that the intervention was individualised to a woman’s unique needs and experiences [ 38 ].

Overall, there was limited theory used to design interventions among the included studies: less than half of interventions (7/17) explicitly used theory in designing the intervention. Among the seven interventions that used theory in intervention development, the theories included the health promotion-disease prevention framework [ 38 ], midwifery counselling framework [ 41 ], cognitive behavioural therapy [ 42 ], Ost’s applied relaxation [ 70 ], conceptual model of parenting [ 71 ], attachment and social cognitive theories [ 37 ], and healthcare improvement scale-up framework [ 46 ]. The remaining 10 studies only relied on previously published studies to design the interventions. We identified very limited process evaluation or implementation outcome evidence related to the included interventions, which is a limitation of the field of CS and clinical interventions more broadly.

• Qualitative comparative analysis

Model 1 – How birth information was provided to women

Model 1 is constructed based on the finding from Kingdon et al. (2018) [ 22 ] that women and communities enjoy learning new birth information, as it opens up new ways of thinking about vaginal birth and CS. Learning new information allows them to understand better the benefits and risks of CS and vaginal births, as well as increase their knowledge about CS [ 22 ].

We used four conditions in constructing model 1 truth table: 1) the provision of information, education, and communication (IEC) materials on what to expect during labour and birth, 2) type of education delivered (antenatal education or psychoeducation), and 3) group-based intervention delivery. We explored this model considering other conditions, such as type of information provided (e.g. information about mode of birth including birth process, mental health and coping strategies, pain relief), delivery technique (e.g. didactic, practical) and frequency and duration of intervention delivery; however these additional conditions did not result in configurations.

Of 16 possible configurations, we identified seven configurations (Table 4 ). The first two row shows perfect consistency of configurations (inclusion = 1) in five studies [ 37 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 ] in which all conditions are present, except antenatal education or psychoeducation. The remaining configurations are unsuccessful interventions. Interestingly, when either IEC materials or group-based intervention delivery are present (but not both), implementation is likely to be unsuccessful (rows 3–7).

Boolean minimisation identified two intermediate pathways to successful interventions (Fig.  2 ). The two pathways are similar, except for one condition: type of education. The antenatal education or psychoeducation materials is the content tailored to the type of women they target. Therefore, from the two pathways, we can see that the presence of distribution of IEC materials on birth information and group-based intervention delivery of either antenatal education to the general population of women (e.g. not groups of women with specific risks or conditions) or psychoeducation to women with fear of birth trigger successful interventions. From this solution, we can see that the successful interventions are consistently characterised by the presence of both IEC materials and group-based intervention delivery.

Intermediate pathways from model 1 that trigger successful interventions targeting pregnant women to optimise CS. In QCA, asterisk (*) denotes an ‘AND’ relationship; Inclusion score (InclS), also known as consistency, indicates the degree to which the evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that there is sufficient relation between the configuration and the outcome; Proportional Reduction in Inconsistency (PRI) refers to the extent in which a configuration is sufficient in triggering successful outcome as well as the negation of the outcome; Coverage score (CovS) refers to percentage of cases in which the configuration is valid

Model 2 – Emotional support was provided to women

Model 2 was constructed based on the theory that women desire emotional support alongside the communication of information about childbirth [ 22 ]. This includes emotional support from husbands or partners, health professional, or doulas [ 22 ]. Furthermore, Kingdon et al. (2018) describe the importance of two-way conversation and dialogue between women and providers during pregnancy care, particularly to ensure the opportunity for discussion [ 22 ]. Interventions may generate more questions than they answered, creating the need and desire of women to have more dialogue with health professionals [ 22 ]. Women considered intervention content to be most useful when it complements clinical care, is consistent with advice from health professionals and provides a basis for more informed, meaningful dialogue between women and care providers [ 22 ].

Based on this underlying theory, we constructed model 3 truth table by considering three conditions representative of providing emotional support to women, including partner or family member involvement, group-based intervention delivery which provide social or peer support to women, and opportunity for women to interact with health providers. Of 8 possible configurations, we identified six configurations (Table 5 ). The first three rows represent successful interventions with perfect consistency (inclusion = 1). The first row shows successful interventions with all conditions present. The second and third row shows successful interventions with all conditions except partner or family member involvement or interaction with health providers. The remaining rows represent unsuccessful interventions, where at least two conditions are absent.

Boolean minimisation identified two intermediate pathways to successful interventions (Fig.  3 ). In the first pathway, the partner or family members involvement and group-based intervention delivery enable successful interventions. In the second pathway, however, when partner or family members are not involved, successful interventions can happen only when interaction with health providers is included alongside group-based intervention. From these two pathways, we can see that group-based intervention, involvement of partner and family member, and opportunity for women to interact with providers seem to be important in driving intervention success.

Intermediate pathways from model 2 that trigger successful interventions targeting pregnant women to optimise CS. In QCA, asterisk (*) denotes an ‘AND’ relationship; Inclusion score (InclS), also known as consistency, indicates the degree to which the evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that there is sufficient relation between the configuration and the outcome; Proportional Reduction in Inconsistency (PRI) refers to the extent in which a configuration is sufficient in triggering successful outcome as well as the negation of the outcome; Coverage score (CovS) refers to percentage of cases in which the configuration is valid

Consolidated model – Essential conditions to prompt successful interventions focusing on women

Using the identified important conditions observed in models 1 and 2, we constructed a consolidated model to examine the final essential conditions which could prompt successful educational interventions targeting women. We merged and tested four conditions: the provision of IEC materials on what to expect during labour and birth, group-based intervention delivery, partner or family member involvement, and opportunity for interaction between women and health providers.

Of the 16 possible configurations, we identified six configurations (Table 6 ). The first three rows show configurations resulting in successful interventions with perfect consistency (inclusion = 1). The first row shows successful interventions with all conditions present; the second and third rows show successful interventions with all conditions present except interaction with health providers or partner or family member involvement. The remaining three rows are configurations of unsuccessful interventions, missing at least two conditions, including the consistent absence of partner or family member involvement.

Boolean minimisation identified two intermediate pathways to successful intervention (Fig.  4 ). The first pathway shows that the opportunity for women to interact with health providers, provision of IEC materials, and group-based intervention delivery prompts successful interventions. The second pathway, however, shows that when there is no opportunity for women to interact with health providers, it is important to have partner or family member involvement alongside group-based intervention delivery and provision of IEC materials. These two pathways suggest that the delivery of educational interventions accompanied by provision of IEC materials and presence of emotional support for women during the intervention is important to trigger successful interventions. These pathways also emphasise that emotional support for women during the intervention can come from either partner, family member, or health provider. For the consolidated model, we did not simplify the solution further, as the intermediate solution is more theoretically sound compared to the most parsimonious solution.

Intermediate pathways from consolidated model that trigger successful interventions targeting pregnant women to optimise CS.  In QCA, asterisk (*) denotes an ‘AND’ relationship; Inclusion score (InclS), also known as consistency, indicates the degree to which the evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that there is sufficient relation between the configuration and the outcome; Proportional Reduction in Inconsistency (PRI) refers to the extent in which a configuration is sufficient in triggering successful outcome as well as the negation of the outcome; Coverage score (CovS) refers to percentage of cases in which the configuration is valid.

Sub-analysis – Interventions targeting both women and health providers or systems

In this sub-analysis, we run the important conditions identified from the consolidated model, added condition of multi-target intervention, and applied it to 17 interventions: 11 interventions targeting women, and six interventions targeting both women and health providers or systems (multi-target interventions).

Of 32 possible configurations, we identified eight configurations (Table 7 ). The first four rows show configurations with successful interventions with perfect consistency (inclusion = 1). The first row is where all the multi-target interventions are clustered, except the unsuccessful intervention Zhang (2020) [ 49 ], and where all the conditions are present. All the conditions in the second to fourth rows are present, except multi-target interventions (all rows), interaction with health providers (third row) and partner and family member involvement (fourth row). The remaining rows are all configurations to unsuccessful interventions, where at least three conditions are missing, except row 8, which is a single case row. This case is the only multi-target intervention that is unsuccessful and in which partner or family members were not involved.

The Boolean minimisation identified two intermediate pathways (Fig.  5 ). The first pathway shows that partner or family involvement, provision of IEC materials, and group-based intervention delivery prompt successful interventions. The first pathway is comprised of all five successful multi-target interventions [ 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ] and four of 11 interventions targeting only women [ 37 , 68 , 69 , 71 ]. The second pathway shows that when multi-target interventions are absent, but when interaction with health providers is present, alongside provision of IEC materials and group-based intervention delivery, it prompts successful interventions (3/11 interventions targeting women only [ 37 , 69 , 70 ]). The first pathway shows that there are successful configurations with and without multi-target interventions. Therefore, similar to the interventions targeting women, when implementing multi-target interventions, intervention components targeting women are more likely to be successful when partners or family members are involved, interventions are implemented through group-based intervention delivery, IEC materials were provided, and there is an opportunity for women to interact with health providers.

Intermediate pathways from multi-target interventions sub-analysis that trigger successful interventions targeting pregnant women to optimise CS. In QCA, asterisk (*) denotes an ‘AND’ relationship; Inclusion score (InclS), also known as consistency, indicates the degree to which the evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that there is sufficient relation between the configuration and the outcome; Proportional Reduction in Inconsistency (PRI) refers to the extent in which a configuration is sufficient in triggering successful outcome as well as the negation of the outcome; Coverage score (CovS) refers to percentage of cases in which the configuration is valid

To summarise, there are four essential intervention components which trigger successful educational interventions focusing on pregnant women to reduce CS, this includes 1) group-based intervention delivery, 2) provision of IEC materials on what to expect during labour and birth, 3) partner or family member involvement on the intervention, and 4) opportunity for women to interact with health providers. These conditions do not work in siloed or independently but instead work jointly as parts of configurations to enable successful interventions.

Our extensive QCA identified configurations of essential intervention components which are sufficient to trigger successful interventions to optimised CS. Educational interventions focusing on women were successful by: 1) leveraging social or peer support through group-based intervention delivery, 2) improving women’s knowledge and awareness of what to expect during labour and birth, 3) ensuring women have emotional support through partner or family participation in the intervention, and 4) providing opportunities for women to interact with health providers. We found that the absence of two or more of the above characteristics in an intervention result in unsuccessful interventions. Unlike our logic model, which predicted engagement strategies (i.e. intensity, frequency, technique, recruitment, incentives) to be essential to intervention success, we found that “support” seems to be central in maximising benefits of interventions targeting women.

Group-based intervention delivery is present across all four truth tables and eight pathways leading to successful intervention implementation, suggesting that group-based intervention delivery is an essential component of interventions targeting women. Despite this, we cannot conclude that group-based intervention delivery is a necessary condition, as there may be other pathways not captured in this QCA. The importance of group-based intervention delivery may be due to the group setting providing women with a sense of confidence through peer support and engagement. In group-based interventions, women may feel more confident when learning with others and peer support may motivate women. Furthermore, all group-based interventions in our included studies are conducted at health facilities, which may provide women with more confidence that information is aligned with clinical recommendations. Evidence on benefits of group-based interventions involving women who are pregnant has been demonstrated previously [ 72 , 73 ]. Women reported that group-based interventions reduce their feelings of isolation, provide access to group support, and allow opportunities for them to share their experiences [ 72 , 74 , 75 , 76 ]. This is aligned with social support theory, in which social support through a group or social environment may provide women with feelings of reassurance, compassion, reduce feelings of uncertainty, increase sense of control, access to new contacts to solve problems, and provision of instrumental support, which eventually influence positive health behaviours [ 72 , 77 ]. Women may resolve their uncertainties around mode of birth by sharing their concerns with others and learning at the same time how others cope with it. These findings are consistent with the benefits associated with group-based antenatal care, which is recommended by WHO [ 78 , 79 ].

Kingdon et al. (2018) reported that women and communities liked learning new birth information, as it opens new ways of thinking about vaginal birth and CS, and educates about benefits of different modes of birth, including risks of CS. Our QCA is aligned with this finding where provision of information about birth through education delivery leads to successful interventions but with certain caveats. That is, provision of birth information should be accompanied by IEC materials and through group-based intervention delivery. There is not enough information to distinguish what type of IEC materials lead to successful intervention; however, it is important to note that the format of the IEC materials (such as paper-based or mobile application) may affect success. More work is needed to understand how women and families react to format of IEC materials; for example, will paper-based IEC materials be relegated over more modern methods of reaching women with information through digital applications? The QUALI-DEC (Quality decision-making (QUALI-DEC) by women and healthcare providers for appropriate use of caesarean section) study is currently implementing a decision-analysis tool to help women make an informed decision on preferred mode of birth using both a paper-based and mobile application that may shed some light on this [ 80 ].

Previous research has shown that women who participated in interventions aiming to reduce CS desired emotional support (from partners, doulas or health providers) alongside the communication about childbirth [ 22 ]. Our QCA is aligned with this finding in which emotional support from partners or family members is highly influential in leading to successful interventions. Partner involvement in maternity care has been extensively studied and has been demonstrated to improve maternal health care utilisation and outcomes [ 81 ]. Both women and their partners perceived that partner involvement is crucial as it facilitates men to learn directly from providers, thus promoting shared decision-making among women and partners and enabling partners to reinforce adherence to any beneficial suggestions [ 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 ]. Partners provide psychosocial support to women, for example through being present during pregnancy and the childbirth process, as well as instrumental support, which includes supporting women financially [ 82 , 83 , 84 ]. Despite the benefits of partner involvement, partner's participation in maternity care is still low [ 82 ], as reflected in this study where only four out of 11 included interventions on this study involved partner or family member involvement. Reasons for this low participation, which include unequal gender norms and limited health system capability [ 82 , 84 , 85 , 86 ], should be explored and addressed to ensure the benefits of the interventions.

Furthermore, our QCA demonstrates the importance of interaction with health providers to trigger successful interventions. The interaction of women with providers in CS decision-making, however, is on a “nexus of power, trust, and risk”, where it may be beneficial but can also reinforce the structural oppression of women [ 13 ]. A recent study on patient-provider interaction in CS decision-making concluded that the interaction between providers who are risk-averse, and women who are cautious about their pregnancies in the health system results in discouragement of vaginal births [ 87 ]. However, this decision could be averted by meaningful communication between women and providers where CS risks and benefits are communicated in an environment where vaginal birth is encouraged [ 87 ]. Furthermore, the reasons women desire interaction with providers can come from opposite directions. Some women see providers as the most trusted and knowledgeable source, in which women can trust the judgement and ensure that the information learned is reliable and evidenced-based [ 22 ]. On the other hand, some women may have scepticism towards providers where women understand that providers’ preference may negatively influence their preferred mode of birth [ 22 ]. Therefore, adequate, two-way interaction is important for women to build a good rapport with providers.

It is also important to note that we have limited evidence (3/17 intervention studies) involving women with previous CS. Vaginal birth after previous CS (VBAC) can be a safe and positive experience for some women, but there are also potential risks depending on their obstetric history [ 88 , 89 , 90 ]. Davis (2020) found that women were motivated to have VBAC due to negative experiences of CS, such as the difficult recovery, and that health providers' roles served as pivotal drivers in motivating women towards VBAC [ 91 ]. Other than this, VBAC also requires giving birth in a suitably staffed and equipped maternity unit, with staff trained on VBAC, equipment for labour monitoring, and resources for emergency CS if needed [ 89 , 90 ]. There is comparatively less research conducted on VBAC and trial of labour after CS [ 88 ]. Therefore, more work is needed to explore if there are potentially different pathways that lead to successful intervention implementation for women with previous CS. It may be more likely that interventions targeting various stakeholders are more crucial in this group of women. For example, both education for women and partners or families, as well as training to upskill health providers might be needed to support VBAC.

Strength and limitations

We found many included studies had poor reporting of the interventions, including the general intervention components (e.g. presence of policies that may support interventions) and process evaluation components, which is reflective of the historical approach to reporting trial data. This poor reporting means we could not engage further in the interventions and thus may have missed important conditions that were not reported. However, we have attempted to compensate for limited process evaluation components by identifying all relevant sibling studies that could contribute to a better understanding of context. Furthermore, there are no studies conducted in low-income countries, despite rapidly increasing CS rates in these settings. Lastly, we were not able to conduct more nuanced analyses about CS, such as exploring how CS interventions impacted changes to emergency versus elective CS, VBAC, or instrumental birth, due to an insufficient number of studies and heterogeneity in outcome measurements. Therefore, it is important to note that we are not necessarily measuring the optimal outcome of interest—reducing unnecessary CS. However, it is unlikely that these non-clinical interventions will interfere with a decision of CS based on clinical indications.

Despite these limitations, this is the first study aiming to understand how certain interventions can be successful in targeting women to optimise CS use. We used the QCA approach and new analytical frameworks to re-analyse existing systematic review evidence to generate new knowledge. We ensure robustness through the use of a logic model and worked backwards in understanding what aspects are different in the intervention across different outcomes. The use of QCA and qualitative evidence synthesis ensured that the results are theory-driven, incorporate participants’ perspectives into the analysis, and explored iteratively to find the appropriate configurations, reducing the risk of data fishing. Lastly, this QCA extends the understanding of effectiveness review conducted by Chen et al. (2018) [ 18 ] by explaining the potential intervention components which may influence heterogeneity.

Implications for practice and research

To aid researchers and health providers to reduce CS in their contexts and designing educational interventions targeting women during pregnancy, we have developed a checklist of key components or questions to consider when designing the interventions that may help lead to successful implementation:

Is the intervention delivered in a group setting?

Are IEC materials on what to expect during labour and birth disseminated to women?

Are women’s partners or families involved in the intervention?

Do women have opportunities to interact with health providers?

We have used this checklist to explore the extent to which the included interventions in our QCA include these components using a matrix model (Fig.  6 ).

Matrix model assessing the extent to which the included intervention studies have essential intervention components identified in the QCA

Additionally, future research on interventions to optimise the use of CS should report the intervention components implemented, including process outcomes such as fidelity, attrition, contextual factors (e.g. policies, details of how the intervention is delivered), and stakeholder factors (e.g. women’s perceptions and satisfaction). These factors are important in not just evaluating whether the intervention is successful or not, but also in exploring why similar interventions can work in one but not in another context. There is also a need for more intervention studies implementing VBAC to reduce CS, to understand how involving women with previous CS may result in successful interventions. Furthermore, more studies understanding impact of the interventions targeting women in LMICs are needed.

This QCA illustrates crucial intervention components and potential pathways that can trigger successful educational interventions to optimise CS, focusing on pregnant women. The following intervention components are found to be sufficient in triggering successful outcomes: 1) group-based delivery, 2) provision of IEC materials, 3) partner or family member involvement, and 4) opportunity for women to interact with health providers. These intervention components do not work in siloed or independently but instead work jointly as parts of configurations to enable successful interventions. Researchers, trialists, hospitals, or other institutions and stakeholders planning interventions focusing on pregnant women can consider including these components to ensure benefits. More studies understanding impact of the interventions targeting women to optimise CS are needed from LMICs. Researchers should clearly describe and report intervention components in trials, and consider how process evaluations can help explain why trials were successful or not. More robust trial reporting and process evaluations can help to better understand mechanisms of action and why interventions may work in one context yet not another.

Availability of data and materials

Additional information files have been provided and more data may be provided upon request to [email protected].

Abbreviations

Coverage score

• Caesarean section

Crisp set qualitative comparative analysis

Fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis

Information, education, and communication

Inclusion score

Low- and middle-income countries

Proportional reduction in inconsistency

Quality decision-making by women and healthcare providers for appropriate use of caesarean section

Vaginal birth after previous caesarean section

World Health Organization

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Acknowledgements

We extend our thanks to Jim Berryman (Brownless Medical Library, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne) for his help in refining the search strategy for sibling studies.

This research was made possible with the support of UNDP/UNFPA/UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), a co-sponsored programme executed by the World Health Organization (WHO). RIZ is supported by Melbourne Research Scholarship and Human Rights Scholarship from The University of Melbourne. CSEH is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Principal Research Fellowship. MAB’s time is supported by an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DE200100264) and a Dame Kate Campbell Fellowship (University of Melbourne Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry, and Health Sciences). The funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The contents of this publication are the responsibility of the authors and do not reflect the views of the UNDP/UNFPA/UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), World Health Organization.

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- Conceptualisation and study design: MAB, APB, RIZ

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Correspondence to Rana Islamiah Zahroh .

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1..

Logic model in optimizing CS use.

Additional file 2.

Risk of bias assessments.

Additional file 3.

Coding framework and calibration rules.

Additional file 4.

Coding framework as applied to each intervention (data table).

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Zahroh, R.I., Sutcliffe, K., Kneale, D. et al. Educational interventions targeting pregnant women to optimise the use of caesarean section: What are the essential elements? A qualitative comparative analysis. BMC Public Health 23 , 1851 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16718-0

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16718-0

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