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does your paper have a clear ‘take home message’?

OK, so ‘take-home-message’ is a pretty hackneyed phrase. However, in the case of writing journal articles (and thesis chapters) it’s pretty apt. It’s a handy way of thinking about – and really focusing on – what it is you want people to remember most after they’ve finished reading your 7-10,000 words.

“Find the ‘take-home message’” was one of the few things that my own PhD supervisor said to me about writing my Big Book. (And it was a very Big Book indeed, but we won’t go there.) Almost in passing he suggested that I finish every chapter with the key point that I wanted the reader to take into the next chapter, the one thing I really, really wanted them to remember.

Journal editors say much the same thing about papers. They say, “Don’t try to deal with more than one idea in a paper, and always make sure that you make the point, and make it clearly.” They always talk about getting loads of papers that try to do too much, leaving the reader wondering what the point was, or which of the many points they are supposed to take most seriously.

I use the idea of the ‘take home message’ when I’m doing writing workshops. I generally ask people to write the point they want to make in a way that they actually won’t say in the final text. “Be blunt” I say. “Imagine you are on a soapbox telling a particular obtuse listener the message you want them to understand.”

Workshop participants are often a bit horrified when asked to make their point in plain and un-mistakeable terms. They are used to reading things which are abstracted or phrased tangentially. Or perhaps they are just worried about the reader’s reactions when they come out and say what they are really thinking. Or maybe they think it is unscholarly to think in an unequivocal way. Or they don’t know what they think. Whatever the reason, it can be scary to get the point into plain language.

‘Change wont happen if you (politicians and media) keep beating (name of profession) up and saying they are hopeless.’ ‘It’s about time you looked at the evidence and stopped making ( name of area) policy on the fly, isnt’ it?’ ‘This is a really interesting area for more and important research such as ( name possible projects) to be done, and it’s got my name on it.’ ‘Why don’t you listen to what these people (name of group) are saying rather than deciding what’s good for them?’ ‘This is not an either/or situation. We have to think much more carefully about this (name problem) or we will continue to be stuck in this unproductive place’

Most of the workshop participants I encounter are eventually prepared to give the ‘take home message’ a go – even if just to shut me up. It probably helps that I also promise them it won’t stay like that.

After taking a strong stand via getting the point sorted, the next talk and task for workshop participants is always about how to make a convincing case for the ‘take home message’. How does the paper need to start so that everyone understands and signs up for the issue/problem? What line of ‘evidence’ and argument need to be made so that the reader follows along to the inevitable conclusion?

It is only after working through all this, it is then and only then can the participants go about rephrasing the blunt message so that it is more acceptable in polite journal company. Nevertheless, it must still be quite comprehensible. The writer must do as much as possible to make sure that the reader finishes their paper knowing what they are meant to take away from it.

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10 responses to does your paper have a clear ‘take home message’.

Such a great exercise–I am going to try this with my senior undergraduate students. Thanks for the suggestion!

This also applies to your PhD writeup! …there should be a punch line message

Great advice Pat. Writing is hard enough without trying to complicate your message.

I have a question though. If you look at your research and you feel that there are multiple messages, what processes do you go through to simplify? Would you split up into separate papers or try and find a meta-message to tie everything together?

Either one but my experience is that generally it’s about splitting up. Might blog about that, so helpful nudge to keep talking about it.

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Relax and allow the unconscious to decide what the main message is

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What makes an effective discussion?

When you’re ready to write your discussion, you’ve already introduced the purpose of your study and provided an in-depth description of the methodology. The discussion informs readers about the larger implications of your study based on the results. Highlighting these implications while not overstating the findings can be challenging, especially when you’re submitting to a journal that selects articles based on novelty or potential impact. Regardless of what journal you are submitting to, the discussion section always serves the same purpose: concluding what your study results actually mean.

A successful discussion section puts your findings in context. It should include:

the results of your research,
a discussion of related research, and
a comparison between your results and initial hypothesis.

Tip: Not all journals share the same naming conventions.

You can apply the advice in this article to the conclusion, results or discussion sections of your manuscript.

Our Early Career Researcher community tells us that the conclusion is often considered the most difficult aspect of a manuscript to write. To help, this guide provides questions to ask yourself, a basic structure to model your discussion off of and examples from published manuscripts.

Questions to ask yourself:

Was my hypothesis correct?
If my hypothesis is partially correct or entirely different, what can be learned from the results?
How do the conclusions reshape or add onto the existing knowledge in the field? What does previous research say about the topic?
Why are the results important or relevant to your audience? Do they add further evidence to a scientific consensus or disprove prior studies?
How can future research build on these observations? What are the key experiments that must be done?
What is the “take-home” message you want your reader to leave with?

How to structure a discussion

Trying to fit a complete discussion into a single paragraph can add unnecessary stress to the writing process. If possible, you’ll want to give yourself two or three paragraphs to give the reader a comprehensive understanding of your study as a whole. Here’s one way to structure an effective discussion:

Writing Tips

While the above sections can help you brainstorm and structure your discussion, there are many common mistakes that writers revert to when having difficulties with their paper. Writing a discussion can be a delicate balance between summarizing your results, providing proper context for your research and avoiding introducing new information. Remember that your paper should be both confident and honest about the results!

Read the journal’s guidelines on the discussion and conclusion sections. If possible, learn about the guidelines before writing the discussion to ensure you’re writing to meet their expectations.
Begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. This will reinforce the main take-away for the reader and set up the rest of the discussion.
Explain why the outcomes of your study are important to the reader. Discuss the implications of your findings realistically based on previous literature, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of the research.
State whether the results prove or disprove your hypothesis. If your hypothesis was disproved, what might be the reasons?
Introduce new or expanded ways to think about the research question. Indicate what next steps can be taken to further pursue any unresolved questions.
If dealing with a contemporary or ongoing problem, such as climate change, discuss possible consequences if the problem is avoided.
Be concise. Adding unnecessary detail can distract from the main findings.

Don’t

Rewrite your abstract. Statements with “we investigated” or “we studied” generally do not belong in the discussion.
Include new arguments or evidence not previously discussed. Necessary information and evidence should be introduced in the main body of the paper.
Apologize. Even if your research contains significant limitations, don’t undermine your authority by including statements that doubt your methodology or execution.
Shy away from speaking on limitations or negative results. Including limitations and negative results will give readers a complete understanding of the presented research. Potential limitations include sources of potential bias, threats to internal or external validity, barriers to implementing an intervention and other issues inherent to the study design.
Overstate the importance of your findings. Making grand statements about how a study will fully resolve large questions can lead readers to doubt the success of the research.

Snippets of Effective Discussions:

Consumer-based actions to reduce plastic pollution in rivers: A multi-criteria decision analysis approach

Identifying reliable indicators of fitness in polar bears

How to Write a Great Title
How to Write an Abstract
How to Write Your Methods
How to Report Statistics
How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

Write your paper

2.1 Understand what is a take-home message for a paper

The take-home message for a paper is like an abstract of the Abstract.

Whereas the Abstract of a paper summarizes the whole paper, including its aim/purpose, methods, results and conclusion(s), take-home messages are shorter and punchier. They’re usually shorter than 150 words, and they only state enough information to allow the Reader to deduce…

WHY the authors did what they did
WHAT the authors did and WHAT they found
HOW the authors’ results could make a difference to the world.

The short punchiness of take-home messages, as well as the fact that they’re written in lay language, makes them easy for readers to read, digest, and literally ‘take home’ to tell others about.

Photo by Virgyl Sowah on Unsplash

Think of yourself as a member of a jury, listening to a lawyer who is presenting an opening argument. You'll want to know very soon whether the lawyer believes the accused to be guilty or not guilty, and how the lawyer plans to convince you. Readers of academic essays are like jury members: before they have read too far, they want to know what the essay argues as well as how the writer plans to make the argument. After reading your thesis statement, the reader should think, "This essay is going to try to convince me of something. I'm not convinced yet, but I'm interested to see how I might be."

An effective thesis cannot be answered with a simple "yes" or "no." A thesis is not a topic; nor is it a fact; nor is it an opinion. "Reasons for the fall of communism" is a topic. "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe" is a fact known by educated people. "The fall of communism is the best thing that ever happened in Europe" is an opinion. (Superlatives like "the best" almost always lead to trouble. It's impossible to weigh every "thing" that ever happened in Europe. And what about the fall of Hitler? Couldn't that be "the best thing"?)

A good thesis has two parts. It should tell what you plan to argue, and it should "telegraph" how you plan to argue—that is, what particular support for your claim is going where in your essay.

Steps in Constructing a Thesis

First, analyze your primary sources. Look for tension, interest, ambiguity, controversy, and/or complication. Does the author contradict himself or herself? Is a point made and later reversed? What are the deeper implications of the author's argument? Figuring out the why to one or more of these questions, or to related questions, will put you on the path to developing a working thesis. (Without the why, you probably have only come up with an observation—that there are, for instance, many different metaphors in such-and-such a poem—which is not a thesis.)

Once you have a working thesis, write it down. There is nothing as frustrating as hitting on a great idea for a thesis, then forgetting it when you lose concentration. And by writing down your thesis you will be forced to think of it clearly, logically, and concisely. You probably will not be able to write out a final-draft version of your thesis the first time you try, but you'll get yourself on the right track by writing down what you have.

Keep your thesis prominent in your introduction. A good, standard place for your thesis statement is at the end of an introductory paragraph, especially in shorter (5-15 page) essays. Readers are used to finding theses there, so they automatically pay more attention when they read the last sentence of your introduction. Although this is not required in all academic essays, it is a good rule of thumb.

Anticipate the counterarguments. Once you have a working thesis, you should think about what might be said against it. This will help you to refine your thesis, and it will also make you think of the arguments that you'll need to refute later on in your essay. (Every argument has a counterargument. If yours doesn't, then it's not an argument—it may be a fact, or an opinion, but it is not an argument.)

This statement is on its way to being a thesis. However, it is too easy to imagine possible counterarguments. For example, a political observer might believe that Dukakis lost because he suffered from a "soft-on-crime" image. If you complicate your thesis by anticipating the counterargument, you'll strengthen your argument, as shown in the sentence below.

Some Caveats and Some Examples

A thesis is never a question. Readers of academic essays expect to have questions discussed, explored, or even answered. A question ("Why did communism collapse in Eastern Europe?") is not an argument, and without an argument, a thesis is dead in the water.

A thesis is never a list. "For political, economic, social and cultural reasons, communism collapsed in Eastern Europe" does a good job of "telegraphing" the reader what to expect in the essay—a section about political reasons, a section about economic reasons, a section about social reasons, and a section about cultural reasons. However, political, economic, social and cultural reasons are pretty much the only possible reasons why communism could collapse. This sentence lacks tension and doesn't advance an argument. Everyone knows that politics, economics, and culture are important.

A thesis should never be vague, combative or confrontational. An ineffective thesis would be, "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe because communism is evil." This is hard to argue (evil from whose perspective? what does evil mean?) and it is likely to mark you as moralistic and judgmental rather than rational and thorough. It also may spark a defensive reaction from readers sympathetic to communism. If readers strongly disagree with you right off the bat, they may stop reading.

An effective thesis has a definable, arguable claim. "While cultural forces contributed to the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, the disintegration of economies played the key role in driving its decline" is an effective thesis sentence that "telegraphs," so that the reader expects the essay to have a section about cultural forces and another about the disintegration of economies. This thesis makes a definite, arguable claim: that the disintegration of economies played a more important role than cultural forces in defeating communism in Eastern Europe. The reader would react to this statement by thinking, "Perhaps what the author says is true, but I am not convinced. I want to read further to see how the author argues this claim."

A thesis should be as clear and specific as possible. Avoid overused, general terms and abstractions. For example, "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe because of the ruling elite's inability to address the economic concerns of the people" is more powerful than "Communism collapsed due to societal discontent."

Reference management. Clean and simple.

5 tips for writing your thesis conclusion

5 thesis conclusion tips

1. avoid too much summary, 2. try not to introduce new information, 3. ensure that your conclusion...concludes, 4. stay focused on the main point of your thesis, 5. consult thesis conclusion examples, more tips about thesis conclusions, frequently asked questions about writing a thesis conclusion, related articles.

Writing a good conclusion is crucial to the success of your thesis , since it's the last thing that your reader will see and the primary means to providing closure to your argument. In this article, we provide 5 tips for creating an outstanding conclusion.

Your conclusion will likely need to provide some summary of your overall project and how you proved and supported your main argument . Good conclusions often contain recommendations for further research or brief illustrations of the implications of the thesis.

Explaining how to apply the information covered in the paper is just as important as summarizing the key parts. Readers should also experience a sense of resolution or closure as they finish your conclusion.

You may need to introduce some new information in your thesis conclusion, especially when you're trying to give the reader a sense of how the research can be applied or expanded.

However, the conclusion is not the right place to introduce new data or other forms of evidence. While you may pose questions or explain how the information is relevant, avoid introducing additional major points.

You might be tempted to add points or data to your conclusion that you didn't include elsewhere. If you do that, the conclusion will not actually conclude anything.

Rather, your conclusion will simply raise more questions. If you find yourself in that situation, your topic might be too broad and you may need to consider narrowing your thesis.

Avoid using your conclusion to engage in over-generalized discussions that miss the point of your paper. Stay focused on the implications of your main argument and don't be tempted to wrap things up through generalizations.

If you're stuck, take a look at examples of thesis conclusions from other writers. Academic databases house thousands of theses and dissertations that you can consult for ideas about how to write a thesis conclusion .

You can also try contacting your advisor or department for examples of successful thesis conclusions written by fellow students or researchers.

Thesis : The culminating project of an undergraduate or graduate program that sustains an argument over several sections or chapters, supported by extensive research and analysis.

Data : Information collected in a research study, usually in the form of numbers or statistics.

Academic Database : A searchable collection of academic materials, such as research articles, conference proceedings, and dissertations.

Conclusion : The final section of a research paper or thesis that summarizes the main findings and provides closure to the reader.

If you need more advice, we highly recommend these sources to help you as you write your thesis conclusion:

How to write an excellent thesis conclusion
Leaving a good last impression
How to make a great conclusion

The conclusion is the last thing that your reader will see, so it should be memorable. To write a great thesis conclusion you should:

Restate the thesis
Review the key points of your work
Explain why your work is relevant
Add a take-home message for the reader

A conclusion basically includes a review of the main points of your thesis. It should largely consist of the research outcomes and any recommendations you may have for further research.

The length of your conclusion will depend on the length of the whole thesis. Usually, a conclusion should be around 5-7% of the overall word count.

End your conclusion with something memorable, such as a question, warning, or call to action.

You can find thousands of recent examples in Open Access: Theses and Dissertations . Take a look at theses and dissertations in your field for real-life examples of conclusions that were approved.

Whether you’re preparing a manuscript or crafting a presentation, one golden rule always applies: clarity is key. Crystallizing your take-home message is essential to successfully convey your research’s core message. This is the vital piece of information you want readers to remember after perusing your paper, setting your work apart from others. Here are 3 crucial considerations to make your Take-Home message shine:

Clarity Is Key

Why It Matters : The clarity of your “take-home message” is paramount in the publication journey. It defines the most crucial insight your research offers in this manuscript.
Where to Showcase It : Ensure that your take-home message is prominently featured in both the Abstract and Discussion sections of your paper.
The Benefit : A crystal-clear take-home message helps readers understand the significance of your research. It also assists reviewers in quickly grasping your study’s outcomes and how they relate to broader field inquiries.

Conciseness Counts

Why It Matters : Engaging your audience hinges on succinctly presenting your research question and its importance, especially in the Introduction section.
Engaging Introduction : Craft a captivating opening paragraph in the Introduction, succinctly stating your research question and why it’s compelling. This piques the reader’s interest and encourages them to delve further into your work.
Effective Results Presentation : In the Results section, present data with simplicity. Always keep your main question in mind and showcase data that directly relate to it.
Focused Discussion : While the Discussion section allows room for interpretation, ensure it primarily centers around the take-home message. Conclude the Discussion with your answer to the research question, its relevance to the broader topic, and potential future directions.

Include Your Take-Home Message in Your Cover Letter

Why It Matters : Your take home message should also feature prominently in your cover letter to the editor.
Quick Communication : Incorporating the take home message into your cover letter swiftly communicates the significance of your findings to the editor.
Captivate the Editor : Remember that your cover letter serves as the first impression of your manuscript for the editor. A well-chosen take-home message can pique their interest and set a positive tone for the review process.

Investing time in defining your take home message not only clarifies your research’s importance but also streamlines the editorial process. By doing so, you make the job easier for editors, reviewers, and readers, expediting the path to publication.

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Determining a Central Message for a Scientific Article

Home » Writing the Manuscript » Determining a Central Message for a Scientific Article

What is a central message?

The central message is the ‘take-home’ or ‘take-away’ message that expresses how your findings contribute to the field of interest. The central message should indicate two things: first, whether the main study aim (or purpose) was accomplished, and second, how that finding might be applicable to the ‘big picture’ (i.e., its clinical or research relevance). These statements are best written in two sentences, to avoid an excessively long sentence.

Coming up with a central message for your research can be difficult, because you have to relate a single, key finding to a large, typically complex field of interest. Moreover, your central message must be reasonable, but also arouse the reader’s interest. In crafting a central message, you must also consider the study design, because the take-home message will be different for a case study, an original research/clinical study, and a review. The central message is typically placed in the Conclusion section. However, because it relates to the main purpose of the study, it may also appear at the end of the Introduction .

Most journals expect the central message to be a single sentence or a few sentences that guide the reader in how to understand what the results mean. Therefore, it must logically stem from the results. The reader typically wants to know why they should care about your findings. Therefore, you need to consider the broad implications of your key findings. The biggest mistake in crafting a central message is to summarize what you did.

The central message should target a knowledge gap

Some findings may not point directly to a knowledge gap, but require some interpretation or some reasonable assumptions to clarify how it might fit into a given paradigm or pathway. In those cases, you must be careful to explain the logic of your assumptions and the conditions that might have influenced the findings. When the central message requires an assumption or interpretation, it’s OK to suggest future studies that might substantiate your interpretation.

The study design shapes the central message

A case study should show something unique or rare: therefore, you can say it ‘reveals a unique aspect [of something]’ or ‘extends our understanding of [something]’;
An original or clinical study might involve discovery, a comparison, or a new procedure (i.e., a ‘how to’ paper): therefore, you can say your results ‘identified’ or ‘elucidated’ something; your results ‘demonstrated that one thing was superior to another thing’, or that your results ‘demonstrated’, ‘validated’, or ‘established’ that this approach was ‘feasible’ or ‘more refined than an existing approach’ for the intended purpose.
A review will focus on how an existing topic has developed. Therefore, you can say that the study ‘elucidated’ or ‘advanced’ a particular facet of the topic you are covering. The ‘facet’ should relate to the purpose of the review.

Relate your key finding to the study aim

The central message should indicate whether the study aim was accomplished; therefore, you should consider the purpose of the study.

For physiological function or disease studies, the purpose is typically a to discover the cause of an observation or the effect of a manipulation;
For a treatment or procedure study, the purpose is to determine the feasibility or advantage of a different approach;
For discovery studies, typically the purpose is to test a new hypothesis; alternatively, you might endeavor to either challenge or support an existing hypothesis.
For a review, the purpose is typically to highlight new developments in a field, or to determine whether a specific issue has been adequately addressed. Alternatively, a review might be focused on issues that remain to be addressed in a certain field.
For a case study, the purpose is typically to provide more data on a rare condition or treatment.

Highlight the clinical or scientific implications of your findings

Clinical results might be useful in the diagnosis, treatment, or management of a disease.
Research results might inform drug development by suggesting a candidate target or they might increase our understanding of a particular pathway or disease process.
‘How to’ studies can show the advantages of a novel, modified, or repurposed research technique.
Clinical trials might show or compare treatment efficacy, adverse events, and/or survival outcomes for a particular disease.
Disease prevalence, which indicates the urgency of developing novel treatment approaches;
Patient characteristics or factors that affect disease susceptibility, which suggest methods for targeting a particular patient subgroup;
Patient characteristics or factors that affect drug efficacy, which suggest methods for selecting patients for a particular treatment

Wording the central message

It is important to take care in wording the central message, because certain words can trigger a negative comment from reviewers. Don’t make unrealistic claims, but don’t be too pedantic or trivial. You want to highlight the potential impact of your finding, without overdoing it.

The level of evidence sets the tone of the central message

A common pitfall is failing to acknowledge the level of evidence of your findings. Reviewers are quick to criticize a take-home message that is overstated, particularly when interpretations or assumptions are involved. A strong central message should be supported by solid evidence and control experiments that rule out alternative explanations. Words like ‘showed’, ‘demonstrated’, or ‘indicated’, convey a high level of evidence. For example, the central message from a randomized controlled study could begin with the words “This study demonstrated that…”.

However, when experiments have not been thoroughly controlled or the relevance of the results requires some assumptions, the central message should reflect some degree of uncertainty. Words like ‘might’, ‘suggest’, and ‘could’ reflect less solid levels of evidence. For example: “Our findings suggested that the leptin pathway might be involved in fat accumulation”.

Conversely, it is not advisable to understate the central message, because you can undermine your findings. For example, in some cases, the authors convey uncertainty by listing the conditions that the findings depended on. For example “This study suggested that X might be effective for treating IBD in an obese population under 40 years old in Norway, during winter. These conditional statements are unnecessary and they tend to cast doubt on the reliability of the results.

Keep in mind that you have already listed the study limitations and described the setting, conditions, and controls. Therefore, it is better to simply state “This study suggested that X was effective for treating IBD in [some] obese individuals.” In this case, adding “some” is important when the study population is a selection of a broad population. It is not necessary, when the study population is representative of a broad population.

Claiming a “first in kind” study

Note that the phrase “This study was the first to…” is commonly used to express the unique nature of a study. This phrase highlights the novelty of your study, but be aware that some journals forbid the use of this phrase or any phrase that expresses the uniqueness or novelty of a study, including phrases like “This study was novel or unique…” or “No other study has…”.

Expressing the clinical or scientific relevance of key findings

Finally, you must indicate the clinical significance or research relevance of your key finding. This sentence suggests how the key result could be useful in future applications or how it might guide future studies in the of the field of interest. Therefore, this sentence should grab the interest of the reader. For example: “Our findings suggested that X might serve as a novel target in the development of future pancreatic cancer treatments.”

Again, be careful not to overstate the significance. This is best done by avoiding generalities. Indicate an interesting aspect of the finding, like “X could be useful in…”, “X might facilitate…” “This finding has contributed to our understanding of…”, or “X might serve as…”. Then, relate it to a specific field of interest.

The more specific you are in this statement, the easier it will be for the reader or reviewer to accept. A failure to be specific in this statement could result in a negative assessment, because if your take-away message is too inclusive, it might be perceived as too far-fetched (i.e., not realistic); or conversely, when it is too general, it might be considered too mundane (i.e., unimaginative).

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11.2 Steps of a Conclusion

Learning objectives.

Examine the three steps of an effective conclusion: restatement of the thesis, review of the main points, and concluding device.
Differentiate among Miller’s (1946) ten concluding devices.

Matthew Culnane – Steps – CC BY-SA 2.0.

In Section 11.1 “Why Conclusions Matter” , we discussed the importance a conclusion has on a speech. In this section, we’re going to examine the three steps in building an effective conclusion.

Restatement of the Thesis

Restating a thesis statement is the first step in a powerful conclusion. As we explained in Chapter 9 “Introductions Matter: How to Begin a Speech Effectively” , a thesis statement is a short, declarative sentence that states the purpose, intent, or main idea of a speech. When we restate the thesis statement at the conclusion of our speech, we’re attempting to reemphasize what the overarching main idea of the speech has been. Suppose your thesis statement was, “I will analyze Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his July 2008 speech, ‘A World That Stands as One.’” You could restate the thesis in this fashion at the conclusion of your speech: “In the past few minutes, I have analyzed Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his July 2008 speech, ‘A World That Stands as One.’” Notice the shift in tense: the statement has gone from the future tense (this is what I will speak about) to the past tense (this is what I have spoken about). Restating the thesis in your conclusion reminds the audience of the major purpose or goal of your speech, helping them remember it better.

Review of Main Points

After restating the speech’s thesis, the second step in a powerful conclusion is to review the main points from your speech. One of the biggest differences between written and oral communication is the necessity of repetition in oral communication. When we preview our main points in the introduction, effectively discuss and make transitions to our main points during the body of the speech, and finally, review the main points in the conclusion, we increase the likelihood that the audience will retain our main points after the speech is over.

In the introduction of a speech, we deliver a preview of our main body points, and in the conclusion we deliver a review . Let’s look at a sample preview:

In order to understand the field of gender and communication, I will first differentiate between the terms biological sex and gender. I will then explain the history of gender research in communication. Lastly, I will examine a series of important findings related to gender and communication.

In this preview, we have three clear main points. Let’s see how we can review them at the conclusion of our speech:

Today, we have differentiated between the terms biological sex and gender, examined the history of gender research in communication, and analyzed a series of research findings on the topic.

In the past few minutes, I have explained the difference between the terms “biological sex” and “gender,” discussed the rise of gender research in the field of communication, and examined a series of groundbreaking studies in the field.

Notice that both of these conclusions review the main points originally set forth. Both variations are equally effective reviews of the main points, but you might like the linguistic turn of one over the other. Remember, while there is a lot of science to help us understand public speaking, there’s also a lot of art as well, so you are always encouraged to choose the wording that you think will be most effective for your audience.

Concluding Device

The final part of a powerful conclusion is the concluding device. A concluding device is essentially the final thought you want your audience members to have when you stop speaking. It also provides a definitive sense of closure to your speech. One of the authors of this text often makes an analogy between a gymnastics dismount and the concluding device in a speech. Just as a gymnast dismounting the parallel bars or balance beam wants to stick the landing and avoid taking two or three steps, a speaker wants to “stick” the ending of the presentation by ending with a concluding device instead of with, “Well, umm, I guess I’m done.” Miller observed that speakers tend to use one of ten concluding devices when ending a speech (Miller, 1946). The rest of this section is going to examine these ten concluding devices.

Conclude with a Challenge

The first way that Miller found that some speakers end their speeches is with a challenge. A challenge is a call to engage in some kind of activity that requires a contest or special effort. In a speech on the necessity of fund-raising, a speaker could conclude by challenging the audience to raise 10 percent more than their original projections. In a speech on eating more vegetables, you could challenge your audience to increase their current intake of vegetables by two portions daily. In both of these challenges, audience members are being asked to go out of their way to do something different that involves effort on their part.

Conclude with a Quotation

A second way you can conclude a speech is by reciting a quotation relevant to the speech topic. When using a quotation, you need to think about whether your goal is to end on a persuasive note or an informative note. Some quotations will have a clear call to action, while other quotations summarize or provoke thought. For example, let’s say you are delivering an informative speech about dissident writers in the former Soviet Union. You could end by citing this quotation from Alexander Solzhenitsyn: “A great writer is, so to speak, a second government in his country. And for that reason no regime has ever loved great writers” (Solzhenitsyn, 1964). Notice that this quotation underscores the idea of writers as dissidents, but it doesn’t ask listeners to put forth effort to engage in any specific thought process or behavior. If, on the other hand, you were delivering a persuasive speech urging your audience to participate in a very risky political demonstration, you might use this quotation from Martin Luther King Jr.: “If a man hasn’t discovered something that he will die for, he isn’t fit to live” (King, 1963). In this case, the quotation leaves the audience with the message that great risks are worth taking, that they make our lives worthwhile, and that the right thing to do is to go ahead and take that great risk.

Conclude with a Summary

When a speaker ends with a summary, he or she is simply elongating the review of the main points. While this may not be the most exciting concluding device, it can be useful for information that was highly technical or complex or for speeches lasting longer than thirty minutes. Typically, for short speeches (like those in your class), this summary device should be avoided.

Conclude by Visualizing the Future

The purpose of a conclusion that refers to the future is to help your audience imagine the future you believe can occur. If you are giving a speech on the development of video games for learning, you could conclude by depicting the classroom of the future where video games are perceived as true learning tools and how those tools could be utilized. More often, speakers use visualization of the future to depict how society would be, or how individual listeners’ lives would be different, if the speaker’s persuasive attempt worked. For example, if a speaker proposes that a solution to illiteracy is hiring more reading specialists in public schools, the speaker could ask her or his audience to imagine a world without illiteracy. In this use of visualization, the goal is to persuade people to adopt the speaker’s point of view. By showing that the speaker’s vision of the future is a positive one, the conclusion should help to persuade the audience to help create this future.

Conclude with an Appeal for Action

Probably the most common persuasive concluding device is the appeal for action or the call to action. In essence, the appeal for action occurs when a speaker asks her or his audience to engage in a specific behavior or change in thinking. When a speaker concludes by asking the audience “to do” or “to think” in a specific manner, the speaker wants to see an actual change. Whether the speaker appeals for people to eat more fruit, buy a car, vote for a candidate, oppose the death penalty, or sing more in the shower, the speaker is asking the audience to engage in action.

One specific type of appeal for action is the immediate call to action . Whereas some appeals ask for people to engage in behavior in the future, the immediate call to action asks people to engage in behavior right now. If a speaker wants to see a new traffic light placed at a dangerous intersection, he or she may conclude by asking all the audience members to sign a digital petition right then and there, using a computer the speaker has made available ( http://www.petitiononline.com ). Here are some more examples of immediate calls to action:

In a speech on eating more vegetables, pass out raw veggies and dip at the conclusion of the speech.
In a speech on petitioning a lawmaker for a new law, provide audience members with a prewritten e-mail they can send to the lawmaker.
In a speech on the importance of using hand sanitizer, hand out little bottles of hand sanitizer and show audience members how to correctly apply the sanitizer.
In a speech asking for donations for a charity, send a box around the room asking for donations.

These are just a handful of different examples we’ve actually seen students use in our classrooms to elicit an immediate change in behavior. These immediate calls to action may not lead to long-term change, but they can be very effective at increasing the likelihood that an audience will change behavior in the short term.

Conclude by Inspiration

By definition, the word inspire means to affect or arouse someone. Both affect and arouse have strong emotional connotations. The ultimate goal of an inspiration concluding device is similar to an “appeal for action” but the ultimate goal is more lofty or ambiguous; the goal is to stir someone’s emotions in a specific manner. Maybe a speaker is giving an informative speech on the prevalence of domestic violence in our society today. That speaker could end the speech by reading Paulette Kelly’s powerful poem “I Got Flowers Today.” “I Got Flowers Today” is a poem that evokes strong emotions because it’s about an abuse victim who received flowers from her abuser every time she was victimized. The poem ends by saying, “I got flowers today… / Today was a special day—it was the day of my funeral / Last night he killed me” (Kelly, 1994).

Conclude with Advice

The next concluding device is one that should be used primarily by speakers who are recognized as expert authorities on a given subject. Advice is essentially a speaker’s opinion about what should or should not be done. The problem with opinions is that everyone has one, and one person’s opinion is not necessarily any more correct than another’s. There needs to be a really good reason your opinion—and therefore your advice—should matter to your audience. If, for example, you are an expert in nuclear physics, you might conclude a speech on energy by giving advice about the benefits of nuclear energy.

Conclude by Proposing a Solution

Another way a speaker can conclude a speech powerfully is to offer a solution to the problem discussed within a speech. For example, perhaps a speaker has been discussing the problems associated with the disappearance of art education in the United States. The speaker could then propose a solution of creating more community-based art experiences for school children as a way to fill this gap. Although this can be an effective conclusion, a speaker must ask herself or himself whether the solution should be discussed in more depth as a stand-alone main point within the body of the speech so that audience concerns about the proposed solution may be addressed.

Conclude with a Question

Another way you can end a speech is to ask a rhetorical question that forces the audience to ponder an idea. Maybe you are giving a speech on the importance of the environment, so you end the speech by saying, “Think about your children’s future. What kind of world do you want them raised in? A world that is clean, vibrant, and beautiful—or one that is filled with smog, pollution, filth, and disease?” Notice that you aren’t actually asking the audience to verbally or nonverbally answer the question; the goal of this question is to force the audience into thinking about what kind of world they want for their children.

Conclude with a Reference to Audience

The last concluding device discussed by Miller (1946) was a reference to one’s audience. This concluding device is when a speaker attempts to answer the basic audience question, “What’s in it for me?” The goal of this concluding device is to spell out the direct benefits a behavior or thought change has for audience members. For example, a speaker talking about stress reduction techniques could conclude by clearly listing all the physical health benefits stress reduction offers (e.g., improved reflexes, improved immune system, improved hearing, reduction in blood pressure). In this case, the speaker is clearly spelling out why audience members should care—what’s in it for them!

Informative versus Persuasive Conclusions

As you read through the ten possible ways to conclude a speech, hopefully you noticed that some of the methods are more appropriate for persuasive speeches and others are more appropriate for informative speeches. To help you choose appropriate conclusions for informative, persuasive, or entertaining speeches, we’ve created a table ( Table 11.1 “Your Speech Purpose and Concluding Devices” ) to help you quickly identify appropriate concluding devices.

Table 11.1 Your Speech Purpose and Concluding Devices

Key Takeaways

An effective conclusion contains three basic parts: a restatement of the speech’s thesis; a review of the main points discussed within the speech; and a concluding device that helps create a lasting image in audiences’ minds.
Miller (1946) found that speakers tend to use one of ten concluding devices. All of these devices are not appropriate for all speeches, so speakers need to determine which concluding device would have the strongest, most powerful effect for a given audience, purpose, and occasion.
Take the last speech you gave in class and rework the speech’s conclusion to reflect the three parts of a conclusion. Now do the same thing with the speech you are currently working on for class.
Think about the speech you are currently working on in class. Write out concluding statements using three of the devices discussed in this chapter. Which of the devices would be most useful for your speech? Why?

Kelly, P. (1994). I got flowers today. In C. J. Palmer & J. Palmer, Fire from within . Painted Post, NY: Creative Arts & Science Enterprises.

King, M. L. (1963, June 23). Speech in Detroit. Cited in Bartlett, J., & Kaplan, J. (Eds.), Bartlett’s familiar quotations (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., p. 760.

Miller, E. (1946). Speech introductions and conclusions. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 32 , 181–183.

Solzhenitsyn, A. (1964). The first circle. New York: Harper & Row. Cited in Bartlett, J., & Kaplan, J. (Eds.), Bartlett’s familiar quotations (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., p. 746.

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Your Human Geography Dissertation: Designing, Doing, Delivering

Student resources, take home messages.

Developing a specific research question for your dissertation can be a tricky business. These top ‘take home’ tips help in formulating your question effectively.

Use the academic reading to develop your question. Reading can help us identify a specific line of enquiry from an awareness of existing research (i.e. what has been done before) or, if we already have a specific idea, it can help us to couch our project within the relevant foregrounding literature (an essential task as part of your literature review).
Think carefully about the wording of your question . Does it accurately convey want you want to find out? Is it ‘to the point’ or is it too long winded? Does it express the kind of approach (see Chapter 2) and methods you will use? (i.e. does it suggest you will find a definitive answer or subjective meanings?) Draft and re-draft the wording of your question until you are happy that it reflects the nature of your project.

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Researching the Literature Review

1. Get Started
2. Find Articles

Tracking Your Searches

Mind mapping, note taking tables, reading tips, writing as a conversation, writing center resources, how do you take notes.

4. Keep Current
5. Manage References
6. Done Yet?
7. Get Help

One way to begin taking notes is to keep track of what you are searching for. Many databases help you do this by allowing you to save searches and set up email alerts . Saving searches allows you to watch the development of your search over time and to make sure you are not simply repeating the same search over and over. Copy and paste or print out the search page to help think of ways your search could or should change over time. This example is from the EbscoHost version of Medline, but many databases have a similar option.

Viewing the search history and saving searches

Mind mapping is a popular way to brainstorm about your topic or to take notes about an article or presentation. Start with the main topic in the center and then think of a variety of related subtopics that you want to explore. Mind maps allow you to be flexible and to see alternative ideas you may not initially have considered.

You can either use paper and pencil or you can use a variety of free or commercial products to create mind maps. See some suggested options below. (This mind map was made with the free version of XMind.)

Wikipedia's List of Mind Mapping Software
Note Taking Table Template

Some of us think in a more linear way and find it useful to enter notes in tables rather than in mind or concept maps. This table is one illustration of what types of information you can gather from the articles or books that you read. If this table is helpful, you can download the handout version linked above.

Learning how to read academic literature, both articles and books, takes practices. Here are some tips to help you become a more focused reader:

One way to think about writing a literature review is as a dialogue between authors who have previously written about various aspects of your topic. You will create this dialog by discussing the agreements and disagreements between those authors, and you will illustrate what they have not yet talked about or researched.

Use this illustration not as an exact recipe for how to write, but as a guide for how to incorporate some of these writing strategies.

OSU Graduate Writing Center

Need more writing help? Try the OSU Writing Center. In addition to providing free help, particularly with brainstorming and organization, they also have writing assistants who are specifically trained to work with graduate students. Plan ahead as it can often take several sessions to work through something as major as a thesis writing project.

Which of these tools do you most commonly use to take notes?

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Creating Effective Posters

Poster Design
Creating Posters
Elements of a Research Poster
Poster Templates
Citation Styles
Presenting Your Poster
Poster Examples

What is a Research Poster?

"A large-format poster is a document that can communicate your research at a conference, and is composed of a:

introduction to your research question
an overview of your methods/novel approach
your results
an insightful discussion of your conclusion
previously published articles that are important to your research
an acknowledgement of the assistance and support you received from others"

Credit: Colin Purrinton , Swarthmore College

The Periodic Table of Poster Elements

Example layout of a poster

I: Introduction and Research Question

Your introduction sets the stage for the project and serves to give the reader an overview! It should peak their interest. Best practices include:

Put your topic within context of published literature
Provide a description and justification of your experimental approach
Hint at why your subject is ideal for such research
Give a clear hypothesis
Minimize the background information and definitions - include just what is relevant!
Don't repeat your abstract

Approximate word count: 200 words

Font size for your introduction:

Headings: about 44 pt

Main text: about 32 pt

II: Methods

Here, describe your experimental equipment and the research methods you used. In addition to the text, you might want to add:

Figures or tables to help describe the design
Flow charts to describe the experimental procedures
Pictures or labeled drawings of the organism or the equipment used

Approximate word count: 200 words

Font size for your methods or research question section:

Captions for your figures: about 28 pt

III: Results and Findings

This section analyzes your data and explains if your experiment worked out, or if you were not doing an experiment, what your research findings were. Things to include are:

Data analysis
Supporting charts, figures, images, or tables
Supporting information for your argument
Legends or pictures that can stand on their own and help the viewer with an understanding

Approximate word count: 200 words.

Font size:

Captions: about 28 pt

V: Conclusions and Future Research

This is where you will sum up your poster and remind readers of your hypothesis and the results of your research. A few things to include:

Focus on the take home message
Was your hypothesis supported?
Why the results are conclusive & interesting
Relevance of your findings to other published work

Approximate word count: 300 words

VI: Acknowledgments and References

This is the part where you will credit those who helped you produce this research. Key things to include are:

Those who funded your research
Sources that you used during your research
Credit for those who provided supervision and mentorship
Credit for any figures used in your poster
Links to a full report, if necessary

The text on this section will vary with the number of credits necessary, but will generally stay under 100 words.

Your poster can be customized to what your research looks like! Not all posters have each section - it depends upon what you are communicating. Some posters will have more or less text, some will have more figures and photographs than others, some will have sections detailing specific parts of their research not included in this template.

Remember - people will be viewing your poster from multiple feet away! Include only the most important points about your research.

Credit: University of California, San Diego Libraries.

Poster Creating Tips

How to make a better academic poster

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Different Ways to End a Presentation or Speech

November 6, 2017 - Dom Barnard

The beginning and ending of your presentation are the most important. The beginning is where you grab the audience’s attention and ensure they listen to the rest of your speech. The conclusion gives you a chance to leave a lasting impression that listeners take away with them.

Studies show that when people are tasked with recalling information, they “best performance at the beginning and end”. It’s therefore essential you leave an impact with your closing statement. A strong ending motivates, empowers and encourages people to take action.

The power of three

The rule of three is a simple yet powerful method of communication and we use it often in both written and verbal communication. Using information in patterns of three makes it more memorable for the audience.

Examples of the power of three being used:

This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning – Winston Churchill
Blood, sweat and tears – General Patton
I came, I saw, I conquered – Julius Caesar

A compelling story

Ending your presentation on a short story, especially if that story is personal or illustrates how the content presented affects others is the best way to conclude.

If you want to talk about a customer experience or successful case study, think about how you can turn it into a meaningful story which the audience will remember and even relate to. Creating empathy with your audience and tying the story back to points made throughout the presentation ensures your presentation will be well received by the audience.

A surprising fact

A surprising fact has the power to re-engage the audience’s attention, which is most likely to wane by the end of a presentation. Facts with statistical numbers in them work well – you can easily search online for facts related to your speech topic. Just make use you remember the source for the fact in case you are questioned about it.

A running clock

Marketing and advertising executive Dietmar Dahmen ends his Create Your Own Change talk with a running clock to accompany his last statement. “Users rule,” he says, “so stop waiting and start doing. And you have to do that now because time is running out.”

If you’re delivering a time-sensitive message, where you want to urge your listeners to move quickly, you can have a background slide with a running timer to add emphasis to your last statement.

Example of a running timer or clock for ending a presentation

Acknowledging people or companies

There are times when it’s appropriate to thank people publicly for helping you – such as

Presenting a research paper and want to thank people involved in the project
Presenting data or information obtained from a company or a person
When someone helped you build the presentation if it’s a particularly complex one

You can even use the PowerPoint credits feature for additional ‘wow’ factor.

A short, memorable sentence

A sound bite is an attention magnet. It cuts to the core of your central message and is one of the most memorable takeaways for today’s Twitter-sized attention spans. Consider Steve Jobs’ famous last line at his commencement address at Stanford University: “Stay hungry, stay foolish.”

Think about how you can distil your message down to a crisp, memorable statement. Does it represent your authentic voice? Does it accurately condense what your core message is about? Listeners, especially business audiences, have a radar that quickly spots an effort to impress rather than to genuinely communicate an important message.

An interesting quote

A relatively easy way to end your speech is by using a quote. For this to be effective, however, the quote needs to be one that has not been heard so often that it has become cliché.

To access fresh quotes, consider searching current personalities rather than historical figures. For example, a quote on failing from J.K. Rowling: “It is impossible to live without failing at something, unless you live so cautiously that you might as well not have lived at all – in which case, you fail by default.”

You need to figure out what resonates with your audience, and choose a quote that fits the presentation theme. If you’re up to it, you can round off the quote with your own thoughts as well.

A visual image

Make use of this power by ending your presentation with a riveting visual that ties to your take-home message. Leave this slide on when you finish your presentation to give the audience something to look at and think about for the next few minutes.

Use a summary slide instead of a ‘thank you’ slide

‘Thank You’ slides don’t really help the audience. You should be verbally saying ‘Thank you’, with a smile and with positive eye contact, putting it on a slide removes the sentiment.

Instead of a ‘Thank You’ slide, you can use a summary slide showing all the key points you have made along with your call to action. It can also show your name and contact details.

This slide is the only slide you use that can contain a lot of text, use bullet points to separate the text. Having all this information visible during the Q&A session will also help the audience think of questions to ask you. They may also choose to take photos of this slide with their phone to take home as a summary of your talk and to have your contact details.

Example summary slide for a presentaiton or speech

Repeat something from the opening

Closing a presentation with a look back at the opening message is a popular technique. It’s a great way to round off your message, whilst simultaneously summing up the entire speech and creating a feeling of familiarity for the audience. Comedians do this well when they tie an earlier joke to a later one.

Doing this will signal to the audience that you are coming to the end of your talk. It completes the circle – you end up back where you started.

There are a few ways to approach this technique:

Set up a question at the beginning of your speech and use your ending to answer it
Finish a story you started, using the anecdote to demonstrate your message
Close with the title of the presentation – this works best with a provocative, memorable title

Link the main points to the key message

At the beginning of your talk, it’s important to map out the main ideas you will talk about. An audience that doesn’t know the stages of the journey you are about to take them on will be less at ease than one that knows what lies ahead. At the end of your talk, take them back over what you’ve spoken about but don’t just list the different ideas you developed, show how they are related and how they support your main argument.

Finish with enthusiasm

It’s only natural that you’ll feel tired when you get to the end of your talk. The adrenaline that was racing through your body at the beginning has now worn off.

It’s crucial that the audience feels that you are enthusiastic and open for questions. If you’re not enthusiastic about the presentation, why should the audience be?

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Don’t end with audience questions

When the Q&A session is over, stand up, get their attention and close the presentation. In your closing give your main argument again, your call to action and deal with any doubts or criticisms that out in the Q&A.

A closing is more or less a condensed version of your conclusions and an improvised summary of the Q&A. It’s important that the audience goes home remembering the key points of the speech, not with a memory of a Q&A that may or may not have gone well or may have been dominated by someone other than you.

If possible, try and take questions throughout your presentation so they remain pertinent to the content.

Getting rid of the “questions?” slide

To start, let’s talk about what you shouldn’t do. You shouldn’t end a presentation with a slide that asks “Questions?” Everyone does and there is nothing memorable about this approach.

Ideally, you should take questions throughout the presentation so that the question asked and the answer given is relevant to the content presented. If you choose to take questions at the end of your presentation, end instead with a strong image that relates to your presentation’s content.

Worried about no audience questions?

If you’re afraid of not getting any questions, then you can arrange for a friend in the audience to ask one. The ‘plant’ is a good way to get questions started if you fear silence.

Chances are that people do want to ask questions, but no one wants to be the first to ask a question. If you don’t have a ‘plant’, you might need to get the ball rolling yourself. A good way to do this is for you to ask am open question to the audience. Ask the most confident looking person in the room for their opinion, or get the audience to discuss the question with the person sitting beside them.

A cartoon or animation

In his TED talk on The Paradox of Choice , Barry Schwartz ends his presentation with a cartoon of a fishbowl with the caption, “You can be anything you want to be – no limits.” He says, “If you shatter the fishbowl, so that everything is possible, you don’t have freedom, you have paralysis… Everybody needs a fishbowl”. This is a brilliant ending that combines visuals, humour and a metaphor. Consider ending your presentation with a relevant cartoon to make your message memorable.

Ask a rhetoric question

So, for example, if you’re finishing up a talk on the future of engineering, you might say, “I’d like to end by asking you the future of manufacturing, will it be completely taken over by robots in the next 30 years?”

The minute you ask a question , listeners are generally drawn into thinking about an answer. It’s even more engaging when the question is provocative, or when it touches potentially sensitive areas of our lives

Thank the audience

The simplest way to end a speech, after you’ve finished delivering the content, is to say, “thank you.” That has the benefit of being understood by everyone.

It’s the great way for anyone to signal to the audience that it’s time to applaud and then head home.

Call your audience to action and make it clear

It’s not enough to assume your message will inspire people to take action. You need to actually tell them to take action. Your call to action should be clear and specific. Your audience should be left with no doubt about what it is you’re asking.

Use the last few minutes of the presentation to reinforce the call to action you seek. Examples of strong calls to actions include:

Retain 25% more employees with our personal development solution
Save your business 150% by using this framework
Donate today to save millions around the world

Make it clear that you’ve finished

Nothing is more uncomfortable than the silence of an audience working out if you’ve finished or not.

Your closing words should make it very clear that it’s the end of the presentation. The audience should be able to read this immediately, and respond. As we mentioned previously, saying “thank you” is a good way to finish.

If the applause isn’t forthcoming, stand confidently and wait. Don’t fidget and certainly don’t eke out a half-hearted, ‘And that just about covers it. Thank you’.

No results found

Conclusion, the take-home message and the structure of the thesis

Chapter 1: introduction, 1.8. conclusion, the take-home message and the structure of the thesis.

This chapter has outlined the fundamental objectives underlying the research, which relate to

understanding how resistance is thought about and discussed within a conspiracy theory framework, by reference to the NWO conspiracy theory. It provided a definition of just what constitutes a ‘resistance discourse’ in terms of agency, understood for the purposes of this thesis as relating to concerns of power and morality or, alternatively, questions of what can and should be done, along with what cannot and should not be done. The analytical framework used to answer my research questions in this regard employs Melucci’s concepts of ‘action system’ and ‘ideology’ as applied to movements in his work. I argue that whether or not online conspiracy theorists can be said to constitute an actual movement is irrelevant, but that because of the substantial discursive similarities with other movements and in particular the neat conceptual fit between Melucci’s movement concepts and my specific research objectives, it is possible and indeed useful to treat the discourses as if they were those of a movement.

The overarching take-home message of the thesis, contextualised within the claims in the literature that conspiracy theory is by definition disabling, is as follows:

When the adversary is defined in totalising, all-powerful and immoral terms, and ordinary people in terms of powerlessness, we more often see affective expressions of pessimism and fear. When ordinary people are deemed to possess greater power than the adversary however, we more often find affective expressions of enthusiasm and hope. The problem with Fenster’s (1999) and Basham’s (2003) claims about the futility, indeed the virtual impossibility, of even imagining resistance in the context of conspiracy theory is that their conception of conspiracy theory is itself totalising and idealised. What I am seeking to demonstrate in this thesis is that there exist discursive cognitive and affective gradations in expressions of empowerment and disempowerment. The same

basic global conspiracy framework of the NWO can be modified, reconstructed and contested in terms of elite agency in ways that shape and constrain the perceived capacity to resist it. How the problem is defined has significant consequences for how solutions can be conceived, and in particular the extent to which enthusiasm towards thinking about and discussing resistance, rather than fear, can emerge. This is a central objective of the research. I am not seeking simply to prove that resistance can be thought about and discussed; this is trivially straightforward to demonstrate. What I am fundamentally interested in is how different discursive constructions of an adversary’s agency within a conspiracy theory can shape and constrain cognitive and effective discourses of resistance.

I also suggest (see section 8.6 for a more detail analysis) that one of the central issues causing much of the relatively misguided approach in the conspiracy theory literature is the fact that most

definitions of conspiracy theory are too broad and their conceptual lines are too blurred. Because of this, it becomes possible to label Occupy Wall Street movement members as conspiracy theorists (see Chapter 8); indeed their open calls for a transparent democracy constitutes a verbatim replica of the description given to conspiracy theorists by Fenster (1999: ix), and yet he suggests that they are incapable of even imagining such a democracy let alone acting to bring it about. But doubtless he would not make such a claim about the Occupy Wall Street movement, since they were acting towards this imagined objective. Ultimately I argue that the conceptual distinction between the discourse of a populist, anti-systemic social movement and that of conspiracy theory comes down simply to the discursively constructed extremities of power, morality and secrecy of the adversary. I offer no precise alternative definition because it is too difficult to delineate conceptual boundaries, but essentially I suggest that the more powerful, immoral and hidden the adversary is perceived to be, the more likely it can be acceptably understood as a conspiracy theory (as opposed to the resistance discourse of an acceptably understood social movement). As a direct comparison, it can be understood as the distinction between the perceived ‘illegitimacy’ of an adversary on the one hand, and the perceived ‘evil’ of an adversary on the other. The adversary can be seen to be enormously powerful, but not to the extent that it controls all governments and institutions. And it can be seen as often acting behind the scenes, but not so hidden that you cannot even pinpoint who is pulling the strings. The closer that discursive constructions of the adversaries resemble the latter examples in the three comparisons above, the closer it will resemble a conspiracy theory rather than a populist movement’s political grievance discourse.

33 Part 1: Contextualising the research

Chapter 2 summarises the academic literature on conspiracy theories and conspiracy theorists, presented in such a way as to demonstrate the departure of my research from the dominant research agendas in this literature, and to counter some of the unjustified and un-researched generalisations about conspiracy theory contained therein. It also outlines in depth the NWO conspiracy theory, its history and its various definitional manifestations among disparate social groups, in order to set the scene for the discourse analysis that follows, which emphasises that minor differences in the form the conspiracy theory takes can have significant consequences on the form and content of resistance discourse.

Chapter 3 provides a detailed explication of the movement concepts in Melucci’s work which I employ in my analytical framework in order to answer my research questions. This framework is followed by a methodological discussion of the discourse analysis approach I employ towards online discussions about resisting the NWO, all of which is underpinned by the analytical

framework. The relative benefits and constraints of such an approach are examined in addition to some reflexive discussion about the research process as a whole.

Part 2: In-depth analysis of resistance discourse within individual discussion threads

The four main chapters comprise detailed discourse analyses of individual forum discussion threads. I have selected for analysis two discussion threads each from Above Top Secret and the David Icke forum, all of which are chosen because they are explicitly premised upon the

overarching question of what can be done to resist the NWO. They are not intended to be

understood as representative of the forums generally (indeed as the reader will see, the disputes and diversity of opinions are heated and broad even within specific threads), but there are certainly not misleading of the forums generally. Aside from certain common important themes associated with the NWO conspiracy theory (the religious dimension, freemasons and other specific secret societies, microchipping of humans, the mass depopulation agenda, MK Ultra mind control, specific ‘false flag’ attacks etc., most of which are referenced in this thesis but not explored in depth as they are not mentioned in any detail within the threads I’ve selected), I can comfortably state that the NWO- related content within the threads, even though they have been selected for their focus on resisting

conspiracy theory, based on the hundreds of threads I’ve read on these forums over the years. From the fantastical and extreme to the sensible and mundane, in addition to outright scepticism towards the very basis of the NWO conspiracy theory, the threads analysed reveal an enormous diversity of ideas, while at the same time demonstrating consensus on certain core issues such that detailed, directed and focused conversations are able to take place at all. Above all, I have selected these four threads, which compare and contrast the fantastical and mundane discourses, in order to avoid the common accusation of qualitative research that it has “a tendency to select field data which are conspicuous because they are exotic, at the expense of less dramatic (but possibly indicative) data”. (Fielding & Fielding 1986: 32).

The first two chapters illustrate the more extreme end of the conspiracy theories in relation to the perception of elite agency assumed within the particular NWO theoretical framework. By contrast, the subsequent two threads under analysis are far more mundane in content, selected so as to demonstrate the discursive impact of the gradated and nuanced definitions of NWO agency. When the elites are defined in totalising, malevolent and all-powerful terms, and ordinary people in terms of powerlessness, we see expressions of pessimism and fear with strategies being either less

forthcoming or extremely ‘creative’ in nature; when ordinary people are discursively presented as possessing greater power than the adversary, we typically see enthusiasm and hope along with a myriad of conventional and small-scale strategies of resistance.

Chapter 4 analyses a discussion thread on the Above Top Secret forum entitled, “NWO Survival Planning”, the basis of which postulates an imagined future scenario of a brutal and totalitarian NWO takeover. As the first analytical chapter, my approach here is heavily anchored within Melucci’s ‘action system’ and ‘ideology’ concepts in order to demonstrate their utility in

interpreting the resistance discourse contained in the discussion. In subsequent analytical chapters my analytical approach incorporates Melucci’s ideas but are far more focused on the texts

themselves in relation to my overarching research questions relating to agency, and whether or not the resistance discourse is empowering or disempowering.

Chapter 5 shifts to the David Icke discussion forum to a thread entitled, “Tell me EXACTLY what we can do”. It is recommended that the reader strap-in before commencing this chapter, as the ideas contained therein are ‘unconventional’, to say the least. The controlling agents of the NWO within this thread’s resistance discourse are understood to be other-dimensional extra-terrestrial reptilians who feed off negative human emotional energies. Despite such a terrifying and, one might expect

based on Fenster’s (1999) and Basham’s (2003) conjectures, disempowering construction of an adversary, this thread contains remarkably hyperbolic reconstructions of human agency such that affective expressions of empowerment are encountered in as extreme a form as can be imagined.

Chapter 6 crashes back ‘down to earth’ to examine a much more conventional and practical

discussion thread in the Above Top Secret forum entitled, “Can We Stop The NWO?”, the primary strategic content of which relates to informing the masses both to expose the NWO and for potential recruitment. The key insight to be gained from this chapter is that, unlike the earlier Above Top Secret thread on surviving the NWO, this thread does not provide a clear definition of the NWO, which consequently allows for a more malleable concept of the adversary’s agency and greater scope for reinterpretation by forum members such that the NWO’s perceived power and (im)morality is diminished which in turn results in more positive affective expressions of enthusiasm and hope towards the practical potential of resistance.

Chapter 7 returns to the David Icke forum to a thread entitled, “A strategy of peaceful non-

compliance?”. This thread represents a remarkable contrast to the earlier David Icke discussion in that the resistance strategies contained therein are not of the (hyper)macro form in relation to achieving spiritual oneness with the universe but of extremely small individual and collective acts of non-compliance with empirical systemic manifestations of the NWO. Nonetheless, we see (more or less) equally positive emotional expressions of empowerment at the prospect of doing something,

anything , to resist the NWO.

Chapter 8 compares the NWO conspiracy theory resistance discourses with those of the Occupy Wall Street movement, via an analysis of agency based discourses within the latter’s online

discussion forum. The parallels are significant and can be understood in both directions: firstly, the Occupy Wall Street movement discourse is characterised as a problem which can be encapsulated within the classical definition of conspiracy theory, postulating as it does an illegitimate

concentration of power in the hands of a tiny minority (labelled ‘the 1%’) who act without transparency or accountability. Secondly, while it has not been acknowledged enough in the academic literature, the discourse of the NWO conspiracy theory bears important resemblances to the resistance discourse of any populist social movement.

1) Conspiracy theory may or may not be disabling; the key to understanding this relates to how, in terms of the discursive power / morality agency dynamics among the three core social groups, is defined and communicatively developed.

2) Conspiracy theory is not necessarily a purely intellectual and individual ‘puzzle-solving’ pursuit, there exist real political grievances and strategic discussions for how to resist the perceived social, economic and political injustices brought about by the form which the conspiracy theory takes.

3) There exist substantial overlaps in form and content between conspiracy theory and the discourse of traditionally conceived social and political movements. The perceived power and morality of the adversary shapes and constrains resistance discourses, and expressions of empowerment and disempowerment for any social movement will be influenced by the definition of the adversary in a similar manner to the discourse contained in the online conspiracy theory forums.

4) An appreciation of the relative discursive extremes of power, morality and secrecy is needed to avoid the semantic problems associated with the scope and definition of conspiracy theory in the academic literature.

Chapter 9 concludes the thesis with a theoretical discussion of the malleability and interactive discursive nature of perceptions of agency in relation to how they inform, shape and constrain thought and discussion about resistance. It summarises the main findings of this research and offers suggestions for further research in terms of both the conspiracy theory literature and the social movement literature.

Conclusion, the take-home message and the structure of the thesis (You are here)
Developing a theoretical framework for analysis
Collective agency and ‘action system’
Communicative Construction, Cognition and Emotion
Ideology: Heroes, Villains and Supporters
The process of analysis
Some reflexive comments on the research process

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(PDF) Impact of take-home messages written into slide presentations
(PDF) 10 Take home messages
Conclusion and Take-home Messages
25 Thesis Statement Examples (2024)
How to Write a Thesis Proposal? Guidelines, Structure, and Tips
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COMMENTS

does your paper have a clear 'take home message'?
OK, so 'take-home-message' is a pretty hackneyed phrase. However, in the case of writing journal articles (and thesis chapters) it's pretty apt. It's a handy way of thinking about - and really focusing on - what it is you want people to remember most after they've finished reading your 7-10,000 words. "Find the 'take-home ...
How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
Begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. This will reinforce the main take-away for the reader and set up the rest of the discussion. Explain why the outcomes of your study are important to the reader. Discuss the implications of your findings realistically based on previous literature, highlighting both the strengths and ...
How to write an excellent thesis conclusion [with examples]
A good conclusion will review the key points of the thesis and explain to the reader why the information is relevant, applicable, or related to the world as a whole. Make sure to dedicate enough of your writing time to the conclusion and do not put it off until the very last minute. Organize your papers in one place. Try Paperpile.
What is the best "last slide" in a thesis presentation?
Following the scheme "Tell them what you are going to tell them. Tell them. Tell them what you told them." makes your topic easier to understand. Since it is a graduate thesis, chances are your topic is rather complex and merits recapitulation. This is the last slide your audience is going to see and should be the "take home message".
Successful Scientific Writing and Publishing: A Step-by-Step Approach
Scientific articles should have a clear and concise take-home message. Typically, this is expressed in 1 to 2 sentences that summarize the main point of the paper. This message can be used to focus the presentation of background information, results, and discussion of findings. As an early step in the drafting of an article, we recommend ...
How to make a scientific presentation
By deciding the take-home message you want to convince the audience of as a result of listening to your talk, you decide how the story of your talk will flow and how you will navigate its twists and turns. ... Next, decide on the angle you are going to take on your hook that links to the thesis of your talk. In other words, you need to set the ...
PDF How to Write an Effective Discussion
The take-home message should be the first sentence of your conclusions section. In some journals the conclusions section is a para-graph or subsection at the end of the discussion, whereas other journals (RESPIRATORY CARE, for instance) require a separate conclusions section. The conclusions section may
2.1 Understand what is a take-home message for a paper
The take-home message for a paper is like an abstract of the Abstract. Whereas the Abstract of a paper summarizes the whole paper, including its aim/purpose, methods, results and conclusion (s), take-home messages are shorter and punchier. They're usually shorter than 150 words, and they only state enough information to allow the Reader to ...
Developing A Thesis
A good thesis has two parts. It should tell what you plan to argue, and it should "telegraph" how you plan to argue—that is, what particular support for your claim is going where in your essay. Steps in Constructing a Thesis. First, analyze your primary sources. Look for tension, interest, ambiguity, controversy, and/or complication.
5 tips for writing your thesis conclusion
Writing a good conclusion is crucial to the success of your thesis, since it's the last thing that your reader will see and the primary means to providing closure to your argument.In this article, we provide 5 tips for creating an outstanding conclusion. 5 thesis conclusion tips 1. Avoid too much summary. Your conclusion will likely need to provide some summary of your overall project and how ...
The Take-Home Message by SciTechEdit International
It defines the most crucial insight your research offers in this manuscript. Where to Showcase It: Ensure that your take-home message is prominently featured in both the Abstract and Discussion sections of your paper. The Benefit: A crystal-clear take-home message helps readers understand the significance of your research.
Determining a Central Message for a Scientific Article
The central message should indicate two things: first, whether the main study aim (or purpose) was accomplished, and second, how that finding might be applicable to the 'big picture' (i.e., its clinical or research relevance). These statements are best written in two sentences, to avoid an excessively long sentence.
11.2 Steps of a Conclusion
Examine the three steps of an effective conclusion: restatement of the thesis, review of the main points, and concluding device. Differentiate among Miller's (1946) ten concluding devices. Matthew Culnane - Steps - CC BY-SA 2.0. In Section 11.1 "Why Conclusions Matter", we discussed the importance a conclusion has on a speech.
How to Write a Thesis Statement
Step 2: Write your initial answer. After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process. The internet has had more of a positive than a negative effect on education.
What is the take-home message, and where can I find it?
The most poignant example of this concept is the take-home message of the paper. There is usually not an officially designated spot for authors to write a strong thesis statement (take-home message), but there are about four places where a succinct (one sentence) thesis can often be found. Title. Toward the end of the Abstract.
Take Home Messages
These top 'take home' tips help in formulating your question effectively. Use the academic reading to develop your question. Reading can help us identify a specific line of enquiry from an awareness of existing research (i.e. what has been done before) or, if we already have a specific idea, it can help us to couch our project within the ...
3. Read & Take Notes
Read with your question in mind (usually your thesis or research question) Write a short " take home message " about the significance of the article as it relates to your research question. Then it is easy to transition from these notes to your literature review draft. Re-read articles - but with new questions in mind, not because you forgot ...
Elements of a Research Poster
Focus on the take home message; Was your hypothesis supported? Why the results are conclusive & interesting; Relevance of your findings to other published work; Approximate word count: 300 words . Font size: Headings: about 44 pt. Main text: about 32 pt. VI: Acknowledgments and References.
Different Ways to End a Presentation or Speech
Thank the audience. The simplest way to end a speech, after you've finished delivering the content, is to say, "thank you.". That has the benefit of being understood by everyone. It's the great way for anyone to signal to the audience that it's time to applaud and then head home.
Conclusion, the take-home message and the structure of the thesis
The overarching take-home message of the thesis, contextualised within the claims in the literature that conspiracy theory is by definition disabling, is as follows: When the adversary is defined in totalising, all-powerful and immoral terms, and ordinary people in terms of powerlessness, we more often see affective expressions of pessimism and ...
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May 2024 LPA Release
This enhancement will be effective for LPA submissions or resubmissions on or after May 5, 2024, as announced in Single-Family Seller/Servicer Guide Bulletin 2024-6. LPA will be updated to start returning new and revised feedback messages pdf related to this policy change. Therefore, any submission or resubmission with an asset verification ...