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Investigating political polarization in India through the lens of Twitter

Anindita borah.

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam India

Sanasam Ranbir Singh

Associated data.

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to sensitivity of information but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Social media plays a pivotal role in shaping communication among political entities. Substantial research has been carried out for examining the impact of politicians’ social media usage and interactions on political polarization. Analysing political polarization is particularly significant for fragmented political systems like India where collaboration between parties is essential for winning support in parliament. Different topics of discussion between political entities may induce different levels of polarization. This study aims to examine the presence of polarization on Twitter social media platform with respect to different topics of political discussions among Indian politicians. The investigation is based upon two conflicting notions about social media in influencing political polarization. The first notion regards social media as a medium for interaction between different ideological users. The second opinion on the other hand focuses on prevalence of selective exposure in social media leading to polarization. The study will investigate the use of Twitter for forming communication ties in and between parties and the extent of divergence of opinions during political discourse. The investigation performs social network analysis and content analysis of the tweets posted by Indian politicians during some major events in India from 2019 to 2021. For an unbiased topic-specific analysis of polarization, some important topics related to Indian government policies, national security and natural disaster events have been considered. The findings of the study suggest that Twitter not only opens up communication spaces to Indian political users but also makes online political discussions among them polarized. Moreover, the extent of polarization varies with respect to topics of political discussions. Polarization is more for controversial and debatable topics than non-controversial ones.

Introduction

Political polarization has become an important subject of deliberation owing to its negative implications on democratic societies. A polarized population is often divided into different groups of same size having opposing polarities or opinions. There has been a constant debate regarding the presence of political polarization on social media due to its growing popularity and usage among the politicians, parties and masses. Politicians use social media platforms for propagating their political views and for supporting or engaging in debates with other politicians. Social media might enable information flow by facilitating direct communication and exchange of ideas between the political entities, but might also induce polarization. Degree of polarization on social media depends on the topics of political discussions to a great extent. Different topics involve different levels of compliance and disagreement that may either unite the political groups or move them far apart. It is fundamental to understand how activities of Indian politicians on social media with respect to different topics influence political polarization.

Among all the social media platforms, Twitter is the most pivotal online places extensively used for political debates. This study focuses on Twitter because of its worldwide popularity, majority of the Indian politicians are having Twitter handles and the data is easily accessible. The primary aim of this study is therefore, to investigate the presence of polarization among Indian politicians on Twitter during political discussions. To investigate the existence of political polarization on social media platforms, this study analyses the usage of Twitter by Indian politicians during some of the major events in India.

Research questions and hypotheses

Political polarization is a diverse field of research and its investigation in a single dimension may not be sufficient. In order to examine the existence of political polarization on social media, the analysis must be done from different perspectives. This study will therefore, investigate Indian political polarization based on its two broad characteristics: pattern of interaction and opinion divergence. For an unbiased analysis, political polarization will be examined with respect to several topics of political discussions related to some important events in India. The following research questions have been formulated for investing polarization on social media platform Twitter:

Social media on one hand can promote flow of information, ideas and opinions among the political entities and on the other hand, can also induce political polarization. An important question in this regard is whether the political entities use Twitter to communicate with members having different ideologies or their interaction is restricted to only like-minded peers. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how Twitter is affecting the formation of communication ties within and across parties and whether it leads to polarization. The amount of participation and interaction among the politicians varies depending on the topics of political discourse. In this context, the first research question will focus on the way communication ties are formed within and between parties with respect to different topics and whether this leads to polarization. While interacting on Twitter, the politicians make connections with each other, forming complex social network structures. These network structures demonstrate the flow of information and the connections in the networks reflect the sharing of content among politicians.

There are two basic modes of interaction in Twitter: (a) mention , in which one user can mention another user in response to his/her tweets and (b) retweet , in which one user can share or forward another user’s tweets. To identify the pattern of interaction with respect to topics of discussion, this study will analyse the formation of communication ties as well as the degree of polarization among Indian politicians from their mention and retweet networks on different topics.

Existing research on social media polarization demonstrated the presence of cross-ideological exchange in Twitter networks. Mention networks reflect the communication behaviour of political candidates as well as their cross-party interactions. The cross-party connections however, varies based on the layers in which the interaction takes place. In accordance with the first research question and the findings of existing research, the following hypotheses have been formulated:

Mention networks of politicians reflect more cross-party interactions than retweet networks during political discussions

Selective exposure prevails only in retweet networks of politicians and not in mention networks during political discussions

Social media allow the political entities to articulate and express different opinions which often leads to conflict in their sentiments and views towards an issue . According to social scientists, this divergence in opinion leads to increased polarization among the political entities. In order to reach an agreement regarding the possible solutions about an issue, the political entities must recognize their opponent’s views as valid despite being conflicting. However, refuting their opponents view as invalid or improper might make the political discussions on crucial issues more polarized. The second research question will therefore, try to investigate the extent of divergence of opinions among the political entities with respect to topics of political debate. Selective exposure during political debates has been identified as a major factor influencing the disagreement among politicians. Retweet relations represent agreement among the politicians on their published content. Retweet networks represent the similarity between the interests of the communities. Considering, the retweet relation to be a form of agreement between users and selective exposure a factor influencing opinion divergence, the following hypothesis have been formulated:

Interconnected communities in retweet networks are more similar to each other in terms of opinion

Literature contains ample endeavours intensifying on the phenomenon of political polarization on social media. However, very limited studies can be found concerning the emergence of polarization among political elites on Twitter or other platforms. Study of elite polarization is essential as it eventually gives rise to mass polarization or polarization among the general public. Existing studies investigated polarization either in terms of selective exposure or opinion polarization but not as a whole. Investigating polarization in a single dimension may not be sufficient. Moreover, none of the studies have performed a topic-based analysis on polarization, even though topics of political discourse play a significant role in influencing polarization. The growing polarization in Indian politics has become an important research issue for the political scientists and social media activities of political candidates may prove to be an important indicator for measuring polarization. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first attempt towards the investigation of Indian political polarization over Twitter with respect to different topics of political discussions.

The remaining paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 elucidates some existing studies on political polarization. The description of the data used and the methodology adopted for this study is illustrated in Sect. 3 . The findings and observations of the analysis are discussed in greater detail in Sect. 5 . The study is finally summarized and concluded in Sect. 6 .

Related work

Several studies can be found in the literature that investigated political polarization over social media. First study towards the same was performed by Adamic and Glance ( 2005 ) to identify the pattern of interaction among the conservative and liberal blogs. They performed network analysis and identified a clustered structure between the hyperlinks of blogs with opposing ideologies. Conover et al. ( 2011 ) did a similar study to identify the extent of polarization among the Twitter users during 2010 U.S. congressional elections. The authors pointed out that users tend to endorse or retweet their politically aligned peers more than users having opposite polarities. Morales et al. ( 2015 ) measured the extent of polarization among the masses based on Twitter conversations about the late Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez. They employed network structures and statistical modelling techniques and identified that the distance between users posting similar contents is comparatively very less. An analysis on user roles during polarized conversations was performed by Recuero et al. ( 2019 ). They pointed out that contents shared in one group are not shared in other groups. Weber et al. ( 2013 ) analysed Egyptian polarization among the Secular and Ismalists users over Twitter. They identified the followers of Egyptian Muslim to be more tightly connected than the Secularists. Olivares et al. ( 2019 ) used opinion distribution as the basis for analysing political polarization during second round of the 2017 Chilean elections. They identified the Twitter conversation to be highly polarized that was continuously increasing till the day of voting.

Garimella et al. carried out several studies on elite polarization in their works in Garimella and Weber ( 2017 ); Garimella et al. ( 2018 ). They performed a temporal analysis of polarization for eight years among the presidential candidates and their parties in Garimella and Weber ( 2017 ). The findings suggest a growth of nearly 10–20% in polarization over the course of 8 years. In Garimella et al. ( 2018 ), through network analysis they pointed out that the retweet networks of polarized discussions have a well-defined structure. Cherepnalkoski and Mozetič ( 2016 ) investigated the community structure of European Parliament members for a period of one year. Their emphasis was primarily on retweet networks. They identified that the retweeting behaviour of the European parliament members is biased towards the members of their own political group. Del Valle and Bravo ( 2018 ) carried out a detailed study on the Twitter networks of Catalan Parliamentarians to analyse the extent of polarization between them. They discovered more cross-ideological interactions in the mention network than the retweet network and the level of polarization is observed to be highest in the relation network. They performed another study in Esteve Del Valle et al. ( 2021 ) about polarization in the Twitter mention networks of the Dutch Member of Parliaments. They identified high degree of cross-party interactions in their mention networks suggesting that the MPs extensively use social media for discussions among different parties. van Vliet et al. ( 2020 ) studied polarization across 26 European Free Trade Association countries by analysing their network of interaction during political discourse. They observed cross-party interactions and cross-national differences in the way of engagement of the political entities.

Political polarization is also analysed using models of opinion dynamics in the literature. Models of opinion dynamics attempt to identify the change in opinion of users in a network with respect to their neighbours. The most popular theoretical model used for analysing the phenomenon of opinion formation is the averaging model. The DeGroot model is a well-known example of averaging models DeGroot ( 1974 ). The model analyses the formation of consensus with the update in individual opinions based on the average of the neighbourhood. User’s opinion is basically updated using the mean of neighbouring opinions. Friedkin and Johnsen ( 1990 ) further extended the model by considering consensus as well as disagreement, thus including both innate and expressed opinion of a user. Several studies employed the existing models of opinion dynamics to study the phenomenon of polarization. Ghezelbash et al. ( 2019 ) utilized the DeGroot model to study polarization in cooperative networks. Alvim et al. ( 2021 ) employed the concepts of DeGroot model to establish the fact that polarization might not vanish in case of weakly connected graphs.

Data and methods

This section discusses the data collected for the study and the methodologies used for analysis. To perform a topic-wise analysis of Indian political polarization on social media, politicians tweets based on some major events in India are collected. Important topics related to government policies, natural disaster and national security during the last 2 years have been considered. The data has been collected from the Twitter handles of 823 politicians belonging to the major national and state political parties of India. Twitter handles of most active politicians have been considered. Table ​ Table1 1 elicits the number of members from each political party whose data has been collected.

Number of members considered from political parties

India has witnessed some important events during 2019 and 2020 in terms of government policy formulation, national security and natural disaster management. For an unbiased study on Indian political polarization, topic-specific Twitter data has been collected related to all the major events. Among government policies, the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) during 2019 and the recent Farm Bills have been considered. Indian parliament passed CAA in 2019 for granting the eligibility of citizenship to religious minorities in countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Three acts of Farm Bills were passed by parliament of India in 2020 as per which intra- and inter-state farmer’s produce trade is allowed beyond the physical premises of Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC). Topics related to national security like Balakot airstrikes of 2019 and India China Stand-Off in 2020 have been considered for the study. In 2019, Indian warplanes conducted a bombing raid against an alleged terrorist training camp in Balakot, Pakistan. In 2020, Indian and Chinese troops got engaged in skirmishes and face offs along the Sino-Indian border leading to several casualties of soldiers on both sides. Apart from these topics, the recent natural disaster of COVID-19 has also been considered. Initially identified in Wuhan, China, the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) has spread exponentially throughout the world affecting millions of lives. India is among the worst affected countries due to COVID-19 in terms of mortality and number of cases. The nation has suffered extensive economic, political and social crisis due to this sudden outbreak.

For collecting topic-specific data, the most popular hashtags capturing a particular topic of interest have been manually identified. For analysing the data, a hybrid approach of social network analysis and content analysis has been adopted. Table ​ Table2 2 elicits the statistics of data collected for this study. The statistics depict the number of tweets collected for a particular topic, the number of politicians participating in the political discussions about the topic and the number of hashtags considered for collecting topic-specific tweets.

Data statistics

The Twitter activities of Indian politicians were monitored from 2019 to 2020. The Twitter search API has been used to select the tweets posted by the politicians on important topics on natural disaster, national security and government policies during that duration. The collected tweets are then used for constructing social networks and identifying communities in those networks. The communication flow among the communities and their opinions on the selected topics is then analysed. The process of identifying the interaction patterns of communities and their opinions on the topics consists of two steps. Initially, the network of politicians mentioning and retweeting each other is constructed and the densely connected communities are identified. Secondly, the content published by the communities is analysed to identify the convergence and divergence in opinions within and across communities. Figure ​ Figure1 1 illustrates the proposed methodology and roadmap for this study. The detailed methodology for analysing the pattern of interaction and convergence and divergence of opinions of the communities is discussed below:

Proposed roadmap for the study

Pattern of interaction

The first line of research in this study is based on identifying the pattern of interaction and formation of communication ties among the political candidates. Twitter interactions among the politicians using mentions and retweet induce different network structures. The structure of networks also varies with respect to the topics of discussion. These network structures reflect the mechanism underlying the formation of communication ties between the politicians. Employing social network analysis for solving a broad range of political issues has been widely accepted. Concepts of social network analysis can be used to identify the factors influencing the formation of ties in political networks and the nature and meaning of those ties. A social network analysis approach has therefore been, adopted to examine the pattern of interactions in Twitter political networks of Indian politicians. The degree of party polarization in the politicians interaction networks(retweet and mention) is examined using network visualization and network polarization analysis. The interaction patterns of politicians and its effect on polarization can be determined based on the following analysis of Twitter interaction networks:

Politicians on social media often tend to interact and share their ideas more with their own party people while discussing any topic of interest. Communities identified in the political networks can reveal the existence of selective exposure and polarization based on their size, content and level of interconnections. Hence, the first step towards investigating the existence of selective exposure and polarization is identification of distinct communities in the Twitter mention and retweet networks.

From the topic-specific Twitter data, networks of politicians participating in discussions are mapped and the connections are created based on their mention and retweet relationships. Open source network exploration software Gephi is used for network visualization for anticipating the retweet and mention network structures Bastian et al. ( 2009 ). Each node in the network represents a politicians Twitter account and an edge between 2 nodes reflects the relationship (mention or retweet) between the politicians. For better visualization, only those politicians or nodes are considered that received a minimum of 5 mentions and retweets.

To measure the level of interconnectedness and information flow among the identified communities, modularity of the network is computed using Newman’s measurement of modularity Newman ( 2004 ). Measurement of modularity has been used to analyse the strength of divisions of the communities identified in the networks. Modularity values range from 0 to 1. Higher modularity values indicate the communities to be more distinct or separated. Studies reveal that networks having modularity value higher than 0.6 shows little or no increase in the separation of communities. For this study, value of 0.6 and above has been considered as higher modularity, between 0.4 and 0.6 medium modularity and values less than 0.4 as low modularity. A higher value of modularity indicates the presence of selective exposure, where the communities are more exposed to their own content rather than the contents posted by users in other communities.

The degree of cohesiveness among the politicians at the party level is examined by computing the network density of the retweet and mention networks. The value of network density varies from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates absence of any ties while 1 indicates that all ties are connected.

Communities reveal significant information regarding polarization. Once the communities are identified in the politicians interaction networks, it is essential to identify the extent to which these communities are polarized and closely associated with each other. Hence, it is crucial to examine the degree of polarization and homophily within and across the communities. This can be done by comparing the number of connections formed within and across those communities or groups. Several measures are identified as indicators of selective exposure and polarization.

The degree of party polarization and homophily has been computed using the measure of external–internal index (E–I index), developed by Krackhardt and Stern ( 1988 ). E–I index is a measure of relative density of internal ties within a group with respect to the number of external ties across the group. The value of the index ranges from –1 representing complete homophily to +1 indicating that all connections are external to the group. Cross-community interactions have been analysed to verify the extent of polarization. The cross-ideological interaction ratio measure developed by Conover et al. ( 2011 ) has been modified to calculate the cross-community interaction ratio. Cross-community interaction has been computed as the ratio between the observed and expected number of connections between nodes belonging to different groups or communities. Let C 1, C 2 and C 3 be 3 communities in a network. If K C 1 is the total number of connections arising from community C 1 and U C 1 , U C 2 and U C 3 are the number of users in community C 1, C 2 and C 3, then the expected number of connections from C 1 to C 2 is computed as:

Interest and opinion on political issues

The second research question of this study focuses on agreement and disagreement among Indian politicians on political issues. Retweet relations signify agreement between users on posted contents. Hence, for analysing the pattern of agreement and disagreement of the politicians on different issues, the retweet networks constructed in the previous phase have been considered. The process of identifying common interest and leaning of the politicians involves 3 steps. Densely connected communities in the retweet networks of politicians are initially identified. Secondly, the content shared by the communities is analysed to identify their common interest. Finally, the sentiment of the communities is obtained to identify their sentiment towards respective topics of political discussion.

To identify common interest and leaning of the politicians on various issues, it is essential to analyse their posted tweet contents and the hashtags used. The similarity between the contents published by the communities and the hashtags used reveal their shared interest. The hashtag similarity between communities is initially computed based on Jaccard similarity. Jaccard Similarity computes the number of common hashtags between two communities C i and C j with respect to their total hashtags. The Jaccard Similarity between communities C i and C j is computed as:

where H ( x ) represents the number of hashtags in community x .

The tweet content similarity is calculated using cosine similarity. Term Frequency Inverse Document Frequency (TFIDF) approach has been used to identify the importance of a term in a set of documents and cosine similarity has been used to obtain the similarity between that set of documents. To examine the content similarity of the communities, a standard text mining approach has been adopted:

• For each community C i , where i ϵ { 1 , . . . , N } , document D i is created containing the content published by all the users of C i .
• The set of terms used by communities C 1 , . . . . , C N is obtained from documents D 1 , . . . . , D N and the term frequency of each term t is computed. Term Frequency T F i ( t ) for a term t signifies its number of appearances in a document D i .
• The document frequency DF ( t ) for each term t is calculated, that represents the number of documents in which t appears.
• A Bag of Words (BoW) vector is constructed for each document D 1 , . . . . , D N , where each value in the vector is the value of a term t from the set of terms: TFIDF i ( t ) = T F i ( t ) · log N D F ( t ) .
• The cosine similarity between each document D 1 , . . . . , D N , represented by vectors is computed. Each document D i represents a community C i and the similarity between documents is considered as the similarity between the respective communities. The cosine similarity between documents D i and D j is computed as: CosSim ( D i , D j ) = D i · D j ‖ D i ‖ ∗ ‖ D j ‖ .

This analysis for identifying the sentiment similarity is done in 2 steps. Initially, the sentiment polarity of the tweets are identified using TextBlob. The tweets having polarity value between –1 to 0 are considered as positive tweets, value of 0 as neutral tweets and value between 0 and 1 as positive tweets. To identify the communities having similar sentiments, the sentiment similarity among each community is identified based on the common hashtags shared. Instead of considering the sentiment score, the average number of positive, negative and neutral tweets in each community has been considered. The following approach has been proposed to compute the hashtag-based sentiment similarity between communities:

• For each topic, identify the set of common hashtags C HT between communities C i and C j .
• Identify the average number of positive tweets P T avg ( C i ) and P T avg ( C j ) , for communities C i and C j based on C HT .
• Identify the average number of negative tweets N T avg ( C i ) and N T avg ( C j ) , for communities C i and C j based on C HT .
• Identify the average number of neutral tweets N T T avg ( C i ) and N T T avg ( C j ) , for communities C i and C j based on C HT .
• Compute similarity between C i and C j as: Sim ( C i , C j ) = | P T avg ( C i ) - P T avg ( C j ) | + | N T avg ( C i ) - N T avg ( C j ) | + | N T T avg ( C i ) - N T T avg ( C j ) |

Twitter data of Indian politicians related to some important topics of discussion have been collected initially. Separate datasets are then generated for each topic based on the presence of selected hashtags in the tweets. Each dataset is then mapped onto a network using network analysis techniques based on the relationships among the politicians. Analysis has been done to explore the two research questions of this study as discussed next. The results have been discussed for each topic-specific dataset separately.

To visually observe the level of polarization of Indian politicians on the considered topics of discussion, the mention and retweet networks are initially generated. Force Atlas algorithm in Gephi visualization tool has been used to analyse and cluster the networks into sub-groups. The nodes are coloured based on their party affiliation. Each identified community represents a political party and is named from C 1 to C 7. The communities identified are represented using different colours as follows: C 1 (BJP) = Violet, C 2 (INC) = Green, C 3 (AITMC) = Light Blue, C 4 (AAP) = Orange, C 5 (SP) = Pink, C 6 (RJD) = Red, C 7 (SS)= Dark Blue. Figures ​ Figures2 2 and ​ and3 3 depict the mention and retweet networks generated for all the topics. The statistics for mention and retweet networks generated for all topics are illustrated in Table ​ Table3 3 .

Mention networks on all topics

Retweet networks on all datasets

Network statistics of interaction networks on all topics

Do politicians form distinct communities while contributing to a particular topic?

The mention networks generated for Indian politicians formed distinct communities while engaging in political discussions on all the considered topics. The COVID-19 mention network shown in Fig. ​ Fig.2a, 2 a, contains 524 nodes and 1370 edges. Seven distinct communities are identified in the network accounting for nearly 72.3% of the entire network. Remaining 27.7% of the network contains 8 small communities containing 2–18 nodes. Only communities within 72.2% of the networks have been considered for visualization. 3 large communities are identified: one with 178 users linked by 385 connections ( C 1), second with 112 users linked by 291 connections ( C 2) and the third with 72 users with 176 connections ( C 3). These three major communities constituted nearly 69.1% of the total connected users and 62.2% of the total connections in the network. The mention network on Citizenship Amendment Act shown in Fig. ​ Fig.2b, 2 b, contains 256 nodes and 517 edges. Seven distinct communities are identified in the network accounting for nearly 78.2% of the entire network. A single large community is identified containing 86 users linked by 165 connections ( C 1). The Farm Bill mention network in Fig. ​ Fig.2c 2 c contains 285 nodes and 515 edges. The 6 communities identified in the mention network constitute nearly 74.6% of the entire network. 2 large communities are identified in the mention network. The largest community ( C 1) comprises of 105 users linked by 232 connections and the second community ( C 2) contains 85 users connected by 115 links. These 2 communities together constituted nearly 71.6% of the total connected users in the network. The mention network shown in Fig. ​ Fig.2d, 2 d, contains 164 nodes and 327 edges. Seven distinct communities are identified in the network accounting for nearly 75.6% of the entire network. A single large community is identified containing 86 users linked by 165 connections ( C 1). The mention network shown in Fig. ​ Fig.2e, 2 e, contains 114 nodes and 324 edges. Six distinct communities are identified in the network accounting for nearly 78.3% of the entire network. 2 large communities are identified: one with 58 users ( C 1) and second with 42 users ( C 2). These two major communities constituted nearly 79.1% of the total connected users. From Fig. ​ Fig.2, 2 , it can be observed that the mention networks of all the datasets contain more number of cross-ideological and cross-party connections.

The retweet networks also formed distinct communities similar to mention networks. The COVID-19 retweet network in Fig. ​ Fig.3a, 3 a, contains 359 nodes and 576 edges. Similar to the mention network, 7 distinct communities have been identified in the retweet network as well that constitute around 78.4% of the entire network. Two large distinct communities have been identified in the retweet network. The largest community contains 134 users linked by 236 connections ( C 1) while the second network includes 98 users connected by 142 connections ( C 2). The 2 large communities together accounted for nearly 64.6% of the total connected users and 65.6% of the total connections. The Citizenship Amendment Act retweet network in Fig. ​ Fig.3b, 3 b, contains 125 nodes and 136 edges. Similar to the mention network, 7 distinct communities have been identified in the retweet network as well that constitute around 75.3% of the entire network. As observed in Fig. ​ Fig.3c, 3 c, the retweet network on Farm Bill contains 115 nodes with 156 edges. Seven distinct communities were identified in the network. The communities are completely separated and disjoint from each other with connections only between 3 communities: C 1, C 3 and C 7. Users in communities C 4 and C 6 formed separate connections while retweeting their community users. Communities C 1 and C 2 formed the majority accounting for 62.7% of total users in the network. The Balakot Airstrikes retweet network in Fig. ​ Fig.3d, 3 d, contains 75 nodes and 96 edges. Similar to the mention network, 7 distinct communities have been identified in the retweet network that constitute around 74.8% of the entire network. The retweet network in Fig. ​ Fig.3e, 3 e, contains 86 nodes and 105 edges. Six distinct communities have been identified in the retweet network that constitute around 71.4% of the entire network. One large community has been identified in the retweet network that contains 46 users with 62 connections ( C 1). The single large community accounted for nearly 54.6% of the total connected users.

What is the level of interconnectedness and information flow among the communities during discussions?

The level of interconnectedness and information flow among the communities are identified using the measurements of modularity and network density. The modularity value of the mention network of COVID-19 is observed to 0.524, that suggests medium modularity and the network to be medium separated. As discussed previously, modularity values between 0.4 and 0.6 have been considered to be medium modularity for the networks. The retweet network on the other hand, has a high modularity of 0.757. For Citizenship Amendment Act, the modularity value of the mention network is observed to be 0.519, suggesting medium modularity and medium separation. The retweet network on the other hand, has a high modularity of 0.794. The mention network on Farm Bills has a moderate modularity value of 0.483 while the retweet network has a high modularity value of 0.814. The mention network is therefore, highly interconnected having many cross-community interactions. The retweet network on the other hand, is more separated forming distinct clusters and have lesser number of cross-community interactions. The modularity value of Balakot Airstrikes mention network is observed to 0.582, suggesting medium modularity while the retweet network has a high modularity of 0.837. The modularity of the mention network of India China Stand-Off is observed to have a low value of 0.283. The retweet network on the other hand, has a high modularity of 0.732. The medium modularity of mention network on all topics indicates medium level of separation among the communities while the high modularity of retweet network suggests the presence of selective exposure to a great extent.

The mention network of COVID-19 has a density of 0.326 indicating that there is 32% chance of forming all the possible connection in the network. On the other hand, retweet network has a density of 0.085 suggesting a chance of only 8% of forming all possible connections. The mention network for COVID-19 is well-connected while the retweet network is loosely connected. Mention network of Citizenship Amendment Act has a density of 0.253 indicating that there is 25% chance of forming all the possible connections in the network. On the other hand, retweet network has a density of 0.073 suggesting a chance of only 7% of forming all possible connections. Density of mention network of Farm Bills is 0.216 while retweet network has a value of 0.048. This indicates that there are 21% chances of forming all the possible connections in the mention network while the chance is only 4.8% in case of retweet networks. The mention network of Balakot Airstrikes has a density of 0.286 indicating 28% chance of forming all the possible connections in the network. On the other hand, retweet network has a density of 0.063 suggesting a chance of only 6% of forming all possible connections. The mention network on India China Stand-Off has a density of 0.289 indicating that there is 28.9% chance of forming all the possible connection in the network while retweet network has a density of 0.056 suggesting only 5.6% chances of forming all possible connections. The results on network density reveals that mention network is well-connected than retweet network and selective exposure is present more in case of retweet than mention network. The amount of information flow is therefore, more in case of mention network than retweet networks.

What is the extent of party polarization and cross-community interaction during topical discussions?

To further assess the existence of selective exposure in the interaction networks of Indian politicians, the level of intra- and inter-party connections are identified. To examine party or community polarization during political discourse on the considered topics, the E–I index of both the interaction networks is computed. Table ​ Table4 4 reports the rescaled E–I index values for the mention and retweet networks of all the topics. The E–I index values indicate the interaction networks to be polarized. The polarization values however, varies with the type of interaction. The degree of polarization is very high in case of retweet network while for the mention network, it is almost null.

E–I index of interaction networks on all topics

To investigate the degree of polarization in every community, E–I index is computed for each community separately. The plots in Figs. ​ Figs.4 4 and ​ and5 5 report the E–I index of each community for the mention and retweet networks of all topics. E–I index values between 0.2 and 0.5 have been considered as medium cross-party interactions while above 0.5 has been regarded as high cross-party interactions. For the mention network of COVID-19, the results reveal that only community C 4 and C 5 have a negative value (− 0.146 and − 0.275), indicating them to be highly homophilic. Rest of the 5 communities have shown high to moderate level of cross-party interactions and are therefore, less polarized. The degree of polarization is highest for community C 6 while lowest for community C 2. For Citizenship Amendment Act mention network, community C 1 and C 7 have been found to be highly polarized while other communities are less polarized. In the Farm Bill mention network, Community C 2 has the highest number of cross-party interactions. Community C 1 has been identified to be homophilic, mentioning own party politicians more. For the mention network of Balakot Airstrikes, only community C 1 has a negative value and hence high homophily. Rest of the 6 communities have shown high to moderate level of cross-party interactions with less polarization. In the Indian China Stand-Off mention network, all the communities have a positive value except community C 1, indicating C 1 to be homophilic. Community C 2 has the highest number of cross-party interactions.

E–I index of communities in the mention networks of all topics

E–I index of communities in the retweet networks of all topics

The analysis of retweet networks has revealed a complete different scenario. All the communities from C 1 to C 7 in COVID-19 retweet network have been found to be homophilic and polarized. Communities C 2, C 3 and C 5 have been found to be less homophilic while community C 1 has shown slightly higher homophily. Community C 6 and C 7 have been identified to be completely homophilic indicating that all ties are internal to the communities. Similarly for Citizenship Amendment Act, all the communities from C 1 to C 7 have been found to be homophilic and polarized. Communities C 2 and C 3 have been found to be less homophilic while other communities have been identified to be completely homophilic. All the communities for Farm Bills have high polarization, with community C 2, C 4, C 5 and C 6 being completely polarized. In the retweet network of Balakot Airstrikes and India China Stand-Off, all the communities from C 1 to C 7 have been found to be homophilic and polarized. For Balakot Airstrikes, communities C 2, C 3, C 5 and C 6 while for India China Stand-Off, community C 4, C 5 and C 7 have shown complete homophily.

In order to examine the amount of cross-community interactions, the interaction ratio within and across community is computed. For mention network, the observed and expected number of links between the communities is identified and the cross-community interaction ratio is computed accordingly. Table ​ Table5 5 depicts the ratio between observed and expected number of connections between politicians belonging to different political communities on COVID-19. From the table, it can be observed that the amount of cross-community mentions is more for most of the communities. Community C 6 and C 7 however have more intra-community mentions. The politicians are more likely to interact with the members of their own community during retweets. The amount of interaction in both mention and retweet networks is more within community and less across community. A value of 0 between 2 communities indicates that there are no interactions within those communities. Largest communities C 1 and C 2 have received the highest amount of cross-community mentions and retweets. Interestingly, the number of incoming mentions is more than outgoing mentions for these communities. For the smallest communities C 6 and C 7, the amount of cross-community mentions is very less and there are no cross-community retweets.

Cross-community interaction on COVID-19

Table ​ Table6 6 depicts the cross-community interaction ratio for Citizenship Amendment Act. It can be observed that the amount of cross-community mentions is more for most of the communities. Community C 1 and C 7 however have more intra-community mentions. Community C 1 has received the highest amount of cross-community mentions. Except communities C 2 and C 3, there are no cross-community retweets. The cross-community interaction ratio for Farm Bill is illustrated in Table ​ Table7. 7 . Community C 1 has received the highest number of external mentions among all the communities followed by C 2. The mention network on Farm Bills has only 6 communities. Community C 6 has no mention on Farm Bills. Hence, the column representing the mention values for C6 is null. The retweet network has very high level of selective exposure. Community C 2, C 4, C 5 and C 6 has no cross-community retweets.

Cross-community interaction on citizenship amendment act

Cross-community interaction on farm bill

Table ​ Table8 8 depicts the cross-community ratio for Balakot Airstrikes. The amount of interaction in retweet network is found to be more within community and less across community. Community C 1 has received the highest amount of cross-community mentions and retweets. For communities C 2, C 3, C 5 and C 6, there are no cross-community retweets. Cross-community ratio for India China Stand-Off is shown in Table ​ Table9. 9 . From the table, it can be observed that the amount of cross-community mentions is more for all the communities except C 1. Largest community C 1 has received the highest amount of cross-community mentions and retweets. Apart from communities C 1, C 2 and C 3, there are no cross-community retweets among other communities.

Cross-community interaction on Balakot Airstrikes

Cross-community interaction on India China stand-off

To analyse the interest and opinion of the politicians on different issues, a content analysis approach has been adopted. The communities identified in the retweet network have been considered for analysis. The analysis is done in two phases. Initially, the tweet content similarity of all the communities on the considered topics is examined. In the next phase, sentiments of the tweets are identified and sentiment similarity among all the communities is computed.

Which communities share similar content on different political issues?

The similarity in contents of the communities is computed in two ways. The hashtag similarity between each community is computed based on Jaccard similarity. The tweet content similarity is then calculated based on cosine similarity between documents. The heatmap visualizations of the hashtag and tweet content similarities across communities are shown in Figs. ​ Figs.6 6 and ​ and7. 7 . Darker shades in the heatmap indicate higher similarity between communities. Since the similarity across own community is highest, the darkest shade can be seen diagonally.

Hashtag similarity of communities for all topics

Tweet content similarity of communities for all topics

Figure ​ Figure6a 6 a depicts the hashtag similarity between communities on COVID-19. Communities C 1, C 2 and C 3 have been identified to be the most similar communities in terms of the hashtags shared. For communities C 4 and C 5, the most similar community is C 1 while for C 6 and C 7, it is community C 2. Figure ​ Figure6b 6 b depicts the hashtag similarity between communities on Citizenship Amendment Act. Community C 1 is closest to C 3 followed by C 5 in terms of hashtags shared. Community C 2 is similar to C 1 and C 4, C 3 is similar to C 1 and C 7, C 4 is similar to C 3 and C 7. The hashtag similarity across each community on Farm Bill is illustrated in Fig. ​ Fig.6c. 6 c. In terms of hashtags used, community C 4 has been identified to be most similar to C 1 while C 3 has been identified to be most similar to C 2 and vice versa. Figure ​ Figure6d 6 d depicts the hashtag similarity between communities on Balakot Airstrikes. Communities C 1, C 3, C 5 and C 7 have been identified to be the most similar communities in terms of hashtags shared. For communities C 2, the most similar communities are C 4 and C 6 while for C 6, it is community C 2. Hashtag similarity on India China Stand-Off is illustrated in Fig. ​ Fig.6e. 6 e. Communities C 1 has been found to be most similar to C 2 and C 3 in terms of the hashtags shared. For communities C 2, the most similar community is C 4 and C 7 while for C3, it is community C 5. C 4 is most similar to C 1 and C 2, C 5 is most similar to C 3 and C 7 is most similar to C 2.

Figure ​ Figure7a 7 a represents the tweet content similarity between communities on COVID-19. Community C 1 has been found to be most similar to C 2, C 3, C 4 and C 5. C 3 is the most similar community for C 6 while C 4 is the most similar community for C 7 in terms of the tweet content published. Figure ​ Figure7b 7 b represents the tweet content similarity between communities. Community C 1 has been found to be most similar to C 3, C 4 and C 6. C 2 is the most similar community for C 4, C 5 and C 7 while C 5 is the most similar community for C 2 in terms of the tweet content published. The hashtag similarity across each community on Farm Bill is illustrated in Fig. ​ Fig.7c. 7 c. In terms of tweet content, community C 3 is most similar to C 5, C 2 is most similar to C 6 and C 1 is most similar to C 7. Figure ​ Figure7d 7 d represents the tweet content similarity between communities on Balakot Airstrikes. Community C 1 has been found to be most similar to C 5 and C 7. C 4 is the most similar community for C 2 while for C 4 it is C 2 and C 5. Tweet content similarity on India China Stand-Off is illustrated in Fig. ​ Fig.7e. 7 e. Community C 1 has been found to be most similar to C 2 and C 3 and vice versa. C 7 is the most similar community for C 4 while for C 5 and C 7, the most similar community is C 2 in terms of the tweet content published.

Which communities have similar sentiments towards political issues?

The sentiments of the tweets on every topic posted by each community are initially evaluated. The average number of positive, negative and neutral tweets are identified. The heatmap visualization of sentiment similarities between communities is shown in Fig. ​ Fig.8. 8 . The similarity is more if difference in value is less. Hence, a lower value indicates higher similarity. The similarity between each community is computed using the methodology discussed in Sect. 3.2 . The lesser the difference in the number of positive, negative and neutral tweets shared by the communities, the more similar the communities are. Therefore, the similarity across the same community has been identified as 0. The values can be observed diagonally in the heatmap. For COVID-19, as shown in Fig. ​ Fig.8a, 8 a, both communities C 1 and C 2 are most similar to C 3, the level of similarity however is more between C 1 and C 3. Community C 4 is most similar to C 1, C 5– C 7, C 6– C 4 and C 7– C 5. As shown in Fig. ​ Fig.8b 8 b for Citizenship Amendment Act, community C 3 is close to community C 1, C 4 and C 5 in terms of similarity. For C 2, the most similar community is C 4, for C 6 it is C 1 and for C 7 it is C 4. In case of Farm Bills as shown in Fig. ​ Fig.8c, 8 c, for community C 1, the most similar community is C 7 and for C 2 it is C 4 and vice versa. Most similar community for C 3 is C 1 and for C 5 and C 6 it is C 7. The least similar community for C 1, C 3, C 5 and C 7 is C 2, for C 2 it is C 1 and for C 4 and C 6 it is C 3. Figure ​ Figure8d 8 d illustrates the sentiment similarity for Balakot Airstrikes. For community C 1, most similar communities are C 3, C 4 and C 7, for C 2 it is C 5 and C 6, for C 3 it is C 1, C 5 and C 6, for C 4 it is C 1 and C 7. Community C 5 is most closest to C 2, C 3 and C 7, C 6– C 2 and C 3 and C 7– C 1, C 4 and C 5. For India China Stand-Off as shown in Fig. ​ Fig.8e, 8 e, community C 1 and C 3 are most similar to each other, C 2 is most similar to C 5 and C 4 is most similar to C 1. Community C 5 is most similar to C 3 and C 7– C 5.

Sentiment similarity of communities for all topics

This study investigates whether the online activities of Indian politicians on Twitter lead to polarization and how topics of political discussions influence the same. The paper performs an in-depth analysis of political polarization with respect to the pattern of interaction and opinions of the politicians on different political issues. This study is the first attempt to examine Indian political polarization on Twitter social media platform. We considered 5 major events in India during 2019 and 2020 and analysed the pattern of interaction of the politicians and their similarities and dissimilarities in opinion regarding those political events. This section provides a comparative analysis of the findings on all the 5 topics with respect to the hypotheses formulated for the study:

The analysis of the mention networks revealed different levels of cross-party interactions with respect to topics of political discussion. At the network level, for all the topics considered, clear evidence of cross-party interactions has been found in the mention networks of politicians. However, the degree of such interactions is different for different topics of political discourse. For COVID-19, the degree of cross-party interactions was identified to be high (E–I index = 0.263). Topics of government policies like Citizenship Amendment Act and Farm Bill revealed highest amount of cross-party interactions (0.316 and 0.378). The level of such cross-party interaction is lowest in case of national security issues Balakot Airstrikes and India China Stand-Off (0.163 and 0.184). The observations support the hypothesis formulated that mention networks reflect more cross-party interactions during political discussions. The findings of the study refute the existence of selective exposure in the mention networks of Indian politicians and also support the fact that social media opens up conversation spaces between politicians and political parties.

The degree of cross-party connections in the mention networks of Indian politicians has been found to be quite high than retweet networks. These findings are in line with some existing studies Conover et al. ( 2011 ); Del Valle and Bravo ( 2018 ); Esteve Del Valle et al. ( 2021 ); Chamberlain et al. ( 2021 ) that suggest the mention networks to be reflective of cross-party interactions. One possible reason for this could be the nature of different interaction networks of Twitter. Retweet networks are basically considered as support and endorsement networks while the mention networks are more indicative of a dialogical or communication network. The politicians use mention networks to engage with fellow politicians with different ideologies. Moreover, the intensity of cross-party interactions in the mention networks can be explained by the fact that politicians engage with one another through mentions either in agreement Del Valle et al. ( 2020 ) or in disapproval Laaksonen et al. ( 2017 ). This view can be supported from the findings of the analysis. The high intensity of cross-party interactions in controversial government policy topics is indicative of the fact that politicians are using mentions mostly as a means of criticism. The level of disagreement and criticism is more in case of controversial topical discussions like government policies and less for comparatively non-controversial topics of natural disaster and national security.

Moreover, interesting differences in the degree of polarization have been observed for different communities or political parties. For instance, in all the topics except COVID-19, mentions among the politicians of the largest community C 1 has been found to be more homophilic than other smaller communities. The largest community C 1 represents the party in power thus indicating that the party forming the government is more homophilic in terms of mentions than other parties. In addition to that, community C 1 has received the highest amount of mentions from other parties suggesting that the party in governance is also likely to receive higher cross-party mentions. This study reveals that the governing party politicians prefers to limit their political conversations within themselves while the opposing politicians tend to engage more with other parties. This is in line with the findings of Tromble ( 2018 ) that suggested the governing parties to be more engaging with their own party politicians and Esteve Del Valle and Borge Bravo ( 2018 ) that revealed the smaller parties to be less homophilic. Out of all the opposing parties, party or community C 2 and C 3 has been identified to have lowest homophily and more cross-party mentions. Interestingly, most of the outgoing mentions of C 2 is towards the governing community C 1, particularly during discussions on Citizenship Amendment Act and Farm Bills. Our analysis also reveals interesting association between the level of participation and number of mentions received. It has been observed that higher participation of politicians in political discussions increases their likelihood of being mentioned. This can be another reason for community C 1 receiving highest mentions as C 1 has shown highest participation from its members.

Figure ​ Figure9 9 depicts the cross-party interactions among parties or communities across all topics. From Fig. ​ Fig.9a, 9 a, it can be observed that highest cross-party interactions have taken place during the political discussions on Farm Bills and Citizenship Amendment Act, two important policies framed by Indian government. Further analysis of the data revealed that the politicians have used mentions mostly for disapproving and debating about the respective topic of discussion. The intra-party mentions were mostly in support of a political party or politician while the cross-party mentions were mostly used as a form of disagreement. This can be one of the possible reasons for the debate on government policies getting highest cross-party mentions. Discussions on COVID-19 too received considerable amount of cross-party mentions, particularly for lockdown and migration of workers. Balakot airstrikes and India China Stand-Off being comparatively less controversial topics, received lowest number of cross-party mentions. Fig. ​ Fig.9b 9 b elicits the degree of polarization of each community in terms of mentions for all the topics. Community C1 being the governing party has been found to be homophilic in all political discussions except COVID-19. Highest cross-party mentions have been identified for community C2 on all topics followed by community C3. However, for Balakot Airstrikes highest cross-party mention was from C3. Interestingly, some smaller communities like C5, C6 and C7 have been found to be homophilic during discussions on COVID-19 and Citizenship Amendment Act.

Cross-party interactions on all topics

Analysis of the retweet networks disclosed patterns of selective exposure, suggesting that the politicians participated in fragmented interactions and formed separate groups during discussions. Retweets are a form of endorsement and the network is a representative of a support network. A politician retweeting another politician or party is an indication of his/her support or agreement towards the political party or politician. The retweet networks of politicians on all topics appeared to be highly divided and segregated. The degree of polarization, however was different for different topics. The rate of polarization is highest for Farm Bills and Citizenship Amendment Act (– 0.521 and – 0.431) followed by Balakot Airstrikes and India China Stand-Off (− 0.326 and − 0.293). Least polarization has been observed in case of COVID-19 (− 0.193). The findings support the formulated hypothesis that selective exposure prevails in the retweet networks of Indian politicians. This further establishes the dual nature of social media that it not only open up conversation spaces to users but can also make the communication polarized.

At the network level, values of modularity also revealed the retweet networks to be highly segregated. The level of segregation is more for controversial topics of government policies like Farm Bills and Citizenship Amendment Act in comparison to other less controversial topics. The intensity of polarization is also different for different communities. All the communities have been identified to be homophilic for all the topics. The extent of homophily is more for government policy topics followed by national security topics and COVID-19. The analysis revealed the presence of ’echo chambers’ in the retweet networks of politicians. Our findings are in line with some of the existing studies Conover et al. ( 2011 ); Del Valle and Bravo ( 2018 ); Himelboim et al. ( 2013 ) that disclosed the ’echo chamber’ view in the retweet networks.

Figure ​ Figure10 10 elicits the pattern of selective exposure in the retweet networks of all topics. The comparative analysis of the degree of polarization and modularity in the retweet networks of the topics are depicted in Fig. ​ Fig.10a. 10 a. The extent of polarization is highest for government policy related topics Farm Bill and Citizenship Amendment Act. A possible reason for this could be the fact that the governing party frames the policies and the opposing parties are in disagreement most of the time. As retweet basically signifies support and endorsement, the politicians usually support their own parties and people forming distinct groups. The extent of polarization further increases in case of controversial and debatable topics. The results on modularity reflect the same observations. The modularity values of retweet network are highest for government policy topics, suggesting the networks to be highly segregated. Figure ​ Figure10b 10 b shows the E–I index of the retweet networks for all the communities. All the communities have been found to be highly homophilic. Some communities like C 6 and C 7 even found to be completely homophilic in most of the topics.

Selective exposure in retweet networks on all topics

The communities identified in the retweet networks have been used for similarity computation. The similarity is computed based on three factors: hashtag usage, tweet content posted and average sentiment towards a topic. For calculating the average sentiment, instead of sentiment scores, average number of positive, negative and neutral tweets posted have been considered. In terms of hashtag usage, the similarity identified between the communities does not completely comply with the retweet network structure. Some polarized communities in terms of pattern of interaction have been found to be similar in their usage of hashtags particularly for COVID-19. One important reason for this could be the higher rate of participation of politicians from these communities. Larger communities therefore, have been identified to be more similar than smaller communities. This similarity however, is comparatively less for debatable topics of government policies. The use of similar hashtags basically reflects the amount of participation of the politicians and their interests rather than their opinion towards an issue. The retweet network structure is based on the pattern of interaction of the politicians. The observations indicate that the politicians belonging to different communities or parties are using similar hashtags even though they are not retweeting each other. This refutes the third hypothesis in terms of hashtag usage that only the connected communities in the retweet network are similar to each other.

Findings on tweet content similarity revealed that the content posted by politicians on a certain topic is directly related to their pattern of communication in the retweet networks. The interconnected communities in the retweet network have higher similarity in terms of tweet content published. For instance, content on COVID-19 posted by some of the large interconnected communities like C 1, C 2 and C 3 have been found to be similar. Similarly, for Farm Bill and Citizenship Amendment Act, the interconnected communities have been found to be more similar. Sentiment similarity observations have also revealed a similar trend. The overall sentiment of the interconnected communities on a specific topic has been found to be more similar. Tweet content published and the overall sentiment on that topic reflects the opinion of the politician towards that issue. Since retweet networks are a form of support network, a politician retweeting another politician signifies agreement and thus similar opinions. However, in contradiction to the hypothesis, there are some interesting and exceptional findings on tweet content and sentiment similarity. Some non-connected communities in the retweet networks have also been found similar to each other in terms of tweet content and sentiment. For instance, community C 1 and C 3 have been found to be quiet similar in their opinions on Citizenship Amendment Act despite being highly polarized in their retweet interactions. This may be due to the fact that some communities might not have retweeted each other but the content shared and the overall sentiment of the community for the topic might be same. Similarly, some interconnected communities have been found to be dissimilar in terms of their tweet content and sentiment. A possible explanation of this could be that few politicians of a community might have retweeted another community but the overall tweet content and sentiment of both the communities are different. Few differences identified in the results of polarization based on pattern of interaction and opinion divergence only partially supports the hypothesis that only interconnected communities in the retweet networks are similar.

To better understand the difference in results, a comparative analysis has been done on polarization identified between communities in terms of both pattern of interaction and opinion divergence. Table ​ Table10 10 depicts the polarization between communities in terms of their pattern of interaction in the retweet networks. As already discussed, the amount of selective exposure in the retweet networks is very high and the network is therefore, highly polarized. From the table, it can be observed that most of the communities or parties are homophilic and tend to interact with their own community. This makes them polarized towards each other. Moreover, the extent of polarization is higher for debatable topics like Farm Bills and Citizenship Amendment Act. For these topics, since the overall degree of polarization is highest, almost all the communities are polarized towards each other. Smaller communities C 6 and C 7 have shown higher homophily and polarization for almost all the topics, suggesting that extent of homophily depends on the amount of participation. Politicians with lesser participation, retweets very less and whenever does, retweets only their own party politicians.

Polarization between communities in terms of pattern of interaction in retweet network

Table ​ Table11 11 illustrates the polarization between communities in terms of opinion divergence. The combined results of tweet content and sentiment similarity have been used as it reflects the opinion of a politician towards an issue. From the table, it can be seen that the amount of polarization for each community is highest in case of government policy topics similar to polarization in terms of pattern of interaction. However, there are some differences in the number of polarized communities identified for each community. As discussed earlier, the difference in results might be due to two factors. Some non-connected communities might not have retweeted each other but may have posted similar tweet content and have similar opinion towards an issue. Similarly, among the interconnected communities, some politicians from one community might have retweeted another community, but the overall similarity in the tweet content and sentiment is very less. Thus, based on these findings, it can be concluded that polarization based on pattern of interaction and opinion divergence might be different. For ease of understanding, the main findings of this study are summarized in Table ​ Table12 12 .

Polarization between communities in terms of opinion divergence

Summary of observations from the study

In this study, we have investigated the existence of Indian political polarization on Twitter social media platform based on two broad characteristics of polarization: pattern of interaction and opinion divergence. Social network analysis and content analysis methods have been used to analyse the tweets posted by Indian politicians during some major events in India from 2019 and 2020. The findings of the study illustrate that political polarization does exist on social media platforms like Twitter and the topic of political discourse plays an important role in the extent of polarization. High polarization exists between politicians and parties during retweets while for mention the polarization is almost null. Controversial and debatable topics are followed by higher level of polarization compared to less controversial topics. With respect to pattern of interaction, it has been identified that Indian politicians behave strategically on Twitter depending on the layer of communication. A clear tendency of homophily was observed in the retweet networks while mention networks basically includes cross-party connections. Same party mention reflects support and agreement while cross-party mention reflects disagreement. In terms of opinion divergence, it has been observed that pattern of interaction in retweet networks does not always reflect the similarity in interest and opinions among the politicians. Hashtag similarity is based on the amount of participation rather than interconnections in retweet network. Furthermore, findings on tweet content similarity and sentiment similarity revealed that interconnected communities in the retweet networks need not necessarily be similar in terms of opinion.

This study is topic specific and hence is limited to network analysis and content analysis of tweets of Indian politicians on selected topics. The results obtained therefore, might not be generalized to all political conversations on Twitter. Since follower information of politicians Twitter handle does not change with respect to topic, follower relations are not used in this study. As a future work, one can perform a more generalized study considering the follower relations along with mention and retweet. Moreover, the study has been done at the political party level, where the degree of polarization is examined across different parties. Another essential work direction could be the investigation of polarization at individual politicians level. Such examination could be helpful in identifying outliers in a political party. The analysis of opinion divergence carried out in the current study is based on retweet networks. Retweets indicate endorsement and support which better characterize the opinion difference among the politicians. Links between politicians in the mention network may not necessarily imply similar opinion. However, utilizing the mention networks as signed networks can be useful in identifying the same. The positive and negative sign of the edges between politicians in the mention network would indicate their exact sentiment or opinion towards each other.

Data availability

Declarations.

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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India: politics/public policy.

• History/Culture
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• Newspapers/Periodicals
• Politics/Public Policy
• Science/Medicine/Technology
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Politics/Public Policy--India

• Amnesty International India AI India site
• Asian Centre for Human Rights--India India page of ACHR, New Delhi
• Asian Human Rights Commission--India AHRC India page
• Business & Human Rights Resource Centre--India India country page
• Centad Consortium for Trade & Development. NGO which aims at influencing policies with a focus to drive gender neutral human resource development with an emphasis on overall socioeconomic development. Resources include climate briefs, trade briefs, & working papers.
• Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS)--India "Strategic insights and bipartisan policy solutions"
• Central Tibetan Administration "Restoring freedom for Tibetans" Dharamsala, India. Media center includes press releases, periodicals, publications, news archive, photo galleries, and Tibet TV videos
• Centre for Policy Research Public policy think tank dedicated to conducting research that contributes to better policies, and a more robust public discourse about the structures and processes that shape life in India. Includes lists of publications (some full text).
• Centre for Social Sciences and Humanities (CSH) The overall objective of the CSH is to examine the various transition processes that affect India and the South Asian region along with the impacts of globalization. The research fields cover the entire spectrum of social sciences and humanities. Includes lists of publications and a few full text articles and newsletters.
• Centre for Study of Society and Secularism CSSS was founded in 1993 in Mumbai by Asghar Ali Engineer, George Ninan and K N Pannicker. To establish a just and peaceful society where all individuals respect each others' religio-cultural views, diversity, uphold the dignity of all and ensure social justice and development for empowerment of the most deprived and marginalized. Includes e-books links.
• Centre for Women's Development Studies An autonomous research institute supported by the Indian Council of Social Sciences Research (ICSSR). Includes links to pulications and occasional papers
• Chennai Centre for China Studies (C3S) Carries out in-depth studies of developments relating to China with priority to issues of interest to India. Includes some full text articles and abstracts of book publications.
• Consumer Unity & Trust Society (CUTS International) Established in 1983 as a voice of the poor to express their developmental needs and aspirations, CUTS International is a leading Southern voice and face of consumer empowerment through its rights-based approach and activities for influencing the process and content of inclusive growth and development. The organisation's vision is "consumer sovereignty.' Based in Jaipur, India; with branches in Kolkata, Chittorgarh, and New Delhi; additional branches in Ghana, Kenya, Zambia, Vietnam, and Switzerland.
• Council on Foreign Relations--India An independent, nonpartisan membership organization, think tank, and publisher.
• Council on Foreign Relations--Kashmir An independent, nonpartisan membership organization, think tank, and publisher.
• Council on Foreign Relations--Tibet An independent, nonpartisan membership organization, think tank, and publisher.
• Foundation for Agrarian Studies Charitable trust based in India, which facilitates theoretical and empirical enquiry in the field of agrarian studies in India and elsewhere in less-developed countries. Publication links include the Review of Agrarian Studies .
• Housing and Land Rights Network (HLRN), India Works for the recognition, defence, promotion, and realisation of the human rights to adequate housing and land, which involves securing a safe and secure place for all individuals and communities, especially marginalized communities, to live in peace and dignity. Includes fact-finding reports , and other resources.
• Human Rights Watch--China and Tibet China & Tibet page
• Indus Science & Technology CASI. At a time when, India has emerged as an IT global hub, various areas are covered here including India’s adaptation to the emerging area of biotechnology, the use of IT in the banking and communication sectors, and advances in space technology. The informational links are updated on a continual basis and covered in chronological order.
• Human Rights in India 1988-2004. A collection on microfiche produced by the Library of Congress field office in New Delhi, this series reproduces pamphlets and publications from organizations such as the Association for Protection of Democratic Rights, Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Ganatantrika Adhikara Raksha Samiti, Indian People's Human Rights Commission, Naga Peoples Movement for Human Rights, Peoples Union for Democratic Rights, and the Punjab Human Rights Organisation
• Human Rights Law Network (HRLN) A collective of lawyers and social activists dedicated to the use of the legal system to advance human rights, struggle against violations, and ensure access to justice for all
• Human Rights Watch--India India country page
• The Hunger Project A global movement of individuals and organizations in 22 countries worldwide working in authentic partnership for the sustainable end of hunger. Regions include Bangladesh and India .
• India Policy Foundation A non-profit Think Tank, established in 2008, dedicated to exploring constructive solutions to contemporary problems. Includes links to monographs, reports, and research papers.
• Indian Citizenship Amendment Act Protest Movements Web Archive Documents the widespread social justice movements and anti-CAA organizations to support them, as well as the allied movements mobilizing women and students with them, including groups of freedom fighters, oppressed castes, transgender people, and other marginalized communities. The Archive also contains documentation of the government crackdowns and violent suppression of these protests.
• Indira Gandhi Institute for Development Research (IGIDR) An advanced research institute established and fully funded by the Reserve Bank of India for carrying out research on development issues from a multi-disciplinary point of view. Includes links to publications (some full text).
• Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA) A non-partisan, autonomous body dedicated to objective research and policy relevant studies on all aspects of defence and security. Includes links to publications (monographs and occasional papers).
• Institute for Social and Economic Change ISEC is is an All India Institute for Interdisciplinary Research and Training in the Social Sciences, established in 1972 in Karnataka. Full text links to working papers; abstracts of monographs.
• Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (ICPS) Promotes alternative approaches to security issues, with emphasis on opinions of the young generation from across South Asia. ICPS was founded in 1966. Includes full text publications.
• National Bureau of Asian Research--India India region links
• National Institute of Advanced Studies Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bengaluru, India. The current aims of NIAS are to integrate the findings of scholarship in the natural and social sciences as well as technology, the humanities and arts through multi-disciplinary research on the complex issues that face Indian and global society. Links to publications.
• National Institute of Rural Development & Panchayati Raj (NIRD & PR) To examine and analyse the factors contributing to the improvement of economic and social well-being of people in rural areas on a sustainable basis with focus on the rural poor and the other disadvantaged groups through research, action research and consultancy efforts. Full text publications include Journal of Rural Development, Research Reports Series and Rural Development Statistics.
• Observer Research Foundation ORF research and analysis is rooted in independent, objective inquiry, and covers the fields of foreign policy, economy and development, governance, strategy, traditional and non-traditional security, and the social sector. Geography search facets include India and The Pacific, East and Southeast Asia .
• The Prajnya Trust A non-profit centre for research, public education and networking working on issues related to peace, justice and security, based in Chennai, India. Includes links to publications.
• Programme on Women's Economic Social and Cultural Rights An international advocacy and educational initiative to promote women’s human rights, especially in the context of economic, social and cultural rights, by bringing a gender framework to policy, law and practice at local, national, regional and international levels, through ever-evolving strategies and activities. Includes links to publications.
• ReliefWeb--India Disaster and crisis updates and analysis.
• RESA (Regulatory reforms in Electricity sector in South Asia) Project A pilot project on capacity building on electricity reforms in Bangladesh, India and Nepal. Links to briefing papers, newsletters, reports, training manuals, and documentary videos.
• Right to Food Campaign An informal network of individuals and organisations committed to the realisation of the right to food in India. includes primers, articles, survey reports, court orders, campaign tools, and other resources.
• Society for the Study of Peace and Conflict (SSPC) An independent, non-profit, non-partisan research organization based in New Delhi, disseminating information through commentaries and analyses on a broad spectrum of issues relating to peace, conflict and human development.
• South Asia Analysis Group Advance strategic analysis and contributes to the expansion of knowledge of Indian and International security and promotes public understanding. In so doing, the SAAG seeks to address the decision makers, strategic planners, academics and the media in South Asia and the world at large. The group holds the concept of strategy in its broadest meaning-including mobilization and application of all resources to understand national and international security.
• The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) TERI assigns primacy to sustainable development and environmental governance. Includes links to research papers and policy briefs.
• Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy A registered non-governmental human rights organisation established in January 1996 in Dharamsala (India) with the mission to protect the human rights of the Tibetan people in Tibet and promote the principles of democracy in the exile Tibetan community. Resources include human rights updates, publications, and multimedia.
• Tibetan Women's Association Based in North India. Resources include books and reports, Dolma magazine, newsletters, Tibet news, photos, and videos.
• Transparency International India A non-government, non-party and not-for-profit civil society organization of Indian citizens with professional, social, industrial or academic experience seeking to promote transparent and ethical governance and to eradicate corruption. Resources include publications and photographs
• UNICEF--India India country site
• United Nations Development Programme in India UNDP is the UN's global development network. Use search box and links to locate documents
• World Food Programme--India

Politics/Public Policy (Cross-Regional)

• Amnesty International See countrys and regions list for geographical sub-links
• The Asan Forum An online publication for in-depth interpretation of rapid changes across the Asia-Pacific region.
• Asian Centre for Human Rights Dedicated to promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the Asian region.
• Asian Human Rights Commission The AHRC is an independent, non-governmental body, which seeks to promote greater awareness and realisation of human rights in the Asian region, and to mobilise Asian and international public opinion to obtain relief and redress for the victims of human rights violations. AHRC promotes civil and political rights, as well as economic, social and cultural rights. Includes links to reports, news updates, country websites. Based in Hong Kong.
• Business & Human Rights Resource Centre--Asia & Pacific Tracks the human rights policy and performance of over 6000 companies in over 180 countries, making information publicly available. Free weekly update e-newsletter.
• Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS)--Asia A bipartisan, nonprofit organization headquartered in Washington, D.C. Links to publications and multimedia.
• Childtrafficking.com Digital Library Online library addressing child trafficking. Swiss Foundation of Terre des hommes. Includes country reports search facets for Asia , Oceania and Australia , and other regions.
• Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) CSDS is an institute for research in the social sciences and humanities, operating since 1963. Site includes links to archived video and audio lectures.
• The Commonwealth iLibrary The Commonwealth Secretariat’s publications are a key part of the organisation’s mission to work as a trusted partner for all Commonwealth people as a force for peace, democracy, equality and good governance; a catalyst for global consensus-building; and a source of assistance for sustainable development and poverty eradication. Each year, The Commonwealth publishes around 30 new titles on a range of topics in which it has particular insight and expertise, especially concerning small states, including globalisation and multilateral trade issues export and enterprise development, education, gender, public service, management and reform, law and human rights. Columbia University selectively subscribes to this database, so pdf downloads will not be available for all materials.
• Council on Foreign Relations--Asia and Pacific An independent, nonpartisan membership organization, think tank, and publisher. Links to publications, among other resources
• DCAF The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces is an international foundation whose mission is to assist the international community in pursuing good governance and reform of the security sector. See Asia region and publications links.
• Delhi Policy Group An independent think tank (founded in 1994) with primary focus on strategic issues of critical national interest to India. Includes links to full text publications.
• EHRAF world cultures . This link opens in a new window A collection of full-text primary source materials on ca. 400 different cultural, ethnic, religious and national groups in the following regions of the world: Asia, Europe, Africa, Middle East, North America, Oceania, Eurasia and South America. Access is via keyword, as well as through geographic (OWC) codes and a topical (OCM) classification scheme. more... less... EHRAF world cultures .
• FIDH--Asia FIDH is an international human rights NGO federating 178 organizations from 120 countries. Since 1922, FIDH has been defending all civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights as set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
• Global Conflict Tracker An interactive guide to ongoing conflicts around the world of concern to the United States. The interactive covers nearly thirty conflicts with background information and resources on each conflict.
• Global Social Responses to Covid-19 Web Archive Created in March 2020, at the onset of the pandemic, the Archive documents regional, social responses to the pandemic, which are critical in understanding the scope of the pandemic’s humanitarian, socioeconomic, and cultural impact.
• Human Development Reports United Nations Development Programme. Includes links to country profiles, data, and publications.
• Human Rights Watch Use countries menu for country specific content.
• ICIMOD--Information Resources The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development ( ICIMOD ) is a regional intergovernmental learning and knowledge sharing centre serving the eight regional member countries of the Hindu Kush Himalayas – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan – and based in Kathmandu, Nepal. ICIMOD collates, shares, and links to information on a multitude of topics relevant to mountain development, especially in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. Links to all ICIMOD's publications online, HimalDoc , mountain geoportal , regional database system, stories, and other various information.
• IFAD The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), a specialized agency of the United Nations. Use search menu for country or region specific links.
• Institute of Development Studies A global institution based at the University of Sussex, UK. Search publications by "Country & Region" for Asia specific resources.
• International Crisis Group Presents reports prepared by political analysts for the International Crisis Group (ICG), a private, multinational organization. ICG analysts use field research techniques to gather information about various international crises. Reports are distributed to foreign ministries and international organizations. One can sign up for customized briefings alerts.
• Mahbub ul Haq Human Development Centre Policy research institute and think take in Islamabad, Pakistan. Includes links to annual Human Development in South Asia " target="_blank">Human Development in South Asia report, and other publications.
• Migration Policy Institute--Asia and the Pacific MPI is an independent, nonpartisan, nonprofit think tank in Washington, DC dedicated to analysis of the movement of people worldwide. The research here focuses in particular on how the labor-sending countries of the region, notably the Philippines and other Colombo Process countries, manage these migration flows, engage in bilateral and multilateral cooperation with migrant-receiving nations, and engage their diasporas. The recruitment process and regulation of recruitment agencies also represent a strand of the work offered here.
• National Bureau of Asian Research NBR conducts advanced independent research on strategic, political, economic, globalization, health, and energy issues affecting U.S. relations with Asia. The institution organizes its research around three broad topics: politics and security; trade, economics, and energy; and international health.
• National Centre of Competence in Research Research Partnerships for Sustainable Development, headquartered in Switzerland. The NCCR North-South programme formally ended in June 2014 so the website is no longer being updated. Search interface includes filters for publications on South Asia and on Southeast Asia .
• New Asia Forum Networking for an Asian economic community. Links to full text publications.
• Overseas Development Institute ODI is the UK's leading independent think tank on international development and humanitarian issues. Publications database includes country/region search facet.
• Pathways of Women's Empowerment An international research and communications programme established in 2006 with the aim of understanding and influencing efforts to bring about positive change in women’s lives. The South Asia Hub (based at BRAC University, Bangladesh) is one of four regional centers, and offers a comparative intra-regional enquiry into countries with a common majority Muslim identity.
• Refugees, relief and resettlement : forced migration and World War II Archives of the Central British Fund for World Jewish Relief, 1933-1960 -- Records of the Department of State relating to the problems of relief and refugees in Europe arising from World War II and its aftermath, 1938-1949 -- Refugee files from the records of the Foreign Office, 1938-1950 -- Refugee records from the general correspondence files of the political departments of the Foreign Office, record group 371, 1938-1950 -- Refugee records from the public and judicial department collections of the British India Office, 1939-1952 -- Refugee records from the War Cabinet, the Colonial Office, the Home Office and the War Office, 1935-1949.
• ReliefWeb A specialized digital service of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). A leading source for reliable and timely humanitarian information on global crises and disasters. Includes browse by countries search.
• SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Includes links to digital library.
• Sarcajc Research in Journalism Advertisement & Cartoon South Asian Research Centre for Advertisement, Journalism & Cartoons
• South Asia Strategic Forum SASFOR is an Online Think Tank for rigorous and comprehensive studies of the internal and external challenges to the political, socio-economic and military capabilities and complexities of this region and their impact on the geo-political scenario.
• South Asian Alliance for Poverty Eradication (SAAPE) SAAPE’s main focus is poverty eradication through policy research, advocacy, lobbying and campaign works, focusing on food sovereignty, gender justice and demilitarization, democratisation and social justice issues in South Asia.
• South Asian Born-Digital NGO Reports Collection Project An NYU project to identify, prioritize, archive, preserve and make discoverable and accessible to scholars curated elements of documentation from and about South Asia produced by government agencies, NGOs, think tanks, community organizations, research centers, underground groups, religious sects, political parties, women’s groups, social activists, human rights organizations, LGBTQ advocacy groups, and other content creators.
• South Asian Gender and Sexuality Web Archive Documents and preserves the work of activists, grassroots organizations, and social justice movements committed to promoting the visibility and experiences of LGBTQAI+ people and women in South Asia and its diasporas.
• South Asian Intelligence Review: weekly asessments & briefings SAIR is a project of the South Asia Terrorism Portal.
• South Asia Terrorism Portal A project by the Institute for Conflict Management , an autonomous, non-governmental, non-profit society set up in 1997, based in New Delhi, India.The Institute is committed to the task of evaluating terrorist and violent movements which threaten the fabric of modern states in South Asia and recommend solutions.
• Strategic Foresight Group A think - tank (founded in 2002) engaged in crafting new policy concepts that enable decision makers to prepare for a future in uncertain times. Works within three areas of focus: 1. Water Diplomacy 2. Peace, Conflict and Terrorism 3. Global Foresight.
• Swiss Peace--Asia An associated Institute of the University of Basel and member of the Swiss Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences. Swisspeace is a practice-oriented peace research institute. It analyses the causes of violent conflicts and develops strategies for their peaceful transformation.
• Terrorism Research & Analysis Consortium : TRAC. This link opens in a new window Created by The Beacham Group, LLC, Terrorism Research & Analysis Consortium (TRAC) is a resource for the study of political violence of all kinds. more... less... Terrorism Research & Analysis Consortium : TRAC.
• UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization website. Resources include publications, media, statistics, and a UNESCO Web Archive site.
• UNICEF--South Asia South Asia regional office site
• United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) UNDP works in nearly 170 countries and territories, helping to achieve the eradication of poverty, and the reduction of inequalities and exclusion.
• United Nations ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. The regional development arm of the United Nations for the Asia-Pacific region. Includes subregional office links, publications, and ESCAP statistical database.
• U.S. bilateral relations fact sheets Part of the US State Department's Bureau of Public Affairs website. Each fact sheet presents overview information on an individual country concerning their relationship to the United States.
• USAID's Development Experience Clearinghouse (DEC) Search a half century of U.S. international aid records. Holds USAID's institutional memory, spanning over 50 years; including documents, images, video and audio materials.
• Women's studies international. This link opens in a new window Provides citations and some abstracts to the core areas of Women's studies. Includes material from Women studies abstracts (1984-present), Women's studies bibliography database, Women's studies database (1972-present), New books on women and feminism (1987-present), Women of color and southern women (1975-present), The history of women and science, health, and technology: a bibliographic guide to the professions and disciplines (1970-1995), Women's health and development: an annotated bibliography (1995), Women, race, and ethnicity: a bibliography (1970-1990), WAVE: Women's audiovisuals in English: a guide to nonprint resources in women's studies (1985-1990) and the MEDLINE subset on women (1964-2000). Covers journals, newspapers, newsletters, bulletins, books, book chapters, proceedings, reports, theses, dissertations, NGO studies, websites and grey literature. annually. more... less... Women's studies international.
• World Development Report The World Bank. Published annually since 1978, each report provides in-depth analysis and policy recommendations on a specific and important aspect of development—from agriculture, the role of the state, transition economies, and labor to infrastructure, health, the environment, and poverty.
• World Food Programme The world's largest humanitarian agency fighting hunger worldwide.
• World Health Organization Includes links to country pages, data, and publications

Farmers Rally, Bhopal, India

Government Sites India

• AP State Portal Official portal of Andhra Pradesh Government. Also see APOnline .
• Civil List, Indian Administrative Service Browesable and searchable list of IAS officers
• Districts of India An endeavour to provide a one-stop source for all the information about Districts of India at one place on the web. Links to village level mapping of demography and amenities (External website that opens in a new window) maps on the GIS based website. This enables dynamic generation of choropleth maps for rural India for more than 160 parameters of Primary census abstract 2001 and data, provided by Registrar General of India. Also links to the website of Survey of India.
• india.gov.in National Portal of India Single window access to the information and services being provided by the Indian Government for citizens and other stakeholders
• Indian Parliament Includes links to President of India, Rajya Sabha (Council of States), and Lok Sabha (House of the People) websites
• Labour Bureau, Government of India Includes links to reports and to reports archive .
• Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India Includes latest news , video briefings, and media center among other resources.
• Ministry of Finance, Government of India Links to documents, reports (annual, mid-year and quarterly), speeches and webcasts.
• Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India Includes link to Annual reports and North East newsletter , among other resources.
• Ministry of Labour & Employment, Government of India The main responsibility of the Ministry is to protect and safeguard the interests of workers in general and those who constitute the poor, deprived and disadvantage sections of the society, in particular. Includes links to Annual reports (under "Documents"), and other resources.
• Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India Links to Statistical Data, Monitoring Data, and Reports & Publications.
• National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, India. Broadly the core activity of NISCAIR will be to collect/store, publish and disseminate S&T information through a mix of traditional and modern means.
• NITI Aayog (National Institute for Transforming India), Government of India Links to documents, e-books, statistics, a knowledge hub, and media.
• Planning Commission, Government of India The Planning Commission, Government of India website is archived . Since January 2015, it is succeeded by the NITI Aayog website .
• Planning & Development Department, Government of Punjab Links to digital resources include budget, census, economic survey, Punjab development, statistical reports, etc.

India Political Party Sites

• Bharatiya Janata Party BJP site includes downloadable media resources.
• Indian Parliament & Legislative Assemblies search engine Custom Google search engine , by S. Vivek, that will scan the websites of Indian Parliament and most legislative assemblies.
• Parliament of India: Lok Sabha: House of the People Includes links to members biographical sketches, legislative questions and debates, pending legislation, and LS Television. Part of the Indian Parliament website.
• Parliament of India: Rajya Sabha: Council of States Includes links legislative questions and debates, and Rajya Sabha TV. Part of the Indian Parliament website.
• President of India Includes links to speeches, press releases, etc. Part of the Indian Parliament website.
• Parliamentary debates: official report Rajya Sabha official report. Print format issues in Butler Stacks. See also Parliamentary debates : official report. Appendix . Also see CRL holdings for Parliamentary debates: official report .
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• Last Updated: Feb 22, 2024 6:27 PM
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Vol. 59, Issue No,13, 30 Mar, 2024

Free and fair elections after electoral bonds, a call for course correction, from 25 years ago, from 25 years ago: threats to syncretic culture: baba budan giri incident, from 50 years ago, from 50 years ago: a chronicle of the dmk split, shipping joins tiktok to be a part of the us–china trade war, decoding india’s mysterious urbanisation, inferences on consumption inequality and poverty headcounts, milk production in ahmednagar district - determinants of decline, explaining the bjp’s triumph in the 2023 madhya pradesh elections, book reviews, the myriad challenges of internal security, of starfish and scientists, liberatory praxis and climate justice discourse in india, the juvenile justice act and its impact on families, entrepreneurship and marginalised social identities in india, impact of dairy cooperatives on milk productivity - evidence from rural bihar, mapping the politics of adivasiyat in jharkhand, current statistics, argentina’s rejection of the brics membership, hazards of dry ice and liquid nitrogen.

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NCERT edits out references to Babri demolition, updates Ayodhya discourse from CBSE Class 12 Political Science Textbook: Check the changes

Visual Stories

Talking politics with strangers isn't as awful as you'd expect, research suggests

Many of us avoid discussing politics with someone who holds an opposing viewpoint, assuming the exchange will turn nasty or awkward. But having those conversations is far more gratifying than we expect, a new research paper suggests.

Across a series of experiments involving hundreds of U.S. adults, a team of scientists found that individuals underestimate the social connection they can make with a stranger who disagrees with them. The findings are published in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

These low expectations may help to explain why people think those on the opposite side of the political spectrum have more extreme views than they actually do, behavioral scientists Kristina A. Wald (University of Pennsylvania), Michael Kardas (Oklahoma State University), and Nicholas Epley (University of Chicago) wrote in an article about their research.

"Mistakenly fearing a negative interaction may create misplaced partisan divides," they wrote, "not only keeping people from connecting with each other but also keeping people from learning about each other and from each other."

The experimenters found evidence, through experiments conducted online and in person, that people prefer to avoid hot-button issues, especially with people who disagree with them. People also tend to advise their friends and relatives to avoid such conversations.

But Wald, Kardas, and Epley believed people would find discussing their political differences to be a more positive experience than expected, at least partly because people fail to appreciate the extent to which conversations are informative and draw people closer together.

To test their theory, they asked nearly 200 participants in one experiment for their opinions on divisive political and religious topics, such as abortion and climate change. The researchers then divided the participants into pairs and assigned them to discuss one of these topics. Some participants were told in advance whether their partners agreed with them or not, but others entered the discussions unaware of their partners' views.

All the participants reported how positively or negatively they expected the conversation to be, then engaged in the discussion while being video recorded. Afterward, the participants rated their sentiments about the dialogue. Research assistants also viewed the videos of the conversations and evaluated them across several dimensions.

As predicted, the participants underestimated how positive their conversation experience would be, but this tendency was largest when they disagreed with their partner. Participants in this disagreement condition also underestimated the similarities in their opinions. Coders who watched the videos of these conversations confirmed that participants tended to stay on topic, and that the conversations were consistently positive whether the participants agreed or disagreed.

In another experiment, the researchers tested their hypothesis that people underestimate how the process of conversation itself -- actual back-and-forth dialogue -- connects people. To do so, they randomly assigned participants to discuss a divisive topic they agreed or disagreed on, but they also randomly assigned participants to either have a conversation about the topic in a dialogue format or to simply learn of their partners' beliefs on the topic in a monologue format. In the monologue format, each person separately recorded themselves talking about their opinion and then watched the other person's recording.

Overall, the participants underestimated how positive their interactions would be, especially when they disagreed with their partner, the researchers noted. But this tendency was especially strong when people actually had a conversation with their partner rather than simply learning of their beliefs in a monologue. The social forces in conversation that draw people together through back-and-forth dialogue are not only powerful, but they appear to be even more powerful than people expect.

The researchers cautioned that their experiments involved participants talking with strangers; the experiments did not reveal how disagreements unfold among family and friends. Still, they said their findings illustrate the benefits of talking and listening to others rather than typing and broadcasting in debates on social media.

Our reluctance to discuss our differences denies us some positive social interactions, the authors concluded.

"Misunderstanding the outcomes of a conversation," they wrote, "could lead people to avoid discussing disagreements more often, creating a misplaced barrier to learning, social connection, free inquiry, and free expression."

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Story Source:

Materials provided by Association for Psychological Science . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Kristina A. Wald, Michael Kardas, Nicholas Epley. Misplaced Divides? Discussing Political Disagreement With Strangers Can Be Unexpectedly Positive . Psychological Science , 2024; DOI: 10.1177/09567976241230005

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Lok Sabha elections 2024: What are VVPAT slips & what is the INDIA bloc's demand on this?

Lok sabha elections 224: opposition parties in the india bloc have been demanding complete (100 per cent) counting of vvpats to increase public confidence in electronic voting machines. the opposition alleges that the poll panel had refused to meet a delegation of party leaders on the issue..

The Supreme Court has issued a notice to the Election Commission of India regarding the plea demanding complete counting of Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) paper slips in elections.

In the existing practice, only five randomly selected EVMs in each assembly segment of a Lok Sabha seat are verified through counting of Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) paper slips.

INDIA bloc’s demand

The Congress party hailed the notice as an “ important first step " and said the matter should be decided before the Lok Sabha elections 2024 begin.

Opposition parties in the INDIA bloc have been demanding complete (100 per cent) counting of VVPATs to increase public confidence in Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and to ensure the integrity of the electoral process. The opposition alleges that the poll panel had refused to meet a delegation of party leaders from INDIA bloc on this issue.

The latest petition

In its order on April 1, a bench of Justices BR Gavai and Sandeep Mehta sought a response from the poll panel and Union government. The petition was filed by Karnataka-based lawyer- activist Arun Kumar Agrawal through advocate Neha Rathi.

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The petition sought inter-alia counting of all VVPAT paper slips in polls. While pronouncing the order, the bench tagged the petition with another plea filed by election watchdog, Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR). Earlier, the poll panel had cited practical difficulties in verifying all VVPATs in the ADR petition.

“If simultaneous verification is done and more number of officers are deployed for counting in each assembly constituency, then complete VVPAT verification can be done in matter of 5-6 hours," the petition said.

It said that the government has spent ₹ 5000 crores on the purchase of 24 lakh VVPATs, but VVPAT slips of only 20,000 VVPATs are verified. The petitioner also said that questions are being raised by experts with regard to VVPATs and EVMs and the fact that large number of discrepancies between EVM and VVPAT vote count have been reported in the past.

Blast from the past

This is not the first time that the matter has reached top court. On April 8, 2019, the Supreme Court asked the poll panel to increase the number of EVMs that undergo VVPAT physical verification from one to five per assembly segment in a parliamentary constituency.

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On May 21, 2019 the Supreme Court had dismissed a writ petition seeking 100 per cent counting of VVPAT in the Lok Sabha polls. The result of Lok Sabha Elections 2019 was announced on two days later.

Earlier in the same month, the top court had dismissed the review petition filed by 21 opposition parties to increase verification of VVPAT-EVM to 50 per cent.

What is a VVPAT?

Introduced first time in India in the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, VVPAT or the Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail is basically a ballot-less vote verification system connected with the EVM.

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The VVPAT generates a paper slip to be viewed by the voter and allows him/her to verify whether the vote was cast correctly on the EVM . The slip contains the name and symbol of the party they have voted for.

The machine also has a transparent window for the voter to see the printed slip. Eventually, the slip goes inside a sealed box of the machine. This can, however, be opened if there is a dispute.

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