methodology paper history

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• Prof. Kenda Mutongi

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• Historical Methods

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Theories and methods in the study of history, course description.

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Steps for Writing a History Paper

Writing a history paper is a process.  Successful papers are not completed in a single moment of genius or inspiration, but are developed over a series of steps.  When you first read a paper prompt, you might feel overwhelmed or intimidated.  If you think of writing as a process and break it down into smaller steps, you will find that paper-writing is manageable, less daunting, and even enjoyable.  Writing a history paper is your opportunity to do the real work of historians, to roll up your sleeves and dig deep into the past.

What is a History paper?

History papers are driven by arguments.  In a history class, even if you are not writing a paper based on outside research, you are still writing a paper that requires some form of argument.  For example, suppose your professor has asked you to write a paper discussing the differences between colonial New England and colonial Virginia.  It might seem like this paper is straightforward and does not require an argument, that it is simply a matter of finding the “right answer.”  However, even here you need to construct a paper guided by a larger argument.  You might argue that the main differences between colonial New England and Virginia were grounded in contrasting visions of colonization.  Or you might argue that the differences resulted from accidents of geography or from extant alliances between regional Indian groups.  Or you might make an argument that draws on all of these factors.  Regardless, when you make these types of assertions, you are making an argument that requires historical evidence.  Any history paper you write will be driven by an argument demanding evidence from sources.

History writing assignments can vary widely–and you should always follow your professor’s specific instructions–but the following steps are designed to help no matter what kind of history paper you are writing.  Remember that the staff of the History Writing Center is here to assist you at any stage of the writing process.

• Sometimes professors distribute prompts with several sub-questions surrounding the main question they want you to write about.  The sub-questions are designed to help you think about the topic.  They offer ideas you might consider, but they are not, usually, the key question or questions you need to answer in your paper.  Make sure you distinguish the key questions from the sub-questions.  Otherwise, your paper may sound like a laundry list of short-answer essays rather than a cohesive argument. A helpful way to hone in on the key question is to look for action verbs, such as “analyze” or “investigate” or “formulate.”  Find such words in the paper prompt and circle them.  Then, carefully consider what you are being asked to do.  Write out the key question at the top of your draft and return to it often, using it to guide you in the writing process.  Also, be sure that you are responding to every part of the prompt.  Prompts will often have several questions you need to address in your paper.  If you do not cover all aspects, then you are not responding fully to the assignment.  For more information, visit our section, “Understanding Paper Prompts.”
• Before you even start researching or drafting, take a few minutes to consider what you already know about the topic.  Make a list of ideas or draw a cluster diagram, using circles and arrows to connect ideas–whatever method works for you.  At this point in the process, it is helpful to write down all of your ideas without stopping to judge or analyze each one in depth.  You want to think big and bring in everything you know or suspect about the topic.  After you have finished, read over what you have created.  Look for patterns or trends or questions that keep coming up.  Based on what you have brainstormed, what do you still need to learn about the topic?  Do you have a tentative argument or response to the paper prompt?  Use this information to guide you as you start your research and develop a thesis.
• Depending on the paper prompt, you may be required to do outside research or you may be using only the readings you have done in class.  Either way, start by rereading the relevant materials from class.  Find the parts from the textbook, from the primary source readings, and from your notes that relate to the prompt. If you need to do outside research, the UCLA library system offers plenty of resources.  You can begin by plugging key words into the online library catalog.  This process will likely involve some trial and error.  You will want to use search terms that are specific enough to address your topic without being so narrow that you get no results.  If your keywords are too general, you may receive thousands of results and feel overwhelmed.  To help you narrow your search, go back to the key questions in the essay prompt that you wrote down in Step 1.  Think about which terms would help you respond to the prompt.  Also, look at the language your professor used in the prompt.  You might be able to use some of those same words as search terms. Notice that the library website has different databases you can search depending on what type of material you need (such as scholarly articles, newspapers, books) and what subject and time period you are researching (such as eighteenth-century England or ancient Rome).  Searching the database most relevant to your topic will yield the best results.  Visit the library’s History Research Guide for tips on the research process and on using library resources.  You can also schedule an appointment with a librarian to talk specifically about your research project.  Or, make an appointment with staff at the History Writing Center for research help.  Visit our section about using electronic resources as well.
• By this point, you know what the prompt is asking, you have brainstormed possible responses, and you have done some research.  Now you need to step back, look at the material you have, and develop your argument.  Based on the reading and research you have done, how might you answer the question(s) in the prompt?  What arguments do your sources allow you to make?  Draft a thesis statement in which you clearly and succinctly make an argument that addresses the prompt. If you find writing a thesis daunting, remember that whatever you draft now is not set in stone.  Your thesis will change.  As you do more research, reread your sources, and write your paper, you will learn more about the topic and your argument.  For now, produce a “working thesis,” meaning, a thesis that represents your thinking up to this point.  Remember it will almost certainly change as you move through the writing process.  For more information, visit our section about thesis statements.  Once you have a thesis, you may find that you need to do more research targeted to your specific argument.  Revisit some of the tips from Step 3.
• Now that you have a working thesis, look back over your sources and identify which ones are most critical to you–the ones you will be grappling with most directly in order to make your argument.  Then, annotate them.  Annotating sources means writing a paragraph that summarizes the main idea of the source as well as shows how you will use the source in your paper.  Think about what the source does for you.  Does it provide evidence in support of your argument?  Does it offer a counterpoint that you can then refute, based on your research?  Does it provide critical historical background that you need in order to make a point?  For more information about annotating sources, visit our section on annotated bibliographies. While it might seem like this step creates more work for you by having to do more writing, it in fact serves two critical purposes: it helps you refine your working thesis by distilling exactly what your sources are saying, and it helps smooth your writing process.  Having dissected your sources and articulated your ideas about them, you can more easily draw upon them when constructing your paper.  Even if you do not have to do outside research and are limited to working with the readings you have done in class, annotating sources is still very useful.  Write down exactly how a particular section in the textbook or in a primary source reader will contribute to your paper.
• An outline is helpful in giving you a sense of the overall structure of your paper and how best to organize your ideas.  You need to decide how to arrange your argument in a way that will make the most sense to your reader.  Perhaps you decide that your argument is most clear when presented chronologically, or perhaps you find that it works best with a thematic approach.  There is no one right way to organize a history paper; it depends entirely on the prompt, on your sources, and on what you think would be most clear to someone reading it. An effective outline includes the following components: the research question from the prompt (that you wrote down in Step 1), your working thesis, the main idea of each body paragraph, and the evidence (from both primary and secondary sources) you will use to support each body paragraph.  Be as detailed as you can when putting together your outline.

If you have trouble getting started or are feeling overwhelmed, try free writing.  Free writing is a low-stakes writing exercise to help you get past the blank page.  Set a timer for five or ten minutes and write down everything you know about your paper: your argument, your sources, counterarguments, everything.  Do not edit or judge what you are writing as you write; just keep writing until the timer goes off.  You may be surprised to find out how much you knew about your topic.  Of course, this writing will not be polished, so do not be tempted to leave it as it is.  Remember that this draft is your first one, and you will be revising it.

A particularly helpful exercise for global-level revision is to make a reverse outline, which will help you look at your paper as a whole and strengthen the way you have organized and substantiated your argument.  Print out your draft and number each of the paragraphs.  Then, on a separate piece of paper, write down each paragraph number and, next to it, summarize in a phrase or a sentence the main idea of that paragraph.  As you produce this list, notice if any paragraphs attempt to make more than one point: mark those for revision.  Once you have compiled the list, read it over carefully.  Study the order in which you have sequenced your ideas.  Notice if there are ideas that seem out of order or repetitive.  Look for any gaps in your logic.  Does the argument flow and make sense?

When revising at the local level, check that you are using strong topic sentences and transitions, that you have adequately integrated and analyzed quotations, and that your paper is free from grammar and spelling errors that might distract the reader or even impede your ability to communicate your point.  One helpful exercise for revising on the local level is to read your paper out loud.  Hearing your paper will help you catch grammatical errors and awkward sentences.

Here is a checklist of questions to ask yourself while revising on both the global and local levels:

– Does my thesis clearly state my argument and its significance?

– Does the main argument in each body paragraph support my thesis?

– Do I have enough evidence within each body paragraph to make my point?

– Have I properly introduced, analyzed, and cited every quotation I use?

– Do my topic sentences effectively introduce the main point of each paragraph?

– Do I have transitions between paragraphs?

– Is my paper free of grammar and spelling errors?

• Congratulate yourself. You have written a history paper!

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Research Methods for History

• Lucy Faire and Simon Gunn
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• Language: English
• Publisher: Edinburgh University Press
• Copyright year: 2016
• Audience: College/higher education;
• Main content: 288
• Other: 24 B/W illustrations
• Keywords: History
• Published: July 8, 2016
• ISBN: 9781474408745

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13 Analyzing and Interpreting Historical Sources: A Basic Methodology

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This chapter outlines a methodology for the interpretation of historical sources, helping to realize their full potential for the study of organization, while overcoming their challenges in terms of distortions created by time, changes in context, and selective production or preservation. Drawing on social scientific methods as well as the practice and reflections of historians, the chapter describes analytical and interpretive process based on three basic elements, illustrating them with exemplars from management research: source criticism to identify possible biases and judge the extent to which a source can be trusted to address the research question; triangulation with additional sources to confirm or question an interpretation and strengthen the overall findings; hermeneutics to relate sources to their original contexts and make their interpretation by a researcher today more robust. The chapter contributes to the creation of a language for describing the use of historical sources in management research.

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On the Methods and Methodologies of Historical Studies in Education

Perennial Debates, Current Issues, and Future Directions Surrounding Inquires into Our Past

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• Jon N. Hale 2  

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE))

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This part of the Handbook of Historical Studies in Education addresses a perennial theme in the field of historical research in education. Since the development of historical studies of education in the early twentieth century, the place of historical studies, oftentimes grouped into “foundations of education” or “history of education” programs at colleges and universities across the globe, has been contested. In the wake of neoliberal and corporate-driven reform of the twenty-first century, the methodology of historical studies and the foundations of education are often marginalized. In some instances, historical studies of education have even been shut down or absorbed into more quantitative-orientated programs.

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Hale, J.N. (2020). On the Methods and Methodologies of Historical Studies in Education. In: Fitzgerald, T. (eds) Handbook of Historical Studies in Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2362-0_49

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 6. The Methodology
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The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

• Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
• Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
• In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
• The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
• The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
• The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
• In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

• The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
• The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II.  Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

• Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
• Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
• The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
• The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

• Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
• Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
• Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
• Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
• Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
• Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
• Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
• Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE :   Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE : If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE :   If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III.  Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

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How to Write a History Research Paper

• How do I pick a topic?
• But I can’t find any material…

Research Guide

Writing guide.

See also: How to Write a Good History Essay

1. How do I pick a topic?

Picking a topic is perhaps the most important step in writing a research paper. To do it well requires several steps of refinement. First you have to determine a general area in which you have an interest (if you aren’t interested, your readers won’t be either). You do not write a paper “about the Civil War,” however, for that is such a large and vague concept that the paper will be too shallow or you will be swamped with information. The next step is to narrow your topic. Are you interested in comparison? battles? social change? politics? causes? biography? Once you reach this stage try to formulate your research topic as a question. For example, suppose that you decide to write a paper on the use of the films of the 1930’s and what they can tell historians about the Great Depression. You might turn that into the following question: “What are the primary values expressed in films of the 1930’s?” Or you might ask a quite different question, “What is the standard of living portrayed in films of the 1930’s?” There are other questions, of course, which you could have asked, but these two clearly illustrate how different two papers on the same general subject might be. By asking yourself a question as a means of starting research on a topic you will help yourself find the answers. You also open the door to loading the evidence one way or another. It will help you decide what kinds of evidence might be pertinent to your question, and it can also twist perceptions of a topic. For example, if you ask a question about economics as motivation, you are not likely to learn much about ideals, and vice versa.

2. But I can’t find any material…

No one should pick a topic without trying to figure out how one could discover pertinent information, nor should anyone settle on a topic before getting some background information about the general area. These two checks should make sure your paper is in the realm of the possible. The trick of good research is detective work and imaginative thinking on how one can find information. First try to figure out what kinds of things you should know about a topic to answer your research question. Are there statistics? Do you need personal letters? What background information should be included? Then if you do not know how to find that particular kind of information, ASK . A reference librarian or professor is much more likely to be able to steer you to the right sources if you can ask a specific question such as “Where can I find statistics on the number of interracial marriages?” than if you say “What can you find on racial attitudes?”

Use the footnotes and bibliographies of general background books as well as reference aids to lead you to special studies. If Carleton does not have the books or sources you need, try ordering through the library minitex. Many sources are also available on-line.

As your research paper takes shape you will find that you need background on people, places, events, etc. Do not just rely on some general survey for all of your background. Check the several good dictionaries of biography for background on people, or see if there is a standard book-length biography. If you are dealing with a legal matter check into the background of the judges who make the court decision and the circumstances surrounding the original incident or law. Try looking for public opinions in newspapers of the time. In other words, each bit of information you find should open the possibility of other research paths.

Learn to use several research techniques. You cannot count on a good research paper coming from browsing on one shelf at the library. A really pertinent book may be hidden in another section of the library due to classification quirks. The Readers’ Guide (Ref. A13 .R4) is not the only source for magazine articles, nor the card catalog for books. There are whole books which are listings of other books on particular topics. There are specialized indexes of magazine articles. Modern History Journals are indexed in the Social Studies and Humanities Index (Ref. A13 .R282) before 1976 After 1976 use the Social Sciences Index (REF A13 .S62) and the Humanities Index (Ref. A13 .H85). See also Historical Abstracts (Ref. D1 .H5). Reference Librarians would love to help you learn to use these research tools. It pays to browse in the reference room at the library and poke into the guides which are on the shelves. It also pays to browse the Internet.

3. Help! How do I put this together?

A. preliminary research:.

If you do not already have a general background on your topic, get the most recent good general source on the topic and read it for general orientation. On the basis of that reading formulate as clearly focused question as you can. You should generally discuss with your professor at that point whether your question is a feasible one.

B. Building a Basic Bibliography:

Use the bibliography/notes in your first general source, MUSE, and especially Historical Abstracts on cd-rom in the Library Reading Room (the computer farthest to the left in the front row as you walk past the Reference Desk — or ask there). If there is a specialized bibliography on your topic, you will certainly want to consult that as well, but these are often a bit dated.

C. Building a Full Bibliography:

Read the recent articles or chapters that seem to focus on your topic best. This will allow you to focus your research question quite a bit. Use the sources cited and/or discussed in this reading to build a full bibliography. Use such tools as Historical Abstracts (or, depending on your topic, the abstracts from a different field) and a large, convenient computer-based national library catalog (e.g. the University of California system from the “Libs” command in your VAX account or the smaller University of Minnesota library through MUSE) to check out your sources fully. For specific article searches “Uncover” (press returns for the “open access”) or possibly (less likely for history) “First Search” through “Connect to Other Resources” in MUSE can also be useful.

D. Major Research:

Now do the bulk of your research. But do not overdo it. Do not fall into the trap of reading and reading to avoid getting started on the writing. After you have the bulk of information you might need, start writing. You can fill in the smaller gaps of your research more effectively later.

A. Outline:

Write a preliminary thesis statement, expressing what you believe your major argument(s) will be. Sketch out a broad outline that indicates the structure — main points and subpoints or your argument as it seems at this time. Do not get too detailed at this point.

B. The First Draft:

On the basis of this thesis statement and outline, start writing, even pieces, as soon as you have enough information to start. Do not wait until you have filled all the research gaps. Keep on writing. If you run into smaller research questions just mark the text with a searchable symbol. It is important that you try to get to the end point of this writing as soon as possible, even if you leave pieces still in outline form at first and then fill the gaps after you get to the end.

Critical advice for larger papers: It is often more effective not to start at the point where the beginning of your paper will be. Especially the introductory paragraph is often best left until later, when you feel ready and inspired.

C. The Second Draft:

The “second draft” is a fully re-thought and rewritten version of your paper. It is at the heart of the writing process.

First, lay your first draft aside for a day or so to gain distance from it. After that break, read it over with a critical eye as you would somebody else’s paper (well, almost!). You will probably find that your first draft is still quite descriptive, rather than argumentative. It is likely to wander; your perspective and usually even the thesis seemed to change/develop as you wrote. Don’t despair. That is perfectly normal even for experienced writers (even after 40 years and a good deal of published work!). You will be frustrated. But keep questioning your paper along the following lines: What precisely are my key questions? What parts of my evidence here are really pertinent to those questions (that is, does it help me answer them)? How or in what order can I structure my paper most effectively to answer those questions most clearly and efficiently for my reader?

At this point you must outline your paper freshly. Mark up your first draft, ask tough questions whether your argument is clear and whether the order in which you present your points is effective! You must write conceptually a new paper at this point, even if you can use paragraphs and especially quotes, factual data in the new draft.

It is critical that in your new draft your paragraphs start with topic sentences that identify the argument you will be making in the particular paragraph (sometimes this can be strings of two or three paragraphs). The individual steps in your argument must be clearly reflected in the topic sentences of your paragraphs (or a couple of them linked).

D. The Third or Final Draft:

You are now ready to check for basic rules of good writing. This is when you need to check the diction, that is, the accuracy and suitability of words. Eliminate unnecessary passive or awkward noun constructions (active-voice, verbal constructions are usually more effective); improve the flow of your transitions; avoid repetitions or split infinitives; correct apostrophes in possessives and such. Make the style clear and smooth. Check that the start of your paper is interesting for the reader. Last but not least, cut out unnecessary verbiage and wordiness. Spell-check and proof-read.

– Diethelm Prowe, 1998

Historical Methods

Through this choice of papers students are encouraged to reflect on the variety of approaches used by modern historians, or on the ways in which history has been written in the past, to read historical classics written in a range of ancient and modern languages, or to acquire the numerical skills needed for certain types of historical investigation. 

Students can choose any one option of:

Approaches to History

This paper introduces students to ways of looking at the past that will probably be novel to them. The course explores both the strengths and the weaknesses of looking at the past from the perspective of other intellectual disciplines, with their varied methodologies and their different types of evidence (Anthropology; Archaeology; Art History; Economics and Sociology). The paper also offers a chance to examine the particular perspective on History offered by an awareness of the role of gender and gender difference, an approach that has been developed powerfully in recent decades. Classes and tutorials are supported by a comprehensive lecture-course which runs in the Michaelmas Term. Students are encouraged to attend lectures on all the different disciplines, since these include a number of overlapping themes and interests; in contrast tutorials normally concentrate on only two or three of the disciplines. The study of each Approach is organized around a series of broad sub-topics which are described more fully below and are supported by short bibliographies. However none of the reading is prescribed and a course-tutor could perfectly well approach each subject with a different set of examples, chosen from any period.

Prescribed topics

The paper is concerned with the ways in which the writing of history has been influenced by other disciplines, methods and techniques. Candidates will be required to show knowledge of at least two different ‘approaches’ out of the six set out below. The sub-headings give guidance to areas in which questions will be set:

Anthropology and History

This Approach introduces students to the work of cultural and social anthropologists, and to the way it has influenced the thinking of historians in recent decades. As with the other Approaches, the aim is to offer students new broader perspectives on the ways in which the past can be studied and to think more carefully about the concepts they use. The four broad subthemes and supporting bibliographies allow students to read some of the classic works of anthropology and thereby appreciate the diversity of ways in which anthropologists have approached the study of humans in the present. Students can consider the extent to which functionalism and field studies at a micro level have influenced historical work, or the possibilities for historians of the cultural anthropology exemplified by the work of Clifford Geertz. Students will also be encouraged to take note of the extent to which there is a two-way interaction between anthropology and history and to consider the implications of the intense self-criticism of anthropology as an agent of colonialism.

Family and kinship

This topic offers students the chance to analyse how anthropological work has sharpened historians’ understanding of the central role of family and kinship structures in societies and of the diversity of forms which these structures may take. As a central topic of much anthropological work it exemplifies the way anthropological approaches have been contested and have developed over the last half century – from the stress on scientific categorization in the mid-twentieth century to the more recent emphasis of Pierre Bourdieu on fluidity and improvisation.

Authority and Power

This topic introduces students to another central interest of anthropologists – to the way authority is constructed and maintained in small face-to-face societies and to the role of rituals in legitimizing power or authority. Areas of particular study might include the strengths and limitations of the functionalist approach to feuds and rebellions, or the way in which historians have learnt from anthropologists’ attempts to analyse how rituals work.

Religion, Magic and Popular Culture

This topic examines an area where the debt of many historians to the work of anthropologists has been extensive and has opened up a number of lively debates. The work of Evans-Pritchard or Clifford Geertz and its influence on historians such as Keith Thomas or Robert Darnton offers a classic example. At a general level the topic encourages students to examine why religion and magic make sense to their participants and to consider the limitations of concepts such as popular culture.

The construction of history

This topic explores the way anthropologists have looked at and thought about the past, be it myths, genealogies, oral histories, or the work of professional historians, as an attempt by participants within a society to explain who they are and to legitimize, contest or make sense of the world as it is. Students are encouraged to consider the applicability of such interpretations to historical testimonies and records from the past or indeed to the work of professional historians and anthropologists in the present.

Archaeology and History

The aim of this Approach is to introduce history students, very familiar with working with the evidence of words and texts, to a different type of evidence for the human past: mute material remains. The course underlines the very considerable strengths of material objects as evidence, but also their limitations, and how they are subject to varying interpretations. It also offers a chance to show how an archaeological approach has altered historians’ perceptions of the past. The course, while arranged thematically, introduces students to aspects of archaeological methodology (such as how to find and interpret traces of buried landscapes). It is not centred around theoretical debates within ‘Archaeology’ itself, though students may engage with these if they wish. The introductory explanations and attached bibliographies give some idea of how each theme might be studied though each can equally be approached with a different set of examples, chosen from any period. It is also possible to centre a topic on a specific site or group of material (e.g. for ‘Burials’ the Spitalfields crypt, or the Sutton Hoo barrows).

This topic will introduce students to many of the different types of surviving evidence for ancient and capes (crop-marks revealed through air photography; pottery-scatters through field-survey; modern topographical features; etc.). It will show how we can read in the landscape changing patterns of economic exploitation, settlement and ideology. Production and exchange This topic explores the evidence for the manufacture and exchange of goods examining both production sites and the distribution patterns of archaeologically identifiable products.

Burial: belief and social status

In this topic students are invited to consider the extent to which the dead, and what is buried with them, can provide evidence of belief and social differentiation.

The built environment: form and function

By looking at both whole townscapes and individual buildings, this topic encourages the student to explore the builders’ intentions and the way that people have used the built environment.

Art and History

The goal of this Approach is to broaden the historian’s sensitivity to an infinite variety of visual evidence. In most history writing, disproportionate attention is paid to written sources: this course is designed to foster a more balanced approach. However, using visual evidence is far from simple. ‘Art’ in this context is very broadly defined, to include not merely the western canon of ‘high art’, but the entire gamut of material cultural production, and its consumption. The short bibliography can be supplemented with case-studies from different periods and places. Indeed, students should be encouraged to engage in detail with particular images – including any to be found in Oxford’s museums and galleries. While for brevity and convenience it is largely focused on western art traditions, this is not intended as any constraint on the scope of the course. The course is structured around four broad – and overlapping – themes.

Creation and consumption

The first theme relates to the social context of art: how, precisely, are the variety and changes in artistic production (styles of painting, forms of architecture, etc.) related to contemporary social developments? Consideration needs to be given not only to structures of patronage, but also to broader issues of markets and consumption.

Art and politics

The second theme includes, but extends beyond, the use of visual imagery as a form of propaganda. Images have been deployed for subversive, no less than authoritarian, purposes. Analysis often reveals a creative tension in the interpretation of an image, whose ‘true’ meaning is contested.

The power of images: ways of seeing

The third theme explores varieties of visual response. Intense emotional identification with a picture, or a violent desire to destroy a statue, are repeatedly documented phenomena. To study these responses in context is to shed new light on historical societies.

The idea of the history of art: displaying, writing and collecting

The last theme is the particularly western way in which ‘the history of art’ has been conceived. This notion has been profoundly influential (through collecting, the construction of museums, art writing and art history), and rewards study. The post-medieval European idea of ‘fine art’ is a highly particular category: to recognize it as such is to become more fully aware of the richness of a far more inclusive realm of visual culture beyond the ‘fine’ arts, both in European and non-European traditions.

Economics and History

The aim of this Approach is to introduce students to the ways in which economic models and statistical sources can be used to understand history. It encourages students to tackle the central issue of how economic development has changed the character and quality of human life and, to this end, to look at the ways in which political, social, and cultural institutions have determined long-run economic and demographic outcomes, and simultaneously been determined by them. The course takes a global perspective, with particular attention to the analysis of cross-country and cross-time differences in capital and labour market institutions and technological change, and the effects of those differences on economic and human development. In the course of these four lectures, students will be introduced to economic approaches to collecting and using quantitative historical data to identify causal links between historical factors and economic outcomes.

The Great Divergence, Living Standards and Institutions

How do economists measure economic activity and living standards?  And how do economists think about institutions and their effect on the economy? The ‘Great Divergence’ between Western Europe and Asia provides a particular focus for thinking about these general questions.

How do economists think about how humans interact with the natural environment? The ‘Malthusian model’ of population and living standards is a central theory. The recurring problem of famine raises the issues of the relative importance of nature’s constraints (scarcity, climate shocks) and human agency and institutions (markets, policies).

How do economists approach slavery? What is the significance of slavery for the broader economy? How viable is a slave-based economy? Slavery in antiquity provides one possible focus, as do the importance of slavery to the British economy, and the North American experience more generally.

How do economists define money, understand the determinants of inflation, and evaluate its consequences? Historical financial crises (e.g. Europe’s Price Revolution, the South Sea Bubble, bank runs in Depression-era America or the German hyperinflation of 1923) provide a focus for questions around the rationality or otherwise of economic behaviour, collective and individual.

History of Women, Gender and Sexuality

This Approach introduces students to the historiography of gender, women’s history and the history of sexualities and to explore the contributions these approaches have to other historical agendas. The contributions of women’s history are explored, underlining the importance of recovering the experiences of women in the past, the methodological challenges of doings so, and interrogating key concepts like patriarchy. The work of historians using gender as a category of historical analysis uncovers the degree to which masculinity and femininity are contested social categories, and the ways in which gender norms shape social, political, economic and cultural structures and processes, allowing students to look at the means by which gender and sex hierarchies are maintained and contested. Examining the history of sexuality and the body introduces students to work exploring the cultural, social and scientific categories of sexuality and gender as historically and geographically specific and malleable, and to studies highlighting the differences between laws, norms and experience.

Women, Gender, Sexuality and Work This topic looks at the ways in which men and women’s work has been differentiated, at the relationship between the social and sexual division of labour, the ways gender and race have intersected in shaping labour regimes and the definitions of ‘skilled’ and ‘unskilled’ work. Students are introduced to work examining the determinants and processes of change in male and female roles in the household and workplace.

Women, Gender, Sexuality and Politics This topic examines the way the language and practice of politics, colonialism, nationalism and citizenship have been gendered. It introduces students to work contesting narrow understandings of political participation to uncover the way women have exercised political power both formally and informally, and challenged their political exclusion. The intersections of race and gender in the establishment and evolution of political structures are explored.

Women, Gender, Sexuality and the Body

This topic introduces students to scholarship exploring the history of sexuality, looking at the ways in which the sexual identities of men and women are culturally variable, and at changing understandings of the sexed body. Students are introduced to scholarship exploring the relationship between queer theory and history, and to work examining the intersections between norms and practice.

Women, Gender, Sexuality, and Religion

This topic explores the ways in which gender norms have been constructed and subverted by religious discourses. The variety of forms of religious expression available to men and women is discussed. The complex relationships between intellectual and religious change and the positions of women and men are assessed.

Women, Gender, Sexuality, and Empire This topic explores in more detail the way that ideas about gender have shaped the political, social, economic and cultural structures of empire, and the ways that policing gender and reproduction have been important tools of empire and domination. It highlights the intersections of ideas about gender and race in imperialism and colonialism.

Sociology and History

The aim of this Approach is to introduce students to the discipline of sociology, to explore ways in which sociological method has influenced historians, and to look at ways in which sociology and history over the years have diverged or converged. Students are introduced to the discipline of sociology as the study of man as a social animal, shaped by social institutions but at the same time able to construct or reconstruct them. How much scope different sociologists give to the individual and human agency is discussed. The course is organized around four broad themes.

Sociological techniques

The approach of sociology to sources, concepts, the comparative method and ‘grand theory’ is compared to that of historians, and examples from the hybrid of historical sociology are examined. The traffic is not all one way and the appeal to some sociologists of the narrative and biographical approach is also illustrated.

Social stratification

This topic introduces students to the sociological theories of social stratification, especially those of Marx on class and Weber on social status, and examines how they have set the agenda for much social history. It also explores how such concepts have lost some of their explanatory force and how historians have refined them in new and exciting ways.

Power and authority

This topic examines ways in which sociologists have conceptualized the state and political institutions and at how they have analysed political obedience in terms of power (coercion) and authority (the recognition of legitimacy). It explores different notions of power developed by theorists such as Foucault, and ideas of bureaucracy, social discipline, revolt and revolution. Ways in which historians have used or developed these ideas are discussed.

Sociology and religion

This topic examines ways in which religion has been treated by sociologists. It looks in particular at the concept of the secularization of modern society, both as a debate among sociologists of religion and as a research question for historians who have refined and challenged the theory in the light of empirical evidence.

Histories of Race

This Approach enables students to look at both the historiography of histories of race and ethnicity and at the contribution this large body of scholarship has made to other historical agendas and methodologies. Work on the histories of race and racialised people are evaluated while each topic explores the potential of treating race as a category of analysis in historical work more broadly. This strand allows students to explore how knowledge about race has been historically produced, how racialised political, economic, and social structures have been historically sustained, and how racialised systems have been contested, resisted, and subverted. The methodological challenges faced by scholars writing histories of racialised, colonialised, and marginalised peoples are explored and the contribution of other disciplines – including gender studies, anthropology, and the history of science and medicine – are also assessed. Examples span classical antiquity to the twentieth century.

Race as a category of historical analysis

What do historians mean when they employ the term “race”? This topic assesses important discussions surrounding the use of race as an analytical category, including debates on the applicability of race to premodern periods. The topic also introduces scholarship on the relationship between race and other categories of historical analysis, including gender, class, and religion.

Race, labour, and law

This topic looks at the ways in which race and racial theories have arisen from – and in turn helped to sustain and legitimate – a variety of labour regimes and legal and penal systems in the past. Particular attention will be paid to scholarship on slavery in the Atlantic world but readings will be drawn from across different parts of the world and across time periods.

Racial theories in the past  

This topic surveys the ways in which people and societies have conceptualised race and racial difference since classical antiquity, and the forms of classification and ordering that have ensued. This topic will ask how and why certain racial theories have been intellectually, politically, socially, and culturally influential in the past.

Recovering voices

This topic introduces key strategies for uncovering and writing about the histories of people who have been silenced in traditional historical records. As well as evaluating influential methodological interventions, including the work of postcolonialism, this topic will draw attention to some of the newest and most innovative attempts to write histories of historically marginalised people.

Challenging race

This topic centres histories of resistance, antiracism, and racial solidarity movements. In so doing, this topic asks to what extent attention to race can produce histories that challenge our conventional chronological and geographic frameworks. 

Historiography

Tacitus to weber.

Historians commonly approach the study of historical writing in two quite distinct ways: either by study of the techniques which we hold to be immediately relevant today, or by looking at the “history of history”, as for example by focussing on classic texts in Western historical writing. This paper takes the second road. Its principal agenda are as follows:

• The close reading of texts which really will bear close reading — reading being still the most fundamental of all historical “methods”.
• Consideration of central problems which affect all historical writing: the scope and proper subject matter of history; historical objectivity; the interrelation between the author’s past and present; the relation of literature to history; the question of whether there is a “Whiggish” progression in historical writing, so that modern writing is necessarily better than that of earlier periods; and (not least) why we should bother with history at all.
• The outlines of how the Western historical tradition has evolved in fact.

Those writers considered are Tacitus, Augustine, Machiavelli, Gibbon, Ranke, Macaulay, Weber

Foreign Texts (Texts in a Foreign Language)

HERODOTUS, V. 26 - VI. 131 to be read in Greek, ed. C. Hude (Oxford Classical Texts, 3rd edn., 1927)

The central part of Herodotus’ Histories studied in this paper analyses the causes and course of the Ionian Revolt and the first Persian invasion of Greece, which ended in defeat at the hands of the Athenians and Plataeans on the plain of Marathon in 490 BC. Included in Herodotus’ account of these events, however, is also his account of the circumstances in which Kleisthenes got the constitutional reforms which created democracy passed at Athens, a long speech on tyranny at Corinth, and much discussion of internal politics at Sparta and of Spartan foreign policy during the reign of King Kleomenes (c.520-c.490).

Herodotus’ text is our major source for all these events, and our understanding of them depends upon an understanding of Herodotus’ sources and his historical methods. By close study of the way in which Herodotus tells his story, making comparison where possible with evidence contemporary with the events described and with other later accounts, it is possible to understand both what Greeks of the middle of the fifth century had come to regard as the foundations of their current political arrangements, and also to assess the reliability of the traditions which Herodotus exploits. Problems concerning the nature of Athenian and Spartan politics in these years, as well as of the state of relations between Persia and Greece, for which there is also some Persian evidence, are the central historical concerns. But understanding Herodotus is important not only for our comprehension of the events of the period but for our understanding of the development of western historiography at whose head Herodotus stands.

Candidates are required to comment on gobbets set in Greek but are not required to translate Greek in the examination paper.

Einhard and Asser

EINHARD, Vita Karoli Magnis Imperatoris

ASSER, De Rebus Gestis Aelfredi

The paper offers students the chance to engage with two of the most famous Latin texts of the early middle ages: Einhard’s biography of Charlemagne and Asser’s of Alfred.

These texts bring the student face to face with the nature of early medieval kingship and, more specifically, with two momentous transformations in European and British history. From whatever angle we look at the Carolingian and Alfredian ages, the Emperor Charlemagne and King Alfred emerge as great instigators in the process by which military greed and opportunism were wrought into new political, religious and literary cultures.

Einhard’s Vita Karoli (written within a decade or two of Charlemagne's death in 814) and Asser’s De Rebus Gestis Aelfredi (written in the 890s during Alfred’s lifetime) are the preeminent texts by which these transformations were captured. Both authors were alive to the achievements of their subjects and to the attitudes and aspirations of their times. Moreover as learned scholars and powerful figures in their own right they also had their own agendas. Despite the brevity of Einhard’s Vita (a mere 40 pages in Penguin) every phrase bristles with undertones and allusions; the extent of Einhard’s debt to classical writers and the significance of what he does and does not say have continued to generate enormous scholarly attention and debate.

By closely focusing on these works and their interpretation students can gain experience and practice of how to approach primary sources at the start of their Oxford careers, thereby acquiring a skill which will prove invaluable for their work on subsequent papers. Passages from the texts are set in Latin for detailed comment but the modest length of the texts means that students with basic Latin should have little difficulty coping with them. Students studying this paper may attend the Latin reading classes offered for graduate students (subject to the agreement of the tutor concerned).

Helpful translations are readily available (the Penguin Classics: Einhard and Notker the Stammerer, Two Lives of Charlemagne, trans., L. Thorpe and Alfred the Great: Asser’s Life of King Alfred and other Contemporary Sources, trans., S. Keynes & M. Lapidge).

Tocqueville

ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE, L’Ancien Régime et la Révolution

Tocqueville’s L’Ancien Régime et la Révolution, first published in 1856, is one of the most famous accounts of the origins of the French Revolution ever written. Noted for its wide-ranging and subtle analysis of the government, society and culture of eighteenth-century France, it has always been an essential point of departure for any student working on the Revolution, admired not so much as a piece of historical research but as a brilliant study of political economy. Moreover, the text is more than just a study of the causes of the French Revolution. Written in the aftermath of the coup d’état of Napoleon III in 1851, it was intended as an oeuvre à thèse, which would explain to contemporary mid-nineteenthcentury Frenchmen their failure to establish a permanent liberal democracy.

Traditionally L’Ancien Régime et la Révolution is taught by a wide cross-section of college tutors. Students will be introduced to the complexity of Tocqueville’s argument, in particular his conception of the centralised French absolute state, his views on the genesis and significance of class conflict, and his understanding of the role of the Enlightenment in causing the French Revolution. Beyond this, there are various way in which the text may be placed in a wider context. Students may examine the historiography of the causes of the French Revolution in order to compare and contrast Tocqueville’s analysis with earlier and subsequent explanations. They may seek a deeper understanding of the more recent historiography of eighteenth-century France to see how Tocqueville’s vision has been refined or challenged. Finally they may re-examine the text in the light of Tocqueville’s own intellectual development and political career.

The course is intended to give students the opportunity to develop their reading ability in the French language, and in the first term at least they should expect to spend much of the time getting to know the text in the original. It also enables students to get to grips with an extremely rich and influential work of history that will give them a graphic insight into the problems of historical method and the historian’s craft. 

Meinecke and Kehr

FRIEDRICH MEINECKE, Die Deutsche Katastrophe: Betrachtungen und Erinnerungen (Wiesbaden, 1949) pp. 5-104.

ECKART KEHR, Der Primat der Innenpolitik: Gesammelte Aufsätze zur preussisch-deutschen Sozialgeschichte im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Berlin 1970) pp. 87-129, 149-83.

This paper is intended to introduce German-reading undergraduates to two of the most influential twentieth-century historians of modern Germany: Eckart Kehr and Friedrich Meinecke.

Each made a distinctive contribution to the development of modern German historiography: Meinecke was perhaps the most influential of all the later historicists and Kehr was an inspiration to the so-called critical school of social history, whose emphasis on the primacy of socio-economic factors in politics has informed an immense literature since he was ‘rediscovered’ by Hans-Ulrich Wehler in the 1960s.

The set passages of the two authors not only give students a flavour of their methodology, but also introduce some of the key historical debates which relate to the period 1870-1945. In general, the paper provides an introduction to the continuing debate on the ‘peculiarity’ of modern German history and allows students to become familiar with the so-called Sonderweg (‘special path’) theory. 

Machiavelli

MACHIAVELLI, Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio, Bk I

Machiavelli’s reputation as an advocate of ruthless and unscrupulous politics does serious injustice to the richness, generosity and subtlety of his political thought. The Discourses on Livy (written c. 1513- 1519) reveal these latter qualities well. They provide an indispensable corrective to the familiar picture found in his better-known treatise The Prince. In the Discourses Machiavelli uses historical examples from ancient and modern times to illustrate the ways in which rulers and people habitually behave in the political life of republics and kingdoms. He asserts his belief that history can be used by citizens and statesmen to build up the kind of ‘case-lore’ already utilized in the practice of medicine and of law.

The text is a powerful and attractive example of Renaissance historical writing and at the same time an introduction to the Florentine genre of critical political analysis. Classical stories are set to work by Machiavelli to teach his fellow-Florentines how to rescue their city from the disasters which beset it in his day and how to capture for themselves by emulation something of the glory of Republican Rome.

A capacity to read straightforward material in present-day Italian will be enough to enable candidates to cope with the language in which this text is written. Any modern Italian edition will suffice: those published by Rizzoli, Feltrinelli and Einaudi have good introductions and notes. Machiavelli’s The Prince should certainly also be read; the best recent edition in English is that by Quentin Skinner and Russell Price in the series Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought (1988). 

Vicens Vives

Vicens Vives JAIME VICENS VIVES, Aproximación a la historia de España Vicens Vives’s Aproximación a la historia de España, first published in 1952, is one of the most important reflections on the history of Spain never written. Relatively short, this text is not a synthesis but more of an innovative recapitulation of the main historiographical problems of Spain’s past from ancient times to the outbreak of the Civil War (1936). Written in a time of dictatorship, instead of pursuing the metahistorical debate on the uniqueness of Spain that had held the centre stage until then, Vicens Vives’s book marked a turning point calling for the adoption of more rigorous and modern methods then dominant in the rest of Europe, above all in France.

Aproximación a la historia de España is taught through seven tutorials and four classes (or lectures, depending on the number of takers). Students will be introduced to the figure and the work of Jaime Vicens Vives (1910–1960), as well asto the complexity of his rethinking of Spanish history over the longue durée. Beyond this, there are various ways in which the Aproximación may be placed in a broader context. Students may consider the constraints on historical writing in Francoist Spain, of which Vicens Vives was an opponent despite the fact that he never abandoned the country. They will be invited to explore the main characteristics of the so-called ‘new history’ (nueva historia) that Vicens Vives inaugurated in close dialogue with the Annales school, as well as considering his wider contacts with other historians both in Spain and abroad, including Sir John Elliott. Finally, they will be asked to reflect on the legacy of Vicens Vives in regard to the historiography of Spain in the second half of the twentieth-century, as well as on the new directions that it has taken more recently.

This course is intended to give students the opportunity to develop their reading ability in the Spanish language through an accessible academic text, while acquainting them with a number of key issues in the study of the history of Spain. It will also enable students to engage with an influential work of history that will give them an insight into general problems of historical method.

Students will be asked to read the work in its entirety on the basis of the 2nd edition, or one of its many reprints: J. Vicens Vives, Aproximación a la historia de España (1960). An annotated English translation of the work is also available: J. Vicens Vives, Approaches to the history of Spain, translated and edited by J.C. Ullman, 2nd edition corrected and revised (1970).

TROTSKY 1905 pp. 1-9, 17-245 (available for purchase as a photocopy from the History Faculty Library)

A study of Trotsky’s 1905 aims to examine Trotsky’s ideas as expressed in his history and to place them within the context of Russian Marxism in general.

Issues raised by the study of the period include: the development of the Russian Social Democratic movement, the worker’s movement, the development of Russian liberalism and the part it played in the events of 1905, the nature of the Russian Imperial Government and the effect of the Russo-Japanese war on Russian society and politics, the Russian agrarian question.

There are a number of recent monographs on these subjects and the study of this period provides the opportunity to discuss many of the problems associated with the last years of the Russian autocracy. 

Quantification

Quantification in history.

The purpose of this course is to introduce historians to the statistical exploration of historical problems. It imparts statistical skills which enable students to read and understand quantitative economic and social history research, and also to undertake elementary quantitative work on their own. The aims of the course are to:

• To provide an introduction to elementary topics in parametric and non-parametric statistics, culminating in basic regressions. No prior knowledge of statistics is assumed and A-level mathematics is not required.
• To examine computer-based historical datasets throughout the course. Additionally, students explore and evaluate the uses and limitations of quantification in history through writing two short applied essays on a secondary source of their choice that they are studying in another history class.
• To introduce students to history and computing, providing basic training in one of the most widely used statistical package in economic and social history.

Candidates will be required to show understanding of the following:

• the application and limitation of quantitative methods to historical problems
• levels of measurement and the appropriate classification and arrangement of historical data (tables, charts, graphs, histograms, etc.)
• summarizing historical facts: univariate descriptive statistics (frequency distributions, means, medians and modes, measures of dispersion, concepts of normality) 
• exploring historical relationships: bivariate descriptive statistics (correlation, measures of association including correlation coefficients, linear regression) 
• drawing inferences from historical data (sampling, distributions and confidence intervals; hypothesis testing; significance and probability, parametric and non-parametric measures of association and sample statistics; multivariate analysis)
• use of computer-based statistical packages (data entry and verification, classification and transformations, statistical manipulation, interpretation and presentation)
• Understanding basic ANOVA, and running their own basic regressions. 

Please note that the options listed above are illustrative and may be subject to change.

Teaching: Faculty lectures or classes, as well as college classes or tutorials, held over one or two terms.

Assessment: This paper is assessed with a 3-hour written examination.

How To Write The Methodology Chapter

The what, why & how explained simply (with examples).

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | September 2021 (Updated April 2023)

So, you’ve pinned down your research topic and undertaken a review of the literature – now it’s time to write up the methodology section of your dissertation, thesis or research paper . But what exactly is the methodology chapter all about – and how do you go about writing one? In this post, we’ll unpack the topic, step by step .

Overview: The Methodology Chapter

• The purpose  of the methodology chapter
• Why you need to craft this chapter (really) well
• How to write and structure the chapter
• Methodology chapter example
• Essential takeaways

What (exactly) is the methodology chapter?

The methodology chapter is where you outline the philosophical underpinnings of your research and outline the specific methodological choices you’ve made. The point of the methodology chapter is to tell the reader exactly how you designed your study and, just as importantly, why you did it this way.

Importantly, this chapter should comprehensively describe and justify all the methodological choices you made in your study. For example, the approach you took to your research (i.e., qualitative, quantitative or mixed), who  you collected data from (i.e., your sampling strategy), how you collected your data and, of course, how you analysed it. If that sounds a little intimidating, don’t worry – we’ll explain all these methodological choices in this post .

Why is the methodology chapter important?

The methodology chapter plays two important roles in your dissertation or thesis:

Firstly, it demonstrates your understanding of research theory, which is what earns you marks. A flawed research design or methodology would mean flawed results. So, this chapter is vital as it allows you to show the marker that you know what you’re doing and that your results are credible .

Secondly, the methodology chapter is what helps to make your study replicable. In other words, it allows other researchers to undertake your study using the same methodological approach, and compare their findings to yours. This is very important within academic research, as each study builds on previous studies.

The methodology chapter is also important in that it allows you to identify and discuss any methodological issues or problems you encountered (i.e., research limitations ), and to explain how you mitigated the impacts of these. Every research project has its limitations , so it’s important to acknowledge these openly and highlight your study’s value despite its limitations . Doing so demonstrates your understanding of research design, which will earn you marks. We’ll discuss limitations in a bit more detail later in this post, so stay tuned!

Need a helping hand?

How to write up the methodology chapter

First off, it’s worth noting that the exact structure and contents of the methodology chapter will vary depending on the field of research (e.g., humanities, chemistry or engineering) as well as the university . So, be sure to always check the guidelines provided by your institution for clarity and, if possible, review past dissertations from your university. Here we’re going to discuss a generic structure for a methodology chapter typically found in the sciences.

Before you start writing, it’s always a good idea to draw up a rough outline to guide your writing. Don’t just start writing without knowing what you’ll discuss where. If you do, you’ll likely end up with a disjointed, ill-flowing narrative . You’ll then waste a lot of time rewriting in an attempt to try to stitch all the pieces together. Do yourself a favour and start with the end in mind .

Section 1 – Introduction

As with all chapters in your dissertation or thesis, the methodology chapter should have a brief introduction. In this section, you should remind your readers what the focus of your study is, especially the research aims . As we’ve discussed many times on the blog, your methodology needs to align with your research aims, objectives and research questions. Therefore, it’s useful to frontload this component to remind the reader (and yourself!) what you’re trying to achieve.

In this section, you can also briefly mention how you’ll structure the chapter. This will help orient the reader and provide a bit of a roadmap so that they know what to expect. You don’t need a lot of detail here – just a brief outline will do.

Section 2 – The Methodology

The next section of your chapter is where you’ll present the actual methodology. In this section, you need to detail and justify the key methodological choices you’ve made in a logical, intuitive fashion. Importantly, this is the heart of your methodology chapter, so you need to get specific – don’t hold back on the details here. This is not one of those “less is more” situations.

Let’s take a look at the most common components you’ll likely need to cover. 

Methodological Choice #1 – Research Philosophy

Research philosophy refers to the underlying beliefs (i.e., the worldview) regarding how data about a phenomenon should be gathered , analysed and used . The research philosophy will serve as the core of your study and underpin all of the other research design choices, so it’s critically important that you understand which philosophy you’ll adopt and why you made that choice. If you’re not clear on this, take the time to get clarity before you make any further methodological choices.

While several research philosophies exist, two commonly adopted ones are positivism and interpretivism . These two sit roughly on opposite sides of the research philosophy spectrum.

Positivism states that the researcher can observe reality objectively and that there is only one reality, which exists independently of the observer. As a consequence, it is quite commonly the underlying research philosophy in quantitative studies and is oftentimes the assumed philosophy in the physical sciences.

Contrasted with this, interpretivism , which is often the underlying research philosophy in qualitative studies, assumes that the researcher performs a role in observing the world around them and that reality is unique to each observer . In other words, reality is observed subjectively .

These are just two philosophies (there are many more), but they demonstrate significantly different approaches to research and have a significant impact on all the methodological choices. Therefore, it’s vital that you clearly outline and justify your research philosophy at the beginning of your methodology chapter, as it sets the scene for everything that follows.

Methodological Choice #2 – Research Type

The next thing you would typically discuss in your methodology section is the research type. The starting point for this is to indicate whether the research you conducted is inductive or deductive .

Inductive research takes a bottom-up approach , where the researcher begins with specific observations or data and then draws general conclusions or theories from those observations. Therefore these studies tend to be exploratory in terms of approach.

Conversely , d eductive research takes a top-down approach , where the researcher starts with a theory or hypothesis and then tests it using specific observations or data. Therefore these studies tend to be confirmatory in approach.

Related to this, you’ll need to indicate whether your study adopts a qualitative, quantitative or mixed  approach. As we’ve mentioned, there’s a strong link between this choice and your research philosophy, so make sure that your choices are tightly aligned . When you write this section up, remember to clearly justify your choices, as they form the foundation of your study.

Methodological Choice #3 – Research Strategy

Next, you’ll need to discuss your research strategy (also referred to as a research design ). This methodological choice refers to the broader strategy in terms of how you’ll conduct your research, based on the aims of your study.

Several research strategies exist, including experimental , case studies , ethnography , grounded theory, action research , and phenomenology . Let’s take a look at two of these, experimental and ethnographic, to see how they contrast.

Experimental research makes use of the scientific method , where one group is the control group (in which no variables are manipulated ) and another is the experimental group (in which a specific variable is manipulated). This type of research is undertaken under strict conditions in a controlled, artificial environment (e.g., a laboratory). By having firm control over the environment, experimental research typically allows the researcher to establish causation between variables. Therefore, it can be a good choice if you have research aims that involve identifying causal relationships.

Ethnographic research , on the other hand, involves observing and capturing the experiences and perceptions of participants in their natural environment (for example, at home or in the office). In other words, in an uncontrolled environment.  Naturally, this means that this research strategy would be far less suitable if your research aims involve identifying causation, but it would be very valuable if you’re looking to explore and examine a group culture, for example.

As you can see, the right research strategy will depend largely on your research aims and research questions – in other words, what you’re trying to figure out. Therefore, as with every other methodological choice, it’s essential to justify why you chose the research strategy you did.

Methodological Choice #4 – Time Horizon

The next thing you’ll need to detail in your methodology chapter is the time horizon. There are two options here: cross-sectional and longitudinal . In other words, whether the data for your study were all collected at one point in time (cross-sectional) or at multiple points in time (longitudinal).

The choice you make here depends again on your research aims, objectives and research questions. If, for example, you aim to assess how a specific group of people’s perspectives regarding a topic change over time , you’d likely adopt a longitudinal time horizon.

Another important factor to consider is simply whether you have the time necessary to adopt a longitudinal approach (which could involve collecting data over multiple months or even years). Oftentimes, the time pressures of your degree program will force your hand into adopting a cross-sectional time horizon, so keep this in mind.

Methodological Choice #5 – Sampling Strategy

Next, you’ll need to discuss your sampling strategy . There are two main categories of sampling, probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling involves a random (and therefore representative) selection of participants from a population, whereas non-probability sampling entails selecting participants in a non-random  (and therefore non-representative) manner. For example, selecting participants based on ease of access (this is called a convenience sample).

The right sampling approach depends largely on what you’re trying to achieve in your study. Specifically, whether you trying to develop findings that are generalisable to a population or not. Practicalities and resource constraints also play a large role here, as it can oftentimes be challenging to gain access to a truly random sample. In the video below, we explore some of the most common sampling strategies.

Methodological Choice #6 – Data Collection Method

Next up, you’ll need to explain how you’ll go about collecting the necessary data for your study. Your data collection method (or methods) will depend on the type of data that you plan to collect – in other words, qualitative or quantitative data.

Typically, quantitative research relies on surveys , data generated by lab equipment, analytics software or existing datasets. Qualitative research, on the other hand, often makes use of collection methods such as interviews , focus groups , participant observations, and ethnography.

So, as you can see, there is a tight link between this section and the design choices you outlined in earlier sections. Strong alignment between these sections, as well as your research aims and questions is therefore very important.

Methodological Choice #7 – Data Analysis Methods/Techniques

The final major methodological choice that you need to address is that of analysis techniques . In other words, how you’ll go about analysing your date once you’ve collected it. Here it’s important to be very specific about your analysis methods and/or techniques – don’t leave any room for interpretation. Also, as with all choices in this chapter, you need to justify each choice you make.

What exactly you discuss here will depend largely on the type of study you’re conducting (i.e., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods). For qualitative studies, common analysis methods include content analysis , thematic analysis and discourse analysis . In the video below, we explain each of these in plain language.

For quantitative studies, you’ll almost always make use of descriptive statistics , and in many cases, you’ll also use inferential statistical techniques (e.g., correlation and regression analysis). In the video below, we unpack some of the core concepts involved in descriptive and inferential statistics.

In this section of your methodology chapter, it’s also important to discuss how you prepared your data for analysis, and what software you used (if any). For example, quantitative data will often require some initial preparation such as removing duplicates or incomplete responses . Similarly, qualitative data will often require transcription and perhaps even translation. As always, remember to state both what you did and why you did it.

Section 3 – The Methodological Limitations

With the key methodological choices outlined and justified, the next step is to discuss the limitations of your design. No research methodology is perfect – there will always be trade-offs between the “ideal” methodology and what’s practical and viable, given your constraints. Therefore, this section of your methodology chapter is where you’ll discuss the trade-offs you had to make, and why these were justified given the context.

Methodological limitations can vary greatly from study to study, ranging from common issues such as time and budget constraints to issues of sample or selection bias . For example, you may find that you didn’t manage to draw in enough respondents to achieve the desired sample size (and therefore, statistically significant results), or your sample may be skewed heavily towards a certain demographic, thereby negatively impacting representativeness .

In this section, it’s important to be critical of the shortcomings of your study. There’s no use trying to hide them (your marker will be aware of them regardless). By being critical, you’ll demonstrate to your marker that you have a strong understanding of research theory, so don’t be shy here. At the same time, don’t beat your study to death . State the limitations, why these were justified, how you mitigated their impacts to the best degree possible, and how your study still provides value despite these limitations .

Section 4 – Concluding Summary

Finally, it’s time to wrap up the methodology chapter with a brief concluding summary. In this section, you’ll want to concisely summarise what you’ve presented in the chapter. Here, it can be a good idea to use a figure to summarise the key decisions, especially if your university recommends using a specific model (for example, Saunders’ Research Onion ).

Importantly, this section needs to be brief – a paragraph or two maximum (it’s a summary, after all). Also, make sure that when you write up your concluding summary, you include only what you’ve already discussed in your chapter; don’t add any new information.

Methodology Chapter Example

In the video below, we walk you through an example of a high-quality research methodology chapter from a dissertation. We also unpack our free methodology chapter template so that you can see how best to structure your chapter.

Wrapping Up

And there you have it – the methodology chapter in a nutshell. As we’ve mentioned, the exact contents and structure of this chapter can vary between universities , so be sure to check in with your institution before you start writing. If possible, try to find dissertations or theses from former students of your specific degree program – this will give you a strong indication of the expectations and norms when it comes to the methodology chapter (and all the other chapters!).

Also, remember the golden rule of the methodology chapter – justify every choice ! Make sure that you clearly explain the “why” for every “what”, and reference credible methodology textbooks or academic sources to back up your justifications.

If you need a helping hand with your research methodology (or any other component of your research), be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through every step of the research journey. Until next time, good luck!

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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Nurturing the historic turn: “history as theory” versus “history as method”

Journal of Management History

ISSN : 1751-1348

Article publication date: 11 November 2019

This paper aims to explore the turn in management and organization studies (MOS) and reflect on “history as theory” versus “history as method”.

Design/methodology/approach

Looking at previous research and the evolution of MOS, this paper situates the special issue papers in the current climate of this area of research.

The special issue papers included here each make a theoretical contribution to methodology in historical organization studies.

Originality/value

The eight articles featured in the special issue offer examples of innovative and historically sensitive methodology that, according to the authors, increase the management historian toolkit and ultimately enhance the methodological pluralism of historical organization studies as a field.

• Historic turn
• History as theory
• History as method
• Historiography

Van Lent, W. and Durepos, G. (2019), "Nurturing the historic turn: “history as theory” versus “history as method”", Journal of Management History , Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 429-443. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMH-03-2019-0017

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019, Emerald Publishing Limited

Introduction

Ever since Booth and Rowlinson (2006) proposed a “historic turn” in management and organization studies (MOS), scholars have increasingly recognized the importance of history to understand organizational life ( Durepos and Mills, 2012 ; Rowlinson et al. , 2014 ; Bucheli and Wadhwani, 2014 ; Suddaby, 2016 ). Indeed, the historical discipline provides an alternative to the dominant science paradigms in organization studies ( Zald, 1993 ; Kieser, 1994 ), so studies using a historical approach have the potential to inform various aspects of organization theory ( Álvaro-Moya and Donzé, 2016 ; Söderlund and Lenfle, 2013 ; Suddaby, 2016 ; Maclean et al. , 2016 ). The past decade has witnessed the growth of a body of work on how, if at all, business historians can bridge the gap between the discipline of history and MOS ( Rowlinson, et al. , 2014 ; De Jong et al. , 2015 ; Whittle and Wilson, 2015 ; Suddaby, 2016 ; Durepos, 2015 ). Scholarly discussions in this direction have developed along three broad dimensions. First, there is a debate on the feasibility of a historic turn in MOS, given the ostensible onto-epistemological differences between history and the social sciences ( Rowlinson et al. , 2014 ; Coraiola et al. , 2015 ; Suddaby, 2016 ). Second, the scholars that do see potential for integration are theorizing the relationship between history and MOS ( Üsdiken and Kieser, 2004 ; Durepos and Mills, 2017a ). Finally, on that basis, some scholars are seeking to identify the potential contributions of historical perspectives to MOS ( Suddaby, 2016 ; Maclean et al. , 2016 ).

However, despite these efforts, it seems that the historic turn has not yet fulfilled its promise ( Greenwood and Bernardi, 2014 ; Durepos and Mills, 2017a , 2017b ). As business historians keep struggling with the identity of their discipline ( Ponzoni and Boersma, 2011 ), the historic turn does not seem to engage successfully in a wholesale transformation of MOS. Indeed, most scholarly work seems to focus on “history as theory,” or on describing the role of history in MOS and its theoretical benefits. Although “history as theory” legitimizes scholars that seek to enrich MOS with historically grounded studies, it does not entail the actual conduct of historical analysis for purposes of theory building and testing. It seems that in order for the historic turn in MOS to fully realize its potential, scholars need to draw on the wealth of quantitative and qualitative historical organizational data that MOS scholars are currently neglecting ( Maclean et al. , 2016 ; Mills et al. , 2016 ). The practice of integrating historical data collection and analysis into empirical strategies for performing theoretically motivated studies can be referred to as “history as method”. Unfortunately, recent attempts at empirically connecting history with MOS have borne limited theoretical fruit. Recent special issues published in leading business history journals ( Mills et al. , 2016 ; Decker et al. , 2018 ) mainly contain work that confirms existing ideas about the role of history in management or apply theory for purposes of historical enrichment (instead of the inverse).

Through its wide applicability ( Kipping and Üsdiken, 2015 ; McLaren et al. , 2015 ), the “history as method” approach allows for tremendous theoretical flexibility. Although methodological diversity could impede the progress of business history as a discipline ( Álvaro-Moya and Donzé, 2016 ), it comes with potential, for example in terms of diversity of research questions and richness of historical knowledge ( Decker et al. , 2015 ). Naturally, the use of history as a method invokes scrutiny of the techniques and practices of history that can be used in MOS ( Suddaby, 2016 ). Since the call for a historic turn, a wide range of methods that business historians can draw upon has been examined ( Decker et al. , 2015 ; Mills et al. , 2016 ). However, despite incisive attempts at organizing the methodologies available to business historians (most notably Rowlinson et al. , 2014 ), methodological discussions among business historians are ongoing ( Durepos and Mills, 2017a ) and don’t seem to have fully explored the variety and richness of the historical discipline relevant for MOS. We believe that advancing the methodological debate requires concrete work on generating what Decker et al. (2015) refer to as methodological pluralism.

The special issue of the Journal of Management History on “Uses of Methodology in Management History” contributes to enhancing the methodological pluralism of historical organization studies. Each in their own right, the eight papers showcase novel methodologies (Shaffner, Mills and Helms Mills; Tumbe; Quelha and Costa), encourage us to think more broadly and creatively about existing methodologies and forms of historical data collection (Bowie; Tumbe; Russell; Earnest) as well as introduce us to unique ways to combine methodologies (Ruel, Mills and Helms Mills; Olejniczak, Goto and Pikos) to yield insightful data and deeper contributions. We reserve a more thorough exploration of each special issue article for the last part of our introduction. In the next sections, we problematize the historic turn to offer context and rationale for the special issue theme and consequently the featured articles.

The call for a historic turn in management and organization studies

Toward the end of the twentieth century, criticism emerged that scholars in the field of management and organization studies (MOS) had become too “scientistic” in their approach to organizational phenomena, focusing too strongly on scientifically verifiable, general models that were tested in highly controlled research contexts. As a result, the discipline had become “ahistorical”: cut off from historical context and configurations ( Aldrich, 1999 ; Zald, 1993 , 1996 , 2002 ; Goldman, 1994 ; Kieser, 1994 ). According to the critics, the problem with the ahistorical approach was its tendency to yield “universalist” and “presentist” theory and empirics ( Zald, 2002 ). Universalism refers to the view that contemporary theory applies to organizations across all societies and all times, while presentism alludes to research findings being reported as if they occurred in a decontextualized present ( Booth and Rowlinson, 2006 ). Together, universalism and presentism lead to a narrow historical understanding of management as a static object rather than a dynamic phenomenon ( Söderlund and Lenfle, 2013 ). Integral to the criticism was a call for MOS to become more engaged with history, as this would allow for more rigorous testing of organization theory, namely, against historical developments instead of short-term data ( Kieser, 1994 ).

In the ensuing years, some scholars have taken a step further, arguing in favor of a “historic turn” in MOS ( Booth and Rowlinson, 2006 ; Clark and Rowlinson, 2004 ; Rowlinson, 2013 ), which would represent a transformation of organization studies in at least three senses. First, it would entail a move away from the view that organization studies are part of the social sciences and thus questioning the scientistic rhetoric of MOS. Second, it would involve a turn towards incorporating history as processes and context instead of as a mere variable. Third, it would encompass the engagement with historiographical debates on the epistemological status of narrative. An important motivation behind the call for a historic turn was that history had already been incorporated into various branches of organization theory, which would offer opportunities for historical perspectives to further organization theory ( Clark and Rowlinson, 2004 ; Booth and Rowlinson, 2006 ). These branches include neo-institutionalism ( Khurana, 2007 ) and evolutionary approaches such as population ecology ( Hannan and Freeman, 1977 ) that analyze the development of organizations and organizational populations over time ( Scott, 2001 ; Aldrich, 1999 ). Similarly, critical approaches to management, which draw on Marxist, Foucauldian, Weberian, post-colonialist and feminist theories, rely on the past to understand current management practices ( Weatherbee et al. , 2012 ). More generally, the past is embedded in such concepts as “narratives” ( Brown et al. , 2008 ) and “longitudinal study” ( Delios and Ensign, 2000 ).

The wake of the historic turn: “history as theory”

the feasibility of a historic turn;

theorization of the relationship between history and MOS; and

the potential contribution of historical perspectives to MOS.

Together, these dimensions can be characterized as “history as theory”: the study of the relationship between the historical discipline and MOS and of the way in which it can advance the latter field.

Dimension 1: the feasibility of a historic turn

The first dimension concerns the sheer feasibility of a historic turn in MOS. Several scholars have noted the intellectual disparity between the historical discipline and MOS ( Clark and Rowlinson, 2004 ; Lorenz, 2011 ; Weatherbee, 2012 ; Rowlinson et al. , 2014 ; Suddaby, 2016 ), which would prevent business historians from contributing meaningfully to MOS with historical analyses. According to Suddaby (2016) , there are two components to this disparity. The first is an ontological disagreement over what history is and how it is constituted. MOS commonly uses history based on the assumption that there is a knowable external past reality and that historical “truth” can be achieved through referential correspondence between historical “facts” and the past, where the past and history are synonymous ( Weatherbee, 2012 ). However, historians attach different ontological status to “the past” and “history” ( Jenkins, 1995 ) – while the former hints at reality, the latter forms a representation thereof ( Van Maanen et al. , 2007 ).

The second element that Suddaby (2016) identifies is that there are epistemological differences between MOS scholars and historians. Rowlinson et al. (2014) identify three “dualisms”. The first relates to evidence, or what constitutes historical fact. While MOS scholars prefer data constructed from replicable procedures, historians derive narratives from eclectic but verifiable documentary sources. Second, the dualism of explanation pertains to how historical facts might be used to construct knowledge about the world. In MOS, historical facts are used to build and test theory, while the subjective, irrational and volatile nature of human behavior and the crucial role of perception – key foci in history – receive less attention ( Weatherbee, 2012 ). Historians generally accept that convincing historical narratives may contradict each other, which troubles the communication between historians and social scientists ( Passmore, 2011 ). Finally, the dualism of temporality refers to the treatment of time. In MOS, time is often abstracted as clock time ( Pedriana, 2005 ) and matters only in terms of specifying the chronological order of events in processes ( Abbott, 2001 ; Pierson, 2004 ). In history, time, in the form of dates, resonates in collective memories and represents a historical context ( Dray, 1986 ; Tosh, 2008 ).

The ontological and epistemological divergences between MOS and history seem to have devolved to the methodological level ( Jenkins, 1995 ; Suddaby, 2016 ), as methodological preferences have bifurcated toward deductive rationalism and inductive empiricism, respectively. That is, whereas management scholars emphasize theory and are critical of pure empiricism, historians emphasize empirical data and are highly skeptical of theory. According to Suddaby (2016) , the extent to which the theoretical potential as identified by those who called for a historic turn in MOS will be realized hinges on the (in)ability of history and MOS to relax their ontological and epistemological assumptions. While “purist” takes on either discipline will most likely compromise the options for bridging the ontological and epistemological gaps between them, an agreement on the use of historical methods might be reached by scholars working at the disciplinary periphery. After all, it is in this intellectual space where the boundaries that define the subject matter of MOS and history are more inclusive, which may allow the members of these disciplines to transcend debates over the differences between “social facts” and “historical facts” ( Hayek, 1943 ).

Dimension 2: theorization of the connection between history and management and organization studies

In line with Suddaby’s (2016) reasoning about the potential for collaboration between MOS and history, Durepos and Mills (2012) argue that to determine what value history can add to knowledge of organizations, one must be clear about what history exactly is and how it should be written. Achieving this clarity requires what these authors call a contemporary theory of history. Such a theory can be formulated if one assumes that theoretical and methodological debates between historians and MOS scholars can lead to disciplinary convergence ( Weatherbee, 2012 ). The second dimension of the historic turn literature has unfolded along these lines, theorizing the relationship between history and MOS. In particular, it discusses the identity of the field of business history and the theory, epistemology and methodology of the historical discipline in relation to MOS ( Weatherbee, 2012 ; De Jong and Higgins, 2015 ; Mills et al. , 2016 ).

Business historians have developed different onto-epistemological positions that define how history can enrich MOS. For example, Üsdiken and Kieser (2004) identify three positions on the use of history in organization studies: the supplementarist, integrationist and reorientationist. First, the supplementarist position reflects the view that organizational studies are fundamentally a scientistic, theory-driven enterprise in which attentiveness to history may help in variable selection and hypotheses generation ( Goodman and Kruger, 1988 ) and ultimately in confirming and refining general theories ( Lawrence, 1984 ). Second, the integrationist position argues for a fusion of social scientific data gathering with the interpretivist aspects of history ( Zald , 1993, 1996 ) to identify where and how the latter’s enriching potential can be activated. To realize this fusion, historians need to draw upon but also challenge the scientism of MOS, promoting links with humanist academic disciplines, such as literary theory and philosophy. This leads to the standpoint that although the development of organizational forms and arrangements is shaped by the past as a series of facts, these facts are represented through a contextualized mode of interpretation. Third, the reorientationist position is the most critical and challenges both the social scientistic and ahistorical framing of MOS and the atheoretical character of much of historical analysis ( Booth and Rowlinson, 2006 ). On that basis, it promotes a move of MOS away from its scientistic aspirations ( Carter, McKinlay and Rowlinson, 2002 ) and problematizes historical methods ( Weatherbee et al. , 2012 ).

Similarly, Rowlinson (2004) outlines three historical perspectives in organization studies – factual, narrative and archaeo-genealogical. The factual perspective, roughly similar to Üsdiken and Kieser’s (2004) supplementarist approach, views the practice of history as ultimately about uncovering facts. The narrative perspective resembles Üsdiken and Kieser’s (2004) integrationist approach and suggests that the past in this perspective is about stories constructed around “traces” of the past, which are the raw materials of the historian’s discourse rather than the events themselves’ ( White, 1987 ). Historical accounts in this perspective begin to problematize the past in MOS – a practice that is further pursued in Rowlinson’s archaeo-genealogical perspective. This perspective arises out of the work of Foucault and focuses on the relationship between the present and the past, arguing that the present does not result from an inevitable series of events but rather from a discursive process that influences how events are read ( Rostis, 2011 ). From this perspective it follows that there is an ontological and epistemological break between the present and the past, the latter being equally subject to discursively mediated understandings.

More recently, Durepos and Mills (2017a) have identified four co-existing and overlapping “phases” of work on the role of history in MOS: the factualist, contextual, methodological and ontological-epistemological phase. In the factualist phase, historical work is atheoretical and focuses on the discovery and reproduction of historical facts, (dis)confirming ahistorical organization theory ( Leblebici and Sherer, 2008 ). The contextual phase echoes Kieser (1994) by providing comparative contexts for making sense of organizational phenomena. This type of analysis promotes understanding of contemporary organizations through their historical dimension. Approaches to history that belong to the methodological phase encourage reflection on the appropriate methods and styles of history writing in MOS. For example, Booth and Rowlinson (2006) highlight several perspectives that can benefit historical methodology, such as narrative analysis and Foucauldian inspired research. Finally, the ontological-epistemological phase draws on the work of postmodern historians ( Bennett, 1987 ; Jenkins, 1991 ) and studies the nature of history and MOS and how they can be integrated. Most notably, Suddaby (2016) distinguishes between history as “text,” or manifest knowledge (i.e. “brute facts”) and history as “subtext,” or latent knowledge (i.e. a lens through which we view the present) and discusses three constructs that draw from the latter: ANTi-History, which analyzes the relational/organizational activities that go into the production of knowledge of the past ( Durepos, 2009 ); rhetorical history, which studies the strategic use of historical discourse ( Suddaby et al. , 2010 ); and organizational legacy, which examines how historically shaped organizational or individual identities may drive competitive behavior ( Feldman and Romanelli, 2013 ).

Dimension 3: the potential contributions of history to management and organization studies

The various “theorizations” of the relationship between history and MOS have enabled this group of scholars to formulate how the engagement with history, historical sources and historical methods can advance understanding of organizational phenomena. Typically, their contribution is formulated in more general terms. For example, Álvaro-Moya and Donzé (2016) argue that historical perspectives can shed new light on what companies, managers and governments know about the creation, development and transfer of organizational capabilities, the nature of innovation and entrepreneurship and the impact of institutional settings on firms’ competitiveness, among other issues. In addition, Palmer et al. (2007) contend that the embracement of history fosters the engagement in more generative discussions about new organizational forms, whereas Cummings and Bridgman (2011) maintain that doing history can contribute solutions to managerial problems.

Extending these arguments, Söderlund and Lenfle (2013) contend that because understanding of management is in perpetual development, there is reason to continually revisit the past. According to these authors, the iteration between past and present may actually be as important as the scientific processes of deduction and induction, because in it a particular kind of generalization can be found – one of rich stories and contextual understandings ( Gaddis, 2002 ), filled with generalizable examples ( Flyvbjerg, 2006 ). In turn, embedded generalizations may help scholars identify the interdependency of variables over time ( Jones and Khanna, 2006 ; Bucheli and Wadhwani, 2014 ; Quinn, 2015 ). Chandler’s (1962) study of the emergence of the multi-divisional firm is just one example of how patterns can be identified in historical evolution. Based on their unique generalizability, historical accounts of corporate capitalism such as Chandler’s (1962) open up space for a broader debate about the role of the modern corporation in the current era of globalization in terms of economic growth, equality and democracy ( Booth and Rowlinson, 2006 ).

Other scholars go beyond general formulations and suggest specific theories or concepts whose understanding might benefit from historical analysis. For example, Suddaby (2016) sees potential for contributions of history to institutional theory, which views organizations as the product of social rather than economic pressures ( Suddaby, 2013 ). Institutional theory has an inherent historical component, because the meanings and values that organizations become infused with develop over time ( Selznick, 1949 ). As Suddaby (2016) suggests, historians can enrich understanding of what institutions are and how they change because they can link institutional agency to unique and specific historical conditions. On that basis, historians might help resolve the paradox of embedded agency, which relates to the question of how actors can change the institutions that are supposed to shape their thoughts and actions ( Battilana and D’Aunno, 2009 ). Other authors that target a specific theory are Brunninge and Melander (2016) , who argue that historical analysis may advance understanding of path dependency. The notion of path dependency is used in strategy to explain why firms are able to remain competitive in the face of market and industrial change. Path dependency exists where firms become locked-in onto a path of success (or failure) as a result of historical actions or decisions ( Dobusch and Schüßler, 2012 ). According to Brunninge and Melander (2016) , historical approaches allow scholars to study the interplay of self-reinforcing mechanisms at different levels of analysis.

Maclean et al. (2016) categorize the potential contributions to MOS of historical analysis based on four types of historical analysis: history as evaluating; history as explicating; history as conceptualizing; and history as narrating. Evaluative history confronts organization theory with historical evidence to test its explanatory power and identify limitations. This type of research can for example be used to test ecological theories ( Hannan and Freeman, 1977 ) and aspects of the resource-based view of the firm ( Wernerfelt, 1984 ), such as dynamic capabilities ( Teece et al. , 1997 ) and path dependency ( Sydow et al. , 2009 ). Explicatory history synthesizes theoretical ideas and historical evidence, fostering arguments based on reinterpretations of the past as well as theoretical refinements. For example, institutional theory benefits from historical perspectives ( Suddaby et al. , 2014 ) that recognize the importance of institutional path dependence and adaptation ( Leblebici et al. , 1991 ) in institutional agency. Historical approaches aimed at conceptualization use historical cases for inductive generalizations ( Wadhwani and Jones, 2014 ). For example, Tushman and O’Reilly (1996) notion of strategic ambidexterity emerged from the observation that firms balance exploration and exploitation according to environmental conditions. Finally, history as narrating serves to explain significant organizational phenomena. Propositions and arguments emerge inductively from the historical evidence and exhibit a high level of context sensitivity ( Lippmann and Aldrich, 2014 ). In Chandler’s (1962) work, for example, a mass of case evidence is deployed to explain the spread of innovations such as multidivisional structures and diversification.

Dissatisfaction with the historic turn: exploring “history as method”

Despite the identified potential of and the growing interest in the integration of history into MOS, the historic turn has arguably not yet fulfilled its promise ( Durepos and Mills, 2017a , 2017b ). First of all, the main streams of research that the historic turn has generated predominantly perform “history as theory,” as they focus on theorizing the role of history in MOS without actually making a theoretical contribution to practicing history. The ongoing theoretical debates about the use of historical approaches in MOS indicate that business history as a scientific discipline is still struggling with its identity ( Ponzoni and Boersma, 2011 ). Beyond the ongoing navel-gazing of business historians, even where empirical attempts are made to connect history with MOS, the theoretical fruits of the historic turn seem to remain limited. This point can be illustrated with two recent and authoritative special issues on this topic. The first one was edited by Mills et al. (2016) and published in Management and Organizational History and explores the debates that have emerged from Booth and Rowlinson’s (2006) initial call. The second special issue appeared in Business History and was edited by Decker et al. (2018) and attempts at reconciling history and MOS by focusing on “Historical Research on Institutional Change”.

Mills et al. (2016) use their special issue mainly to discusses the practice of history in and around organizations. For example, Corrigan (2016) reveals alternative performances of history in municipal budget-making practices and finds that municipal managers use history and traces of the past to develop durable images to unify actor-networks. Furthermore, Marshall and Novicevic (2016) use the historical case of Mound Bayou, an all African–American venture in Mississippi, to problematize and reconstruct present conceptualizations of conformance activities for gaining legitimacy as a social enterprise. In addition, Zundel et al. (2016) review the advantages and problems of the use history as a resource for establishing and maintaining organizational identity claims and examine how using history impacts on the appreciation of history itself. Although these papers are effective at showing the importance of history in organizational life, theoretically they mainly reiterate Suddaby’s (2016) argument that history has a “subtext” component. Therefore, the question that emerges from this special issue is how much theoretical ground can be broken, especially beyond the realm of institutional change, by focusing on the organizational use of history as opposed to history as a way to theorize behavior in and around organizations ( Durepos and Mills, 2017a ).

Decker et al. (2018) are also influenced by Suddaby’s (2016) treatise and include papers in their special issue that address the tension between large-scale shifts of institutional logics and the unique individual and organizational practices that facilitate these shifts. For example, Wadhwani (2018) uses historical institutionalism to examine the co-evolution of legal and organizational change in US savings bank regulation. Furthermore, Thompson (2018) examines the evolution of “record pools” in the US music industry, which enabled disco DJs to access new music, through the lens of institutional work. Moreover, in his analysis of Finnish hypermarkets, Seppälä (2018) uses the concept of legitimacy as a tool to understand the adaptation of Finnish hypermarkets to evolving environmental pressures. What transpires from the papers in this special issue is that the editors have aimed to facilitate exploration of the opportunities of engaging with institutional theory for extending historiographical understanding of the past. However, from a MOS point of view, the contributions remain somewhat generic. Even if the papers invariably frame history by means of theoretical language, they are fundamentally historically motivated and perform history “for history’s sake”. Consequently, the theoretical contributions are formulated in a general way and thus enrich MOS to a limited extent only ( Kipping and Üsdiken, 2008 ).

In light of the aforementioned special issues, what seems to be of key importance for the historic turn in MOS to mature is the realization that the practice of history affords access to a wealth of both quantitative and qualitative organizational data that might be drawn upon by means of several methodological approaches and methods for the building and testing of theoretical ideas ( Maclean et al. , 2016 ; Mills et al. , 2016 ). This idea can be summarized as “history as method”: drawing from what Suddaby (2016) refers to as the “text” component of history, where the “brute facts” are contained, historical practices of data collection and analysis can be integrated into empirical strategies for performing theoretically motivated studies. History as a method can be applied widely and thus allows for tremendous theoretical flexibility. Therefore, it enables business historians to further various debates in MOS ( Decker et al. , 2015 ). Indeed, historically grounded research has been performed in several management fields, including strategy, international business and entrepreneurship ( Kipping and Üsdiken, 2015 ; McLaren et al. , 2015 ). Some scholars might caution that the approach to history as a method encourages the dilution of business history as a discipline, because communication across theoretical fields within MOS remains scarce ( Álvaro-Moya and Donzé, 2016 ). However, it has also been argued that there is no prospect of a unified field of business history ( Rowlinson et al. , 2014 ), because historical theorists are suspicious of any attempt to impose paradigm consensus ( Van Maanen, 1995 ; Megill, 2007 ).

The quality of the theoretical contribution expected in MOS and the historical veracity required in historical research approaches place demands on researchers such that their analyses should demonstrate “dual integrity” or demonstrable competence in both disciplines ( Maclean et al. , 2016 ). Assuming that the ontological and epistemological differences between history and MOS can be bridged, the requirement of dual integrity raises particular attention to techniques or practices of history ( Suddaby, 2016 ). While promoting a historic turn in MOS, Booth and Rowlinson (2006) called for alternate methods of historically studying organizations beyond the traditional descriptive case study ( Álvaro-Moya and Donzé, 2016 ). Since then, a wide range of theoretical framings, methodological approaches and methods has emerged that scholars can access to develop understandings of the past ( Decker et al. , 2015 ; Mills et al. , 2016 ). Rowlinson et al. (2014) provide some methodological organization by identifying four archetypical types of historical analysis that are suitable for MOS. The first is corporate history, which consists of a holistic, objectivist narrative of a specific corporate entity. Second, analytically structured history narrates conceptually defined structures and events. Third, in serial history, replicable techniques are used to analyze repeatable facts. Finally, ethnographic history aims at recovering social practices and meanings from organizations.

Although Rowlinson et al. ’s (2014) typology constitutes a major reference point for business historians seeking to contribute to MOS, historical methods, sources and narratives are never static ( Weatherbee, 2012 ), and the discussion around the methodological choices that are available to study history in MOS is ongoing ( Durepos and Mills, 2017a ). We are therefore left with the question: to what extent are efforts to categorize historical methodologies effective at fully capturing the variety and richness that exists in the practice of history? In this light, it is understandable that Decker et al. (2015) call for a broader debate about the methods for business historical research that appreciates the diversity of approaches that have developed in the past decade. If this debate is to be given further shape, business history scholars have to work concretely on generating what Decker et al. (2015) refer to as methodological pluralism. Doing so not only encompasses proposing and discussing specific historical methodological approaches and methods that are suitable for MOS; it also requires demonstrating their use empirically in theoretically motivated studies.

Introducing the papers

The papers featured in this special issue of the Journal of Management History each make a theoretical contribution to methodology in historical organization studies. Far from only describing the theoretical benefits of doing history (“history as theory”) in MOS, the papers discuss and demonstrate how to integrate the practice of historical data collection and analysis to provide an empirical contribution (“history as method”). Thus, the papers illustrate the theoretical point through a full-blown empirical study that features respective methodologies.

The first two pieces in our special issue (Shaffner, Mills and Helms Mills; Ruel, Mills and Helms Mills) feature methodological contributions to enhance the historical study of gender and diversity in organizations. Heeding to calls to explore gender and diversity in organization studies, Shaffner et al. combine research on intersectionality with the study of the past to examine discriminatory patterns at work over time. After outlining the facets of intersectional history, the authors provide an example of the method in use which features Qantas Airways and their treatment of Australian Aboriginal people. Ruel et al. also focus on methodology to study discrimination and gender in organizations. Their context is the Cold War space industry where women are almost invisible because they were either employed in low organizational positions (which did not get documented and thus, do not make the archive repositories) or absent all together. The absence of women makes their study very challenging. Ruel et al. overcome this challenge by combining archival data featuring Pan American Airway’s Guided Missile Range Division with an autoethnography featuring Ruel’s experience within the contemporary space industry. This innovative combination of two existing methodologies allows Ruel et al. to foster deeper insight into discrimination in the space industry. The outcome is a unique study that links the past and present in a non-chronological way to offer a fresh perspective on gender relations in the space industry.

The articles by Shaffner et al. and Ruel et al. are each influenced by postmodern historiography ( Jenkins, 1991 ; Munslow, 1997 ) where knowledge of the past is viewed as socially constructed. This perspective is shared by Quelha and Costa, the authors of the third article featured in the special issue. Quelha and Costa perform a unique ANTi-History to trace the emergence and constitution of the Memorial Resistance of São Paulo. In doing so, they surface the socio-politics of the human and nonhuman actors involved in the site of memory. Far from the usual reliance on archival materials to study the past, this study combines data including interviews, videos, books, newspapers and websites to offer an alternative historical version that surfaces the complexity of the memorial’s history.

Archives are often assumed to be the preferred choice of historians, with some going as far as performing full archival ethnographies ( Decker, 2014 ; Coller et al. , 2016 ). The following three articles in the special issue (Bowie; Tumbe; Russell) each focus on the archive and its uses. The articles by Bowie and Tumbe focus specifically on newspaper archives. While Bowie praises them for their accuracy and cost-effectiveness and calls upon management historians to fully leverage their potential for contextualization, Tumbe demonstrates how the large-scale machine-readable texts (“corpus linguistics”) available in digitized newspaper archives can be leveraged for analyzing the evolution of words, concepts and ideas across vast time periods and cultures, which in turn can lead to advancements in discourse analysis. The third paper, by Russell, is innovative in a different way, demonstrating how one can draw on extant sources that vary in form and periodization to provide coherent insights onto a phenomenon of interest. Russell uses three seemingly unrelated archives to paint the management experience in Canada from the 1960s to the 1980s. Despite the archives’ divergent foci and the fact that their collections ostensibly offer little on the subject of the Canadian management experience, Russell finds sources in each of the three collections that allow him to shed light on the complexity of the management experience in post-World War II Canada. This analysis leads Russell to encourage management historians to be innovative in finding and using archival collections.

The last two articles featured in the special issue are empirically motivated case studies (Olejniczak, Tomasz and Pikos; Earnest) that offer theoretical insights for management historians. Olejniczak, Tomasz and Pikos’ case study offers a multidisciplinary theoretical discussion of the concept of continuity, followed by its empirical illustration in a long-lived company, the Polish Jablkowski Brothers Department Store. The case study’s featured organization offers an interesting context to study continuity because it has a discontinuous history. The authors capitalize on the longevity of the organization and its discontinuous history to offer insights on the notion of continuity in management history. From Poland, we travel south to Kosovo, the geographic context of Earnest’s case study. In this special issue finale article, Earnest explores the multiple challenges of reconstruction and development in a war-torn Kosovo. The author focuses on the planning and implementation of projects while stressing the importance of historical, social and cultural contexts. This focus allows Earnest to outline the implications of project management practice and theory and show that international aid efforts do not always transfer easily to local community needs. Challenges identified include stakeholder communication, cost, quality and risk management. Earnest’s case study demonstrates the need for more historically sensitive research on post-conflict communities and the insight they offer for modern project management knowledge.

Collectively, the eight articles featured in the special issue offer examples of innovative and historically sensitive methodology that we feel increase the management historian toolkit and ultimately enhance the methodological pluralism of historical organization studies as a field.

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Corresponding author

About the authors.

Wim Van Lent is an Assistant Professor of entrepreneurship and strategy at Montpellier Business School, France. He received a PhD in management from ESSEC Business School. His research interest lies at the intersection of strategy, sociology and history and focuses on the institutionalization of core management practices, power and organizational memory. His work has been published in Social Forces and Human Relations .

Gabrielle Durepos, PhD, is an Associate Professor at Mount Saint Vincent University in Halifax, Canada. Her co-authored book ANTi-History: Theorizing the Past, History, and Historiography in Management and Organization Studies addresses the call for a historic turn by drawing on actor-network theory. She is also an Associate Editor at the Academy of Management Learning and Education and Qualitative Research in Organization and Management. Gabrielle is a co-editor of both the SAGE Encyclopaedia of Case Study Research and the SAGE Major Work on Case Study Methods in Business Research .

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Introduction

The following publications are examples of books that provide guidance on the methods, principles, historiography and procedures of architectural history, how to interpret the built environment, and how to do research in architectural history. Please see the Environmental Design Library guide:  Designing a Research Strategy  for a general guide to the steps in research and term paper or thesis writing, and the methodology section of  Vernacular Architecture Resources  or for more specialized methodology sources.

Methodology and historiography

• Architectural theory, from the Renaissance to the present: 89 essays on 117 treatises.  Koln; Los Angeles: Taschen, 2003.
• Art history's history , by Vernon Hyde Minor. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2001.
• The content of the form, narrative discourse and historical representation,  by Hayden White. Baltimore John Hopkins University Press, 1987.
• The critical historians of art , by Michael Podro. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982.
• Experimental sociology of architecture: a guide to theory, research, and literature , by Guy Ankerl. The Hague; New York: Mouton, 1981. New Babylon studies in the social sciences, 36.
• The favored circle: the social foundations of architectural distinction,  by Garry Stevens. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1998.
• "Form and User: Style, Mode, Fashion and the Artifact," by Dell Upton, in  Living in a Material World: Canadian and American Approaches to Material Culture Studies , ed. Gerald L. Pocius [1991]. St. John's, Nfld.: Institute of Social and Economic Research, Memorial University of Newfoundland, c1991. Social and economic papers, no. 19.
• "Historiography and modern architecture, pts I and II" ed. by Stanford Anderson in  Journal of architectural education , vol. 44 no. 3, p. 130–55, May, 1991, and vol. 44 no. 4, p.194–210, Aug. 1991.
• The historiography of modern architecture , UCB Only by Panayotis Tournikiotis. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999.
• History and social theory , by Peter Burke. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993, c1992.
• How to investigate the history of a building . (History Detectives, PBS). Clear guide to researching a building's history.
• The idea of history , by R. G. Collingwood. N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 1956. Galaxy book 1.
• Intersections: architectural histories and critical theories. Iain Borden and Jane Rendell, eds.London; New York: Routledge, 2000.
• On the methodology of architectural history , guest editor, Demetri Porphyrios. London: Architectural Design; New York, N.Y.: St. Martin's Press, 1981. Architectural design profile; [35]
• Principles of architectural history; the four phases of architectural style, 1420–1900 , by Paul Frankl. Translated and edited by James F. O'Gorman. [Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1968].
• Principles of art history; the problem of the development of style in later art , by Heinrich Wolfflin, Translated by M. D. Hottinger. [New York] Dover Publications [194–?]
• Reading architectural history , by Dana Arnold. London; New York: Routledge, 2002.
• The rise of architectural history , by David Watkin. London: Architectural Press; Westfield, NJ: Eastview Editions, 1980.
• The study of architectural history , by Bruce Allsopp. [New York] Praeger [1970]. Relationship between architectural history and practice; nature of architectural history.
• Summerson and Hitchcock: centenary essays on architectural historiography . New Haven: Published for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art [and] the Yale Center for British Art [by] Yale University Press, 2006.
• Theories and history of architecture , by Manfredo Tafuri, translated from the Italian by Giorgio Verrecchia. New York Harper & Row, 1980. (Series: Icon editions).
• Varieties of cultural history , by Peter Burke. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997.
• Visual methodologies , by Gillian Rose. London: Thousand Oaks, CAlif. ;  Sage Publications, 2007.
• Words and buildings: a vocabulary of modern architecture , by Adrian Forty. New York, N.Y.: Thames & Hudson, 2000. Focuses on the language of modern architecture and includes a "historical and critical dictionary" of essays exploring the historical framework and theoretical meaning of 18 words that form the "core vocabulary of modernist architectural criticism."
• The writing of history , by Michel de Certeau; translated by Tom Conley. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. European 

Process, Field Work

• Guide to recording historic buildings , ICOMOS. London; Boston: Butterworth Architecture, 1990.
• HABS/HAER guidelines: recording structures and sites with HABS measured drawings , by Joseph D. Balachowski]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service, Cultural Resources, Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American Engineering Record, [2001]
• Identifying American architecture: a pictorial guide to styles and terms, 1600–1945 , by James J.-G. Blumenson. 2d ed.,rev. and enl. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1981. Easy-to-use guide to identifying the most common American building styles.
• Instructions for recording historical resources  (PDF), California Office of Historic Preservation. Sacramento: Office of Historic Preservation, 1995.
• Measured drawing for architects , by Robert Chitham. London: Architectural Press, 1980.
• Recording historic structures , ed. by John A. Burns and the staff of the Historic American Buildings Survey, Historic American Engineering Record, and Historic American Landscapes Survey, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 2004.
• Secretary of the Interior's standards and guidelines for architectural and engineering documentation: HABS/HAER . Washington, D.C.: Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American Engineering Record, Cultural Resources Program, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service, 1990.
• Vernacular architecture : an illustrated handbook  , by R.W. Brunskill. 4th ed. London: Faber, 2000. British emphasis, but excellent techniques for investigating vernacular architecture.

Interpreting the Built Environment

• Architecture as space, how to look at architecture , by Bruno Zevi; ed. by Joseph A. Barry. Rev. ed. New York: Horizon Press, [1974] Includes concepts of space through many eras, and different interpretations of architecture—political, religious, scientific, etc.
• Architecture everywhere: investigating the built environment of your community , by Joseph A. Weber. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Pr., 2000.
• Architecture, form, space & order , by Francis D.K. Ching. 4th ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 2014.
• The arts: a comparative approach to the arts of painting, sculpture, architecture, music, and drama . Thomas A. Walters. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2000.
• Buildings and society, essays on the social development of the built environment , edited by Anthony D. King. London; Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
• Cities & people, a social and architectural history . Mark Girouard. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985.
• Close-up, how to read the American city , Grady Clay. Phoenix, ed. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1980.
• Constructing ideas: understanding architecture , Lance LaVine. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 2004.
• "Describing architecture," in  Architecture and ornament: an illustrated dictionary . Margaret Maliszewski-Pickart. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 1998, p. 183–95.
• Essentials in architecture; an analysis of the principles & qualities to be looked for in buildings , by John Belcher. London, B.T. Batsford, 1907. Truth, beauty, qualities, factors, materials.
• Everyday architecture of the Mid-Atlantic, looking at buildings and landscapes . Gabrielle M. Lanier and Bernard L. Herman. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. Creating the North American landscape.
• Experiencing architecture . Steen I. Rasmussen. [Transl. from Danish by Eve Wendt. 2d US ed.]. Cambridge [Mass.] M.I.T. Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1962.
• Houses and homes, exploring their history , by Barbara J. Howe .. [et al.]. Nashville, Tenn.: American Association for State and Local History, 1987. Nearby history series ; 2.
• The interior dimension, a theoretical approach to enclosed space , by Joy Monice Malnar, Frank Vodvarka. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992.
• The Interpretation of ordinary landscapes, geographical essays , by D. W. Meinig, editor; J. B. Jackson. et al. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.
• Landscape in sight, looking at America , by John Brinckerhoff Jackson; edited by Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997.
• Looking at buildings , by Christopher Trent. London, Phoenix House; New York, Roy Publishers [1960].
• Looking at cities , by Allan B. Jacobs, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1985. See especially Chapter 3, "Clues," pp.30–83. Very useful presentation of the physical indicators that help the observer interpret an urban environment.
• The meaning of architecture; an essay in constructive criticism , by Irving K. Pond. Boston, Marshall Jones company, 1918. Dated, but interesting, discussion of the "sublime essence of . (the) spirit .(of) the great architecture of the past."
• The meaning of the built environment, a nonverbal communication approach , by Amos Rapoport. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990.
• Meaningful architecture: social interpretations of buildings , edited by Martin Locock. Aldershot; Brookfield, Vt., USA: Avebury; 1994. Worldwide archaeology series; 9.
• Nearby history: exploring the past around you , by David E. Kyvig and Myron A. Marty. 2nd ed. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Pr., 2000. Excellent, well-organized manual. 2010 ed. available as ebook .
• Observing and interpreting the urban environment: case study, Prescott & South Prescott, Oakland, California , by Allan B. Jacobs. Berkeley: Institute of Urban and Regional Development, Univ. of California, Berkeley, 1982. Working paper no. 374. A case study demonstrating techniques of community observation and anaylsis.
• On doing local history: reflections on what local historians do, why, and what it means , by Carol Kammen. Nashville, TN: American Association for State and Local History, 1986. See Chapter 2,  "Researching local history,"  pp. 43–76.
• Public places, exploring their history , by Gerald A. Danzer. Nashville, TN: American Association for State and Local History, 1987.
• Reading architectural plans: for residential and commercial construction , by Ernest R. Weidhaas. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, c2002.
• Real places, an unconventional guide to America's generic landscape , by Grady Clay. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.
• Right before your eyes, penetrating the urban environment, Grady Clay. Washington, D.C.: American Planning Association; Chicago, Ill.: Planners Press, 1987.
• Streets, critical perspectives on public space , edited by Zeynep Celik, Diane Favro, Richard Ingersoll. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
• The study of urban geography , Harold Carter. 4th ed. London; New York: Edward Arnold; New York: Co-published by Halsted Press, 1995. 4th ed on order for EnvDesign.
• Town architecture: Blacksburg, understanding a Virginia town , by Donna Dunay. [Blacksburg, Va.]: Town of Blacksburg, the College of Architecture and Urban Studies, and the Extension Division, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1986.
• Understanding architecture: an introduction to architecture and architectural history , Hazel Conway and Rowan Roenisch. 2nd ed. London; New York: Routledge, 2005
• Understanding architecture, its elements, history, and meaning . Leland M. Roth.2nd. ed.   Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press, c2007.
• Understanding buildings, a multidisciplinary approach , Esmond Reid. London: Construction Press, 1984.
• "Understanding the Use of Space: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach," by Susan Kent, in  Method and Theory for Activity Area Research: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach , ed. Susan Kent [1987]. New York: Columbia University Press, 1987.
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Historical Methodologies Term Paper

The credibility and accuracy of any historically account depends on the type of approach that the historians use in the course of their work. Historians must be conversant with available methodologies and approaches in order for them to handle evidence collection and interpretation in the best way possible (Green, 1999). Historical research and analysis is not an easy task as it seems due to the technicalities involved.

Historical methodologies and approaches consist of concepts and techniques used by historians to explore and highlight different types of historical events (Green, 1999). Each historical approach tends to challenge previous approaches as it attempts to improve historical research and analysis. This paper will discuss different types of types of historical approaches used by historians and the contribution that each approach makes to the general field of historical studies.

Empiricism is a historical methodology that is based on the theory that human knowledge is gained through knowledge and experience. This approach refutes the argument that human beings possess some innate ideas that can not be imparted through experience (Green, 1999).

According to the empiricism approach, history can only be retrieved through sensory perception and scientific experiments. The empiricism historical approach emphasizes the fact that historians must test their theories and hypotheses through physical observation of events and other natural phenomena rather than mere intuition. The empiricism approach is widely used in philosophy and history when conducting a theoretical inquiry.

The hypotheses used in this approach must be testable using scientific methods. Empiricism completely opposes rationalism which emphasizes on intuition and reason as definite sources of knowledge. The use of human senses to perceive and conceive historical knowledge and other types of knowledge is what the empiricism approach focuses on (Green, 1999). The Empiricism approach was widely developed by Aristotle and is among the early historical approaches.

Historical materialism is a concept developed by Karl Marx and has become a very important methodological approach in the conception of history. This approach is used in the study of economic history and the general society.

The historical materialism approach emphasizes the fact that the economic activities that human beings engage in give rise to the non-economic features of the society (Howell, 2001). Political structures and social classes come as result of economic activity. The original argument of the materialism approach was that human beings have to produce the fundamental necessities of life to guarantee survival.

Despite this methodological approach being used to understand historical developments and the society in general, it also emphasizes on the importance of production relations in sustaining economic production. Division of labor is key to maintaining the production network where human beings perform different duties in the production of the various necessities of life (Howell, 2001).

The ability to use means of production such as human knowledge and raw materials characterize the success of the Marxist ideology. The materialism approach tries to highlight the modes of production that the society has employed over time. This approach sets to highlight the economic history of the society by examining the modes of production used in the society through time (Howell, 2001). In the course of interacting with nature, human beings are able to produce their material needs in different ways.

According to Marx, the productive forces in the society determine the mode of production to be adopted by that society. Some of the modes of production that Marx came up with include communism, feudalism and capitalism as they follow each other in chronological order (Green, 1999). Materialism is a methodological approach that helps historians to fully comprehend the basis of change that constantly takes place in the human society.

According to Marx, the human history is coherent in the manner that productive forces and modes of production are inherited from one generation to another as they continue to be improved and developed in tandem with technological advances and changing human needs. The struggle between different social classes for economic resources is what makes history (Green, 1999).

The materialism approach is against the idea of human history being perceived as a series of accidents. The materialism approach emphasizes the fact that the present can only be understood by studying the past. Past events and activities shape the present both socially and economically.

There are various observations through which history can be developed using the Marxist ideologies. To begin with, the social development of a society is entirely dependent on the amount of productive forces that the society has (Green, 1999). Social relationships within the society stem from production relations which human beings have no choice but to get involved.

Productive forces determine whether production relationships develop or not. The mode of production plays a critical role in determining the rate at which the production forces develop. According to Marxist beliefs, the society is founded on its relations of production and modes of production. Economic exploitation in the society is brought about by a particular social class that uses the state as an instrument of forming and protecting their production relations (Green, 1999).

The materialism approach also disputes the fact that the historical process is predetermined. Social classes within the society struggle and in the process form the actual historical process. The society goes through various stages of economic transformation as a natural way of sustaining itself.

The social science approach is one of the major methodologies used by sociology historians in an attempt to try and understand the sociological history of a particular society. Social science uses scientific method to analyze and understand the past social life. The field of social science is very wide and handles a lot of disciplines including historical research and analysis of social history (Howell, 2001).

This approach does not deal with natural sciences but it employs the same methods used in studying natural science to explain and analyze the social life of a particular society. The social science approach uses both quantitative and qualitative techniques to interpret and come up with a definite historical account of the social life in a particular society. According to this approach, history can just be studied the same way mathematics and other natural sciences are studied.

The social science approach was largely influenced by the industrial revolution that emphasized moral philosophy (Howell, 2001). This methodology employs the use of data and theory depending on what discipline the historian intents to study. Empirical observations and logic are the major components of the social science historical methodology. This approach differs with the materialism theory in the sense that the evidence collected is thoroughly studied using scientific methods.

The social actions of a particular society are studied using statistical techniques such as open-ended interviews and questionnaires that are administered to a sample population. This approach is very comprehensive compared to the previous methodologies in the sense that it explains and describes historical findings rather than just predicting (Howell, 2001). The social science approach tests all hypotheses to establish the truth in them. All the possible explanations of a particular social action are provided by this approach.

The study of social and cultural issues of the society has led to the development of new methodologies and approaches in order to increase the chances of coming up with more accurate results (Tosh, 2000). Social history has been replaced by cultural history due to the fact that the culture of the society preserves all the aspects of a particular society. Anthropology is a social science discipline that tends to explain the cultural orientation of different societies.

The study of social and cultural histories of a particular community is very vital in the sense that it helps give a particular sense of identity to the community. Anthropology uses scientific and statistical methods to explain how the society is set up socially and culturally.

This new approach aims at describing the society in detail since the social science approach only deals with social life. This new approach bases it explanations on real facts rather than predictions and imagination. Social trends in the society are what forms social history which is established by using scientific methods.

Social history explores how ordinary people within a society live (Tosh, 2000). Both political and intellectual histories are justified by the findings in the social field. The new social history approach explores the social history of a society in detail including labor history, family history, ethnic history, educational history together with demographic history. The new social approach is extended by the cultural approach that was established recently.

The new cultural approach focuses more on cultural traditional customs, arts, languages and cultural interpretation of historical experiences (Tosh, 2000). The new cultural approach challenges the materialism approach which only highlights economic changes as a source of history. The cultural approach takes a lot of time because of the many cultural elements explored during research and analysis.

Gender history is another type of historical approach that specifically explores the past from the gender perspective. This method tends to focus on the history of women and their changing roles in the society (Tosh, 2000).

This type of historical approach has only been in place for a very short time but the impact it has made to the general field of history can not be underestimated. The gender approach faced a lot of challenges in its initial stages as many people were reluctant to accept women history as a historical discipline. This made the proponents of this approach to change its name from women history to gender history.

This approach has gained a lot of support because many women are now getting interested in the historical profession. Women historians have been accused of being biased as they tend to highlight feminine issues rather than the general gender issues (Howell, 2001). The gender approach is categorized under supplementary history because women were conspicuously missing in the majority of previous historical recordings.

This approach focuses on highlighting and position and role of women in history. Women play a very important role in the history of any community and the fact other historical methodologies do not highlight their contribution; the supporters of the gender approach have always challenged the credibility of previous historical approaches (Howell, 2001).

The post modern historical approach includes both post-structural and post-colonial histories. The postmodern historical approach completely challenges all other traditional approaches by stating that there is a very thin line between facts and fiction. Postmodernists perceive all historical accounts as fiction. The postmodern approach encourages historians to use history as a way of promoting an ideology (Tosh, 2000).

This methodology focuses on revising recorded history with an aim protecting social minorities from oppression. Postmodern history plays a major role in exposing past injustices with an aim of correcting them. The post-modern approach is always criticized for being radical and generalizing all historical events as fiction. Some of the injustices exposed by postmodern history include slavery, colonialism and other forms of oppression.

The postmodern approach retells histories so that the oppressed groups in the society are empowered (Tosh, 2000). According to postmodernists, there is no way that the society can correct past mistakes if in the first place the people are not aware of the mistakes that were committed in the past. Postmodern historians argue that it is inevitable to avoid bias in history (Tosh, 2000).

In conclusion, historical methodologies help historians a great deal in exploring the past. New historical approaches have been developed in order too explore the past in detail. The discovery of many historical disciplines has contributed to the changes experienced in historical approaches.

Each historical approach has got its theories and ideologies which gives historians the freedom to choose an approach that is relevant to their areas of specialization. Historical methodologies have completely change the way historical studies are conducted and as a result enabling the society to understand its past and at the same time use the historical knowledge to shape the present and the future.

Green, A. (1999). The houses of history: a critical reader in the twentieth century history and theory . Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Howell, M. (2001). From reliable sources: an introduction to historical methods . New York, NY: Cornell University Press.

Tosh, J. (2000). The pursuit of history: aims, methods and new directions in the study of modern history (5 th ed.). London: Longman.

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IvyPanda. (2018, October 31). Historical Methodologies. https://ivypanda.com/essays/historical-methodologies/

"Historical Methodologies." IvyPanda , 31 Oct. 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/historical-methodologies/.

IvyPanda . (2018) 'Historical Methodologies'. 31 October.

IvyPanda . 2018. "Historical Methodologies." October 31, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/historical-methodologies/.

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Historical Methodologies." October 31, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/historical-methodologies/.

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UGC NET Syllabus 2024 for Paper 1 & 2, Download Latest Syllabus PDF

Ugc net syllabus 2024 for paper 1 and paper 2 has been released by the university grants commission. prospective candidates should review the subject-wise ugc net syllabus and exam pattern in both hindi and english before commencing their preparation. additionally, you can find the direct link to download the ugc net syllabus 2024 pdf here..

UGC NET Syllabus 2024 is prescribed by the University Grants Commission along with the notification. Aspirants who are planning to fill out the UGC NET Application Form for the June 2024 session must be conversant with the detailed syllabus. The exam is divided into two papers: Paper 1 and Paper 2. While Paper 1 is compulsory for all candidates, Paper 2 depends on the subject chosen by the candidates. There are a total of 83 subjects from which the candidates have to choose. 

UGC NET Syllabus 2024

The UGC NET exam is held twice a year to ascertain candidates' eligibility for Assistant Professor positions or both Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) and Assistant Professor roles in Indian universities and colleges. To excel in the exam, having the updated knowledge of the latest syllabus and exam pattern is crucial. With the exam scheduled for June 16, we have provided the detailed UGC NET Syllabus for Paper 1 and Paper 2.

UGC NET Syllabus Paper 1

Ugc net syllabus 2024 paper 1.

• Teaching: Concept, Objectives, Levels of teaching (Memory, Understanding and Reflection), Characteristics and basic requirements.
• Learner’s characteristics: Characteristics of adolescent and adult learners (Academic, Social, Emotional and Cognitive), Individual differences.
• Factors affecting teaching related to Teacher, Learner, Support material, Instructional facilities, Learning environment and Institution.
• Methods of teaching in Institutions of higher learning: Teacher centred vs. Learner-centred methods; offline vs. Online methods (Swayam, Swayamprabha, MOOCs etc.).
• Teaching Support System: Traditional, Modern and ICT based.
• Evaluation Systems: Elements and Types of evaluation, Evaluation in Choice Based Credit System in Higher education, Computer-based testing, Innovations in evaluation systems.
• Research: Meaning, Types, and Characteristics, Positivism and Postpositivistic approach to research.
• Methods of Research: ExperimeUGCl, Descriptive, Historical, Qualitative and Quantitative Methods, Steps of Research.
• Thesis and Article writing: Format and styles of referencing.
• Application of ICT in research.
• Research ethics.

Unit-III Comprehension Syllabus

A passage of text is given. Questions are asked from the passage to be answered.

• Communication: Meaning, types and characteristics of communication.
• Effective communication: Verbal and Non-verbal, Inter-Cultural and group communications, Classroom communication.
• Barriers to effective communication.
• Mass-Media and Society.
• Types of reasoning.
• Number series, Letter series, Codes and Relationships.
• Mathematical Aptitude (Fraction, Time & Distance, Ratio, Proportion and PerceUGCge, Profit and Loss, Interest and Discounting, Averages etc.).
• Understanding the structure of arguments: argument forms, the structure of categorical propositions, Mood and Figure, Formal and Informal fallacies, Uses of language, Connotations and denotations of terms, Classical square of opposition.
• Evaluating and distinguishing deductive and inductive reasoning.
• Venn diagram: Simple and multiple uses for establishing the validity of arguments.
• Indian Logic: Means of knowledge.
• Pramanas: Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), Upamana (Comparison), Shabda (Verbal testimony), Arthapatti (Implication) and Anupalabddhi (Non-apprehension).
• Structure and kinds of Anumana (inference), Vyapti (invariable relation), Hetvabhasas (fallacies of inference).
• Sources, acquisition and classification of Data.
• Quantitative and Qualitative Data.
• Graphical representation (Bar-chart, Histograms, Pie-chart, Table-chart and Line-chart) and mapping of Data.
• Data Interpretation.
• Data and Governance.
• Unit-VIII: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Syllabus
• ICT: General abbreviations and terminology.
• Basics of the Internet, Intranet, E-mail, Audio and Video-conferencing.
• Digital initiatives in higher education.
• ICT and Governance.
• Development and environment: Millennium development and Sustainable development goals.
• Human and environment interaction: Anthropogenic activities and their impacts on the environment.
• EnvironmeUGCl issues: Local, Regional and Global; Air pollution, Water pollution, Soil pollution, Noise pollution, Waste (solid, liquid, biomedical, hazardous, electronic), Climate change and its Socio-Economic and Political dimensions.
• Impacts of pollutants on human health.
• Natural and energy resources: Solar, Wind, Soil, Hydro, Geothermal, Biomass, Nuclear and Forests.
• Natural hazards and disasters: Mitigation strategies.
• EnvironmeUGCl Protection Act (1986), National Action Plan on Climate Change, International agreements/efforts -Montreal Protocol, Rio Summit, Convention on Biodiversity, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement, International Solar Alliance.
• Institutions of higher learning and education in ancient India.
• Evolution of higher learning and research in Post Independence India.
• OrieUGCl, Conventional and Non-conventional learning programmes in India.
• Professional, Technical and Skill-Based education.
• Value education and environmeUGCl education.
• Policies, Governance, and Administration.

UGC NET Paper 1 Syllabus PDF

Ugc net paper 2 syllabus pdf, ugc net paper 2 syllabus 2024 subject-wise, ugc net syllabus political science.

Candidates who have completed their master's in Political Science and selected this subject for UGC NET Paper 2 must possess a comprehensive understanding of the syllabus.

• Political Traditions
• Conservatism
• Multiculturalism
• Postmodernism
• Confucius, Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Hegel, Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx, Gramsci, Hannah Arendt, Frantz
• Fanon, Mao Zedong, John Rawls

UGC NET Syllabus Law

Candidates gearing up for the UGC NET Law examination should thoroughly review the syllabus to devise an effective study plan. The subject code for UGC NET Law is 58, encompassing a syllabus consisting of 10 units. Check out the UGC NET Law Syllabus below.

• Nature and sources of law
• Schools of jurisprudence
• Law and morality
• Concept of rights and duties
• Legal personality
• Concepts of property, ownership, and possession
• Concept of liability
• Law, poverty, and development
• Global justice
• Modernism and post-modernism
• Preamble, fundameUGCl rights and duties, directive principles of state
• Union and State executive and their interrelationship
• Union and State legislature and distribution of legislative powers
• Emergency provisions
• Temporary, transitional and special provisions in respect of certain states
• Election Commission of India
• Nature, scope and importance of administrative law
• Principle of natural justice
• Judicial review of administrative actions 
• International law – Definition, nature and basis
• Sources of International law
• Recognition of states and governments
• Nationality, immigrants, refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs)
• Extradition and asylum
• United Nations and its organs
• Settlement of international disputes
• World Trade Organization (WTO)
• International humanitarian law (IHL) - Conventions and protocols
• ImplemeUGCtion of IHL - Challenges
• General principles of criminal liability – Actus reus and mens rea, individual and group liability and constructive liability
• Stages of crime and inchoate crimes - Abetment, criminal conspiracy and attempt
• General exceptions
• Offences against human body
• Offences against state and terrorism
• Offences against property
• Offences against women and children
• Drug trafficking and counterfeiting
• Offences against public tranquility
• Theories and kinds of punishments, compensation to the victims of crime
• Nature and definition of tort
• General principles of tortious liability
• General defenses
• Specific torts – Negligence, nuisance, trespass and defamation
• Remoteness of damages
• Strict and absolute liability
• Tortious liability of the State
• The Consumer Protection Act 1986 - Definitions, consumer rights and redressal mechanism
• The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 - No fault liability, third party insurance and claims tribunal
• The Competition Act, 2002 - Prohibition of certain agreements, abuse of dominant position and regulation of combinations
• Essential elements of contract and e-contract
• Breach of contract, frustration of contract, void and voidable agreements
• Standard form of contract and quasi-contract
• Specific contracts - Bailment, pledge, indemnity, guarantee and agency
• Sale of Goods Act, 1930
• Partnership and limited liability partnership
• Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
• Company law – Incorporation of a company, prospectus, shares and debentures
• Company law – Directors and meetings
• Corporate social responsibility
• Sources and schools
• Marriage and dissolution of marriage
• Matrimonial remedies - Divorce and theories of divorce
• Changing dimensions of institution of marriage – Live-in relationship
• Recognition of foreign decrees in India on marriage and divorce
• Maintenance, dower and stridhan
• Adoption, guardianship and acknowledgement
• Succession and inheritance
• Will, gift and wakf
• Uniform Civil Code
• Meaning and concept of ‘environment’ and ‘environmeUGCl pollution’
• International environmeUGCl law and UN Conferences
• Constitutional and legal framework for protection of environment in India
• EnvironmeUGCl Impact Assessment and control of hazardous waste in India
• National Green Tribunal
• Concept and development of human rights
• Universalism and cultural relativism
• International Bill of Rights
• Group rights – Women, children, persons with disabilities, elderly persons, minorities and weaker sections
• Protection and enforcement of human rights in India – National Human Rights Commission, National Commission for Minorities, National Commission for Women, National Commission for Scheduled Castes, National Commission for Schedule Tribes and National Commission for Backward Classes
• Concept and meaning of intellectual property
• Theories of intellectual property
• International conventions pertaining to intellectual properties
• Copyright and neighboring rights – Subject matters, limitations and exceptions, infringement and remedies
• Law of patent – PateUGCbility, procedure for grant of patent, limitations and exceptions, infringement and remedies
• Law of trademark – Registration of trademarks, kinds of trademarks, infringement and passing off, remedies
• Protection of Geographical Indications
• Bio-diversity and Traditional Knowledge
• Information technology law- digital signature and electronic signature, electronic governance, electronic records and duties of subscribers
• Cyber crimes, penalties and adjudication
• Comparative Law – Relevance, methodology, problems and concerns in Comparison
• Forms of governments – Presidential and parliameUGCry, unitary and federal
• Models of federalism – USA, Canada and India
• Rule of Law – ‘Formal’ and ‘substantive’ versions
• Separation of powers – India, UK, USA and France
• Independence of judiciary, judicial activism and accouUGCbility – India, UK and USA
• Systems of constitutional review – India, USA, Switzerland and France
• Amendment of the Constitution – India, USA and South Africa
• Ombudsman –Sweden, UK and India
• Open Government and Right to Information - USA, UK and India

UGC NET English Literature

Ugc net history syllabus, ugc net exam pattern, best books for covering ugc ugc net syllabus.

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Computer Science > Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition

Title: diffusion models meet remote sensing: principles, methods, and perspectives.

Abstract: As a newly emerging advance in deep generative models, diffusion models have achieved state-of-the-art results in many fields, including computer vision, natural language processing, and molecule design. The remote sensing community has also noticed the powerful ability of diffusion models and quickly applied them to a variety of tasks for image processing. Given the rapid increase in research on diffusion models in the field of remote sensing, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive review of existing diffusion model-based remote sensing papers, to help researchers recognize the potential of diffusion models and provide some directions for further exploration. Specifically, this paper first introduces the theoretical background of diffusion models, and then systematically reviews the applications of diffusion models in remote sensing, including image generation, enhancement, and interpretation. Finally, the limitations of existing remote sensing diffusion models and worthy research directions for further exploration are discussed and summarized.

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A new understanding of ion exchange

April 16, 2024

By Paul Dailing

Related content

• Finding a better path to lithium
• Chong Liu wins prestigious Sloan Fellowship
• Engineering groundbreaking research

Ion exchange is a powerful technique for converting one material to another when synthesizing new products.

In this process, scientists know what reactants lead to what products, but how the process works — the exact pathway of how one material can be converted to another — has remained elusive.

In a paper published today in Nature Materials , a team of UChicago Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering researchers shed new light on this mystery. In researching lithium cathode materials for battery storage, a team from the Liu Lab has shown that there is a general pathway for lithium and sodium ion exchange in layered oxide cathode materials.

“We systematically explored the ion exchange process in lithium and sodium,” said first author Yu Han, a PhD candidate at PME. “The ion exchange pathway we revealed is new.”

By helping explain how the ion exchange process works, this paper opens the doors for researchers working with metastable materials, meaning materials that aren’t currently in their most stable possible forms. It can also lead to new innovations in atom-efficient manufacturing, using less of the starting precursors and generating less waste when synthesizing materials.

“It will broaden the family of metastable materials people can synthesize,” said PME Asst. Prof. Chong Liu .

New methods

Although the potential applications resonate throughout material synthesis, the paper started by looking at production of lithium for battery cathodes. As climate change pushes the world away from fossil fuels, more and better batteries are needed to store renewable power.

“The old method of solid-state synthesis would be you pick some salt which contains the elements you are looking to synthesize. Then you combine them with the right ratio of each of the element,” Liu said. “Then you burn it.”

Burning the lithium precursors at 800-900 degrees Celsius is more effective when working with stable materials, however. In cases when the metastable form had interesting properties that could theoretically make great battery cathodes, the high temperatures pushed the materials into a new state that was more stable, but often lacking the interesting properties.

Ion exchange, however, is a synthesis method that can be done at room temperature or at relatively low temperatures of 100 degrees Celsius.

“Room temperature ion exchange allows us to access those metastable layered oxides, which could not be directly synthesized through solid-state synthesis at elevated temperature but might equipped with unique chemical and physical properties,” Han said.

In ion exchange, the salts aren’t burned but dissolved, letting ions that have the same charge replace unwanted ions. It allows researchers to vary chemical composition while maintaining a solid framework — only the ions are being swapped out. But this too had its drawbacks. The process has historically been resource-intensive and is based on trial and error.

The insights from the PME team’s paper will enable researchers to predict not only the final compositions and phases, but also the intermediate states to map out the kinetic pathways.

The PME researchers have already turned their insights on the ion exchange pathways into practice, creating what Han called “a very efficient way” to synthesize lithium (Li) from sodium (Na) and back again. The paper demonstrates the synthesis of pure phase sodium cobalt oxide from the parent lithium cobalt oxide for the first time and also lithium cobalt oxide from sodium cobalt oxide at 1-1000 Li-Na (molar ratio) with electrochemical assisted ion exchange method by mitigating the kinetic barriers.

The team hopes future innovators will go further, creating more efficient, less wasteful processes for synthesizing materials humanity needs for climate change or other pressing global needs.

“In manufacturing now, people are emphasizing atomic efficiency, which means to use the least amount of material to get to what you want,” Liu said.

Citation: “Uncovering the predictive pathways of lithium and sodium interchange in layered oxides,” Han et al., Nature Materials, April 16, 2024. DOI: 10.1038/s41563-024-01862-8

Funding: This work is supported by the US Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences under award DE-SC0022231.

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Brad Holmes not worried about your CB fetish. Detroit Lions GM drafts who he wants.

This one feels different. Sounds different. Even looks different.  

At least Brad Holmes did when he met with reporters Thursday morning in Allen Park to talk about the upcoming NFL draft.  

The Detroit Lions ’ general manager was as relaxed and confident as I can remember him this time of year, and for good reason. He isn’t trying to rebuild a team. Or break a winless playoff streak.  

That’s been done. And then some. Division title? Check. Home playoff win? Check. Super Bowl appearance? Uh, almost check?  

The Lions, you may remember, came within four points of making the Super Bowl . This is the last bit of work to be done. Fun work. Challenging work. Unprecedented work — it feels like that anyway. 

You’d have to go back to 1992 to find the leader of the Lions’ front office trying to make up so short a distance. Though even that year isn’t quite comparable to this one.  

HE SAID IT: Highlights of Lions GM Brad Holmes' pre-draft news conference: Trades, lone wolves and CBs

The Lions made the NFC title game in 1992. They lost to Washington 41-10. That Lions team, while talented, and led by Barry Sanders, didn’t have the offensive line and quarterback this one does, or as many offensive skill players.  

The Lions got bullied at the line of scrimmage that day against Washington. The difference between the NFC title game and the Super Bowl felt — and looked — a lot vaster than it did in San Francisco back in January.  

Chuck Schmidt, the Lions general manager at the time, followed that season by drafting Robert Porcher in the first round with the 26th pick, and then took Tracy Scroggins in the second round at No. 53. Porcher is arguably the best defensive end in Lions history. At the very least, he’s one of the top three. 

Scroggins, meanwhile, played 10 years at linebacker and defensive end, and averaged six sacks a season. He wasn’t a Pro Bowler like Porcher, but he was a steady, productive player. The Lions had a second, second-round pick that draft as well. They took Jason Hanson, who turned out to be a decent kicker. 

Despite the promising draft, and another star turn from Sanders, the next season didn’t go so well. The Lions finished 5-11 and obviously missed the playoffs. 

'IT TAKES MORE': How Lions are planning to take next step to Super Bowl in 2024

From the conference title game to five wins is a long fall. It’s also a reminder of how quickly things change in the NFL. Schmidt, and head coach Wayne Fontes, got the Lions back to the playoffs the next year (1994) and then again in 1995. Fontes left the next year, and his replacement, Bobby Ross, led the Lions — still under Schmidt — to two more playoff appearances in 1997 and 1999. 

But Schmidt never won a playoff game after the Lions beat the Dallas Cowboys to get to the 1992 NFC title game. What looked so promising that season faded into nine years of frequent disappointments; Schmidt resigned in January of 2001.  

Holmes and Dan Campbell have drafted as well as any Lions’ brass has in the last 40 years. Five of their selections in the last three years have made a Pro Bowl — two made an All-Pro team. Nothing on their resumés suggests a repeat of what happened to Schmidt and Fontes’ teams after the conference title game loss. 

Life comes fast in the NFL. Windows close quickly, and sometimes forcefully. Good thing Holmes doesn’t believe in “windows.”  

Here was Holmes Thursday when asked if his draft philosophy this year has changed because the Lions missed the Super Bowl by four points and thus, are theoretically in the Super Bowl “window:” 

“Yeah, I don’t really base it off of windows really. Again, it’s just how much of an impactful player do you want to get. I think I told you guys last year we had what, six and 18 originally (in the first round)? We were looking to trade up from 18 if we stayed how it stayed. That didn’t really depend on the window that we were in or anything. It’s just that those were some players that we really, really wanted to have.” 

Worrying about a window, he said, can lead to trouble. Give him this: He’s been consistent. Which can only mean he’ll take an offensive lineman with the team’s first round pick next week. (No amount of cajoling will change his mind.) 

I kid, I kid. Sort of.  

Well, not really, Holmes may well take an offensive lineman, and may never draft a cornerback. As he’s shown, and as he’s said in so many words: He’s going to take who he wants to take.  

Well, not just who he wants to take, but who he and his staff and Campbell want to take.  

There is a balance here, though. Holmes doesn’t mind consensus, but he does mind groupthink, and has encouraged his staff to speak their mind during the scouting process.  

“People naturally just want to be a part of the tribe,” he said. “They want to get along. People naturally want to agree and be likeable. It takes work to go against the grain. It takes a lot of work. That’s why I have always had a lot of respect for the lone wolf. When we’re in there and everybody is saying, ‘yes, yes, yes, yes, yes,’ and it’s some obvious prospect, it’s that one person in that room that’s like, ‘I don’t.’” 

To which Holmes says: 

“I want to listen to him, or I want to listen to her. ” 

It takes a lot to be the “lone wolf” he said. Sometimes he is a lone wolf. Sometimes he and Campbell are the lone wolves. Wait, is that possible? Sure, it is. The proof is in the play, Holmes is happy to remind. 

“I’ll tell you, me and Dan (Campbell) were the lone wolves on a player that we took last year, and it worked out. We loved the player. The rest of the group was like, ‘No, no, no, get this (other) guy,’ at the same position.” 

Holmes wouldn’t say who the player was. But, really, does he need to? 

No, he doesn’t, not yet.  

Not as long as the team keeps winning and the franchise keeps checking off boxes it so desperately wants to check. Not as long as he keeps drafting as well as he’s drafted. Sure, second-guessing is fun, and part of the reason we love the draft.  

Yet Holmes has earned the confidence he showed Thursday, and earned the calm he displayed a week before one of the tensest moments of the NFL calendar. When he met with reporters after the season, he brought receipts for those who have doubted his draft picks. And while he didn’t carry as many this time, he still pulled out a couple. 

“I know you guys were asking after the last draft: ‘Well, how come you guys didn’t pick another position?’ Well ... you don’t just pick a player because he plays that position. No, he has to be the right football player. That’s what we stuck to, and it’s worked so far for us.” 

Contact Shawn Windsor: 313-222-6487 or  [email protected] . Follow him @shawnwindsor .

Feeling a draft?

What:  2024 NFL draft.

Where:  Detroit.

The schedule:  Round 1 — 8 p.m. Thursday; Rounds 2-3 — 7 p.m. Friday; Rounds 4-7 — Noon Saturday.

TV:  ABC, ESPN, NFL Network.

Lions’ picks (with overall pick in parentheses):  Round 1 — No. 29 (29); Round 2 — No. 29 (61); Round 3 — No. 9 (73), No. 29 (92); Round 5 — No. 29 (163); Round 6 — No. 29 (207); Round 7 — No. 29 (247).