literature review on education in india

Literature on School Education, Quality, and Outcomes: A Review

• First Online: 27 September 2017

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• Charu Jain 3 &
• Narayan Prasad 4  

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To understand why it is essential to invest in education and at what level of education, various research scholars across the globe have conducted research studies and have tried to analyse the relationship between educational performance indicators and socio-economic outcomes in developing the methods of measuring quality of education and identification of its determinants. This chapter reviews the literature of such noteworthy studies. However, it has been noted that in the absence of qualitative indicators of education, most researchers have used quantitative indicators as a base for doing these analyses. Although most of the research work in this area has been conducted at global level, we have tried to present a few Indian cases as well to identify what has already been done and what needs to be done.

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Jain, C., Prasad, N. (2018). Literature on School Education, Quality, and Outcomes: A Review. In: Quality of Secondary Education in India. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4929-3_3

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Primary Education in India: Progress and Challenges

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Urvashi sahni urvashi sahni nonresident fellow - global economy and development , center for universal education @urvashi_sahni.

January 20, 2015

Content from the Brookings Institution India Center is now archived . After seven years of an impactful partnership, as of September 11, 2020, Brookings India is now the Centre for Social and Economic Progress , an independent public policy institution based in India.

In recent decades India has made significant progress on access to schooling and enrollment rates in primary education but dropout rates and low levels of learning remain challenges for the state and central government. As the U.S. has a longer history of public education than India there are opportunities for India to learn from the successes and failures in the American education system and to collaborate in tackling shared challenges, such as the best use of technology in primary education.

Primary school enrollment in India has been a success story, largely due to various programs and drives to increase enrolment even in remote areas. With enrollment reaching at least 96 percent since 2009, and girls making up 56 percent of new students between 2007 and 2013, it is clear that many problems of access to schooling have been addressed. Improvements to infrastructure have been a priority to achieve this and India now has 1.4 million schools and 7.7 million teachers so that 98 percent of habitations have a primary school (class I-V) within one kilometer and 92 percent have an upper primary school (class VI-VIII) within a three-kilometer walking distance.

Despite these improvements, keeping children in school through graduation is still an issue and dropout rates continue to be high. Nationally 29 percent of children drop out before completing five years of primary school, and 43 percent before finishing upper primary school. High school completion is only 42 percent. This lands India among the top five nations for out-of-school children of primary school age, with 1.4 million 6 to 11 year olds not attending school. In many ways schools are not equipped to handle the full population – there is a teacher shortage of 689,000 teachers in primary schools, only 53 percent of schools have functional girls’ toilets and 74 percent have access to drinking water.

Additionally, the quality of learning is a major issue and reports show that children are not achieving class-appropriate learning levels. According to Pratham’s Annual Status of Education 2013 report, close to 78 percent of children in Standard III and about 50 percent of children in Standard V cannot yet read Standard II texts. Arithmetic is also a cause for concern as only 26 percent students in Standard V can do a division problem. Without immediate and urgent help, these children cannot effectively progress in the education system, and so improving the quality of learning in schools is the next big challenge for both the state and central governments.

Improving learning will require attention to many things, including increasing teacher accountability. According to school visits teacher attendance is just 85 percent in primary and middle schools and raising the amount of time teachers spend on-task and increasing their responsibility for student learning also needs improvement. Part of this process requires better assessments at each grade level and more efficient monitoring and support systems. Overall, the public school system also needs a better general management system.

India also faces many challenges that could be tackled through the education system. For one gender issues have come to the fore because of the spate of recent cases of violence against girls. Changing gender mindsets seems to be imperative and gender studies education is one way of doing so. Also India, along with most countries, is concerned with the future of the labor market and employability; Prime Minister Mr. Narendra Modi wants to emphasize skill development in order to make school education more practically relevant.

Areas of Collaboration

Many of India’s concerns about education are shared by the U.S., such as ensuring quality, improving teacher capabilities, effective use of technology, and improving management systems. The US and India can achieve better learning outcomes if they pool their experience and resources – both intellectual and economic.

Leveraging technology : Both the U.S. and India are looking for solutions to provide high-quality learning opportunities to marginalized students. Technology has a lot of potential to improve education but how it can be implemented most effectively and in the case of India, most cost-effectively, still remains a question. There are several initiatives in India, by NGOs, like the Azim Premji Foundation & Digital Studyhall, and corporations like ILFS, Educom, Intel, Medialabs, to mention just a few, in content creation, teacher training and classroom learning. So far philanthropists and incubators are the ones who have helped to identify and scale best practices. A more officially driven effort is required to evaluate digital content and even more importantly to develop cost effective methods of making these available to teachers and students in areas where resources are scarce. Prime Minister Modi has shown a keen interest in this area, mentioning the need for ‘digital classrooms’ several times in his speeches in India and abroad. Given the issues of scale in terms of numbers and geography, which India needs to tackle in order to reach all her children and make sure they are learning effectively, technology definitely has an important role to play. The U.S. and India could collaborate and work to understand together how technology might be leveraged to improve student learning, teacher training, monitoring and support, management of schools and the quality of learning, especially in remote districts. The U.S. already has much experience in providing technology to schools and India could learn from its successes and failures. Furthermore, collaboration with the U.S. could help promote research in this area and build the evidence base in India.

Teacher education : The lack of learning in India’s schools call for changes to teacher education. A collaboration between American universities’ schools of education with Indian teacher training institutes could help build capacity and upgrade teacher education both in terms of curriculum and pedagogy, which is much needed in Indian teacher education institutions like the District Institutes of Education and Training. Such collaborations could be facilitated through technology, collaborative research projects, teacher exchanges, and subsidized online courses for teachers in India by universities in the United States.

Building good assessment systems : Good assessments are useful at the classroom level for teachers to gauge their students’ understanding and also to inform policy. The need for regular and useful assessments in India is something that Indian departments of education are focusing on at the central and state level. The U.S. could share lessons learned on how to make assessments as effective as possible in terms of assessment design, implementation and management of data.

Gender studies education : The state of women in India has recently drawn a lot of attention and promoting gender equality through education has an important role to play. Boys and girls should be taught to think about gender equality from an early age and the curriculum should include gender studies with appropriate teacher training. The U.S. could share its experiences of promoting gender equality through schools and help advance both action and research.

Skills Development : As making education more practically relevant to the labor market is a priority for Prime Minister Modi, there is much India can learn from experiences in the United States. A shared agenda of helping identify and implement improved ways to develop skills and competencies even at the school level could be an important area for collaboration.

Resources : Currently spending on education is low in India, and stands at 3.4 percent of the GDP. The U.S. might be able to help make it more of a priority, and nudge the government to increase spending on education.

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Breaking the Mould revisits Indian economy’s inequalities, and its possibilities

Authors former rbi governor raghuram rajan and economist rohit lamba ask one central question: how should india’s economy grow how do we improve quality of growth, health and education standards, and wages.

S hould you read this book? Yes.

But not because this is the best book by Raghuram Rajan, who, apart from being a former Governor of Reserve Bank of India, is one of the most widely respected economists in the world. Rajan has authored and co-authored some far more exceptional books in the past. One is Fault Lines (2010), written in the wake of the 2008 global financial crisis, highlighting the continued structural weaknesses in the global financial system. And those who are convinced that Rajan is a dyed-in-the-wool leftist should read his Saving Capitalism from the Capitalists (2003) to disabuse themselves of such notions.

Nor should it be read because it is unequivocally the best book on the Indian economy; it is not, and there is a lot in the book that even those who agree with Rajan and Lamba can quibble over.

But that, oddly enough, seems to be the point of the book: To engage readers in a debate, to force them to reflect on one central topic — how should India’s economy grow in the future? That is a very political question and makes this book the most political one on the Indian economy. Not bad timing given that India is heading for another general election where close to a billion people will vote to essentially express their approval/disapproval on that very question.

The ‘how’ of India’s economic growth is a fairly nuanced question for lay readers. These days, people are mostly debating whether the GDP (the total economic output of the country) data is credible or not. But, unlike some segments in developed countries which are increasingly questioning the idea of forever-growing economies and promoting notions such as de-growth, there is unanimity in India that the GDP must go up, and at breakneck speed. India and Indians are impatient about becoming a ‘developed’ nation. The PM has set a target of 2047.

But achieving a fast-growing GDP and that too in the short-to-medium term is only one thing. What about the quality of growth? What about the health and education standards of the median Indian? What about jobs and wages of an average Indian? What about inequalities, both economic and social?

The problem is that countries like India and China have been trying to reach levels of income and prosperity in a few decades that most developed countries achieved over the better part of two or three centuries, slowly and steadily. It is like making runs worthy of a Test cricket innings in 20 overs. As China has shown, it can be done to a great extent, but not without rather unpalatable distortions. It may involve political, financial and social repressions. India, on the other hand, has had a proud record of democracy and political freedoms as well as social justice but the past three decades of economic liberalisation has also widened inequalities in the country at an alarming rate. Mass unemployment and underemployment among Indian youth as well as poor health and education standards among children threaten to undermine the sustainability of India’s growth story.

The question is: How should India grow? What policy choices should it adopt?

For instance, should the government use the taxpayer’s money to essentially ‘subsidise’ Indian businesses and distract the same taxpayers by calling it a ‘Production-Linked Incentive’ scheme? Or should it use the same money towards bolstering India’s educational and health outcomes?

The authors give many concrete examples. The Micron semiconductor plant, slated to come up in Gujarat and expected to create 5,000 jobs, will involve a total investment of $2.75 billion. But 70 per cent of it is a direct subsidy by the Union government. “So, we are spending nearly $2 billion for 5,000 jobs, which is $400,000, or Rs 3.2 crore per job… That $2 billion, or Rs 16,500 crore, is effectively a grant to a foreign company for crumbs. It is over a third of the Central government’s entire annual budget of Rs 44,000 crore for university education!” write the authors.

The questions don’t just stop at specific policies. The authors raise broader queries: Should India put all its hopes in low-skilled manufacturing jobs as a strategy for future growth? They point to the so-called ‘smiling curve’ of value addition. Simply put, the way global supply chains work today is that more value is created at the two ends of the spectrum: In the early stages of a product’s life (read: Research and Development) and in the final stages (read: branding, marketing, advertising, sales etc.). The middle stage of actual manufacturing adds the least value and earns the least as well. A case in point is the difference in the market capitalisation of Apple (over $3 trillion), which dominates the two ends of the smile curve, and Foxconn (just below $50 billion), which does the manufacturing.

It is not as if the authors want India to give up on manufacturing but they prod readers to envisage a scenario where India truly exploits its demographic dividend by empowering people not just by investing in the best health and educational outcomes but also by providing the freedom to be “irreverent, diverse and argumentative”. That, in turn, raises questions about the quality of political leadership in the country. Cue elections.

Should you buy it? Perhaps just borrow it from your friend, if not for anything else then for the innovative last chapter where the authors share an imagined Q&A session with their detractors.

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