example of a historiography essay

Types of Writing Assignments

• Narrative History
• Response Papers
• Creative Approaches
• Annotated Bibliographies
• Book Reviews

Historiographic Essays

• Research Papers

Basic Considerations When Writing on History

• Cause and Effect
• Establishing a Broader Context
• Common Fallacies

Types of Sources

• Secondary Sources
• Primary Sources
• Fiction/Art/Poetry
• The Internet

Critical Reading

• Historiography
• Bias/Prejudice
• Evaluating Contradictory Data and Claims

Preparation and Writing

• Time Management
• Note-Taking Tips
• Developing a Thesis
• Organization
• Formulating a Conclusion

Basic Quoting Skills

• Quotation/Annotation
• Bibliographies
• Advanced Quoting Skills
• The Ethics of Quoting

Style and Editing

• Drafts and Revisions
• Common Stylistic Errors

What is historiography?

Parts of a historiographic essay, a sample historiographic essay, works cited.

In a nutshell, historiography is the history of history. Rather than subjecting actual events - say, the Rape of Nanking - to historical analysis, the subject of historiography is the history of the history of the event: the way it has been written, the sometimes conflicting objectives pursued by those writing on it over time, and the way in which such factors shape our understanding of the actual event at stake, and of the nature of history itself.

A historiographic essay thus asks you to explore several sometimes contradictory sources on one event. An annotated bibliography might come in handy as you attempt to locate such sources; you should also consult the footnotes and bibliographies of any text you read on a certain event, as they will lead you to other texts on the same event; if your research is web-based, follow links - always bearing in mind the pitfalls of the Internet - and if you are researching in the library, check out the books on nearby shelves: you'll be surprised by how often this yields sources you may otherwise never have found.

For an example of an essay on multiple perspectives on the same event (for our purposes, the Rape of Nanking, an event also examined in the context of Book Reviews ), click here .

The purpose of an historiographic essay is threefold: 1.) to allow you to view an historical event or issue from multiple perspectives by engaging multiple sources; 2.) to display your mastery over those sources and over the event or issue itself; and 3.) to develop your critical reading skills as you seek to answer why your sources disagree, and what their disagreement tells you about the event or issue and the very nature of history itself.

Specific skills honed by such an exercise include your ability to discern bias or prejudice and to evaluate contradictory data and claims . As you will have to quote from your sources in order to make your point, you will also have to display basic quoting skills . The very nature of an essay on multiple sources also requires a Works Cited page, of course, on which, see Bibliography .

You will begin a historiographic essay with a thesis that presents the issue or event at stake, then introduces your sources and articulates, in brief, their authors' perspectives and their main points of (dis)agreement. In the main body of your paper you will elaborate upon and develop this latter point, pulling out specific points of (dis)agreement, juxtaposing quotes (and/or paraphrasing arguments) and subjecting them to analysis as you go along. As you do so, ask (and answer) why you think the authors of your various sources disagree. Is their disagreement a product of personal or professional rivalry, ideological incompatibility, national affiliation? These questions go to the heart of historiography. In your conclusion , finally, you will briefly summarize your findings and, more importantly, assess the credibility of your various sources, and specify which one(s) you find to be most compelling, and why. In final conclusion you might articulate in brief the insights you have gained into the event or issue at stake, the sources you have used, and the nature of history itself.

Let us assume that the subject of your historiographic essay is the Rape of Nanking, an event discussed in some detail in the Book Reviews section. There, we examine the event as it is described and analyzed by Iris Chang in her bestselling book The Rape of Nanking . To this we now add several other sources, all of which are listed in the Works Cited section at the end of this page , and cited in the text immediately following, which exemplifies, in brief, some of the basic strategies of a historiographic essay.

• THESIS: The so-called Rape of Nanking of 1937, a six-week massacre of Chinese civilians in the city of Nanking perpetrated by the invading Japanese army, was presented to a largely uninitiated American mass audience by Iris Chang in her best-selling book The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II (1997). Chang's vivid book spawned international interest and a number of responses from fellow historians worldwide. Western historians generally agreed with Chang's insistence that the event - long a mere footnote in the popular historiography of World War II - deserved larger notice, but some criticized her for displaying personal bias as well as historical inaccuracies and methodological weaknesses of various sorts. The response from a number of Japanese scholars was overwhelmingly negative. They denied her account of a post-war Japanese "cover up," yet at the same time also, to varying degrees, denied that the event had even occurred.
• EXAMPLE (1): Tanaka Masaaki, for example, author of the website "What Really Happened at Nanking: The Refutation of a Common Myth," refers to Chang's work as one of "lies, hyperbole, propaganda." Chang's "mountains of dead bodies," according to Matsaaki, were mountains "that no one saw." Her "Reports of mass murders of prisoners of War [were] fabricated," he claims, offering as evidence that there was "no mention of the 'Nanking Massacre'" - a term he pointedly places in quotation marks - "in Chinese Communist Party Records"; and that "No protests against the 'Nanking Massacre' [was] submitted to the League of Nations [or] ... by the United States, Great Britian, or France." The event, he concludes - if there even was one - was "a massacre with no witnesses" (Masaaki).

ANALYSIS: Much of Masaaki's criticism smacks of precisely the kind of revisionism Chang critiques in her book, and is easily exposed as such. The fact that Chinese communist party records make no mention of the event, for example, is hardly surprising, as the Chinese communists were at this time in disarray, operating largely underground in the Nanking area. Not until 1949 did the communists begin their rule over China and begin keeping official records: why then should we expect there to exist records dating back to 1937? Nor should the silence of the League of Nations, the United States, Great Britain and France come as any surprise. In the same year that France and Britain stood by as Nazi Germany re-militarized the Rhineland in violation of the Treaty of Versailles; and that the United States and the League of Nation stood by as Franco and Mussolini continued in their campaigns against the rightful governments of Spain and Ethiopia, why would we expect the United States or the League of Nations to have registered any protest over events halfway around the world?

• EXAMPLE (2): Other arguments by Masaaki are more compelling. For example, he notes of one of the many disturbing photographs in Chang's book - a famous one, apparently showing a Chinese prisoner of war about to be beheaded by a Japanese officer brandishing a sword - that its "fakery is easy to detect if you look at the shadow cast by the man at the center [the officer] and that cast by [a lower-ranking] soldier to his right. [The shadows] are facing in different directions" (Masaaki). The photograph does indeed seem to be a composite, and while stopping short of supporting Masaaki's claim that "not a single one of [Chang's photographs] bears witness to a 'Nanking Massacre'," even American historian Robert Entenmann concedes that several of the photos in Chang's book are indeed "fakes, forgeries and composites," including one (also singled out by Masaaki) "of a row of severed heads," which, according to Entenmann, in fact depicts "bandits executed by Chinese police in 1930 rather than victims of the Nanking Massacre" (Masaaki, Entenmann).

COUNTER-ARGUMENT: Faked though some of Chang's twelve pages of photos might be - perhaps even all of them, as Masaaki suggests - the fact that there exist literally hundreds of photographs of the Nanking Massacre, many of them "souvenir photos" taken by Japanese soldiers themselves, strains the credibility of his larger point and even more so the point made by his stridently anti-Chang colleagues Takemoto Tadao and Ohara Yasuo. In their The Alleged 'Nanking Massacre': Japan's Rebuttal to China's Forged Claims , these writers state that "none of these photos are dated, and the names of places and photographers are not stated. In other words, there exist [no] photos that are rigidly authentic, and definitely, these photos can not be used as evidence of [the] 'Nanking Massacre'" (Tadao and Yasuo 101). In fact, several hundred photographs have been published in one volume - The Rape of Nanking: An Undeniable History in Photographs , by Shi Young and James Yin, many of them showing female rape victims with legs spread and genitalia exposed - graphic photographs it is hard to conceive of as staged. Such pictures, while not settling the matter beyond dispute, offer powerful testimony that speaks for itself.

• EXAMPLE (3): Notwithstanding the many graphic photographs that exist, it is precisely the accusation of widespread rape - most likely because of its abhorrent nature - that Chang's Japanese critics wish to deny. "The number of 'cases of rape' [the Chinese] claim is from 20,000 to 80,000 cases," Tadao and Yasuo note. "Suppose we took this number, there should have been from 500 to 2,000 cases of rapes...daily [during the six week period of the Massacre]. This number is absolutely not trustworthy," they conclude, citing instead the number of only 361 official complaints of rape actually registered during this period (130). Of course, they are parsing numbers here. The fact is, whether there were three hundred rapes, thirty thousand, more, or less, rape perpetrated by an occupying force against a civilian population (and that such was the case is amply documented in Chang and virtually all extant sources on Nanking, including the Japanese sources, although they, of course, acknowledge only 361) is a crime of war. But that it is an individual crime of war, rather than a collective, government-sponsored crime against humanity (such as the Holocaust) is precisely the point for the Japanese historians: "[Holocaust] killings were indeed ... 'crimes against humanity', [but] those crimes are fundamentally different from the 'war crimes' which the Japanese troops are said to have committed. ... Those acts of crimes [were] the responsibility of each individual soldier" (136, 130). Following this line of reasoning, the Japanese government is absolved of any blame for the rapes that did occur in Nanking, the exact number of which remains unknown. (On this issue, see Evaluating Contradictory Data and Claims ).
• EXAMPLE (4): More trenchant criticism of Chang than that offered by Japanese historians comes from the American academy. Robert Entenmann, for example, a China expert and senior faculty member in the History department at St. Olaf College, faults Chang on the very premise of her book. He denies that there is a conspiracy of silence surrounding Nanking in Japan; maintains (in contradiction to Chang's claims) that Japanese textbooks do address the event (it is rather quaintly referred to as an "incident" in Japanese historiography, if at all, rather than a massacre, far less a rape); states that those textbooks that do mention it offer fatality rates listed between 150,000 to 300,000 (the Western consensus is around 250,000; Chang claims 300,000); and that 80% of respondents to a 1994 opinion poll in Japan found "that their government had not adequately compensated victimized peoples in countries Japan had colonized or invaded" (Entenmann). On this last count, it is worth noting that the specific wording of the question does not appear to address Nanking explicitly, and that the opinion poll's finding thus bears little relevance to the question at hand. We might also be skeptical of Entenmann's generous appraisal of Japanese textbooks: on its role in World War II, Japan's high school textbooks in particular are subject to constant revision, much of it aimed at mitigating the government's role in wartime atrocities, as a 2007 New York Times article reminds us (Onishi 12).
• EXAMPLE (5): Entenmann's more fundamental criticism of Chang's work and perspective, however, goes deeper. As the granddaughter of former Nanking residents who barely escaped the city, she is guilty, he writes, of having fallen victim to "her own ethnic prejudice. ... Her explanations are, to a large extent, based on unexamined [anti-Japanese] ethnic stereotypes." Furthermore, she engages in "implausible speculations," according to Entenmann, for example, her claim that Emperor Hirohito himself exulted in the news of the Rape of Nanking (see Chang 179). In fact, Entenmann points out, Hirohito's response is unknown, and Chang may be guilty here of "confus[ing] Japanese leaders' delight in the fall of the Chinese capital with exulting in the massacre that occurred afterward" (Entenmann).

ANALYSIS: Such sleights of hand (which Entenmann himself indulges in, as his opinion poll example above shows) are perhaps conscious on Chang's part, or perhaps a function of her not being a professional historian and therefore applying a less-than-rigorous methodology in her efforts to tell a good story. She is after all, a popular (rather than an academic) historian, whom another bestselling historian, Stephen Ambrose, whose scholarship has also been faulted on several counts, once called "the best young historian we've got because she understands that to communicate history, you've got to tell the story in an interesting way" (Ambrose qtd. in Sullivan B6).

• CONCLUSION: It is this zeal to tell a good story and back it up with sensational evidence (even if - like some of her photographs - it is faked), as well as her occasionally emotional prose, sometimes bordering on hyperbole, that remains Chang's greatest liability. In an effort to place the Rape of Nanking into historical context, for example, she states that "[u]sing numbers killed alone" it "surpasses much of the worst barbarism of the ages." Its casualties exceeded those of the Carthaginians at the hands of the Romans, the victims of the Spanish Inquisition, and those of the Mongolian leader Timur Lenk, she writes in a series of specious comparisons that culminate with the observation that "the deaths at Nanking far exceeded the deaths from the American raids on Tokyo ... and even the combined death toll of the two atomic blasts at Hiroshima and Nagasaki" (Chang 6). In The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography , an anthology generally sympathetic to Chang's project (if not to her methodology), George Washington University history and international affairs professor Daqing Yang, himself a native of Nanking, notes that "such a comparison [as Chang's] is methodologically sterile" and "morally misguided" (Yang 161). Indeed, it is precisely the sort of parsing of numbers for which Chang herself would most likely challenge the above-mentioned Japanese historians in their effort to deny the extent to which rape occurred at Nanking. Despite these failings, Chang's book ultimately emerges as a more persuasive argument of what did in fact happen at Nanking than those offered by her Japanese detractors. The enduring controversy surrounding the event, however, and the specific criticism against Chang from even those who support her premise, point both to the endlessly debatable nature of history, and to the need for a more rigorous, analytical approach in its telling. As Joshua Fogel notes in his introduction to The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography , "The Massacre and related events must be lifted beyond the popular level ... to be studied with greater nuance and with a wider range of sources" (Fogel 1). In such a project, the contradictory data and claims of Chang and her critics need not necessarily be mutually exclusive but, instead, might help establish a broader context within which the event can be understood more fully, from all sides.
• Chang, Iris. The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II (New York: BasicBooks, 1997).
• Entenmann, Robert. "Review of Iris Chang: The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II." October 29, 1998. H-Net List for Asian History and Culture , 1998. Accessed July 1, 2007. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/55/481.html .
• Yang, Daqin. "The Challenges of the Nanjing Massacre: Refections on Historical Inquiry." The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography. Ed. Joshua Fogel. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000, 133 - 180.
• Masaaki, Tanaka. "What Really Happened in Nanking: The Refutation of a Common Myth." N.d. Accessed July 1, 2007. http://www.ne.jp/asahi/unko/tamezou/nankin/whatreally/index.html .
• Onishi, Norimitsu. "Japan's Textbooks Reflect Revised History." The New York Times , April 1, 2007, A12.
• Sullivan, Patricia. "'Rape of Nanking' Author Irish Chang Dies." November 12, 2004, B6. Washington Post , November 12, 2004, B6. Accessed July 1, 2007. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A44139-2004Nov11.html .
• Takemoto, Tadao and Ohara Yasuo. The Alleged 'Nanking Massacre': Japan's Rebuttal to China's Forged Claims. Tokyo: Meisei-sha, Inc., 2000.
• Young, Shi and James Ying. The Rape of Nanking: An Undeniable History in Photographs, expanded 2nd edition. Chicago, Innovative Publishing Group, Inc., 1997.

The interested reader will find another brief exercise in historiographical inquiry - this one on the disputed relationship between the Catholic Church and fascism during the 1930s - in the Research Paper section of this site, under "Conducting Research for 'The Austrian Catholic Church and the Anschluss': Catholicism and fascism."

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Historiography involves studying the records of past events, interpreting the sources critically, and the impact of the events. It is a subject that reveals political, societal, and economic issues that might change over a particular period.

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What is a Historiographical Essay?

Historiographical essays, evaluating secondary sources, acknowledgement.

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A historiographical essay:

• Is based on a broad, less focused topic or theme, e.g., Reconstruction in the United States)
• Critically examines secondary sources written by historians
• Puts emphasis on the historian, the historian's bias and how the writing of a particular topic has changed over the years
• Examines and compares other historians' arguments in opposition to each other

The purpose of an historiographic essay is threefold:

• To allow you to view an historical event or issue from multiple perspectives by engaging multiple sources;
• To display your mastery over those sources and over the event or issue itself; and
• To develop your critical reading skills as you seek to answer why your sources disagree, and what their disagreement tells you about the event or issue and the very nature of history itself.

Selected Titles About Historiography

• What information is given about the author? Is the author an historian?
• Can you identify the historian's school of thought?
• Read the table of contents, preface and other introductry material. Does the author set up his/her thesis (or point of view) in these sections? Who is the intended audience? Is it written for historians or for a general audience?
• What is the date of publication? If the book or article is old, it will not highlight recent scholarship. Is this important? Is it a reflection of the histories of the time or does it deviate from the norm?
• What primary source material does the author use? What primary source material may have been available to the author at the time?
• Consider the bibliography. Do the sources listed indicate serious works that are relevant to your topic? You may want to consult works used by the author. 

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HIST 300 - Introduction to Historical Studies: Historiographic Essay (Literature Review)

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What is a Historiographic Essay / Historiographic Review?

A Historiographic Essay (also known as a Historiographic Review or, outside of the history discipline, a Literature Review ) is a systematic and comprehensive analysis of books, scholarly articles, and other sources relevant to a specific topic that provides a base of knowledge. Literature reviews are designed to identify and critique the existing literature on a topic, justifying your research by exposing gaps in current research. 

This investigation should provide a description, summary, and critical evaluation of works related to the research problem or question, and should also add to the overall knowledge of the topic as well as demonstrating how your research will fit within a larger field of study.  A literature review should offer critical analysis of the current research on a topic and that analysis should direct your research objective. This should not be confused with a book review or an annotated bibliography; both are research tools but very different in purpose and scope.  A Literature Review can be a stand alone element or part of a larger end product, so be sure you know your assignment.  Finally, don't forget to document your process, and keep track of your citations!

Process of a Literature Review

The process of writing a literature review is not necessarily a linear process, you will often have to loop back and refine your topic, try new searches and altar your plans. The info graphic above illustrates this process.  It also reminds you to continually keep track of your research by citing sources and creating a bibliography.

• Know what the review is for; each assignment will offer the purpose for the review.  For example, is it for “background”, or a “pro and con discussion”, "integration", “summarizing”, etc.
• Create a “search plan”, decide where you will search for information, what type of information you will need.
• Research   - Preform Searches; choose sources and collect information to use in your paper.  Make sure you cite the sources used.
• Think  - Analyze information in a systematic manner and begin your literature review (e.g., summarize, synthesize, etc.). Make sure you cite the sources used.
• Complete  - Write your paper, proof & revise and create your finished bibliography.

Elements in a Literature Review

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Example Essays

The examples and websites on this page can get you started in conceptualizing your final product and getting started. Continue to the next tabs on the left side for step by step processes and strategies. 

• Historiographical essay examples This historian's blog links to a few JSTOR examples of historiography essays.
• Writing on History: Example Essays This CUNY webpage includes a definition of historiographic writing as well as examples.
• University of Toronto LibGuide: Examples of historiographic essays This LibGuide has curated some additional examples of essays on historiographic topics.

Websites for Guidance

• University of Toronto: Historiography LibGuide Librarians at the University of Toronto have designed a LibGuide to explain researching a historiography. NOTE: You will not have access to the databases on their site. Use the Pace links on this LibGuide.
• Pace Library: Primary Sources in History LibGuide A LibGuide created by a Pace librarian provides guidance on locating primary historical sources.
• New York Public Library Digital Collections From the special collections of the New York Public Library, this database offers online access to thousands of digitized images from books, magazines and newspapers as well as original photographs, prints and postcards, mostly in the public domain. Years covered: primarily pre-1923.
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How to Write a Historiographical Essay

December 15, 2023

Understanding the purpose of a historiographical essay is crucial to writing a successful and informative essay. Essentially, the purpose of a historiographical essay is to provide an overview of the scholarly literature on a particular topic. Historiographical essays allow writers to identify, analyze and evaluate the existing scholarship on a topic and to present their findings in a cogent and persuasive manner. The key to writing a successful historiographical essay is to demonstrate a clear understanding of the topic and to provide a balanced and insightful analysis of the existing scholarship. To achieve this, writers must be able to critically evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the existing literature and identify areas where new research is needed. By doing so, writers can make important contributions to the historiography of their respective fields and advance our collective understanding of important historical topics.

Selecting a Topic

Selecting a topic is a crucial step in writing a historiographical essay. The topic must be appropriate in terms of its relevance, scope, and availability of sources. It is important to choose a topic that is important to the field and has a rich historiography, as this will allow the writer to engage with a range of different debates and interpretations. Once a suitable topic has been identified, it is important to begin the process of gathering sources and identifying key debates within the existing historiography. This process can be time-consuming and challenging, but it is crucial in developing a nuanced and insightful understanding of the topic. Ultimately, a strong historiographical essay will demonstrate a deep knowledge of the topic, a mastery of the relevant literature, and the ability to provide critical analysis and synthesis of existing scholarship.

Example Historiographical Essay Topics:

• The Historiography of the American Civil War
• The Historiography of World War II
• The Historiography of the French Revolution
• The Historiography of Ancient Greece
• The Historiography of Women’s Suffrage Movements
• The Historiography of Colonialism in Africa
• The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement
• The Historiography of the Renaissance
• The Historiography of the Holocaust
• The Historiography of the Cold War

Gathering and Analyzing Sources

Gathering and analyzing sources is a fundamental step in writing a historiographical essay. To effectively engage with the existing scholarship on a topic, writers must collect a wide range of sources and critically evaluate them. Here are some key steps to consider:

• Identify primary and secondary sources: Begin by identifying primary sources that are directly related to your topic. These may include archival documents, diaries, or personal letters. Also, gather relevant secondary sources such as scholarly articles, books, and monographs that provide analysis and interpretation of the topic.
• Evaluate the credibility and reliability of sources: Assess the credibility and expertise of the authors and publishers. Consider the date of publication to gauge how current the information is. Ensure that the sources come from reputable journals or publishing houses.
• Analyze the perspectives and arguments: Read the sources carefully and analyze the differing perspectives and arguments presented. Take note of recurring themes, debates, and gaps in the literature.
• Create an annotated bibliography: Compile an annotated bibliography that provides a summary and evaluation of each source. Include key arguments, methodologies used, and any biases or limitations.
• Identify trends and debates: Explore how different historians have approached the topic and identify key trends or shifts in interpretations over time. Look for areas of consensus and disagreement among scholars.

By effectively gathering and analyzing sources, writers can develop a comprehensive understanding of the existing historiography, identify gaps, and construct a well-rounded and persuasive argument in their historiographical essay.

Developing an Outline

Developing an outline is an essential step in organizing the structure and flow of a historiographical essay. It helps writers to establish a clear and logical framework for their arguments. Here are some key considerations when developing an outline for a historiographical essay:

Introduction:

• Provide an overview of the topic and its historical context.
• Clearly state the purpose of the essay and the thesis statement.

Background and Historiographical Context:

• Provide a brief overview of the existing scholarship and historiography on the topic.
• Highlight key debates, theories, and influential historians.

Themes and Trends in the Historiography:

• Identify major themes and trends that have emerged in the literature.
• Discuss the different approaches and interpretations.

Critique and Evaluation of Sources and Arguments:

• Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the existing scholarship.
• Evaluate the credibility, biases, and limitations of sources and arguments.

Identifying Gaps and Future Directions:

• Discuss areas where further research is needed and potential avenues for future scholarship.

Conclusion:

• Recap the main arguments and findings from the historiographical analysis.
• Reflect on the significance of the topic and its contribution to the field.

By structuring the essay with a well-developed outline, writers can ensure that their arguments are coherent, logical, and supported by the existing historiography.

Experience the convenience of generating historiography essays effortlessly with our new tool .

Writing the Introduction

The introduction of a historiographical essay plays a vital role in setting the stage for the reader and presenting the main objectives and arguments of the essay. Here are some key elements to consider when writing the introduction:

Contextualize the topic:

• Provide a brief overview of the historical era, event, or theme being examined.
• Establish the historical significance of the topic and its relevance to the field of study.

Introduce the historiographical approach:

• Explain the purpose of a historiographical essay, which is to analyze the existing scholarship and interpretations on the topic.
• Highlight the importance of understanding how historians have studied and written about the topic over time.

Present the main thesis or argument:

• Clearly state the main argument or thesis that the essay will be exploring.
• Provide a preview of the main points or themes that will be discussed to support the argument.

Outline the structure of the essay:

• Give a brief overview of how the essay will be structured, including the main sections or themes that will be covered.
• This helps provide a roadmap for the reader and allows them to understand the progression of the essay.

Engage the reader:

• Begin with an attention-grabbing opening sentence or a thought-provoking question related to the topic.
• Establish a connection with the reader by explaining why the topic is important and how it relates to broader historical debates or current events.

By crafting a well-written and informative introduction, the writer can effectively capture the reader’s attention and provide a solid foundation for the rest of the historiographical essay.

Background and Historiographical Context

Before delving into the analysis and evaluation of the existing scholarship, it is essential to provide a solid background and historiographical context in a historiographical essay. This section sets the stage for the reader and helps them understand the broader historical landscape surrounding the topic. Here are some key points to consider in this section:

Historical background:

• Provide a brief overview of the historical period, event, or theme being studied.
• Highlight any key historical developments or events that are relevant to the topic.

Importance of the topic:

• Explain why the topic is significant within the context of the broader field of study.
• Highlight its relevance to wider historical debates or its impact on society.

Historiographical overview:

• Summarize the development of the historiography on the topic over time.
• Identify influential works, key historians, and pivotal moments in the evolution of the scholarship.

Key debates and interpretations:

• Introduce major debates among historians regarding different aspects of the topic.
• Highlight the key interpretations and schools of thought that have emerged in the historiography.

By providing a comprehensive background and historiographical context, this section prepares the reader for the subsequent analysis and evaluation of the existing scholarship in the historiographical essay.

Themes and Trends in the Historiography

Analyzing the themes and trends in the historiography is a crucial aspect of writing a historiographical essay. This section explores the ideas, theories, and overarching patterns that have emerged in the scholarship on the topic. Here are key points to consider:

Identify major themes:

• Discuss the recurring topics or concepts that historians have focused on when studying the topic.
• Highlight the different aspects of the topic that have received significant attention within the historiography.

Examine evolving perspectives:

• Discuss how interpretations and perspectives on the topic have evolved over time.
• Identify significant shifts in historiographical approaches and theories.

Analyze methodologies:

• Explore the methodologies and approaches employed by historians in studying the topic.
• Consider the methods used in collecting and analyzing primary sources, as well as the theoretical frameworks applied.

Evaluate prevailing interpretations:

• Identify dominant interpretations or schools of thought within the historiography.
• Examine the strengths and weaknesses of these interpretations and their impact on the field.

By analyzing the themes and trends in the historiography, writers can demonstrate their understanding of the scholarly discourse and provide a comprehensive overview of the different perspectives on the topic.

Critique and Evaluation of Sources and Arguments

Critiquing and evaluating the sources and arguments is a crucial component of a historiographical essay. This section assesses the reliability, biases, and scholarly contributions of both primary and secondary sources. Here are some key points to consider:

Critique of primary sources:

• Evaluate the quality, authenticity, and biases of the primary sources used by historians.
• Consider the context in which the sources were created and any limitations they may have.

Evaluation of secondary sources:

• Assess the arguments, methodologies, and evidence presented in the secondary sources.
• Consider the credibility and expertise of the authors and their contributions to the field of study.

Comparison of perspectives:

• Compare and contrast the different interpretations and arguments presented by historians.
• Analyze the similarities, differences, and points of contention among the various perspectives.

Identification of gaps and limitations:

• Identify any gaps or limitations in the existing scholarship on the topic.
• Consider areas where further research or analysis is needed.

Synthesis of sources and arguments:

• Synthesize the various sources and arguments to identify overarching trends and common themes.
• Evaluate the overall strengths and weaknesses of the historiographical discourse on the topic.

By critically evaluating the sources and arguments, writers can demonstrate their ability to engage with the existing scholarship and contribute to the ongoing discourse on the topic in a historiographical essay.

Writing the Conclusion

The conclusion of a historiographical essay serves as the final opportunity to summarize and synthesize the key findings, arguments, and perspectives presented throughout the essay. Here are some important points to consider when writing the conclusion:

Summarize the main arguments:

• Recapitulate the main arguments and interpretations presented in the essay.
• Highlight the different perspectives and approaches that have been examined.

Evaluate the historiography:

• Reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of the existing scholarship on the topic.
• Discuss any overarching trends or significant shifts in historiographical interpretations.

Address remaining questions and gaps:

• Consider any lingering questions or unresolved issues in the historiography.
• Discuss areas where further research is needed to fill gaps in knowledge.

Discuss personal insights and contributions:

• Offer your own insights and reflections on the topic based on the analysis conducted.
• Highlight any unique contributions or perspectives you have brought to the historiography.

Emphasize the significance:

• Reinforce the importance and relevance of studying the topic within the field of history.
• Discuss how the historiographical essay contributes to the broader understanding of the topic.

By writing a concise and comprehensive conclusion, you can effectively summarize the key points and contributions made in the historiographical essay, leaving the reader with a clear understanding of the topic’s historiography and its significance.

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Historiography: Overview

• Examples of Historiographies

What Is a Historiography?

There are two common uses of the term "historiography."

Historiography as a General Descriptor

In this case, the historiography of a topic is the sum total of the interpretations of a specific topic written by past and current historians. This allows historians and scholars to talk about "the state of the historiography" at a point in time, or to "add historiography" to a paper to make it more complete.

Historiography as a Noun, or a Historiographical Paper

In this usage, a historiography or historiographical paper is an analysis of the interpretations of a specific topic written by past historians. Specifically, a historiography identifies influential thinkers and reveals the shape of the scholarly debate on a particular subject.

• The major purpose of writing a historiographical paper is to convey the scholarship of other historians on a particular subject, rather than to analyze the subject itself.
• A historiography can be a stand-alone paper, in which case your paper examines the work completed by other historians. 

Alternately, a historiography can act as an introduction to a major research paper, in which you will go on to add your own analysis. As an introduction, a good historiography does the following:

• Points out influential books and papers that exemplified, shaped, or revolutionized a field of study.
• Shows which scholars were most effective in changing the scope of the debate.
• Describes the current trends in the field of study, such as which interpretation is currently in the mainstream.
• Allows the writer to position themselves in the field for their analysis.

An example of historiography as introduction

"The historiography of the decision to use the atomic bomb on Hiroshima changed over the years as new research questioned the former consensus view that the decision to drop the atomic bomb was predicated on the necessity to save American lives."

Need More Help?

Helpful Links

• How to Create a Historiography Parts of this SMU guide are based on this research guide from the University of Rhode Island University Libraries.
• Historiographic Essays Examples from the History Department at Queens College, New York.

Search Tips

• Historiography is useful as a search term.
• Since you will be searching for change over time on a topic, you will want to make use of a database's ability to limit a search by date of publication.
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• Last Updated: Apr 15, 2024 5:16 PM
• URL: https://guides.smu.edu/Historiography

History 300: A Guide to Research: Historiography

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• Historiography

What is a Historiography?

A historiography (noun) or  historiographical paper  is an analysis of the interpretations of a specific topic written by past historians. 

• Specifically, a historiography identifies influential thinkers and reveals the shape of the scholarly debate on a particular subject.
• You can think of this as a narrative description of the web of scholars writing on the same or similar topics. A historiography traces how scholars' understanding of historical events has evolved and how scholars are in conversation with each other, both building on and disputing previous works. The process is similar to that used for creating literature reviews in other disciplines. 

The major purpose of writing a historiographical paper is to convey the scholarship of other historians on a particular subject, rather than to analyze the subject itself.

• A historiography can be a stand-alone paper, in which case your paper examines the work completed by other historians. 
• Alternately, a historiography can act as an introduction to a major research paper, in which you will go on to add your own analysis.

Thus, a good historiography does the following:

• Points out influential books and papers that exemplified, shaped, or revolutionized a topic or field of study.
• Shows which scholars were most effective in changing the scope of the discussion/debate.
• Describes the current trends in the field of study, such as which interpretations are currently in the mainstream.
• Allows the writer (that's you!) to position themselves in the discussion for their analysis.

Writing a Historiography

Parts of a historiography.

• presents the issue or event at stake, then introduces your sources and articulates, in brief, their authors' perspectives and their main points of (dis)agreement. 
• elaborates upon and develop your introduction, pulling out specific points of (dis)agreement, juxtaposing quotes (and/or paraphrasing arguments) and subjecting them to analysis as you go along. As you do so, ask (and answer)  why  you think the authors of your various sources disagree. Is their disagreement a product of personal or professional rivalry, ideological incompatibility, national affiliation? 
• briefly summarizes your findings and, more importantly, assess the credibility of your various sources, and specify which one(s) you find to be most compelling, and why. In final conclusion you might articulate in brief the insights you have gained into the event or issue at stake, the sources you have used, and the implications for the scholarly discussion about your topic/historical event overall.

Sample Historiographies

• Sample Historiographic Essay (CUNY)
• University of Toronto LibGuide: Examples of historiographic essays
• Historiographical essay examples

Historiographical Questions

Questions of historiography include the following:

• who writes history, with what agenda in mind, and towards what ends?
• how accurate can a historian ever hope to be, analyzing past events from the vantage point of the historian's present?
• does the historian's  own  perspective, impacted as it undoubtedly is by gender, age, national and ideological affiliation, etc., contribute to an "agenda" that the historian's work is playing into, unwittingly or consciously?
• what about the types of sources, both primary and secondary, an historian chooses to base their work upon? Do  they  too contribute to the above-mentioned "agenda"?
• does the very selection of sources (and, by extension, the decision to exclude certain other sources) prejudice the outcome of the historian's work in certain ways?  et cetera ...

As you can tell, the underlying sentiment of historiography is one of skepticism. This is due to the recognition that historians  do  have agendas and  do  select sources with the intent of "proving" certain preconceived notions. History is therefore never truly "objective," but always a construct that presents the historian's view of things.

Historiographical Evaluation

General source questions (the five ws).

• Who  – Who made the source - did they have an opinion or bias? Were they involved?
• What  – What information does the source give? Is it the full story? Is it accurate?
• Why  – Why was the source made? Was it made to persuade people of a particular opinion? Was it made to take the mickey out of something/someone?
• When  – Was it made at the time? Or years later? Was the person there?
• Where  – Where was the source made? Were they involved in the event? Did they have an opinion?

Questions for Evaluating Secondary Sources

• Who is the author (their expertise, previous research, affiliations, positionality, etc.), and what seems to have been their likely intention in writing this?
• What is the source's main argument?
• When was the source written, and does the date of publication potentially impact upon the source's information or argument?
• Who seems to be the intended audience for the source?
• How is the source structured?
• Does the structure of the source (its various parts, sections, and/or chapters) reinforce its larger argument? How?
• What kinds of sources, or examples, does the source offer in support of its argument, and which are most (and least) effective? Why?
• Does the source engage other writers' works on the same subject and, even if not, how would you position the source in relation to other texts you are aware of on the same subject (texts you have read for class, for example)?
• does the author uses inflammatory language: in the most extreme cases, racial epithets, slurs, etc.;
• does the author consistently makes claims whose larger purpose is to elevate (or demean) one social, ethnic, national, religious, or gender group as compared to another, or all others;
• does the author consciously presents evidence that serves to tell only one side of an event or issue, purposefully withholding or ignoring information that may shed the opposing view in a more positive light;
• does the author manufactures, falsifies and/or dishonestly cites evidence in order to present his or her case in a more positive light.
• and if so, is that prejudice the product of the author's own background, ideology, research agenda, etc. as far as you can tell?
• How persuasive is the source (if certain aspects are more persuasive than others, explain why)
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Princeton University Library

Historiography.

• About historiography

Finding historiographic essays -- first steps

Historiography in library catalogs.

• More places to look

For topics that are of wide interest, you may be able to find an essay that reviews the literature on that topic, and that sets it in context by discussing how other historians have approached that topic. This kind of essay is invaluable when you are starting a research project. There are two easy ways to find them:

History Compass is an online journal that publishes historiographic essays. If there is an essay on your topic, it can be an excellent place to start. Caution: if you do not find what you need with your first search, don't choose Edit Search, because you will then be searching all the publisher's online journals. Return to the starting point for History Compass to continue searching just within this journal.

If your topic is covered, check Oxford Bibliographies Online (currently, covers African Studies, Atlantic History, Medieval Studies, Military History, Classics, Criminology, Islamic Studies, Philosophy, and Renaissance and the Reformation, and many other fields)

America: History & Life and Historical Abstracts In both of these bibliographic databases, "historiography" is a Subject. For example, in AHL, to find historiography on the American Civil war, do a Subject search for: civil war historiography

Annual bulletin of historical literature History Reference (SH). Firestone Z6205 .H65 and online

The "Blackwell Companions" are a series published both in print and online in Blackwell Reference Online . If there is one on your topic, it can be an exceptionally useful place to start reading. Note: to find print copies of the Blackwell Companions, do a keyword search in the Main Catalog for " Blackwell companions to history," "Blackwell companions to American history," " Blackwell companions to British history," " Blackwell companions to world history," or " Blackwell companions to European history " to see if there is a volume in this series that covers your topic. Some copies circulate, and others are in the History Reference room on A floor.

When you are searching the library catalog for books on your topic, "historiography" is a useful keyword, because it is used in Library of Congress Subject Headings. For example:

• Historiography--Great Britain.
• United States --Politics and government --1783-1865 --Historiography.
• World War, 1914-1918 --Historiography.
• Europe--Historiography.
• << Previous: About historiography
• Next: More places to look >>
• Last Updated: Dec 19, 2023 1:56 PM
• URL: https://libguides.princeton.edu/historiography

Write a Historiography

1. narrow your topic and select books and articles accordingly, 2. search for literature, 3. read the selected books and articles thoroughly and evaluate them, 4. organize the selected sources by looking for patterns and by developing subtopics, 5. develop a thesis statement, 6. draft the paper, 7. review your work.

• Resources for Gathering and Reading the Literature
• Resources for Writing and Revising
• Additional Resources and Guides

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Consider your specific area of study. Think about what interests you and other researchers in your field.  

Talk to your professor or TA, brainstorm, and read lecture notes and current issues in periodicals in the field.  

Limit your scope appropriately based on the assignment guidelines (i.e., focusing on France's role in the Second World War, not the whole world, or on the legal agency of women in medieval Scotland, not all medieval European women). 

• Four Steps to Narrow Your Research Topic (Video) This 3-minute video provides instructions on how to narrow the focus of your research topic.
• Developing a Research Question + Worksheet Use this worksheet to develop, assess, and refine your research questions. There is also a downloadable PDF version.

Define your source selection criteria (i.e., articles published within a specific date range or written through specific historical lenses; or research applying specific theories and methodologies or focusing on a specific geographic region, chronological period, or historical event).  

Using keywords, search a library database. If you need help finding the literature, contact a librarian through 

• Ask Us Contact a librarian via chat, email, phone or the AskUs desk on the main floor of McLaughlin Library
• Book an appointment Book a consultation to get research help.

Published articles and books always cite earlier studies in the footnotes, endnotes or bibliography: you can use these to trace the development of the subject.  

Include studies with conflicting points of view to help create a more engaging discussion within your historiographical paper.  

Evaluate and synthesize the studies' findings and conclusions.  

Note the following:  

• assumptions some or most historians seem to make.  
• methodologies, theories, and sources that historians have used to answer historical questions.  
• experts in the field, usually recognized as names that come up repeatedly in the literature (cited in the text or in the footnotes).  
• conflicting assumptions, theories, methodologies, and types of sources.  
• popular theories and interpretations, and how these have changed (or not) over time.  

You may not agree with everything you read and, indeed, the point of historiography is to critique (positively and constructively) the work of other historians on a given subject. With that in mind, remember the following historical conventions:  

• Someone writing in 1883 about the Norman Conquest of 1066 may not consider questions that are central to more recent kinds of history, but this does not mean that earlier historians and antiquarians were unqualified, unintelligent, or uninformed: they simply had different biases and experiences. These are worth discussing (for example, it might be worthwhile to compare how Protestant and Catholic historians of the late nineteenth century wrote about the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation) but avoid condemning the authors outright without a thoughtful explanation of your critiques.  
• Consider why historians writing in the 1930s were not engaging with questions about gender history and compare the outcomes of their methods and research to the arguments being made by feminist scholars writing since the 1970s. Dig into how different theories, assumptions, and methodologies have led scholars to different conclusions about the same events. 

Note the following: 

• Findings that are common/contested. 
• Important trends in the research. 
• Popular sources, important theories, and common methodologies. 
• For example, the histories of many topics, regions, and periods have had “phases” like the Great Man Theory of History, the Cultural Turn, Feminist History, Disability Studies, and Queer History. Each of these has been tied to contemporary social changes, such as interest in nationalism during and after the World Wars, influences from sociology and anthropology, and different waves of social justice activism in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

Tip: If your historiography is extensive, find a large table surface, and on it place post-it notes or filing cards to organize all your findings into categories.

• Move them around if you decide that (a) they fit better under different headings, or (b) you need to establish new topic headings. 
• Develop headings/subheadings that reflect the major themes and patterns you detected. 

Write a one- or two-sentence statement summarizing the conclusion you have reached about the major trends and developments you see in the research that has been conducted on your subject.

Some example statements to help you get started are: 

• Historians disagree about X (your topic), but I am the most convinced by the scholars who say Y because… 
• Historians disagree about X (your topic), but there is something bigger going on, and the whole debate should be reframed with Y in mind. 
• Historians have come to a consensus about X (your topic), but I disagree and propose a different interpretation (e.g., one that considers gender, one that takes a middle view, or one that incorporates underused primary sources). 

Explore the following library resources to help you create and revise your thesis statement: 

• Templates for Writing Thesis Statements This template provides a two-step guide for writing thesis statements. There is also a downloadable PDF version.
• 5 Types of Thesis Statements Learn about five different types of thesis statements to help you choose the best type for your research. There is also a downloadable PDF version.
• 5 Questions to Strengthen Your Thesis Statement Follow these five steps to strengthen your thesis statements. There is also a downloadable PDF version.

Note: The thesis statement is typically located in the first paragraph of a short paper (fewer than 2000 words) but can be left to the second paragraph of a larger paper (more than 2000 words) if you feel the reader needs more contextual or background information before you begin your argument. 

Follow the organizational structure you developed above, including any headings and subheadings you constructed. 

Make certain that each section links logically to the one before and after. 

Structure your sections by themes or subtopics, not by individual theorists or researchers. 

• Tip: If you find that each paragraph begins with a researcher's name, it might indicate that, instead of evaluating and comparing the research literature from an analytical point of view, you have simply described what research has been done. 

Prioritize analysis over description. 

• For example, look at the following two passages and note that Student A merely describes the literature. The writing is strong, but Student A has not explained how these two historians came to different conclusions. The paragraph would be stronger if it followed Student B’s approach. 
• Student B takes a more analytical and evaluative approach by comparing the methods and sources used by the historians. One thing to look for (and use) in historiographical writing is keywords that suggest there is some evaluation happening. Here, Student B makes logical connections (“conversely,” “this is due to,” and “as a result”). These techniques demonstrate Student B's ability to synthesize knowledge and explain the differences in the studies based on the sources used. 

Student A: Keith M. Brown argues that, although James VI had clear ideas about what he wanted the reformed Scottish and English churches to look like, he relied on his relationships with magnates and ministers to ensure the speed, success, and cohesion of reform efforts. A different scholar, Julian Goodare, argues that James VI came awfully close and indeed, in some cases, succeeded at reorganizing Scotland’s dissident authoritative bodies—the kirk, nobility, parliament, and crown—into a centralized and moderately absolutist government. According to Goodare, by the end of James VI’s reign, the state attained sufficient command of its organization to reintroduce an episcopal structure to the contemporary kirk. It also gained the authority to define the role of church and state in the trial and conviction of moral and criminal offences. In other words, the crown itself wielded sufficient authority to govern independently, and Scottish nobles acquiesced to or resisted its demands as they performed their institutional duties, with varying rewards and consequences.

Student B: Julian Goodare and Keith Brown have reached quite different conclusions about the role that the Scottish nobility played in helping or hindering the efforts of Protestant reformers.  This is due in part to the bodies of sources each employed. Brown drew on a wide variety of archival sources that provided insight into the lives of individuals and families: family papers and letters, local court records, and documents relating to bloodfeud. For Brown, these records demonstrate that, although James VI had clear ideas about what he wanted the reformed Scottish and English churches to look like, he relied on his relationships with magnates and ministers to ensure the speed, success, and cohesion of reform efforts. Conversely, Goodare offers a more traditional political examination of Scotland’s development from a medieval kingdom into an early modern state. After consulting crown financial documents, proceedings of the general assemblies, state papers, and the records of the privy seal records and justiciary court, Goodare argues that James VI came awfully close and indeed, in some cases, succeeded at reorganizing Scotland’s dissident authoritative bodies—the kirk, nobility, parliament, and crown—into a centralized and moderately absolutist government. As a result, the concepts of personal kingship and crown-magnate negotiations of power so central to Brown’s analysis are absent from Goodare’s assessment, in which the latter argues that the crown itself wielded sufficient authority to govern independently and that Scottish nobles merely acquiesced to or resisted its demands as they performed their institutional duties.

Note: These examples have been reproduced and modified with the permission of the student author. For the purposes of these example paragraphs, citations have been omitted, but you should always indicate your sources using footnotes.

Content 

Make an outline of each section of the paper and decide whether you need to add information, delete irrelevant information, or re-structure sections.  

Look at the topic sentences of each paragraph. If you were to read only these sentences, would you find that your paper presented a clear position, logically developed, from beginning to end? The topic sentences of each paragraph should indicate the main points of your historiography. 

Read your work aloud (or use the speech-to-text feature in your word processor to have the computer read it to you). That way you will be better able to identify where you need punctuation marks to signal pauses or divisions within sentences, where you have made grammatical errors, or where your sentences are unclear. 

Avoid over-generalizations: societies are made up of individuals and they vary regionally and temporally. Starting your paper with “Since the first history was written...” or claiming that "scholars agree that the Enlightenment was the Age of Reason” is neither specific nor accurate. 

Evidence 

Since the purpose of historiography is partly to demonstrate that the writer is familiar with the important literature on the chosen subject, check to make certain that you have covered a broad selection of the important, up-to-date, and pertinent texts. What is considered relevant will depend on your subject, region, and period. Good strategies are to pick a few monographs from each decade of the past fifty years and to follow up on authors whose names show up frequently in the historiography sections of other papers. If you need help, ask your instructor or TA for advice once you have picked your topic. 

Check to make sure that you have not plagiarized either by failing to cite a source of information or by using words quoted directly from a source. (Usually, if you take four or more words—in a row—directly from another source, you should put those words within quotation marks, and cite the page.) 

Formatting 

Make certain that all the citations and references are correct and that you are using the appropriate formatting style for your discipline. Most history courses at the University of Guelph ask that you use the Chicago Manual of Style: Notes & Bibliography. If you are uncertain which style to use, ask your instructor.

Sentences should flow smoothly and logically. The text should be written in a clear and concise academic style; it should not be descriptive in nature or use the language of everyday speech (colloquialisms, slang) or excessive disciplinary jargon (specialist words). There should be no grammatical or spelling errors. 

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Essays on Historiography

The role of environmental history in india’s historiography.

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