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Global migration: causes and consequences.

• Benjamin Helms Benjamin Helms Department of Politics, University of Virginia
•  and  David Leblang David Leblang Department of Politics, Frank Batten School of Leadership and Public Policy, University of Virginia
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.631
• Published online: 25 February 2019

International migration is a multifaceted process with distinct stages and decision points. An initial decision to leave one’s country of birth may be made by the individual or the family unit, and this decision may reflect a desire to reconnect with friends and family who have already moved abroad, a need to diversify the family’s access to financial capital, a demand to increase wages, or a belief that conditions abroad will provide social and/or political benefits not available in the homeland. Once the individual has decided to move abroad, the next decision is the choice of destination. Standard explanations of destination choice have focused on the physical costs associated with moving—moving shorter distances is often less expensive than moving to a destination farther away; these explanations have recently been modified to include other social, political, familial, and cultural dimensions as part of the transaction cost associated with migrating. Arrival in a host country does not mean that an émigré’s relationship with their homeland is over. Migrant networks are an engine of global economic integration—expatriates help expand trade and investment flows, they transmit skills and knowledge back to their homelands, and they remit financial and human capital. Aware of the value of their external populations, home countries have developed a range of policies that enable them to “harness” their diasporas.

• immigration
• international political economy
• factor flows
• gravity models

Introduction

The steady growth of international labor migration is an important, yet underappreciated, aspect of globalization. 1 In 1970 , just 78 million people, or about 2.1% of the global population, lived outside their country of birth. By 1990 , that number had nearly doubled to more than 150 million people, or about 2.8% of the global population (United Nations Population Division, 2012 ). Despite the growth of populist political parties and restrictionist movements in key destination countries, the growth in global migration shows no signs of slowing down, with nearly 250 million people living outside their country of birth as of 2015 . While 34% of all global migrants live in industrialized countries (with the United States and Germany leading the way), 38% of all global migration occurs between developing countries (World Bank, 2016 ).

Identifying the causes and consequences of international labor migration is essential to our broader understanding of globalization. Scholars across diverse academic fields, including economics, political science, sociology, law, and demography, have attempted to explain why individuals voluntarily leave their homelands. The dominant thread in the labor migration literature is influenced by microeconomics, which posits that individuals contemplating migration are rational, utility-maximizing actors who carefully weigh the potential costs and benefits of leaving their country of origin (e.g., Borjas, 1989 ; Portes & Böröcz, 1989 ; Grogger & Hanson, 2011 ). The act of migration, from this perspective, is typically conceptualized as an investment from which a migrant expects to receive some benefit, whether it be in the form of increased income, political freedom, or enhanced social ties (Schultz, 1961 ; Sjaastad, 1962 ; Collier & Hoeffler, 2014 ).

In this article we go beyond the treatment of migration as a single decision and conceive of it as a multifaceted process with distinct stages and decision points. We identify factors that are relevant at different stages in the migration process and highlight how and when certain factors interact with others during the migration process. Economic factors such as the wage differential between origin and destination countries, for example, may be the driving factor behind someone’s initial decision to migrate (Borjas, 1989 ). But when choosing a specific destination, economic factors may be conditioned by political or social conditions in that destination (Fitzgerald, Leblang, & Teets, 2014 ). Each stage or decision point has distinguishing features that are important in determining how (potential) migrants respond to the driving forces identified by scholars.

This is certainly not a theoretical innovation; migration has long been conceived of as a multi-step process, and scholars often identify the stage or decision point to which their argument best applies. However, most interdisciplinary syntheses of the literature on international labor migration do not provide a systematic treatment of this defining feature, instead organizing theoretical and empirical contributions by field of study, unit or level of analysis, or theoretical tradition (e.g., Portes & Böröcz, 1989 ; Massey et al., 1993 ; European Asylum Support Office, 2016 ). Such approaches are undoubtedly valuable in their own right. Our decision to organize this discussion by stage allows us to understand this as a process, rather than as a set of discrete events. As a result, we conceptualize international labor migration as three stages or decision points: (a) the decision to migrate or to remain at home, (b) the choice of destination, and (c) the manner by which expatriates re-engage—or choose not to re-engage—with their country of origin once abroad. We also use these decision points to highlight a number of potential new directions for future research in this still-evolving field.

Figure 1. Global migration intentions by educational attainment, 2008–2017.

Should I Stay or Should I Go, Now?

The massive growth in international labor migration in the age of globalization is remarkable, but the fact remains that over 95% of the world’s population never leave their country of origin (United Nations Population Division, 2012 ). Figure 1 shows the percentage of people who expressed an intention to move abroad between 2008 and 2017 by educational attainment, according to data from the Gallup World Poll. Over this time period, it appears that those who were highly educated expressed intent to migrate in greater numbers than those who had less than a college education, although these two groups have converged in recent years. What is most striking, however, is that a vast majority of people, regardless of educational attainment, expressed no desire to move abroad. Even though absolute flows of migrants have grown at a near-exponential rate, relative to their non-migrating counterparts, they remain a small minority. What factors are important in determining who decides to migrate and who decides to remain at home? 2

From Neoclassical Economics to the Mobility Transition

Neoclassical economic models posit that the primary driving factor behind migration is the expected difference in wages (discounted future income streams) between origin and destination countries (Sjaastad, 1962 ; Borjas, 1989 ; Clark, Hatton, & Williamson, 2007 ). All else equal, when the wage gap, minus the costs associated with moving between origin and destination, is high, these models predict large flows of labor migrants. In equilibrium, as more individuals move from origin to destination countries, the wage differential narrows, which in turn leads to zero net migration (Lewis, 1954 ; Harris & Todaro, 1970 ). Traditional models predict a negative monotonic relationship between the wage gap and the number of migrants (e.g., Sjaastad, 1962 ). However, the predictions of neoclassical models are not well supported by the empirical record. Empirical evidence shows that, at least in a cross-section, the relationship between economic development and migration is more akin to an inverted U. For countries with low levels of per capita income, we observe little migration due to a liquidity constraint: at this end of the income distribution, individuals do not have sufficient resources to cover even minor costs associated with moving abroad. Increasing income helps to decrease this constraint, and consequently we observe increased levels of emigration as incomes rise (de Haas, 2007 ). This effect, however, is not monotonic: as countries reach middle-income status, declining wage differentials lead to flattening rates of emigration, and then decreasing rates as countries enter later stages of economic development. 3

Some research explains this curvilinear relationship by focusing on the interaction between emigration incentives and constraints : for example, increased income initially makes migration more affordable (reduces constraints), but also simultaneously reduces the relative economic benefits of migrating as the wage differential narrows (as potential migrants now have the financial capacity to enhance local amenities) (Dao, Docquier, Parsons, & Peri, 2016 ). The theoretical underpinnings of this interaction, however, are not without controversy. Clemens identifies several classes of theory that attempt to explain this curvilinear relationship—a relationship that has been referred to in the literature as the mobility transition (Clemens, 2014 ). These theories include: demographic changes resulting from development that also favor emigration up to a point (Easterlin, 1961 ; Tomaske, 1971 ), the loosening of credit restraints on would-be migrants (Vanderkamp, 1971 ; Hatton & Williamson, 1994 ), a breakdown of information barriers via the building of transnational social networks (Epstein, 2008 ), structural economic changes in the development process that result in worker dislocation (Zelinsky, 1971 ; Massey, 1988 ), the dynamics of economic inequality and relative deprivation (Stark, 1984 ; Stark & Yitzhaki, 1988 ; Stark & Taylor, 1991 ), and changing immigration policies in destination countries toward increasingly wealthy countries (Clemens, 2014 ). While each of these play some role in the mobility transition curve, Dao et al. ( 2016 ) run an empirical horse race between numerous explanations and find that changing skill composition resulting from economic development is the most substantively important driver. Economic development is correlated with an increase in a country’s level of education; an increase in the level of education, in turn, is correlated with increased emigration. However, traditional explanations involving microeconomic drivers such as income, credit constraints, and economic inequality remain important factors (Dao et al., 2016 ). The diversity of explanations offered for the mobility transition curve indicates that while most research agrees the inverted-U relationship is an accurate empirical portrayal of the relationship between development and migration, little theoretical agreement exists on what drives this relationship. Complicating this disagreement is the difficulty of empirically disentangling highly correlated factors such as income, skill composition, and demographic trends in order to identify robust causal relationships.

Political Conditions at the Origin

While there is a scholarly consensus around the mobility transition and the role of economic conditions, emerging research suggests that the political environment in the origin country may also be salient. We do not refer here to forced migration, such as in the case of those who leave because they are fleeing political persecution or violent conflict. Rather, we focus on political conditions in the homeland that influence a potential migrant’s decision to emigrate voluntarily. Interpretations of how, and the extent to which, political conditions in origin countries (independent of economic conditions) influence the decision to migrate have been heavily influenced by Hirschman’s “Exit, Voice, and Loyalty” framework (Hirschman, 1970 , 1978 ). Hirschman argues that the opportunity to exit—to exit a firm, an organization, or a country—places pressure on the local authorities; voting with one’s feet forces organizations to reassess their operations.

When applied to the politics of emigration, Hirschman’s framework generates two different hypotheses. On the one hand, politicians may allow, encourage, or force the emigration of groups that oppose the regime as a political safety valve of sorts. This provides the government with a mechanism with which to manage potential political challengers by encouraging their exit. On the other hand, politicians—especially those in autocracies—may actively work to prevent exit because they fear the emigration of economic elites, the highly skilled, and others who have resources vital to the survival of the regime. 4

A small number of studies investigate how local-level, rather than national, political circumstances affect a potential migrant’s calculus. The limited empirical evidence currently available suggests that local conditions are substantively important determinants of the emigration decision. When individuals are highly satisfied with local amenities such as their own standard of living, quality of public services, and overall sense of physical security, they express far less intention to migrate compared with highly dissatisfied individuals (Dustmann & Okatenko, 2014 ). Furthermore, availability of public transport and access to better education facilities decreases the propensity to express an intention to emigrate (Cazzuffi & Modrego, 2018 ). This relationship holds across all levels of wealth and economic development, and there is some evidence that satisfaction with local amenities matters as much as, or even more than, income or wealth (Dustmann & Okatenko, 2014 ).

Political corruption, on both national and local levels, also has substantively important effects on potential migrants, especially those who are highly skilled. Broadly defined as the use of public office for political gain, political corruption operates as both a direct and an indirect factor promoting emigration. 5 Firstly, corruption may have a direct effect on the desire to emigrate in that it can decrease the political and economic power of an individual, leading to a lower standard of living and poorer quality of life in origin countries. If the reduction in life satisfaction resulting from corruption is sufficiently high—either by itself or in combination with other “push” factors—then the exit option becomes more attractive (Cooray & Schneider, 2016 ). Secondly, corruption also operates through indirect channels that influence other push factors. Given the large literature on how political corruption influences a number of development outcomes, it is conceivable that corruption affects the decision-making process of a potential migrant through its negative effect on social spending, education, and public health (Mo, 2001 ; Mauro, 1998 ; Gupta, Davoodi, & Thigonson, 2001 ).

The combination of its direct and indirect impacts means that corruption could be a significant part of a migrant’s decision-making process. At present there is limited work exploring this question, and the research does not yield a consensus. Some scholars argue that political corruption has no substantive effect on total bilateral migration, but that it does encourage migration among the highly skilled (Dimant, Krieger, & Meierrieks, 2013 ). This is the case, the argument goes, because corruption causes the greatest relative harm to the utility of those who have invested in human capital, who migrate to escape the negative effect on their fixed investment. In contrast, others find that a high level of corruption does increase emigration at the aggregate level (Poprawe, 2015 ). More nuanced arguments take into account the intensity of corruption: low to moderate levels of corruption lead to increased emigration of all groups, and especially of the highly skilled. But at high levels of corruption, emigration begins to decrease, indicating that intense corruption can act as a mobility constraint (Cooray & Schneider, 2016 ). All of these existing accounts, however, employ state-level measures of corruption by non-governmental organizations, such as those produced by Transparency International. Scholars have yet to harness micro-level survey data to explore the influence of personal corruption perception on the individual’s decision-making process.

The Land of Hopes and Dreams

Given that an individual has decided to emigrate, the next decision point is to choose a destination country. Advanced industrial democracies, such as those in the OECD, are major migrant-receiving countries, but so are Russia and several Gulf countries including Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (World Bank, 2016 ). A country’s constellation of political, economic, and social attributes is crucial to understanding an emigrant’s choice of destination. Potential migrants weigh all of these factors simultaneously when choosing a destination: will the destination allow political rights for the migrant and their children, is access to the labor market possible, and does the destination provide an opportunity for reunification with friends and family? In this section we focus on the non-economic factors that draw migrants to certain countries over others. In addition, we emphasize how skill level adds layers of complexity to a migrant’s calculus.

Political Environment, Both Formal and Informal

As noted earlier, traditional neoclassical models and their extensions place wage differentials and associated economic variables at the heart of a migrant’s choice. Gravity models posit that migrants choose a destination country based on their expected income—which itself is a function of the wage rate and the probability of finding employment in the destination—less the costs associated with moving (Ravenstein, 1885 ; Todaro, 1969 ; Borjas, 1989 ). A rigid focus on economic factors, however, blinds us to the empirical reality that a destination country’s political environment influences what destination a migrant chooses (Borjas, 1989 ). A country’s legal and political rights structure for migrants, as well as its level of tolerance for newcomers, is critical to migrants discriminating between an array of potential destinations. Fitzgerald, Leblang, and Teets ( 2014 ) argue, for example, that states with restrictive citizenship policies and strong radical right anti-immigrant parties will receive fewer migrants, while states with relatively liberal citizenship requirements and weak radical right political movements will receive more migrants. In the rational actor framework, migrants seek countries with hospitable political environments to maximize both their political representation in government and their access to labor market opportunities as a result of citizenship rights and social acceptance (Fitzgerald et al., 2014 ).

Using a broad sample of origin countries and 18 destination countries, they find that relative restrictiveness of citizenship policies and level of domestic support for the radical right are substantively important determinants of global migratory flows. Further, they find that these political variables condition a migrant’s choice of destination: the relative importance of economic factors such as the unemployment rate or the wage differential diminishes as a destination country’s political environment becomes more open for migrants. In other words, when migrants are choosing a destination country, political considerations may trump economic ones—a finding that is an important amendment to the primarily economics-focused calculus of the initial stage of the immigration decision.

However, prior to choosing and entering a destination country, a migrant must also navigate a country’s immigration policy—the regulation of both migrant entry and the rights and status of current migrants. While it is often assumed that a relatively more restrictive immigration policy deters entry, and vice versa, a lack of quantitative data has limited the ability of scholars to confirm this intuition cross-nationally. Money ( 1999 ) emphasizes that the policy output of immigration politics does not necessarily correlate with the outcome of international migrant flows. There are a number of unanswered questions in this field, including: is immigration policy a meaningful determinant of global flows of migration? Do certain kinds of immigration policies matter more than others? How does immigration policy interact with other political and economic factors, such as unemployment and social networks?

Only a handful of studies analyze whether or not immigration policy is a significant determinant of the size and character of migratory flows. Perhaps the most prominent answer to this question is the “gap hypothesis,” which posits that immigration rates continue to increase despite increasingly restrictive immigration policies in advanced countries (Cornelius & Tsuda, 2004 ). Some subsequent work seems to grant support to the gap hypothesis, indicating that immigration policy may not be a relevant factor and that national sovereignty as it relates to dictating migrant inflows has eroded significantly (Sassen, 1996 ; Castles, 2004 ). The gap hypothesis is not without its critics, with other scholars arguing that the existing empirical evidence actually lends it little or no support (Messina, 2007 ).

A more recent body of literature does indicate that immigration policy matters. Brücker and Schröder ( 2011 ), for example, find that immigration policies built to attract highly skilled migrants lead to higher admittance rates. They also show that diffusion processes cause neighboring countries to implement similar policy measures. Ortega and Peri ( 2013 ), in contrast to the gap hypothesis literature, find that restrictive immigration policy indeed reduces migrant inflows. But immigration policy can also have unintended effects on international migration: when entry requirements increase, migrant inflows decrease, but migrant outflows also decrease (Czaika & de Haas, 2016 ). This indicates that restrictive immigration policy may also lead to reduced circular migrant flows and encourage long-term settlement in destination countries.

Disaggregating immigration policy into its different components provides a clearer picture of how immigration policy may matter, and whether certain components matter more than others. Immigration policy is composed of both external and internal regulations. External regulations refer to policies that control migrant entry, such as eligibility requirements for migrants and additional conditions of entry. Internal regulations refer to policies that apply to migrants who have already gained status in the country, such as the security of a migrant’s legal status and the rights they are afforded. Helbling and Leblang ( 2017 ), using a comprehensive data set of bilateral migrant flows and the Immigration Policies in Comparison (IMPIC) data set, find that, in general, external regulations prove slightly more important in understanding migrant inflows (Helbling, Bjerre, Römer, & Zobel, 2017 ). This indicates that potential migrants focus more on how to cross borders, and less on the security of their status and rights once they settle. They do find, however, that both external and internal components of immigration are substantively important to international migrant flows.

The effects of policy, however, cannot be understood in isolation from other drivers of migration. Firstly, poor economic conditions and restrictive immigration policy are mutually reinforcing: when the unemployment rate is elevated, restrictive policies are more effective in deterring migrant flows. An increase in policy effectiveness in poor economic conditions suggests that states care more about deterring immigration when the economy is performing poorly. Secondly, a destination country’s restrictive immigration policy is more effective when migrants come from origin countries that have a common colonial heritage. This suggests that cultural similarities and migrant networks help to spread information about the immigration policy environment in the destination country. Social networks prove to be crucial in determining how much migrants know about the immigration policies of destination countries, regardless of other cultural factors such as colonial heritage or common language (Helbling & Leblang, 2017 ). In summary, more recent work supports the idea that immigration policy of destination countries exerts a significant influence on both the size and character of international migration flows. Much work remains to be done in terms of understanding the nuances of specific immigration policy components, the effect of policy change over time, and through what mechanisms immigration policy operates.

Transnational Social Networks

None of this should be taken to suggest that only political and economic considerations matter when a potential migrant contemplates a potential destination; perhaps one of the biggest contributions to the study of bilateral migration is the role played by transnational social networks. Migrating is a risky undertaking, and to minimize that risk, migrants are more likely to move to destinations where they can “readily tap into networks of co-ethnics” (Fitzgerald et al., 2014 , p. 410). Dense networks of co-ethnics not only help provide information about economic opportunities, but also serve as a social safety net which, in turn, helps decrease the risks associated with migration, including, but not limited to, finding housing and integrating into a new community (Massey, 1988 ; Portes & Böröcz, 1989 ; Portes, 1995 ; Massey et al., 1993 ; Faist, 2000 ; Sassen, 1995 ; Light, Bernard, & Kim, 1999 ). Having a transnational network of family members is quite important to destination choice; if a destination country has an immigration policy that emphasizes family reunification, migrants can use their familial connections to gain economically valuable permanent resident or citizenship status more easily than in other countries (Massey et al., 1993 , p. 450; Helbing & Leblang, 2017 ). When the migrant is comparing potential destinations, countries in which that migrant has a strong social network will be heavily favored in a cost–benefit analysis.

Note, however, that even outside of a strict rational actor framework with perfect information, transnational social networks still may be quite salient to destination choice. An interesting alternative hypothesis for the patterns we observe draws on theories from financial market behavior which focus on herding. Migrants choosing a destination observe the decisions of their co-ethnics who previously migrated and assume that those decisions were based on a relevant set of information, such as job opportunities or social tolerance of migrants. New migrants then choose the same destination as their co-ethnics not based on actual exchanges of valuable information, but based solely on the assumption that previous migration decisions were based on rational calculation (Epstein & Gang, 2006 ; Epstein, 2008 ). This is a classic example of herding, and the existing empirical evidence on the importance of transnational social networks cannot invalidate this alternative hypothesis. One could also explain social network effects through the lens of cumulative causation or feedback loops: the initial existence of connections in destination countries makes the act of migration less risky and attracts additional co-ethnics. This further expands migrant networks in a destination, further decreasing risk for future waves of migrants, and so on (Massey, 1990 ; Fussel & Massey, 2004 ; Fussel, 2010 ).

No matter the pathway by which social networks operate, the empirical evidence indicates that they are one of the most important determinants of destination choice. Potential migrants from Mexico, for example, who are able to tap into existing networks in the United States face lower direct, opportunity, and psychological costs of international migration (Massey & Garcia España, 1987 ). This same relationship holds in the European context; a study of Bulgarian and Italian migrants indicates that those with “social capital” in a destination community are more likely to migrate and to choose that particular destination (Haug, 2008 ). Studies that are more broadly cross-national in nature also confirm the social network hypothesis across a range of contexts and time periods (e.g., Clark et al., 2007 ; Hatton & Williamson, 2011 ; Fitzgerald et al., 2014 ).

Despite the importance of social networks, it is, again, important to qualify their role in framing the choice of destinations. It seems that the existence of co-ethnics in destination countries most strongly influences emigration when they are relatively few in number. Clark et al. ( 2007 ), in their study of migration to the United States, find that the “friends and relatives effect” falls to zero once the migrant stock in the United States reaches 8.3% of the source-country population. In addition, social networks alone cannot explain destination choice because their explanatory power is context-dependent. For instance, restrictive immigration policies limiting legal migration channels and family reunification may dampen the effectiveness of networks (Böcker, 1994 ; Collyer, 2006 ). Social networks are not an independent force, but also interact with economic and political realities to produce the global migration patterns we observe.

The Lens of Skill

For ease of presentation, we have up to now treated migrants as a relatively homogeneous group that faces similar push and pull factors throughout the decision-making process. Of course, not all migrants experience the same economic, political, and social incentives in the same way at each stage of the decision-making process. Perhaps the most salient differentiating feature of migrants is skill or education level. Generally, one can discuss a spectrum of skill and education level for current migrants, from relatively less educated (having attained a high school degree or less) to relatively more educated (having attained a college or post-graduate degree). The factors presented here that influence destination choice interact with a migrant’s skill level to produce differing destination choice patterns.

A migrant’s level of education, or human capital, often serves as a filter for the political treatment he or she anticipates in a particular destination country. For instance, the American public has a favorable view of highly educated migrants who hold higher-status jobs, while simultaneously having an opposite view of migrants who have less job training and do not hold a college degree (Hainmueller & Hiscox, 2010 ; Hainmueller & Hopkins, 2015 ). Indeed, the political discourse surrounding migration often emphasizes skill level and education as markers of migrants who “should be” admitted, across both countries and the ideological spectrum. 6 While political tolerance may be a condition of entry for migrants in the aggregate, the relatively privileged status of highly educated and skilled migrants in most destination countries may mean that this condition is not as salient.

While it is still an open question to what extent immigration policy influences international migration, it is clear that not all migrants face evenly applied migration restrictions. Most attractive destination countries have policies that explicitly favor highly skilled migrants, since these individuals often fill labor shortages in advanced industries such as high technology and applied science. Countries such as Australia, Canada, and New Zealand all employ so-called “points-based” immigration systems in which those with advanced degrees and needed skills are institutionally favored for legal entry (Papademetriou & Sumption, 2011 ). Meanwhile, the United States maintains the H-1B visa program, which is restricted by educational attainment and can only be used to fill jobs in which no native talent is available (USCIS). Even if destination countries decide to adopt more restrictive immigration policies, the move toward restriction has typically been focused on low-skilled migrants (Peters, 2017 ). In other words, even if immigration policy worldwide becomes more restrictive, this will almost certainly not occur at the expense of highly skilled migrants and will not prevent them choosing their most preferred destination.

Bring It on Home to Me

This article began by asserting that international labor migration is an important piece of globalization, as significant as cross-border flows of capital, goods, and services. This section argues that migrant flows enhance flows of capital and commodities. Uniquely modern conditions such as advanced telecommunications, affordable and efficient international travel, and the liberalization of financial flows mean that diasporas—populations of migrants living outside their countries of origin—and home countries often re-engage with each other (Vertovec, 2004 ; Waldinger, 2008 ). This section reviews some of the newest and most thought-provoking research on international labor migration, research that explores diaspora re-engagement and how that re-engagement alters international flows of income, portfolio and foreign direct investment (FDI), trade, and migratory flows themselves.

Remittances

As previously argued, migration is often driven by the prospect of higher wages. Rational, utility-maximizing migrants incur the cost of migration in order to earn increased income that they could not earn at home. But when migrants obtain higher wages, this additional increment to income is not always designated for individual consumption. Often, migrants use their new income to send remittances, direct transfers of money from one individual to another across national borders. Once a marginal financial flow, in 2015 remittances totaled $431 billion, far outpacing foreign aid ($135 billion) and nearly passing private debt and portfolio equity ($443 billion). More than 70% of total global remittances flow into developing countries (World Bank, 2016 ). In comparison with other financial flows such as portfolio investment and FDI, remittances are more impervious to economic crises, suggesting that they may be a countercyclical force to global downturns (Leblang, 2017 ).

Remittances represent one of the most common ways in which migrants re-engage with their homeland and alter both global income flows and distribution. Why do migrants surrender large portions of their new income, supposedly the very reason they migrated in the first place, to their families back home? New economics of labor migration (NELM) theory argues that immigration itself is motivated by a family’s need or demand for remittances—that remittances are an integral part of a family’s strategy for diversifying household financial risk (Stark & Bloom, 1985 ). Remittances “are a manifestation of informal contractual agreements between migrants and the households from which they move,” indicating that remitting is not an individual-level or purely altruistic action but rather occurs in a larger social context, that of one’s immediate or extended family (European Asylum Support Office, 2016 , p. 15).

The impact of migrant remittances on countries of origin is multifaceted yet somewhat ambiguous. Most scholarly work focuses on whether remittances positively or negatively influence existing economic conditions. A number of studies find that remittances modestly reduce poverty levels in developing countries (Adams & Page, 2005 ; Yang & Martinez, 2006 ; Acosta, Calderon, Fajnzybler, & Lopez, 2008 ; Lokshin, Bontch-Osmolovski, & Glinskaya, 2010 ). On other measures of economic well-being, such as growth, inequality, and health, the literature is quite mixed and no definitive conclusions can be drawn. For instance, some studies find that remittances encourage investment in human capital (Yang, 2008 ; Adams & Cuecuecha, 2010 ), while others find no such effect and suggest that families typically spend remittances on non-productive consumption goods (Chami, Fullenkamp, & Jahjah, 2003 ). Here we can only scratch the surface of the empirical work on remittances and economic outcomes. 7

Some of the most recent research in the field argues that remittances have a distinct political dimension, affecting regime support in developing countries and altering the conditions in which elections are held. Ahmed ( 2012 ), grouping remittances with foreign aid, argues that increased remittances allow autocratic governments to extend their tenure in office. These governments can strategically channel unearned government and household income to finance political patronage networks, which leads to a reduced likelihood of autocratic turnover, regime collapse, and mass protests against the regime. More recent research posits nearly the exact opposite: remittances are linked to a greater likelihood of democratization under autocratic regimes. Escriba-Folch, Meseguer, and Wright ( 2015 ) argue that since remittances directly increase household incomes, they reduce voter reliance on political patronage networks, undermining a key tool of autocratic stability.

Remittances may also play an important role in countries with democratic institutions, yet more research is needed to fully understand the conditions under which they matter and their substantive impact. Particularly, remittances may alter the dynamics of an election as an additional and external financial flow. There is evidence of political remittance cycles : the value of remittances spikes in the run-up to elections in developing countries. The total value of remittances to the average developing country increases by 6.6% during election years, and by 12% in elections in which no incumbent or named successor is running (O’Mahony, 2012 ). The effect is even larger in the poorest of developing countries. Finer-grained tests of this hypothesis provide additional support: using monthly and quarterly data confirms the existence of political remittance cycles, as well as using subnational rather than cross-national data (Nyblade & O’Mahony, 2014 ). However, these studies do not reveal why remittances spike, or what the effects of that spike are on electoral outcomes such as vote share, campaign financing, and political strategy.

Remittances represent a massive international financial flow that warrants more scholarly attention. While there are numerous studies on the relationship between remittances and key economic indicators, there remains much room for further work on their relationship to political outcomes in developing countries. Do remittances hasten the downfall of autocratic regimes, or do they contribute to autocratic stability? In democratic contexts, do remittances substantively influence electoral outcomes, and if so, which outcomes and how? Finally, do remittances prevent even more migration because they allow one “breadwinner from abroad” to provide for the household that remains in the homeland? While data limitations are formidable, these questions are important to the study of both international and comparative political economy.

Bilateral Trade

The argument that migrant or co-ethnic networks play an important role in international economic exchange is not novel. Greif ( 1989 , 1993 ) illustrates the role that the Maghrebi traders of the 11th century played in providing informal institutional guarantees that facilitated trade. This is but a single example. Cowen’s historical survey identifies not only the Phoenicians but also the “Spanish Jews [who] were indispensable for international commerce in the Middle Ages. The Armenians controlled the overland route between the Orient and Europe as late as the nineteenth century . Lebanese Christians developed trade between the various parts of the Ottoman empire” (Cowen, 1997 , p. 170). Rauch and Trindade ( 2002 ) provide robust empirical evidence linking the Chinese diaspora to patterns of imports and exports with their home country.

A variety of case studies document the importance of migrant networks in helping overcome problems of information asymmetries. In his study of Indian expatriates residing in the United States, Kapur ( 2014 ) documents how that community provides U.S. investors with a signal of the work ethic, labor quality, and business culture that exists in India. Likewise, Weidenbaum and Hughes ( 1996 ) chronicle the Bamboo Network—the linkages between ethnic Chinese living outside mainland China and their homeland—and how these linkages provide superior access to information and opportunities for investment.

Connections between migrant communities across countries affect cross-national investment even when these connections do not provide information about investment opportunities. In his work on the Maghrebi traders of the 11th century , Greif argues that this trading network was effective because it was able to credibly threaten collective punishment by all merchants if even one of them defected (Greif, 1989 , 1993 ). Grief shows that this co-ethnic network was able to share information regarding the past actions of actors (they could communicate a reputation)—something that was essential for the efficient functioning of markets in the absence of formal legal rules. Weidenbaum and Hughes reach a similar conclusion about the effectiveness of the Bamboo Network, remarking that “if a business owner violates an agreement, he is blacklisted. This is far worse than being sued, because the entire Chinese networks will refrain from doing business with the guilty party” (Hughes, 1996 , p. 51).

Migrants not only alter the flow of income by remitting to their countries of origin, but also influence patterns of international portfolio investment and FDI. Most existing literature on international capital allocation emphasizes monadic factors such as the importance of credible commitments and state institutional quality, failing to address explicitly dyadic phenomena that may also drive investment. Diaspora networks, in particular, facilitate cross-border investment in a number of ways. They foster a higher degree of familiarity between home and host countries, leading to a greater preference for investment in specific countries. Diaspora networks can also decrease information asymmetries in highly uncertain international capital markets in two ways. Firstly, they can provide investors with salient information about their homeland, such as consumer tastes, that can influence investment decision-making. Secondly, they can share knowledge about investment opportunities, regulation and procedures, and customs that decrease transaction costs associated with cross-border investment (Leblang, 2010 ). This place of importance for migrants suggests to the broader international political economy literature the importance of non-institutional mechanisms for channeling economic activity.

Although the hypothesized link between migrants and international investment has only recently been identified, the quantitative evidence available supports that hypothesis. Leblang ( 2010 ), using dyadic cross-sectional data, finds that diaspora networks “have both a substantively significant effect and a statistically significant effect on cross-border investment,” including international portfolio investment and FDI (p. 584). The effect of bilateral migratory flows correlates positively with the degree of information asymmetry: when informational imperfections are more pervasive in a dyad, migrants (especially the highly skilled) play a disproportionately large role in international capital allocation (Kugler, Levinthal, & Rapoport, 2017 ). Other quantitative studies find substantively similar results for FDI alone (e.g., Javorcik, Özden, Spatareanu, & Neagu, 2011 ; Aubry, Rapoport, & Reshef, 2016 ).

Many questions still remain unanswered. Firstly, does the effect of migrants on investment follow the waves of the global economy, or is it countercyclical as remittances have been shown to be? Secondly, how does this additional investment, facilitated by migrants, affect socioeconomic outcomes such as inequality, poverty, and economic development (Leblang, 2010 )? Does the participation of migrants lead to more successful FDI projects in developing countries because of their ability to break down information barriers? Within portfolio investment, do migrants lead to a preference for certain asset classes over others, and if so, what are the effects on bilateral and international capital markets? These are just a few directions in an area ripe for additional research.

Return Migration and Dual Citizenship

Besides financial flows, migrants themselves directly contribute to global flows of capital by returning to their countries of origin in large numbers. This phenomenon of return migration—or circular migration—can come in a few temporal forms, including long-term migration followed by a permanent return to a country of origin, or repeat migration in which a migrant regularly moves between destination and origin countries (Dumont & Spielvogel, 2008 ). While comparable data on return migration is scarce, some reports suggest that 20% to 50% of all immigrants leave their destination country within five years after their arrival (e.g., Borjas & Bratsberg, 1996 ; Aydemir & Robinson, 2008 ; Bratsberg, Raaum, & Sørlie, 2007 ; Dustmann & Weiss, 2007 ). An independent theoretical and empirical account of return migration does not yet exist in the literature and is beyond the scope of this paper. But in the rational actor framework, motivations to return home include a failure to realize the expected benefits of migration, changing preferences toward a migrant’s home country, achievement of a savings or other economic goal, or the opening of additional employment opportunities back home due to newly acquired experience or greater levels of economic development (Dumont & Spielvogel, 2008 ).

While most migration literature treats the country of origin as a passive actor that only provides the conditions for migration, new literature on return migration gives home country policies pride of place. Origin countries can craft policies that encourage diaspora re-engagement, incentivizing individuals to return home. Dual citizenship, for example, is an extension of extraterritorial rights, allowing migrants to retain full legal status in their home country. Dual citizenship “decreases the transaction costs associated with entering a host country’s labor market and makes it easier for migrants to return home” (Leblang, 2017 , p. 77). This leads migrants to invest their financial resources in the form of remittances back home as well as their valuable human capital. When states provide such extraterritorial rights, expatriates are 10% more likely to remit and 3% more likely to return home. Dual citizenship is also associated with a doubling of the dollar amount of remittances received by a home country (Leblang, 2017 ). These striking results suggest that in addition to the power of migrants to affect cross-border flows of money and people, countries of origin can also play a significant role.

Conclusion and Future Directions

This brief article has attempted to synthesize a broad range of literature from political science, economics, sociology, migration studies, and more to construct an account of international labor migration. To do so, the migratory process was broken down into distinct stages and decision points, focusing particularly on the decision to migrate, destination choice, and the re-engagement of migrants with their homeland. In doing so, the article also discussed the interlinkages of international migration with other fields of study in international political economy, including cross-border financial flows, trade, and investment. Through a multiplicity of approaches, we have gained a greater understanding of why people decide to move, why they decide to move to one country over another, and how and why they engage with the global economy and their homeland. Despite this intellectual progress, there remain many paths for future research at each stage of the migratory process; we highlight just a few of them here.

We know that income differentials, social ties, and local political conditions are important variables influencing the migration process. Yet the question remains: why do a small but growing number of people choose to leave while the overwhelming majority of people remain in their country of birth? Here, individual- or family-level subjective characteristics may be significant. There are a handful of observational studies that explore the relationship between subjective well-being or life satisfaction and the intention to migrate, with the nascent consensus being that life dissatisfaction increases the intention to migrate (Cai, Esipova, Oppenheimer, & Feng, 2014 ; Otrachshenko & Popova, 2014 ; Nikolova & Graham, 2015 ). But more research on intrinsic or subjective measures is needed to understand (a) their independent importance more fully and (b) how they interact with objective economic, political, and social factors. For instance, do those who are more optimistic migrate in larger numbers? Do minority individuals who feel they live in an environment in which diversity is not accepted feel a greater urge to leave home? Synthesizing these types of subjective variables and perceptions with the more prominent gravity-style models could result in a more complete picture of the international migration process.

For the “typical” migrant, one who is relatively less educated than the population in the chosen destination and does not have specialized skills, social networks are key to minimizing the risk of migrating and quickly tapping into economic opportunities in destination countries. Does this remain true for those who are highly educated? Although little empirical research exists on the topic, greater human capital and often-accompanying financial resources may operate as a substitute for the advantages offered by social networks, such as housing, overcoming linguistic barriers, and finding gainful employment. This would indicate that the “friends and family effect” is not as influential for this subset of migrants. Economic considerations, such as which destination offers the largest relative wage differential, or political considerations, such as the ease of quickly acquiring full citizenship rights, may matter more for the highly skilled. Neoclassical economic models of migration may best capture the behavior of migrants who hold human capital and who have the financial resources to independently migrate in a way that maximizes income or utility more broadly.

Since we have focused on international migration as a series of discrete decision points in this article, we have perhaps underemphasized the complexity of the physical migration process. In reality, migrants often do not pick a country and travel directly there, but travel through (perhaps several) countries of transit such as Mexico, Morocco, or Turkey along the way (Angel Castillo, 2006 ; Natter, 2013 ; Icduygu, 2005 ). There is little existing theoretical work to understand the role of transit countries in the migratory process, with much of it focusing on the potential for cooperation between destination and transit countries in managing primarily illegal immigration (Kahana & Lecker, 2005 ; Djajic & Michael, 2014 ; Djajic & Michael, 2016 ). Another related strand of the literature focuses on how wealthy destination countries are “externalizing” their immigration policy, encompassing a broader part of the migratory process than simply crossing a physically demarcated border (Duvell, 2012 ; Menjivar, 2014 ). But many questions remain, such as the following: how do we understand those who desire to enter, say, the United States, but instead relocate permanently to Mexico along the way? How do countries of transit handle the pressure of transit migrants, and how does this affect economic and political outcomes in these countries?

Finally, the focus of nearly all literature on international migration (and this article as a byproduct) implicitly views advanced economies as the only prominent destinations. However, this belies the fact that 38% of all migration stays within the “Global South” (World Bank, 2016 ). While there is certainly some literature on this phenomenon (see Ratha & Shaw, 2007 ; Gindling, 2009 ; Hujo & Piper, 2007 ), international political economy scholars have yet to sufficiently tackle this topic. The overarching research question here is: do the same push and pull factors that influence the decision to migrate and destination choice apply to those who migrate within the Global South? Do we need to construct new theories of international migration with less emphasis on factors such as wage differentials and political tolerance, or are these sufficient to understand this facet of the phenomenon? If we fail to answer these questions, we may miss explaining a significant proportion of international migration with its own consequences and policy implications.

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1. Our use of the term international labor migration follows academic and legal conventions; we use the term migration to refer to the voluntary movement of people across national borders, either in a temporary or permanent fashion. This excludes any discussion of refugees, asylum seekers, or any other groups that are forced to migrate.

2. We do not have space in this article to delve into the theoretical and empirical work unpacking the effect of demographic characteristics—age, gender, marital status, household size, and so forth on the migration decision and on subsequent flows of migrants. For comprehensive reviews, see Lichter ( 1983 ), Morrison and Lichter ( 1988 ); United Nations Population Division ( 2013 ); and Zaiceva and Zimmerman ( 2014 ).

3. Zelinsky ( 1971 ) originally identified this relationship and termed it mobility transition curve . A wealth of empirical work supports Zelinsky’s descriptive theory in a number of contexts (see Akerman, 1976 ; Gould, 1979 ; Hatton & Williamson, 1994 ; and Dao et al., 2016 ).

4. For a review of the arguments as well as some empirical tests, see Miller and Peters ( 2018 ) and Docquier, Lodigiani, Rapoport, and Schiff ( 2018 ).

5. Transparency International. “What is corruption?”

6. For example, former United Kingdom Independence Party leader Nigel Farage has called for the United Kingdom to adopt an immigration system that only allows in highly skilled migrants (“UKIP launches immigration policy”). In 2014, US President Barack Obama emphasized that he wanted to attract international students to American universities and that they “create jobs, businesses, and industries right here in America” (USA Today: “Full text: Obama’s immigration speech”). A key issue in Germany’s 2018 government formation was the creation of skill-based migration laws (Severin & Martin, 2018 ).

7. For a more comprehensive review, see Rapoport and Docquier ( 2006 ); and Adams ( 2011 ).

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Why Migration Matters

While human mobility has been an enduring feature of our global history, it is as pertinent today as it ever was. With 232 million international migrants in the world, according to recent figures released by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), migration is one of the most important and pressing global issues of our time.

According to UNDESA, the definition of an international migrant is a person living outside of their country of birth. Migration is often driven by the search for better livelihoods and new opportunities. Indeed, global and regional social and economic inequalities are expressed most powerfully through the figure of the migrant, as one who crosses borders in search of work, education and new horizons.

Many people who migrate, however, have not necessarily chosen to do so. Forced migration is becoming ever more prevalent as a result of civil, political and religious persecution and conflict. In 2012, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that there were 10.4 million refugees in the world. There is, moreover, a growing need to understand the important relationship between environmental change and forced migration and displacement , and the experiences of stateless persons .

Crossing borders and seas involves grave risks, with many migrants not able to complete safe journeys. We can see this most starkly in the numerous tragedies involving migrants that have occurred in recent years. As borders become increasingly securitised, the proliferation of recruitment networks that endanger and profit from migrants and the increasing use of private migration management agencies in border control and security are worrying trends. This ought to make us reflect urgently on how migration is being governed in the world today and on the responsibilities of states in this regard.

Addressing the challenges

As societies become more diverse, there are both opportunities and challenges. Experiences of discrimination on the basis of one’s socio-economic, cultural or religious background continue to be commonplace. A priority will be to promote the means for intercultural dialogue and the inclusion of migrants into the economic, social and cultural lives of the societies in which they live. It is also crucial to mention the striking feminization of migration. As women now comprise 48 percent of all international migrants, efforts to promote the inclusion of migrants must also adequately address the particular experiences of female migrants across the world.

There are key ways in which the international community is addressing these challenges. The October 2013 High-Level Dialogue on International Migration and Development recognized migration as a central part of the international development agenda. Under the heading of ‘Making Migration Work’, discussions revolved around how migration contributes to global development and to poverty alleviation. They also considered how migration could benefit individuals, families, communities and states. Migration will only work for all, however, if greater commitment is shown to eliminating all forms of exploitation and discrimination that migrants experience and to ensuring that their fundamental human rights are upheld.

While the role of migrants in economic development through remittance and knowledge transfers has been acknowledged, recent debates in civil society have emphasized an understanding of migration in human development terms. As the synergies between states, policymakers, researchers and civil society organizations gain momentum, it is imperative to remember the human face of migration and to keep migrants themselves at the centre of discussions.

In order to address these pressing concerns, the United Nations University (UNU) institutes have come together to form a migration research network. The network features migration research experts from different disciplinary backgrounds who examine the complexities of migration at regional and global scales. Current research themes include: the health of migrants, migrants’ inclusion and exclusion from social and cultural life, the consequences of migration on those left behind, human security, migration and development, and the experiences of vulnerable groups such as stateless persons and forced migrants.

The aim of this network is to ensure solid collaborations and the sharing of migration-related research across the different institutes of the UNU. The unique vantage point of the UNU means that research findings will also be shared widely with policymakers and civil society organizations. The launch of the UNU Migration Network’s website promises to be an important first step in the network’s activities to put migration at the heart of research and policy agendas.

Megha Amrith

Megha Amrith is a Research Fellow at the United Nations University Institute on Globalization, Culture and Mobility in Barcelona . She holds a PhD in Social Anthropology from the University of Cambridge and researches international migration, cultural diversity and cities.

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Migration by Tilman Lanz LAST REVIEWED: 26 October 2023 LAST MODIFIED: 26 October 2023 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199766567-0098

Migration is the movement of people from one locality to another. Anthropology is invested in studying this phenomenon in its cultural and social dimensions. Anthropological studies of migration can be divided into three categories. First, there are studies that emphasize the aspect of immigration itself. These studies focus on the way immigrants are perceived by the societies into which they enter as well as how they respond to these perceptions. Second, there is a sustained interest by anthropologists in the process of migration itself. Third, anthropologists have also begun to study contexts of migrations, including reactions to immigration by local actors, legal issues, ontological security, the relevance of borders, or migrant long-distance relations. Anthropologists interested in migration have frequently taken recourse to transnational scholarship as well as postcolonial and cultural studies, fields that have developed a rich experiential and conceptual apparatus to characterize migrancy. Anthropologists study migration frequently through a holistic approach, tying together many different aspects of complex migration processes. The majority of anthropological work on migration benefits greatly from disciplinary collaboration with neighboring fields such as cultural studies, postcolonial studies, economics, history, political science, international relations, legal studies, sociology, and geography. Historically, the study of human migrations was not a focus in anthropology until well into the 1950s. Until then, anthropology focused largely on the study of small-scale localities, such as villages and face-to-face communities in non-Western contexts. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, anthropology contributed to the study of migration by illuminating the implications of people’s movements from rural, “nondeveloped” areas of the non-Western world to urban, industrialized centers in the West. Important theories in the social sciences, such as world-systems theory, were used to map out large-scale processes that induced migratory patterns like the slave trade across the Atlantic. These approaches focused on how economic and political undercurrents affected individual people, small groups, or whole cultures and civilizations as they were swept up in these forced migratory steams. In the 1990s, cultural and social contexts of migration increasingly took precedence over earlier political and economic ones. This change was induced by two larger undercurrents of research in the social sciences and humanities as a whole. First, the cultural dimension of late modern, industrialized societies came into much larger focus in the social sciences in the wake of the works by Gramsci and, later, Laclau and Mouffe who emphasized the importance of sociocultural aspects in political economy. Second, the rise of postcolonialism contributed to a more complex understanding of migration processes and their effect on people beyond the economic dimension. Anthropologists and cultural critics began to research migration as embedded in global flows, relations to the former homeland, and new homeland contexts. This diversification inspired a variety of interests in studying the relationship between culture and human migrations such as ethnic versus civic identities, negotiations of belonging, long-distance migrant relations, questions of gender, and sociocultural networks of migrants as well as local-migrant relations.

There are three important overviews that link anthropological work with migration, all interdisciplinary in scope. Brettell 2016 offers perhaps the most comprehensive overview of anthropological literature on migration. The essay covers issues such as experiences of migration, migrant social networks, gender and migration, multi-sited ethnographic work on migration, transnationalism, ethnic and civic identities, immigration and citizenship, superdiversity, and epistemologies of inclusion and exclusion as well as multiculturalism. Castles, et al. 2014 discusses a wide range of works, organized by specific topics and with extensive commentary; this work is widely used by students of migration and is now available in its fifth edition. Brettell and Hollifield 2023 focuses more specifically on the role of culture in a discussion of available works in migration research; yet, the volume is likewise geared toward embedding anthropological accounts within the social sciences. A slightly more dated resource, Kearney 1986 is useful to understand the development in anthropological studies on migration up to the mid-1980s, while Reed-Danahay and Brettell 2008 offers a variety of ethnographic studies on migration in Western Europe and North America. Some anthropologically inspired bibliographical works have focused on specific migration cases, such as White 1995 on the migration of Turks to Germany. Foner 2005 , a quantitative-cum-qualitative study, shows, from a perspective of immigration, the historical dimension of people coming to New York City. In the context of this work, Foner also provides a very extensive overview and discussion of the literature on immigration from the perspective of many different immigrant groups as they arrived in this location. Foner 2003 more generally introduces readers to anthropological studies of immigration, both contemporary and historical. Rosenblum and Tichenor 2012 is a more general view of international migration, including but not limited to anthropological perspectives. A useful online resource is the Migration Information Source , which provides several subcategories that offer initial information on a variety of themes and regions. It includes a section on each country, a specific focus on immigration to the United States, and a section with general articles about aspects of migration.

Brettell, Caroline. 2016. Perspectives on migration theory—anthropology. In International handbook of migration and population distribution . Vol. 6. Edited by Michael J. White, 41–68. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media.

DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-7282-2_4

This article offers the most up-to-date and comprehensive overview of recent works in the anthropology of migration. It links up anthropology’s interest in migration with both conceptual and empirical research of related works in other fields.

Brettell, Caroline, and James Hollifield, eds. 2023. Migration theory: Talking across disciplines . 4th ed. New York and Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

This volume provides a comprehensive and extensive overview of migration theories throughout the social sciences. Now in its fourth edition, it focuses on strengthening interdisciplinary ties in the study of migration with a focus on cultural developments.

Castles, Stephen, Hein de Haas, and Mark Miller. 2014. The age of migration: International population movements in the modern world . 5th ed. New York: Guilford.

DOI: 10.1007/978-0-230-36639-8

This work takes the perspective that migration is foundational to our contemporary age of globalization. A standard work in the study of political, economic, and cultural effects of migration, it includes historical cases and contemporary research on specific migrant groups as well as outlines for possible future developments.

Foner, Nancy. 2005. In a new land: A comparative view of immigration . New York: New York Univ. Press.

The value of Foner’s work lies in her erudite discussion of the anthropological literature as well as historical process of immigration to North America in general and New York City specifically. As such, it provides a useful entry point for those interested in immigration.

Foner, Nancy, ed. 2003. American arrivals: Anthropology engages the new immigration . Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research.

This work provides a good overview of contemporary studies of immigration to North America. It also includes a valuable historical dimension to this field.

Kearney, Michael. 1986. From the invisible hand to visible feet: Anthropological studies of migration and development. Annual Review of Anthropology 15:331–361.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.an.15.100186.001555

This article is one of the first anthropological texts dealing with the general concept of migration. It provides a Marxist perspective, specifically taking up world-systems theory to explain various economic and cultural phenomena that the author associates with migration. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Migration Information Source .

This website provides a general starting point for information on any migration-related scientific matter. It furnishes a wealth of information on specific topics related to migration as well as particular areas or locations of migration. The site references both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Reed-Danahay, Deborah, and Caroline Brettell, eds. 2008. Citizenship, political engagement, and belonging: Immigrants in Europe and the United States . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.

This volume provides a variety of case studies on the issue of migration and, specifically, the cultural implications of the arrival of migrants in many different places in the Western world. It specifically deals with the relations between the societies in the new homelands and migrant groups.

Rosenblum, Marc R., and Daniel J. Tichenor, eds. 2012. The Oxford handbook of the politics of international migration . New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195337228.001.0001

This handbook aims to outline the main currents in contemporary migration research from a variety of disciplinary perspectives. As such it provides a valuable entry point for those wanting to quickly gain an understanding of important themes and issues in migration studies in the early twenty-first century.

White, Jenny B. 1995. Turks in Germany: Overview of the literature. Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 29.1: 12–15.

DOI: 10.1017/S002631840003042X

A specific overview of the literature on migration of Turks to Germany. An example of bibliographical works on migration focused on a particular location or/and migrant group. Available online by subscription.

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Anthropological Discussion on Human Migration and Globalization

Globalization is typically met with images of opportunity and freedom. Anthropology is increasingly promoting the notion migration should be focused on the journey undertaken by people for thousands of years. This exists in opposition to the formerly practiced and now almost entirely rejected idea of methodological nationalism, defined by Chernilo (2006) as “the all-pervasive assumption that the nation-state is the natural and necessary form of society in modernity; the nation-state is taken as the organizing principle of modernity” (pp.6).

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Chernilo (2006) points out, however, that while this is a fruitful shift, the way this would occur remains obscure since the notion of methodological nationalism remains widely misunderstood. In his paper, he laments that until the social sciences begin to grasp the significance that literature has placed on the notion and the role nation-states exhibit in this modern era, the disciplines may be able to reject methodological nationalism but  would remain unable to move past the nation-state’s historical, sociological and normative implications (Chernilo, 2006).

Flexible Citizenship

Employing the term “flexible citizenship”, coined by Ong (2002) may enable us to discuss the interactions and boundaries involved in negotiating one’s belonging in nation-states in the information age, which according to her thesis, is largely dictated by the global market.

In her ethnography on Chinese cosmopolitans, she conveys that the term can be used to touch on two players in the market – the mobile people and “the different modalities of governmentality” (pp. 340) that may be instrumental in dictating mobility (Ong, 2002).

On one side of the coin we have the mobile entrepreneurs, high-skilled and low-skilled labourers, as well as, those individuals seeking to improve their position in life by employing the most advantageous re-location tactics – mainly through the crossing of borders.

The other side of the coin, exhibits the constraints, such as immigration laws, kinship values, human desires, economic situations that individually and collectively may dictate the boundaries in which one may migrate (Ong, 2002). Thus, in a sense, it discusses the movement of human capital and its adjacent baggage.

A reading of Sontag’s (2018) ethnography gives us the sense that her subjects exercise “flexible citizenship” successfully as it helps them achieve their economic ambitions. During the initial stages of her ethnographic research, Sontag (2018) relates that she was recruiting informants under the label of highly-skilled ‘migrants’ working in start-up businesses and based in Switzerland.

This, however, was later edited, transforming her work to one which was sympathetic to the ‘mobilities paradigm’, a shift that has she discusses and has become popular in anthropology, when she was met with the response, “there are no migrants here – only global people” (pp. 111, Sontag, 2018). It should be noted that the recruitment of informants was done without any criteria with regards to country of origin in order to decrease the problems created by methodological nationalism.

The Meaning of the Word ‘Migrant’

Sontag (2018) relates that she found that the term ‘migrant’, in and of itself, conjures ideas that associate it with many preconceived notions relating to the nation-state rules and imposing ideologies which her ‘mobile entrepreneurs’, did not relate to. The ethnography, at times conveys an idyllic reality experienced by these entrepreneurs, where Switzerland is a liminal space and the boundaries of the state are unrecognisable.

Through her informants’ biographies, it is relayed that integrating with the local people or culture is not a priority for them, with some hoping to move on to another, more advantageous area or eventually emigrating back to their home country (Sontag, 2018).

Having interacted with individuals whose journey was not final, but an active process, Sontag (2018) further strengthens her argument to move towards an ‘anthropology of mobilities’ as this would be more appropriate in referring to those who are moving around,  actively seeking and looking for more opportunities.

Further to this, the ethnography also delves into social topics that may be associated with migration.

One of Sontag’s (2018) informants, Deborah, a middle-aged business woman from West Africa, shares how she was initially looking to relocate to another country but ended up moving to Switzerland when she met her Swiss husband, alluding to a form of love migration. Unfortunately, the marriage was unsuccessful but she did manage to obtain Swiss citizenship.

Deborah laments that whilst she is happy that she did obtain citizenship, she is lonely living in Switzerland, away from her familial connections, acknowledging that she would need to apply for a visa to visit her own home (Sontag, 2018).   

In response to this Ong’s (2002: 352) words ring true:

“the politics of imagining a transnational identity dependent on global market mobility should not disabuse us of the fact that there are structural limits, and personal costs to such flexible citizenship.”

On the other hand, two other informants in Sontag (2018)’s study relate how immigration has allowed them to obtain freedoms and escaping a certain type of life.

The Romanticization of Migration

As Salazar (2011) relates, individuals first migrate through their imagination which is romanticized by ideas of newness and positive narratives promising to relieve them of their current situations. In his article, Salazar (2011) explains that this desire to adopt a transnational identity is seldom accompanied with the realistic thought process of what it would mean to actually migrate and how it would be feasible for potential individuals.

In order to investigate this further he interviews Tanzanians who migrated and subsequently returned home. Whilst informants consistently maintained that immobility was ingrained in their culture, some mentioned the media, that painted a highly desirable picture for them to aspire to (Salazar, 2018).

One of his informants, who was serving as a judge in Tanzania saw his dreams combust when his move to the United Kingdom put him in a less than desirable situation where he ended up economically disadvantaged.

Another individual had dreams of studying in the United States but soon enough he was met with the harsh reality of high cost education and he too, had to return. In view of Salazar’s (2011) findings, it would seem naïve to refrain from highlighting the disillusioning elements that occur when crossing such nation-state borders.

Sontag (2018) adds another element to her research where she ponders whether her informants belong to an exclusive field of professional individuals who “are not a group in the classical sense of people of a similar occupation, trade or expertise” (pp.20) but hold a similar business objective which may be part of an emerging reality.

The obscure boundary in her group of study is mirrored in the way the informants speak of physical localities. One of her interlocutors mentioned that while people like them can be found in an array of areas, they always tend to place themselves in bigger cities and areas with a big airport facilitating travel choices (Sontag, 2018).

This is also mentioned in Ong’s (2002: 352) ethnography where a Chinese male financier, placed in California “explains that he can live in Asia, Canada or Europe:

‘I can live anywhere in the world, but it must be near an airport.’

Logically, the second part of this sentence debunks the first, but it is clearly communicated that globalization has created new diasporas. In addition to this, now, more than ever, in a ‘post’ Covid world, individuals have recognised the importance and the high access offered by virtual migration. Even before the advent of the pandemic, Sontag’s (2018) informants recognised the potential of this tool to conduct business meetings.

Globalization and Neoliberalism

Twenty years prior to Sontag’s (2018) ethnography, Ong (2002) related that despite the emergent narrative of globalization, it “should not lead one to assume that the nation-state is losing control over its borders” (pp. 340).

The situation depicted in Ong’s (2002) ethnography on the migration of Chinese citizens to America delivers the idea that borders can be manipulated by nations to suit the needs of the market.

Ong (2002) discusses the changing situation of Chinese kinship relations and status values in the late 19 th century, when the needs of one’s family and the generation of high wealth were given insurmountable importance.

Immigration to America, a land perceived to be full of opportunities, was seen as a desirable location to relocate to in-order to build wealth which could be beneficial for the family as a whole.  It is noted that while Chinese individuals experienced a lot of racial bias, American capitalists were eager to welcome them as a source of reliable but inexpensive labour during the Gilded Age (Ong, 2002).

By the second half of the twentieth century, a Chinese American middle-class had grown with the emergence of the educated, elite Asian-American. Immigrants were no-longer largely met with disdain since Asian-Americans had by now seemingly proved the ability to adopt American values.

Ong (2002) explains that during this time there was a restructuring of the American market, making these newcomers a valuable asset, re-affirming the idea that “neoliberalism plays a role of shaping our notion of the deserving citizen” (pp. 348). In light of this, it may be appropriate to speculate whether the recent pandemic and post-Trump administration has effected these attitudes due to the rise in anti-Chinese sentiments.

Ragni (2019) utilises Ong’s notion of “flexible citizenship” in her autobiography to come to term with the arduous journey her family faced as Iranian nationals re-locating to New Zealand in hopes of better economic opportunities.

Her parents, both highly-skilled migrants, were only granted citizenship after being on the brink of being kicked out of the country, as a last Hail Mary. Ragni’s (2019) disappointment is echoed in her words, citing that during relocation to a “developed democratic “first-world” country one does not expect to be subjected to measures that continue to reduce one’s sense of humanity and social belonging” (pp.227).

This, along with the tight travel restrictions causing separation between them and their family in Iran, had a detrimental effect on her mother’s health resulting in her parents relying on the state’s welfare (Ragni, 2019). In addition to this, Ragni (2019) seems to convey that their presence in New Zealand is under constant surveillance, seemingly disabling her parents from helping themselves and further making them more dependent on the state evoking a sense of control over their existence. She sums up that,

“Ong’s work assists in understanding how various state agencies, as domains of power, redefine modern subjects according to capitalist transnationalism, where citizen rights are only guaranteed to those who participate in the market in profitable ways defined by the neoliberal agenda.” Ragni, 2019: 230

It can be argued that this auto-ethnography brings us come face-to-face with the idea of an ‘undesirable’ citizen and the existing constraints caused by rigid nation-state organisation. Whilst New Zealand is, as Ragni (2019) states, supposed to facilitate flexibility and opportunity for individuals, her family has met great hardship in the country as they are seemingly perceived as a high risk glitch in the system – a system that always prioritises its own needs.

Kalir’s (2013) research, similar to Sontag’s (2018) hopes to add credibility to the mobilities paradigm as opposed to methodological nationalism.

His ethnography feature’s the story of Tseng, a Chinese man who has been economically disadvantaged since childhood and used “flexible citizenship” to help increase his position in life. After travelling extensively within his home country and an unsuccessful business venture, Tseng was made aware of a financially beneficial opportunity in Israel as a construction worker (Kalir, 2013). The process included an initial informal deposit and a short course to obtain certification.

Kalir (2013) explains that these Chinese labourers were discouraged from putting down roots in Israel, which has a strong desire to reserve its resources for those of Jewish descent, by prohibiting these men from bringing their families to the country and discouraging a sense of belonging, only allowing their presence in the country on a contractual basis.

That being said, from what the reader can understand by Tseng’s demeanour, these Chinese had no intention of doing so. Kalir (2013) maintains that Tseng did not know much about Israel and approached the temporary migration as an economic opportunity to better his family’s life when he ultimately returned home.

Apart from the fact that Tseng had to endure a long five years away from home, working long hours and at times being exploited, Kalir (2013) relates that Tseng did finally return home with enough money to care for his family and cater to his new entrepreneurial ambitions.  Ultimately, however,  Kalir (2013: 325) ends his ethnography by stating,

“One of the risks in celebrating and embracing a mobilities paradigm that reinforces undesirable tendencies in migration and globalisation studies is that, while we might think that we engage in a critical analysis of the state and its changing control over populations and territory, we often, in fact, contribute to the reproduction of the state as a prime unit of analysis.”

Through the use of ethnographic examples, this essay was aimed at discussing the shifting paradigms associated with studying migration in a changing world. The literature here suggests that while the discipline must find a way to place the experience of human mobility at the centre of its narrative, it cannot escape the reality that in a highly connected and structured era, migration is seen as the movement of human capital.

Bibliography

Chernilo, D. (2006) ‘Social Theory’s Methodological Nationalism Myth and Reality’, European Journal of Social Theory , 9(1), pp. 5–22. doi: 10.1177/1368431006060460

Kalir, B. (2013) ‘Moving Subjects, Stagnant Paradigms: Can the ‘Mobilities Paradigm’ Transcend Methodological Nationalism?’,  Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies , 39(2), pp. 311-327. doi:  10.1080/1369183X.2013.723260 .

Ong, A. (2002) ‘Flexible Citizenship among Chinese Cosmopolitans’, in Vincent, J. (ed.) The Anthropology of Politics: A Reader in Ethnography, Theory, and Critique. Boston: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 338-355.

Ragni, M. (2019) ‘(In)Flexible Citizenship’, Women’s Studies Quarterly , 47(1&2), pp. 227-231. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26734056

Salazar, N.B. (2011) ‘The Power of Imagination in Transnational Mobilities’, Identities , 18(6), pp. 576-598. doi: 10.1080/1070289X.2011.672859.

Sontag, K. (2018) Mobile Entrepreneurs An Ethnographic Study of the Migration of the Highly Skilled . Opladen: Budrich UniPress, Ltd. .

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5 Essays about Immigration

According to the UN, the number of international migrants surpassed 270 million in 2019. This represents an increase of 51 million since 2010. Nearly half of all international migrants moved to one of 10 countries. 19% of the world’s total immigrant population lives in the United States. One of every seven international migrants is younger than 20 years old. What are the stories behind these statistics? What does the world think of immigrants? To start answering these questions, here are five essays about immigration:

“Out of Eden Walk” (2013-present) – Paul Salopek

At the time of this 2019 essay, Paul Salopek has been walking for seven years. In 2013, he started from an ancient fossil site north of Ethiopia. His plan? Cover 21,000 miles over ten years, retracing humankind’s walk out of Africa. While he’s walking through the past, his project is also timely. Numbers-wise, we’re living with the largest diaspora in human history. More than 1 billion people are on the move, both within their own countries and beyond borders. During his journey, Salopek covers climate change, technological innovation, mass migration, and more. Through essays, photographs, audio, and video, he creates a vivid tapestry of stories from people rarely heard from. This essay is a great introduction to Salopek’s “slow journalism.” You can find more at OutofEdenWalk.org.

Journalist and writer Paul Salopek is a two-time Pulitzer Prize winner. He has reported for publications like The Atlantic and National Geographic Magazine. John Stanmeyer, who took the photos for this essay, is an Emmy-nominated filmmaker and photographer.

“Mohsin Hamid: why migration is a fundamental human right” (2014)

Author Mohsin Hamid was born in Pakistan and educated in the US. He lives in the UK. In this essay, he explains how he wishes for “a world without borders.” He believes the right to migrate (which includes emigration and immigration) is as vital as other human rights, like freedom of expression. People have always moved, crossing borders and sharing cultures. Humans are also migrants in that simply by living, we move through time. Unfortunately, this human right has been denied all over the world. Hamid looks forward to a day when migration is respected and welcomed.

Mohsin Hamid is the author of several books, including Discontent and Its Civilizations: Dispatches from Lahore, New York, and London. He writes both fiction and nonfiction.

“I’m a Dreamer. Ask my 80+ Employees if I should be deported.” (2020) – Victor Santos

Young and brilliant, Victor Santos is the founder of Airfox, a Boston-based tech startup. On the surface, Santos is living the American Dream. In this essay in the Boston Globe, he describes that for the past 10 years, he’s worried about ICE taking him away. He’s an undocumented immigrant dependent on DACA. Santos briefly describes his experience growing up in the US, working through college, and getting opportunities because of DACA. Following the publication of this piece, the Supreme Court ruled that the Trump administration cannot immediately end DACA. For now, Santos and the other hundreds of thousands of Dreamers are protected.

Victor Santos is the founder and CEO of Airfox, a loan app that uses mobile data to estimate credit risk. He was on the list of MIT Technology Review in Spanish’s Innovators Under 35 Latin America 2018.

“My Life As An Undocumented Immigrant” (2011) – Jose Antonio Vargas

Vargas opens this essay describing how, at 12-years old, he left the Philippines for the US in 1993. At 16, while going to get his driver’s permit, he was told his green card was fake. He realized he was undocumented. In this essay from 2011, partially inspired by four students who walked from Miami to Washington to lobby for the DREAM Act, he spoke out. The essay describes Vargas’ life and career in America, navigating the system with his secret. It’s a vivid, personal look at Vargas’ experience of “hiding” in plain sight and an act of courage as he owns his story.

Jose Antonio Vargas is a former reporter for the Washington Post. He shared a Pulitzer Prize for coverage of the Virginia Tech shooting. He is also a filmmaker, writer, and immigrant rights activist. He founded Define American, a nonprofit that strives for dialogue about immigration, in 2011.

“A Young Immigrant Has Mental Illness, And That’s Raising His Risk of Being Deported” – Christine Herman

Immigrants, especially undocumented immigrants, deal with a variety of challenges. One of them is the mental health care system. Those with untreated mental illnesses are at higher risk of getting in trouble with the law. When the person who is mentally ill is also undocumented, things get even more complicated. Deportation to a country with an even worse mental healthcare system could be a death sentence. This story from NPR is about a specific family, but it highlights issues that affect many.

Christine Herman is Ph.D. chemist and award-winning audio journalist. She’s a 2018-2019 recipient of a Rosalyn Carter fellowship for mental health journalism.

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About the author, emmaline soken-huberty.

Emmaline Soken-Huberty is a freelance writer based in Portland, Oregon. She started to become interested in human rights while attending college, eventually getting a concentration in human rights and humanitarianism. LGBTQ+ rights, women’s rights, and climate change are of special concern to her. In her spare time, she can be found reading or enjoying Oregon’s natural beauty with her husband and dog.

2021 Theses Doctoral

Three Essays on International Migration

Huang, Xiaoning

Today, there are about 250 million international migrants globally, and the number is increasing each year. Immigrants have contributed to the global economy, bridged cultural and business exchanges between host and home countries, and increased ethnic, racial, social, and cultural diversity in the host societies. Immigrants have also been overgeneralized about, misunderstood, scapegoated, and discriminated against. Understanding what drives international migration, who migrate, and how immigrants fare in destination has valuable theoretical, practical, and policy implications. This dissertation consists of three essays on international immigration. The first paper aims to test a series of immigration theories by studying immigrant skill-selection into South Africa and the United States. Most of the research on the determinants of immigrant skill selection has been focusing on immigrants in the United States and other developed destination countries. However, migration has been growing much faster in recent years between developing countries. This case study offers insights into the similarities and differences of immigration theories within the contexts of international migration into South Africa and the US. This project is funded by the Hamilton Research Fellowship of Columbia School of Social Work. The second paper narrows down the focus onto Asian immigrants in the United States, studying how the skill-selection of Asian immigrants from different regions has evolved over the past four decades. Asian sending countries have experienced tremendous growth in their economy and educational infrastructure. The rapid development provides an excellent opportunity to test the theories on the associations between emigrants’ skill-selection and sending countries’ income, inequality, and education level. On the other hand, during the study period, the United States has had massive expansion employment-based immigration system, followed by cutbacks in immigration policies. I study the association between immigration patterns and these policies to draw inferences on how the changes in immigration policies have affected the skill selection of Asian immigrants. This research is funded by Columbia University Weatherhead East Asia Institute’s Dorothy Borg Research Program Dissertation Research Fellowship. The third paper centers on the less-educated immigrant groups in the US and investigates the gap in welfare use between less-educated immigrant and native households during 1995-2018, spanning periods of economic recessions and recoveries, changes in welfare policy regimes, and policies towards immigrants. I use “decomposition analysis” to study to what extend demographic factors, macroeconomic trends, and welfare and immigration policy could explain the disparities in welfare participation between immigrants and natives. This paper is co-authored with Dr. Neeraj Kaushal from Columbia School of Social Work and Dr. Julia Shu-Huah Wang from the University of Hong Kong. The work has been published in Population Research and Policy Review (doi.org/10.1007/s11113-020-09621-8).

Geographic Areas

• South Africa
• United States
• Social service
• Immigrants--Economic aspects
• Immigrants--Social conditions
• Race discrimination
• Immigrants--Education

More About This Work

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Essay on Migration

Students are often asked to write an essay on Migration in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Migration

Understanding migration.

Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another. It can be within a country (internal migration) or between different countries (international migration).

Reasons for Migration

People migrate for various reasons. Some move for better job opportunities, while others might move due to conflicts or natural disasters in their home region.

Effects of Migration

Migration can have both positive and negative effects. It can lead to cultural diversity and economic growth, but it can also cause overcrowding and strain on resources.

Migration is a complex issue with many facets. It’s important to understand why people migrate and its impact on societies.

Also check:

• Advantages and Disadvantages of Migration

250 Words Essay on Migration

Introduction.

Migration, an inherent human phenomenon, has shaped societies and cultures since the dawn of civilization. It is a complex process influenced by an intricate interplay of economic, political, social, and environmental factors.

Types of Migration

Migration can be categorized broadly into internal and international. Internal migration involves movement within a country, often from rural to urban areas, driven by the pursuit of better economic opportunities. International migration, on the other hand, involves crossing national borders, often influenced by factors like conflict, persecution, or economic disparity.

The Push-Pull Theory

The push-pull theory provides a framework to understand migration. ‘Push’ factors include poverty, political instability, or environmental disasters that compel people to leave their homes. Conversely, ‘pull’ factors attract individuals to new regions, such as better job opportunities, political stability, or higher living standards.

Impacts of Migration

Migration has profound implications on both the source and destination regions. While it can lead to brain drain and demographic imbalances in the source region, it can also alleviate poverty and foster development. In destination regions, it can stimulate economic growth but may also strain resources and potentially cause social tension.

Migration, an integral part of our globalized world, presents both challenges and opportunities. It is crucial to foster policies that maximize its benefits while mitigating its potential drawbacks. Understanding the dynamics of migration can pave the way for more inclusive, equitable, and sustainable societies.

500 Words Essay on Migration

Migration is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, deeply ingrained in human history. It has been a significant driver of cultural, economic, and social evolution. It is the movement of people from one geographical location to another, either permanently or temporarily. The reasons for migration can vary from political to economic, environmental, or social.

The Driving Forces of Migration

The primary drivers of migration are often classified as push and pull factors. Push factors refer to the conditions that drive individuals to leave their homes, such as poverty, lack of opportunities, political instability, or environmental disasters. Pull factors, on the other hand, are the attractive aspects of the destination, like better economic opportunities, political stability, or higher living standards.

Migration can be categorized into different types based on various parameters. Internal migration refers to the movement within a country, while international migration involves crossing national borders. Migration can also be voluntary, where individuals choose to move, or forced, where individuals are compelled to leave due to circumstances beyond their control.

Migration has profound impacts on both the source and destination regions. For the source region, it can lead to a brain drain if skilled individuals migrate, potentially hindering the development. However, it can also alleviate pressure on resources and lead to remittances that boost the local economy.

For the destination region, migration can lead to an increase in diversity and cultural richness. It can also fill labor gaps, contributing to economic growth. However, if not managed well, it can lead to social tensions.

Migration in the Age of Globalization

In the era of globalization, migration has become more accessible and prevalent. The interconnectedness of economies has led to increased labor mobility. However, it has also exposed the stark inequalities between regions, further motivating migration. The rise of transnational communities, where migrants maintain strong ties with their home countries while integrating into the host society, is another notable trend.

Challenges and Opportunities

Migration presents both challenges and opportunities. The challenges include managing integration, ensuring migrants’ rights, and addressing social tensions. The opportunities lie in harnessing the potential of migrants for economic development, cultural exchange, and fostering global understanding.

In conclusion, migration is an inherent part of human society, driven by a complex interplay of factors. It has far-reaching impacts on individuals, communities, and nations. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the dynamics of migration will continue to evolve, presenting both challenges and opportunities. Understanding and managing migration effectively is crucial to building inclusive, diverse, and prosperous societies.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World

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Key facts about recent trends in global migration

The number of international migrants grew to 281 million in 2020, meaning that 3.6% of the world’s people lived outside their country of birth that year, according to the United Nations’ International Organization for Migration (IOM) . The increase came despite widespread restrictions on travel and international movement in the early stages of the coronavirus pandemic .

Here are eight key facts about international migrants, based on the latest available data from the UN and other sources.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to better understand trends in global migration and remittances, or the money that migrants send back to their home countries.

Data on the number of international migrants comes from the 2020 International Migrant Stock datasets from the United Nations. Data on the number of refugees, asylum seekers, internally displaced people and other globally displaced Venezuelans comes from the UN’s World Migration Report 2022 . The total population estimates for countries and regions used to calculate ratios and percentages for charts come from the UN’s 2022 World Population Prospects dataset . Intraregional migration data for Latin America comes from the International Organization for Migration regional office for South America and Central America, North America and the Caribbean.

To examine changes in monthly remittances during the COVID-19 pandemic, this analysis uses global estimates of remittance flows from the World Bank.

The UN uses a taxonomy of regions, nations and territories that counts those who were born in Puerto Rico and are living in the 50 states or the District of Columbia as international migrants to the U.S., even though they are U.S. citizens by birth. For this reason, some UN estimates of the foreign-born population shown here may differ from other estimates published by the U.S. Census Bureau or Pew Research Center.

Europe and Asia have the most international migrants. An estimated 86.7 million international migrants lived in Europe in 2020, followed by 85.6 million in Asia. The number of international migrants living in these two regions has steadily increased since 2005, according to the IOM.

The Latin America and Caribbean region has the fastest-growing international migrant population. Since 2005, the region’s international migrant population has roughly doubled.

International migrants make up a larger share of Oceania’s population than any other region. In 2020, 21.4% of all residents in Oceania – which includes Australia, New Zealand and various Pacific island nations and territories – were international migrants. The Northern America region is second after Oceania, with migrants making up 15.7% of the population. In Europe, migrants account for 11.6% of the population. In all other world regions, they represent 2.3% or less of the population.

Using other regional groupings, however, Oceania might be surpassed. For example, in Gulf Cooperation Council countries – Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates – more than half (52.7%) of resident populations are international migrants, according to UN data.

The United States has more international migrants than any other country. With nearly 51 million migrants in 2020, the U.S. leads the world on this measure by a wide margin. Germany has the next-largest such population with about 15.8 million migrants, followed by Saudi Arabia with 13.5 million. (For the U.S., the UN counts some people living in the 50 states or the District of Columbia as international migrants even if they were born in Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories; those born in Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories are U.S. citizens at birth.)

The countries that have the most international migrants are generally not the same countries where international migrants make up the greatest share of the population. For example, while the U.S. has more migrants than any other nation, migrants only account for about 15.1% of the U.S. population – a smaller share than in 24 countries or territories with a total population of at least 1 million.

The Middle East accounts for most of the top 10 countries when looking at the migrant share of the population. In 2020, 93.9% of all people living in the United Arab Emirates were international migrants, followed by 80.6% of people in Qatar and 71.3% of people in Kuwait. Other Middle Eastern countries among the top 10 include Bahrain, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Lebanon.

India remains the top origin country for the world’s migrants. India has been a large source of international migrants for more than a century. In 2020, 17.9 million international migrants traced their origins back to India, followed by Mexico with about 11.2 million and Russia with about 10.8 million.

India’s migrants are dispersed around the world, but the countries with the largest Indian migrant populations are the United Arab Emirates (3.5 million), the U.S. (2.7 million) and Saudi Arabia (2.5 million).

Though India is the single largest source of international migrants, its 17.9 million migrants in 2020 accounted for only 1.3% of all people born in India by that year. By comparison, the United Kingdom’s 4.7 million international migrants accounted for 7.6% of those born in the UK by 2020. Mexico’s 11.2 million international migrants accounted for 8.2% of those born in Mexico.

Remittances – the money that migrants send to their home countries – decreased by about $11 billion from 2019 to 2020 as the coronavirus pandemic arrived. Global remittances had been steadily increasing since 2010, but they fell from $722 billion in 2019 to $711 billion in 2020. (These figures are nominal values, meaning they are not adjusted for inflation.) Notably, some countries in Latin America saw remittances fall sharply in the first half of 2020 – especially in April, when much of the U.S. was locked down due to the COVID-19 outbreak – before rebounding.

According to the World Bank, remittances reached $781 billion in 2021 and are estimated to reach $794 billion in 2022, both record highs.

India has been the world’s top receiver of remittances since 2010. Remittances to India grew from $53 billion in 2010 to $89 billion in 2021.

The U.S. has been the top sending country for remittances since 1990, the earliest year with available statistics. In 2021, international migrants living in the U.S. sent $73 billion in remittances globally.

The number of displaced people in the world rose to a new high of 89.4 million in 2020. Displaced people are those forced to leave their homes due to conflict, violence or disasters. They include refugees , asylum seekers , and people internally displaced within their country of birth. Overall, the number of displaced persons rose from 84.8 million in 2019 to 89.4 million in 2020, according to the UN’s World Migration Report 2022 . Overall, about 1.1% of the world’s population are displaced people.

Among the world’s displaced people, about 34%, or 30.5 million, were living outside their country of birth as refugees (26.4 million) or asylum seekers (4.1 million) in 2020. An additional 3.9 million displaced Venezuelans who have not applied for refugee or asylum status lived outside of Venezuela in 2020. The majority of displaced people, 55 million, were internally displaced in their birth countries because of conflict, violence or disasters.

The share of international migrants who are men has ticked up in recent decades. In 2000, 50.6% of international migrants were men and 49.4% were women. By 2020, men made up 51.9% of global migrants while 48.1% were women, according to estimates by the United Nations.

A majority of the world’s international migrants lived within their region of origin in 2020. While some migrants may go to new regions of the world, a majority (54.9%) lived within their region of origin in 2020. However, international migration within regions still varies widely. For example, 69.9% of Europe’s international migrants resided in another European country in 2020, reflecting migration out of Eastern European countries such as Russia, Ukraine, Poland and Romania to Western European ones.

International migrants in Asia and Oceania are the next most likely to live in their region of origin at 59.6% and 56.2%, respectively. Migrants from Africa are about as likely to live within Africa as they are to live outside of the continent (51.6% vs. 48.4%).

Migrants from Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as the Northern America region, are the least likely to live within their region of origin, at 26.3% and 25.2%, respectively.

Note: Here is the UN’s list of  countries and territories grouped by region .

• Immigrant Populations
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Anusha Natarajan is a former intern at Pew Research Center

Mohamad Moslimani is a research assistant focusing on race and ethnicity at Pew Research Center

Mark Hugo Lopez is director of race and ethnicity research at Pew Research Center

Key facts about Asian Americans living in poverty

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417 Immigration Topics to Write about & Essay Examples

Welcome to our list of catchy immigration essay titles! Here, you will find a variety of immigration topics to write about as well as writing prompts and presentation ideas.

🔝 Top 10 Immigration Titles for Essays

📝 key points to use to write an outstanding immigration essay, 🏆 best immigration topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on immigration, 🎓 simple & easy immigration essay titles, 🥇 most interesting immigration topics to write about, 📌 immigration writing prompts, ✅ good research topics about immigration, ❓ immigration essay questions, ✨ creative titles for immigration essays, 🚀 immigration topics for presentation.

• How Migration Shapes Identities
• Assimilation vs. Multiculturalism
• Immigration Policies and Their Effects
• Global Responses the Refugee Crisis
• Immigration and Crime: Fact vs. Fiction
• Immigration’s Impact on Social Integration
• Educational Challenges and Opportunities for immigrants
• What Are the Health Impacts of Immigration?
• The Effects of Immigration on Family Separation
• What’s the Role of Immigrants in Entrepreneurship?

Immigration essay is a popular type of assignment in various topics, including politics and social sciences. In a globalized world, people can migrate from one country to another for work, study, and other reasons.

This post will discuss some points that you could include in your essay on immigration to earn a high mark!

First of all, you should provide some background information on the subject. For example, if you are writing an essay about immigration in the United States, describe and discuss the key periods when immigration was high. Try to think about the following questions:

• What motivates people to immigrate a certain country?
• Why is immigration higher in developed countries than in developing ones?
• What are some examples of government policies promoting or reducing immigration?

Secondly, you should cover the key pro/con immigration arguments. Whether your essay is argumentative, persuasive, or informative, you need to acknowledge that immigration has both advantages and disadvantages. Here is a list of questions that you might want to ask yourself while writing the paper:

• What influence does immigration have on the economy?
• Does immigration make it easier or harder for people to find employment?
• Why are some people against immigration, even when it’s legal?

The third point you should address in your essay is illegal immigration.

This is a significant topic in many countries, including the United States. To make sure that your paper receives an excellent mark, answer the following questions:

• What are the reasons that make people immigrate illegally?
• What are your country’s policies with regards to illegal immigrants?
• What impact do illegal aliens have on the economy and society?
• Why are some countries targeted by illegal immigrants more often than others?
• What can governments do to prevent illegal migration without violating human rights and freedoms?

One of the most important immigration essay topics is the immigrant experience. While many students write about immigration, they often fail to present a comprehensive view of the concept.

To avoid this mistake, consider what immigrants feel and experience when they decide to come to a different country. If you have a friend who is an immigrant, you can interview them. Here are a few ideas to think about:

• What are the most widespread challenges faced by immigrants?
• How do people plan their life in a different country?
• Do language barriers affect their relationships with other people, access to medical care, and education?
• How do immigrants adjust to a new culture?
• Can an immigrant integrate fully into the community?

Lastly, when thinking of essay topics about immigration, it is impossible to ignore the impact of immigration on society. Indeed, most essay titles in this area are focused on positive and negative social consequences of immigration. To cover this point in your paper, you may try to answer these questions:

• Does immigration facilitate social division and can this effect be prevented?
• Why do some people oppose cultural and racial diversity? What is cultural assimilation, and is it helpful to modern societies?
• How can cultural pluralism and multiculturalism influence communities in immigrant-rich countries?
• What can we do to ensure that immigration benefits all people, including native citizens?

Hopefully, this post has provided you with some things to talk about in your future immigration essays. Make sure to check sample papers and free essay titles about immigration on our website!

• Essay About Immigration Causes and Effects Some of the major causes of immigration in the current world include; Political unrests and wars This is one of the common causes of immigration in various regions of the world.
• Immigration: Advantages and Disadvantages It is important to mention how immigrants tend to affect the economy of the country. According to the statistics received from the US Bureau of Labor, the participation of foreigners in the workforce was 3.
• The History of Jamaicans Immigration to Canada The final section examines and discusses the migration of Jamaicans to Canada from 1960s to the financial year 2000. Despite the importation, the Maroons who in 1976 migrated to Halifax became the earliest Jamaicans to […]
• The Texas Border, Security, and Immigration Immigration from Mexico is not thought to represent a violation of U.S.security, but the issue of the Texas border remains relevant and intriguing.
• Ferguson v. Canada: Citizenship and Immigration Case The applicant and the council counter this claim by stating that the officer’s dismissal was based on not finding evidence credible and failing to consider statements such as “Ms.
• Chinese Immigration to Cambodia in Personal Story Mom was forced to gather up some money from relatives who were already in the refugee camp to exchange for the release of my sister.
• Irish-Catholic Immigration to America The importance of this event appeared from the fact that the Irish migration was one of the most significant contributors to the American immigrants’ inflow.
• Analysis of Immigration Issues The lack of protection for the work of immigrants demands compared to people born in this country and who had the opportunity to get a job because the state protects them.
• Immigration in California: “Moving Still” by Francisco Jimenez The atmosphere of fear and poverty forced the families to break the rules and to overcome the frontier in the pursuit of welfare.
• Free-rider Problem and Illegal Immigration The issue of free riding is inevitable in each and every country because of the presence of the presence of minors, tax evaders and illegal immigrants just to mention but a few.
• Operation Jump Start in Immigration Issues: Pros and Cons The chief of the National Guard Bureau claimed that according to the requirements, the National Guard will send more than 2000 groups along the border.
• Waves of Immigration to the United States Another large wave of immigration of the refugees of World Wars and disorders happening in the former Russian Empire occurred in the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of twentieth century.
• Is Immigration an Economic benefit to the Host Country? Economically, the rate of payment of tax to the host country is always lower than the services it provides to the immigrants.
• Women Immigration to US It is certain that poverty is one of the major factors that propel women to move from their native countries to US.
• Immigration as Political Issue in the USA The country has been witnessing a surge in the number of immigrants, and it is estimated that the number of illegal immigrants superseded that of the legal ones.
• Immigration Policies Challenges Policies should therefore be enacted to reinforce the implementation of the 1990 Immigration Act that emphasizes on family reunification and employment to be the main reasons for allowing immigration to the U.S.
• The Immigration Benefits Specialists define labour migration as an advantageous process that positively affects the development of the economy in countries of employment and the improvement of the quality of life of families of labour migrants in their […]
• Immigration From Mexico to the United States In the present day, the immigration of Mexican citizens to the United States is a topic of considerably intense debates for various political and economic reasons.
• Causes and Consequences of Immigration to Canada The Chinese and Japanese still kept their oriental culture while the rest of the immigrants adapted to the new way of living in Canada.
• The Effects of Immigration in Texas The period between 200 and 2006 saw the population of the foreign-born in the Texas state increase by twenty-four percent and it was during this same period that the state gained over 650,000 immigrants bringing […]
• Immigration Issues in Alfonso Gonzales’s Book “Reform Without Justice: Latino Migrant Politics and the Homeland Security State” Focusing on the emotions associated with the discussed ideas about the necessity of the comprehensive immigration reform, it is necessary to pay attention to the desire to support the claims of the Latino migrant activists […]
• Immigration in the US: Historical Background Therefore, it is likely that he would have supported the introduction of quotas and would have taken a position similar to Jefferson.
• How Immigration Relates to Post-Human and Globalization? The interrelationship between post-human, globalization and immigration comes as a result of a process that takes ages to materialize. It explains the origin of immigration and globalization which in conjunction gave rise to the post-human […]
• Effect of Immigration on American Economy On the other side of the fence there business leaders and economists who asserted that immigrant workers can be a boon to the US economy.
• The New Immigration Laws Creating a New Realty The main advantage of this new policy is that it empowers the customs and immigration officials to deport anyone that they arrest for being in the country illegally.
• The IDEAL Immigration Policy Advocacy All IDEAL candidates, like most applicants nowadays, would be required to pay a processing fee in advance to cover the price of doing background checks and conducting visa interviews.
• Immigration in the United States and Canada in the Post Hart-Cella Act (1965) and Canadian Immigration (1976) Act Era Two basic factors motivate Immigration in the world; the first one is the reason to move from country of origin and second, the reason to move to a host country.
• Immigration in New York City and Its Effects Steele and Perkins examine the impact of the apparent volume of migrants in the neighborhood on the propensity to redistribute in New York City.
• The Maya Immigration to the United States Therefore, each narrative included in the article “Maya Youth in Los Angeles” by Alicia Ivonne Estrada helps a reader to determine the factors that affected the Maya immigration to the U.S.
• The Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada The IRB is comprised of the Immigration Appeal Division, the Immigration Division, and the Refugee Protection Division. The governor-in-council appoints the Chairperson of the IRB who is supported by the vice-chairperson and deputy chairperson.
• The National Immigration Enforcement The intention of ICE to employ their agents in sanctuary cities will only make the gap between the cities and enforcement agencies wider.
• Migration Patterns: American Immigration However, it is also crucial to refer to the effects of such processes, including the overview of local communities, the impact on the economy, and the overall development or lack thereof when multiple individuals move […]
• The Harvest of the Empire: Immigration in the US The situation has become more acute in the last few years because of global problems like the coronavirus. The entire economic development of the colonies was subordinated to the interests of Spain and Portugal.
• Climate Change and Immigration Issues Due to its extensive coverage of the aspects of climate migration, the article will be significant to the research process in acquiring a better understanding of the effects of climate change on different people from […]
• Immigration: The Key Challenges As evidenced in the four articles, the key challenges of immigration revolve around high unemployment, border militarization, and legality of DACA. The border agents, as explicated in the Carroll’s article, have doubled to 23,000 for […]
• Aspects of Immigration From Mexico to the United States In the 20th century, the employment of immigrants was an ambiguous decision due to the possibility of hiring a cheap labor force and the necessity of legal registration.
• The Immigration Crisis in Texas The clash between the federal government and the state of Texas over the implementation of immigration law and the exercise of these powers has been ongoing for decades now.
• The 0 Visa: Immigration Case Study The purpose of the work is to consider an example of a 0 visa case from a family of three people and the possible issues that an officer may encounter.
• Soledad Castillo’s Immigration to the USA To reach the USA at that time, the group of people Soledad was with had to stay invisible and quiet because the actions they took were illegal.
• Irish Immigration to America and the Slavery Despite the fact that the Irish encountered a great number of obstacles, the immigration of Irish people to the United States was advantageous not only to the immigrants but also to the United States.
• Discussion of Holocaust and Immigration In “Holocaust Education and Remembrance in Australia,” Suzanne D.and Suzanne H.discuss the adverse effects and after-issues of immigration among the Jewish community and how it led to the concept that the Holocaust had a long-lasting […]
• Phenomenon of Immigration Analysis The phenomenon of immigration is often viewed as a complex one due to the concerns and fears associated with the increase in the number of immigrants within a community.
• A Caribbean Immigration Policy in the United States Thus, United States policy has a significant influence on the economic and social condition of the Caribbean Islands. The Caribbean, the so-called third border of America, impacts the internal security of the United States.
• Immigration Controversy in the United States This might have a significant influence on the quality of decisions and the care provided to immigrants. The financial and emotional obstacles that children of immigrants encounter in a new nation are sometimes complex.
• Immigration in American Economic History Because of the discriminatory attitudes that existed in society, I was not able to find a high-paying job. Those were the physical challenges I had to face in the form of sickness and starvation.
• Migration to the Caribbean vs. African Immigration While the 19-20-th-centiury migration to the Caribbean historically has nothing to do with African immigration, the underlying cause of racism and discrimination case the main reason for migration connects the specified phenomena.
• Abolishing the Immigration and Customs Enforcement Detention Centers Although the abolition of ICE detention centers could potentially encourage the violation of the country’s immigration policies, they constitute a tool for racial subordination and exacerbate the problem of mass incarceration.
• The Irish Immigration to America in the 19th Century The increase in food production and income from the war led to increased fertility rates among the Irish. The abrupt end of the war in the early nineteenth century precipitated the emigration.
• Immigration System and Homeland Security The combined efforts of the agencies constituting the Department of Homeland Security in addressing the safety needs of American citizens have a predominant impact on the immigration system.
• Immigration and Homeland Security as Issues It is important to note that the issues of immigration and homeland security are the problem of the moral duty of the United States as a beacon of democracy and the safety of its current […]
• The Issue of Immigration and Immigration Policies Therefore, it is a moral duty and responsibility for a wealthy nation to help the poor, and immigrants mostly arrive in the United States to seek a better life and leave the poverty of their […]
• Geopolitics, Diplomacy and Small States: Immigration Challenges in Switzerland The current foreign policies of the country have remained ineffective in regulating the influx of foreigners in the country. The following are some of the specific challenges that are associated with the high rate of […]
• Globalization, Immigration, and Class Division It includes the widespread globalization of countries, diverse economic perception of each, and the acute ethical and legal side of the immigration issue.
• The Florence Project: Immigration According to a fellow volunteer at the Florence Project, one of the biggest non-profit organizations in Arizona, the need for social and emotional support for Mexican immigrants has been of utmost importance across the state […]
• The Immigration Stations of Ellis Island and Angel Island Although the Angel Island Immigration Station was often referred to as the “Ellis Island” of the West, the conditions in these sites were very different, and so was the treatment of the arriving immigrants.
• Alabama and California Immigration Policies The higher population of immigrants in California pushes the states to create a positive environment for the majority as opposed to Alabama.
• Waves of Immigration: Recognizing Race and Ethnicity In 1965, Congress overturned the discriminatory immigration quota system and passed legislation based on the principles of family reunification and the attraction of a highly-skilled workforce to the United States.
• Immigration: Social Issue Feeling Analysis From the global perspective, the most influencing countries in the world use visa and other conditions of entering the country as a migration regulating tool.
• The Problem of Immigration in the US Puerto Rico came to capitalism and imperialism, and the transformation of this territory into a state “under the wing” of the United States led to the loss of culture, tourism, and an increase in poverty […]
• Illegal Immigration Policies and Violent Crime The authors of this article discuss how illegal immigration and border enforcement influence the level of crime along the U.S.-Mexico border.
• Strategies for Solving the Issue of Illegal Immigration in the US The first one is enforcing the measures preventing it, and the second one is changing immigration policy in order to make legalization easier.
• Immigration: Life Chances and Difficulties Other factors are unsuitable weather conditions, persecution, threats to life or health, poverty in the country, risks of disease, and infection. Therefore, immigrants want to find a better place to live in order to improve […]
• The Crisis of Cultural Identity of Luxembourg Due to Massive Immigration The possibility of a city-wide display exhibiting the workmanship and specialties of Luxembourg could be a method for opening the secret of the nation’s way of life. There is an incredible blend of individuals who […]
• Resolving Mexico’s Immigration Crisis A stable rate of immigrants and refugees, particularly traveling in so ‘caravans’ coming from South and Central Americas into Mexico with the hopes of reaching the U.S.or finding permanent residence in Mexico at the least.
• Immigration, Cultural Encounters, and Cultural Clashes He also obeyed the religious traditions of his country by avoiding beef in his food, opting for milk and cornflakes as a meal.
• The Birth of Illegal Immigration In addition, Americans blamed Chinese immigrants for low wages and the unemployment rate, which further influenced the ban on Asians to move to the U.S.
• Immigration: Orientalism and Yellow Power The migration was propelled by drought and floods on the Opium trade between the Chinese and the British. The initial resistance against the Chinese started in 1875 with the enactment of the Page Act.
• Researching of Issue of Immigration Inclusion of this level helps to appreciate local policies and attitudes that can affect the immigrants and improve their quality of life.
• Biden Ends Workplace Immigration Raids, Reversing Trump Policy Firstly, the announcement will contribute immensely towards the integrity of most employers in the sense that it is going to push employers to pursue only documented immigrants for labor without putting excessive pressure on the […]
• Immigration: The Costs and Benefits According to the author, due to the prevailing ethnocentrism and the division of society into “us” and “outsiders,” the community often treats immigrants with prejudice.
• Analysis of DACA and Immigration Illegal immigration and its handling has always been a hot button topic in the US, especially after the events of 9/11 and the creation of the department of homeland security.
• Cost of Immigration Enforcement and Border Security Functional Components of the Incident Command System Out of the functions described in the table focusing on the NRF, the most useful and important one is definitely prevention of terrorist attacks and associated incidents.
• US Immigration Policy and Its Correlation to Structural Racism That may create breaches in the immigration policy and cause social instability that could endanger the status of immigrants and even negatively affect the lives of the nationals.
• Immigration, Social Construct, Race and Ethnicity As a result, the movement has impacted the United States positively and negatively, although the pros outweigh the cons. A social construct is defined as the thoughts or ideas established and accepted by individuals in […]
• Immigration to the US in Relation to Covid-19 Overall, the human right to change the place of residence should be upheld by the nations of the world. To conclude, the issues related to immigration should be of more significant concern to the world’s […]
• Ambiguous Loss: Immigration and Separation of Families To lessen the impact of ambiguous loss, immigrants and their families need therapy, community support, and advocacy for policy change to keep them safe.
• Impacts of Immigration and Urbanization Urbanization is a special term that describes the decreasing proportion of people who live in rural areas, the population shift from rural to urban areas, and the possible ways of societies’ adaption to these changes. […]
• The Implications of Immigration When considering the results of the process, both the sender and the receiver country must be discussed, as well as the implications for the migrants themselves.
• Aspects of Immigration Reform Creating a fair, legal, and humane immigration system requires the legalization of almost 11 million immigrants already staying in the country and the simplification of obtaining citizenship in the country.
• COVID-19 and Immigration Issues On March 20th, 2020, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of the US Department of Health and Human Services issued a special order to curb the spread of COVID-19.
• Homeland Security Analysis: The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services The mission and duties of this agency are closely related to the September 11 events not to face similar losses and threats in the future.
• Immigration Policy in Germany and the United States Germany and the United States contrast each other in resolving the public issue of immigration. The immigration policies of Germany and the United States cater to specific key stakeholders.
• Immigration and Naturalization Service Officer Career For the present paper, I have selected to profile the careers of Custom Officer and Immigration and Naturalization Service Officer. However, the entry-level position for customs is often administrative assistant, who works mainly with documents […]
• Immigration: Benefits for the Nation or a Drain on Society? Immigration is a topical issue in the contemporary U.S., which has divided the community into two opposing camps.
• Immigration: Where Did Your Ancestors Live? Officially, it is referred to as the Republic of Haiti, and the population of this country is approximately ten million people.
• Immigration from Asia and India: Political Impacts In retrospect, the literature review of the issue at hand has shown that there is a significant gap in the study of the factors that shape immigrants’ ability to reconnect with their cultural roots.
• Immigration: Political Impacts and Social Changes Particularly, the author posits that the increase in the amount of labor force that immigration entails leads to the improved performance of local companies, hence the rise in GDP rates and the overall increase in […]
• Angel Island Immigration Station While European immigrants coming into the country at the beginning of the twentieth century were more familiar with Ellis Island of New York, the Orientals underwent the experience of the immigration station at Angel Island.
• Hearth and Home Perception in 19th-Century Victorians Due to Immigration Nevertheless, the Victorian perception of what constitutes the concept had undergone severe changes in the 19th century, when the heart of the British Empire saw a significant wave of migration into the metropolis from its […]
• Debate on Immigration Policy: Law Enforcement Practices It is presumed that a wise immigration policy performed by the representatives of the police departments is likely to stabilize the current set of things and to reduce the number of illegal unregistered immigration cases.
• Immigration Museum and Cultural Diversity in Australia History The timeline presenting the main periods of immigration which is exhibited in the gallery can help to understand the development of the cultural diversity in Australia from the historic point of view because various periods […]
• Immigration Debate: Literature Study The Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the U. The Immigration Debate: Studies On The Economic, Demographic, And Fiscal Effects Of Immigration.
• Immigration Asylum and Nationality Law In the UK it is very easy to move from a temporary settlement to a permanent one and it has increased the levels of net migration to the brimming level.
• Immigration Policy, Border Security and Migrant Deaths The research design that was used to collect this data was to investigate the rate of deaths that were experienced among the immigrants since the enactment of the immigration policy.
• Immigration and Refugee Law in New Zealand Consequently, the refugee policy comes about due to the flow of obligations courtesy of the 1960 UNHCR Convention, that is to say, the provision of refugees’ protection.
• The Current Immigration and Customs Immigration has always been the backbone of American history and the country’s rich cultural and ethnic diversity. Immigration in the U.S.is overseen by the Department of Homeland Security and its various agencies.U.S.
• Immigration and Its Impact on Employment Opportunities of Local People On the macroeconomic level, the inflow of immigrants to a country leads to an expansion in the size of an economy.
• Immigration and the United States On the other hand, the approximated number of immigrants in the region is 58 million, and the group is projected to be the main source of the future labor force.
• The Immigration in Abu Dhabi Abu Dhabi, in particular, is a noteworthy case study subject due to its history as the center of the UAE government and its corresponding influence on the question of immigration in the nation.
• Immigration Programs in the US Despite its economic, military and cultural power and the concept of an American dream, the US is far from the land of hopes it is portrayed to be.
• US Politics of Immigration The representatives of the Democratic and the Republican Parties of the United States have opposite viewpoints on immigration-related issues. In conclusion, the views of Democrats and Republicans on immigration are completely different.
• Immigration and Multiculturalism: Flow of Workers This paper aims to address the question of whether the flow of workers makes a positive impact on the host country in the context of society and business.
• Immigration in Canada and Ethnicity: New Perspectives Such a reality will continue to influence and affect the life outcomes of the greatest number of Canadian citizens with diverse backgrounds in the future.
• Role of Immigration in Development of Canadian History Changes to the Immigration Act in the 1960s and the Royal Commission recommendations that led to the bilingual framework and multiculturalism stance of the Canadian government signified the significant shift for the country from being […]
• The History of Immigration to the United States and the Nature of Racism The development of the idea of race and ethnicity along with the idea of racial antagonism has two main stages in the history of the United States.
• Immigrant Adaptation Patterns Generally, the main difference of this form of adaptation is in the fact that immigrants may continue having their own cultural perceptions as their connections with the motherland are still strong due to family ties, […]
• Mitt Romney Softens Stance on Immigration The minority vote, particularly the Latino, has been on the increase and could have an effect on the election by providing a margin of victory on some of the states such as Nevada, Colorado and […]
• Illegal Immigration Control in the Texas Although the public assigns immense powers to the governor’s office, Texas’ office of the governor enjoys weak institutional powers because of the constitution’s provision of multiple offices that server alongside the office of the governor.
• Chinese American Immigration The Chinese American immigration consists of two distinct periods: first wave occurred between the 1850s and 1880s and ended in the appearance of federal laws that restricted the immigration: and the second wave that started […]
• US Immigration: Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Philippines The origins of Philippines immigration lie in its historical and political links with the United States Philippines used to be first annexed by the United States in 1989 and then an insular area of the […]
• Immigration Of Mexicans Into The United States In The Early 20th Century In the book, “Becoming Mexican American: ethnicity, culture, and identity in Chicano Los Angeles 1900-1945”, the author, Sanchez, addresses various issues that led to the immigration of Mexican into the United States. Community crisis is […]
• Berlin: Music, Spies, and Turkish Immigration And I think that Berlin’s split during the XX century has also influenced the music that was produced and written here: in its core, it reflects the differences and similarities between the East and West.
• Thunder in the Sun – A Tale of Basque Gold-Rush Immigration The examination of the plot of Thunder in the Sun and credible sources focused on the Basques’ culture and immigration into the United States has revealed some inconsistencies in terms of historical evidence.
• The Illegal Immigration Prevention Policy For example, one of the biggest of them would be the necessity to analyze all the gathered information. Therefore, it is safe to assume that there would be no shortage of information for the Chef […]
• The Immigration Crisis by Armando Navarro This is a strategy that has been incepted to reduce the immigration of the people especially in countries that have direct business transactions.
• Birthright Citizenship in the US This is whereby a foreigner travels to the United State for a short period for the sole reason of giving birth in the U.S.in order to guarantee the citizenship of the child.
• Failure of Immigration Laws in Pakistan and Its Influence on American Economy The military death and announcement of the Al Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden by the president of the United States of America have raised eyebrows on the immigration policies of Pakistan as a sovereign nation.
• “Arizona Immigration Law Debate Triggers National Shockwaves” by Nowicki While the motives of the author are unknown, it is likely that proposing the debate as so contentious will cause the audience to be more enticed to read and more engaged in the material.
• Immigration: The Ethical Side So, in order to make it clear, the essay will touch upon ethical advantages and disadvantages of immigration for the countries of origin and for the US.
• Mexican-US Immigration: Causes and Effects The drift of Mexicans or Latinos into the US is begging for increased concerns recently, especially among Republicans and the concern around decision tables is to itemize and resolve causes and effects that are directly […]
• Current Immigration Patterns in Canada The refugee population is made up of the populace who come to seek refuge in Canada as well as the populace made up of persons brought to Canada by churches, private sponsors as well as […]
• Arizona’s 2010 Immigration Law and US Economy A challenge is thrown to this clause by the 2010 Arizona immigration Law in America. It is this very thing that the founding fathers of the American Constitution had feared and thus took steps to […]
• The American Immigration Debate In the context of the present discussion of the immigrant debate in the US, one should turn to the work of Brimelow who has offered a rather radical solution to the problem of immigration.
• Immigration Issues in the USA The USA is the country that was built up of immigrants at the period of British colonization about three centuries ago; people who could not find their happiness and welfare in the Old Land came […]
• The Problems of Immigration on the Example of an Interview With an Immigrant In his book, The Location of Culture, Hommi Bhabha, pointed out the fact that, by being constantly confronted by the realities of post-industrial living, ethnic immigrants eventually cease to think of their individuality in specifically […]
• European Neighborhood Policy Effectiveness As a Tool of Immigration Policy ENP Action Plans sets out the terms of engagement between the European Union and each of the nations and the relevant political and economic agenda with a timeline perspective.
• Ellis Island as an Immigration Station The minority of the un-admitted immigrants who had spent time and energy on the long journey to the Island led to the Island being referred to as “The Heartbreak Island” or the “The Island of […]
• Intercultural Communication, Culture Shock and Immigration in Literature Westerners on the other hand believe in individualism so much that they forget that harmonious living is important for personal and society’s development.
• Race Relations in Britain. Immigration Situation This was the first large-scale migration of colored immigrants as compared to the minimal migrations that Britain had gotten used to.
• Immigration, National Identity and Citizenship The essay then examines the issues of immigration and its link to national identity in America and the ethical dilemmas that denial of citizenship can cause to national philosophies of the Western world.
• The Role of Immigration in Australia: Positive and Negative The thing is that the immigration and multiculturalism, as a result, impact positively on the economy, security, and social stability in the country.
• Immigration and Assimilation in US The children do not live in the control of their parents and the parents give all freedom for them to decide their life and career of their own choice.
• Saenz’ Opinion on Comprehensive Legislation on Immigration In addition to this is the fact that, it would be in accordance with the respect for human rights that the country stands for.
• Russian Immigration to America after 1945 The first wave of migration of the Russians was in the second half of the nineteenth century and during the early 20th Century before the First World War.
• France: Position in the EU and Immigration The social framework of France is presupposed with the whole European trends in making social and economic programs for the citizens of the EU.
• Social Issues in Kuwait: Immigration Workforce Among the frequently highlighted issues in the country, one is the low productivity among the local workforce due to the high influence of favoritism and nepotism in promotions and merits.
• Hispanic Americans as Illegal Immigration Thus a historical loyalty to the Democratic Party is still sustained even today At 15% the Hispanic-American population of the United States makes up the fastest growing minority in the United States.
• Immigration Welfare Policy Analysis An unprecedented influx of immigrants Immigration has resulted in a lot of social, economic, and other problems and the need to have a strong and rational policy that is beneficial to both the immigrants and […]
• US Immigration in Late 19th Century In the late 19th century, following the stream of the “Gold Rush”, millions of immigrants entered the United States, most of them attracted by the opportunity to earn “easy money” and to escape the hardships […]
• Humanities. Immigration Issues in the United States The scope of the problem of illegal immigration in the United States has remained undefined due to the vagueness of the immigration policies.
• Jobs and the American Economy: The Issue of Immigration The issues of immigration to the USA, either legal or illegal are of great significance for the US government. Since the 1990s, lots of academic researches have tried to charge the extent to which immigration […]
• Catholic and Jewish Immigration in the United States The experiences and challenges of starting a new life in America were very different for both the Catholics and the Jews primarily because of their different social cultural and social economic disparities.
• Immigration in New York 1990-2008 The earliest debate regarding the distribution of powers over immigration between the federal and state governments arose in the context of the Alien Act of 1798.
• Immigration and Schools in the United States To understand the magnitude of the immigration and school issue, it is important to first understand the perspective that most people in the public domain, political and education circles, have on immigrants.
• The History of Canadian Immigration and Innovative Federal Immigration Policy Though this phenomenon has outlined in positive financial growth in Canada there are lots of fundamental complexities that immigrants usually have to challenge when immigrating to Canada comprising the underdevelopment of community services, difficulties in […]
• Canadian Immigration and Multiculturalism The number of Aboriginal peoples in the total Canadian population is growing. The third force consists of the racial and ethnic minorities that are not included in the Charter groups.
• French Immigration: Rights of Foreign-Born Citizens An analysis of the impact of immigrants on the average level and distribution of income among the native population shows that immigrants with higher levels of skill are more likely to raise the average level […]
• Women Study: Immigration and Mothering One of the most essential areas of such studies is immigration in relation to gender and specifically mothering.”Immigration and Mothering; Case Studies from Two Generations of Korean Immigrant Women” by Seungsook Moon is an attempt […]
• Immigration Restrictions in American History The opinions of politicians, scientists, and statesmen were opposite as some of them kept to the point of view that immigration was necessary for the development of American society, while others were convinced of the […]
• Immigration in Post-war France France is the only European country that has experienced a reduction of immigrants in Europe even though it has the highest number of immigrants.
• Illegal Immigration: Difference in Covering the Matter The aim of the paper is to discover the difference in covering the matter of illegal migration to Canary Islands from sub-Saharan including periodical issues, radio broadcasts, and a photo, in order not only to […]
• Immigration and Students in America For many students coming from Asian and post-soviet countries, the aim of immigration is to stay in the USA while European students want to receive good knowledge in technical and management spheres. The difference is […]
• Amending Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 The arguments for the former side include the following: first is that there is an unprecedented increase in the inflow of illegal workers in the United States.
• Why Immigration Is a Problem When Amir came to rescue him, he is beaten by Assef and Sohrab hits Assef with a stone from the sling in the eye and it is when they manage to escape and go back […]
• Necessity of Immigration Reform in America Basically, immigration reform pertains to policies and programs that aim to improve the development of the quality of life that will aid in the adjustments of the immigrants.
• Open Immigration Borders Migration: Effects of Muslim Ideologically, the presence of the Muslim religion has affected the lives of the people of France in one way or the other.
• History of Puerto Rican Immigration to New York Amid the earliest Puerto Ricans to immigrate to New York were Spanish crown exiles both men and women, due to their political beliefs and resistance for the cause of Puerto Rican sovereignty In 1917 United […]
• Latino Migration: The Issue of the Mexican – US Immigration and the US Border Policies This policy brief is dedicated to a specific problem, namely the problem of the Latino migration, or, to be more exact, to the issue of the Mexican US immigration and the US border policies towards […]
• Immigration Asian Indians in America For American immigration history, it means that it coincides with the settlement of the country: the settlement of America was influenced more by the immigration processes rather than by the natural increase of the citizens.
• Americanism or Trans-National America: Immigration So according to Theodore Roosevelt that Americans must persist that if the immigrant reaches America in fine reliance turns out to be an American and incorporates himself to America and the citizens of America, one […]
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• Immigration as a Source of Community Problems
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• Problem of Immigration in the United States
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• Illegal Immigration in the United States
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• The Aspects of Immigration into Australia
• Role of Frontex in Combating Illegal Immigration in the European Union Territory
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• Stopping Illegal Immigration: Border Security
• Analysis of Race and Ethnicity in U.S. Immigration History
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• U.S. Immigration Reform Policy Circa 2001 to Present
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• Bridging People Together: When Immigration Issue Comes to the Forth
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• Comparing Sweden Immigration Policy with German Immigration Policy
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• Impact of the DREAM Act on Immigration in America
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• Immigration to the US After the Second World War
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• Immigration Policies and Economy
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• Public Opinion on Immigration and Ethnic Relations in the US
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• Effects of illegal immigration on the economy of the United States and the measures that be taken to minimize the effect
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• Immigration Specificity of ELLs in Canada and the USA
• Immigration Reform and the Economic Impact
• Immigration Reform in US Government
• Why US Attracts Immigration From All Over the World
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• Can Illegal Immigration Ever Be Solved?
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• Can Immigration Compensate for Europe’s Low Fertility?
• Are Concerns Over Immigration to Do With Culture of Economic Reasons?
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• Does Immigration Affect the American Economy?
• Can Immigration Slow U.S. Population Aging?
• Can Old Immigration Theories Be Applied to New Immigrants?
• How Unification and Immigration Affected the German Income Distribution?
• Can Selective Immigration Policies Reduce Migrants’ Quality?
• Can Immigration Mitigate the Rising Pension Burden in Europe?
• Does Border Enforcement Protect U.S. Workers From Illegal Immigration?
• How Was Immigration Throughout the 1960s?
• Does Educational Choice Erode the Immigration Surplus?
• Should Countries Implement Immigration Quotas?
• Does Europe Need Mass Immigration?
• Can Immigration Save Our Social Protection System?
• Does Immigration Affect Public Education Expenditures?
• How Should the United States Treat the Present Day Immigrants?
• Should Immigration Standards Tougher?
• Who Has the Most Impact on Illegal Immigration Policy?
• Immigrant Stories: A Visual Journey
• How Cultural Identity is Redefined in Modern Immigration
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• Symbolism of Borders, Walls, and Bridges in Immigration Narratives
• Analysis of Science Fiction Works on Alien Immigration
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• Ways to Depict the Emotions of Immigrant Experience
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• The Possibility of Extraterrestrial Immigration
• Global Migration Patterns Throughout the 20th Century
• Immigration Policies Around the World: Comparison
• Push and Pull Factors of Immigration.
• The Impact of Immigration on Host Country’s Language.
• Approaches to Immigrant Inclusion.
• Challenges Faced by Refugees and Asylum Seekers
• The Role of Migrant Workers in a Country’s Economy
• Educational Opportunities for Immigrant Youth
• Myths and Reality of Undocumented Immigration
• How Immigration Detention Relates to Human Rights Concerns?
• Border Security and Migration Management Strategies
• How Do Migrants Negotiate Their Sense of Belonging?
• Humanitarian Issue of Family Separation
• Immigration Biases and Stereotypes in Media Representation
• Celebrating Diversity of Immigrants in Host Countries
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 25). 417 Immigration Topics to Write about & Essay Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/immigration-essay-examples/

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Essay on Migration | Causes and Effects of Migration

December 3, 2017 by Study Mentor Leave a Comment

Animals and man have been ever travelling. From grassy plains to fertile land, in search of better food, better opportunities. ‘Migration’ means the movement of population from one place to another for better opportunities.

Table of Contents

What is Migration?

Everyone wishes to lead a happy and secure life. A place where they can offer security to their family and a better future both for themselves and family. Migration many be of two types- permanent and temporary. Some migration may also occur annually, seasonally, or diurnally. According to certain census it has been found that migration mostly happens in three stages- (a) rural to rural , (b) rural to urban , (c) urban to urban , and (d) urban to rural

Maximum migration is from rural to urban, especially in developing countries like India. Even urban to urban migration happens quite a lot. But migration of the type (a), (d) is very rare. Migration of type (a) happens only when a person goes from another village to sell his items during bazaar or Melas. Some migration also happens from rural to small then from small town to urban. Such type of migration is called step wise migration.

In India there is a crazy race of the population travelling from the rural areas to the metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Bangalore etc, seeking for better employment and better work opportunities. And this craze is increasing more and more in the coming years.

That is why competition in the job sector is increasing in the urban sphere. Metropolitan cities act a crowd puller. People are attracted to the vibrant colours of life in the cities. They fall in the wrong notion that they can pull up something big or great in the cities and earn a living but not everyone gets equal opportunities. Some end up rag-pickers, some end up as street dwellers, and some end up beggars who don’t get any means of livelihood.

Another term that comes along with migration is commutation. Commutation is the means of travelling on a daily schedule of the people to cities from the neighbouring towns and villages for the purpose of job and other works. This is a type of temporary migration.

Some people commute seasonally- incase or family gathering or wedding ceremonies. While some immigrants migrate annually. Migration is not just a re-location of human resources and settlements but it is a process which has three-fold impact:

(a) On the area experiencing immigration,

(b) On the area experiencing out-migration, and

(c) On the migrants themselves, the purpose of migration may be employment, business, education, family movement, marriage, calamity, etc.

These migrants have very little skill and professional expertise, moreover they lack literacy. They mostly get involved in the low grade activities and fields of manual labour, where there is not much sophistication or use of literary capabilities.

Very few are in administrative, professional or technical sphere. The condition of women migrants is worse. Majority of them are illiterate or have very little literacy. Such people take up even lower grade of jobs like the domestic maid servants, hawkers or vendors. This change has been termed by many as ‘evolutionary urbanization’.

This sudden migration burst has led in detoriation in the look of the city and spreading of cities. Rapid human pressure has led to the unprecedented growth of shabby towns, slums and bastees and squatter settlements. Cities are spreading far beyond its boundary limits.

There are also other evils like the overflow of urban unemployment, rapid exploitation of the items of daily necessity like- food, clothing and shelter and their unavailability and there is a very sharp decline of human values and moral and it is increasing over the years( as observed its increase from 1981-1999 and will steadily increase over the 21st century).

Hence the metropolitan cities are becoming like blown-up urban villages which fail to offer basic necessities of life to the people residing in it. Due to unchecked or unprecedented human growth the cities lack in urban functions, characteristics, urban infrastructure and services, and without a strong economic base.

They are slowly stepping towards what is called as ‘degeneration’ or ‘decay’.

The urban areas not only attract the poor and the illiterate class but it has become a place for the educated and elite class to earn a living and lead a comfortable and relaxed life. There have been many cases where students from villages have come in cities to get higher education, managed with a good job and become a part of the city itself.

Even some big landlords and rich farmers have shown their interest in investing a good part of their agricultural profits in the different businesses that goes on in the city and also commercial activities. Hence the cities of developing countries like India are developing on the plunder or the remains of the rural parts (both natural and human). Unless this exploitation of blood-sucking trend is terminated for once and for all, the development or the revival of the ‘desi’ villages is a farfetched dream.

Not just there are rural immigrants to deal with. There are international migrants as well. Majority of the international migrants to India come from Asian countries, which are in turn followed by Europeans, Africans, etc. The neighbouring countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Russia etc. have contributed large number of migrants to India.

Since there is no restriction along Indo-Nepal international boundary large numbers of Nepali people come to India for seeking employment, education, business etc. Assam, West Bengal and north eastern states attract large number of legal and illegal migrants from Bangladesh.

This has created a number of social, economic and political problems in these areas. Nepalese are seen in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Maharashtra and Delhi. Similarly migrants from Sri Lanka are most frequented in South India especially in Tamil Nadu

Migration not only creates confusion and commotion, but also an ill-growth of cities. That does not mean that we will shun away the immigrants.

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Home — Essay Samples — Social Issues — Human Migration — Push and Pull Factors of Migration

Push and Pull Factors of Migration

• Categories: Human Migration

About this sample

Words: 694 |

Published: Jan 30, 2024

Words: 694 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Definition and explanation of push and pull factors, examples and case studies, impact of push and pull factors on migration trends, push factors of migration, pull factors of migration.

• International Labour Organization. "World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2019." International Labour Organization, 2019.
• United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2019." UNHCR, 2020.
• World Bank. "Groundswell: Preparing for Internal Climate Migration." World Bank Group, 2018.
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. "Migration Outlook 2020." OECD Publishing, 2020.
• United Nations Development Programme. "Human Development Report 2019." UNDP, 2019.
• International Organization for Migration. "World Migration Report 2020." IOM, 2020.

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Human Migration (Essay/Paper Sample)

Table of Contents

Human migration

Human beings move from one place to another over long or short distances, searching for places to settle either temporarily or permanently. People that migrate do so individually, as families or in large groups. Human migration can be traced back 1.75 million years ago, when the Homo erectus began moving out of their settlements in Africa and spreading to Australia, Asia and finally to the Americas.

In the present day, people engage in different forms of movement. Internal migration is the travel within a country, external migration is when individuals move to different countries or continents, while emigration is leaving one country for another. Additionally, immigration is the type of movement whereby a person moves to a new country while return migration is moving back to one’s place of origin. Seasonal migration is the movement precipitated by various seasons such as climatic conditions or in search for employment.

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Classification of migrant individuals is into three. Firstly, an emigrant is a person who leaves their country and settles in another country. Secondly, an immigrant is a person who moves to a new country and makes it their new home while a refugee is a person that escapes problems in their country and seeks refuge in another.

People move from their homes to other nations or areas due to push and pull factors. Pull factors are motivations that attract people to move to other countries. Firstly, migrants move to industrialized countries in search of employment opportunities, which translate to a source of income. Secondly, the movement to other countries is to have higher standards of living, proper medical care and intensified security Also, to further their education. Social factors also pull people to a country. For instance, the United States and Argentina have instituted laws that have facilitated the accepting and legalization of lifestyles of the Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender community among others. People that subscribe to this community in countries that are intolerant often migrate to them.

The push factors make individuals leave one country to another. First, poverty elicits movement of people as they search for avenues to escape the economic hardships such as employment, better life, and prosperity from their way of life. Social factors such as racism, sexism and religious persecution push migrants to move. Countries that treat people unjustly because they are of different ethnic groups or due to their religious beliefs tend to make people leave the country. Additionally, lack of tolerance for individuals deemed different from others due to their sexual orientation drives such citizens to other countries.

Political issues arising from defiance of government rules, war and oppression cause political instability. Consequently, if a government fails in controlling a country and war breaks out people try their best to escape these conditions and migrate to other nations. Government oppression of people’s rights through election rigging, dictatorial leadership and corruption also elicit migration.

Human migration poses benefits and disadvantages to the country of origin and the host country. The country of origin benefits from revenue remitted by migrants, enjoy decreased pressure toward their resources, the need to support more citizens or to create jobs. Moreover, they benefit from acquired skills from migrants who learn or work in other countries upon their return.  However, they suffer a reduction in the workforce, loss of taxpayers, brain drain and gender imbalance, as more men tend to depart leaving women and children. On the other hand, the host country benefits from a diversity of culture and people that bring forth enrichment of their societies and increased cheap labor. The host country though suffers overcrowding, increased burden to provide the basic needs and lingering religious and cultural differences.