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• భారతీయ సమాజం-మత, సాంస్కృతిక భిన్నత్వం

బహు భాషలు.. బహుళ జాతులు!

భౌగోళికంగా భూగోళం మొత్తాన్ని తలపించే వాతావరణ పరిస్థితులతో భారత ద్వీపకల్పం ఉపఖండంగా ప్రసిద్ధి చెందింది. దాంతోపాటు రకరకాల జాతులు, భాషలు, సంస్కృతులు, జీవన విధానాలతో వేల సంవత్సరాలుగా వర్థిల్లుతోంది. ఇంతటి వైవిధ్యం ఎలా సాధ్యమైంది? చూడగానే ఎవరు ఏ ప్రాంతానికి చెందినవారో తేలిగ్గా గుర్తించగలిగేట్లుగా జనాభా అభివృద్ధి ఏవిధంగా జరిగింది? సమాజ నిర్మాణం అధ్యయనంలో భాగంగా ఈ అంశాలపై అభ్యర్థులు అవగాహన పెంచుకోవాలి. 

భారత భూభాగానికి ఇండియా అనే పేరు ఇండస్‌ నది నుంచి వచ్చింది. ఇది పంజాబ్‌లో ఉంది. వేదకాలం నాటి ఆర్యులు దీన్ని హిందూ అని పిలిచేవారు. ఆంగ్లేయుల వల్ల అది ఇండియాగా మారింది. భరతుడు పరిపాలించిన దేశం కాబట్టి భారతదేశంగా పిలుస్తున్నారు. మన దేశానికి వలస వచ్చిన ఆర్యుల్లో ‘భారత’ అనే సుప్రసిద్ధ తెగవారు పరిపాలించారు కాబట్టి భారతదేశం అనే పేరు వచ్చిందని కూడా చెబుతుంటారు.

భారత సమాజం అతి పురాతనమైంది. పూర్వం నుంచి వివిధ కాలాల్లో బయటి నుంచి విభిన్న జాతి, భాష, మత సమూహాలకు చెందిన ప్రజలు మన దేశానికి వచ్చి స్థిరపడ్డారు. అందువల్ల భారతదేశంలో వివిధ జాతులు, భాషలు, మతాలు, సంస్కృతి, సమూహాల మధ్య వైవిధ్యం కనిపిస్తుంది. భారత సమాజ మౌలిక లక్షణాల్లో సమష్టి కుటుంబం, కులవ్యవస్థ, గ్రామీణ సముదాయాలు ముఖ్యమైనవి. భారతీయ సామాజిక, ఆర్థిక, రాజకీయ రంగాల్లో నేటికీ ఈ లక్షణాలు ప్రాధాన్యాంశాలుగా ఉన్నాయి.

* ప్రస్తుతం సుమారు 140 కోట్ల జనాభా ఉన్న భారతదేశాన్ని అయిదు ప్రధాన సంస్కృతి సమూహాలుగా విభజించారు. 

1) ఉత్తర ప్రాంతం: దీనిలో పంజాబ్, హరియాణా, రాజస్థాన్, ఉత్తర్‌ప్రదేశ్, మహారాష్ట్రకు చెందిన సంస్కృతులు ఉన్న సమూహాలు ఉన్నాయి.

2) దక్షిణ ప్రాంతం: ఈ విభాగంలో ఆంధ్రప్రదేశ్, కర్ణాటక, తమిళనాడు, కేరళ రాష్ట్రాలు ఉన్నాయి.

3) తూర్పు ప్రాంతం: ఇందులో మరాఠీ, గుజరాతీ సంస్కృతులు ఉన్నాయి.

4) పశ్చిమ ప్రాంతం: ఇక్కడ మరాఠీ సంస్కృతి ఉంది.

5) ప్రత్యేక సమూహం: భారతదేశంలో ఉన్న ఆదిమ తెగను ప్రత్యేక సాంస్కృతిక సమూహంగా చెప్పవచ్చు.

    వివరించిన ఈ భేదాలే కాకుండా హిందూ, ముస్లిం, క్రిస్టియన్, సిక్కు, బౌద్ధ, జైన, పార్శీలతో పాటు వివిధ మతాలకు చెందిన ప్రజలు నివసిస్తున్నారు. ఇలాంటి భిన్నత్వ లక్షణాలు భారతీయ సమాజంలోనే కనిపిస్తాయి.

భౌగోళిక వైవిధ్యం: భారతదేశం ఆసియా ఖండంలో దక్షిణ మధ్య భాగంలో ఉన్న ద్వీపకల్ప దేశం. దీని విస్తీర్ణం 30,53,597 చ.కి.మీ. భారత్‌కు ఉత్తరాన హిమాలయ పర్వతాలు, తూర్పున బంగాళాఖాతం, దక్షిణాన హిందూ మహాసముద్రం, పశ్చిమాన అరేబియా మహాసముద్రం సరిహద్దులుగా ఉన్నాయి. ప్రధాన భూభాగంలో సువిశాల గంగా సింధూ మైదానం, ఎడారులు, వింధ్య పర్వతాలు, దక్కన్‌ పీఠభూమి ఉన్నాయి. అనేక జీవనదుల పుట్టిల్లు. అందుకే దీన్ని ప్రపంచ సంగ్రహ స్వరూపంగా అభివర్ణించారు. ఇక్కడ శీతోష్ణస్థితి, వర్షపాతం, రుతుపవనాలు ప్రాంతాల వారీగా భిన్నంగా ఉంటాయి. ప్రజల జీవన విధానంలోనూ వైవిధ్యం కనిపిస్తుంది.

సామాజిక నిర్మితి: సామాజిక లక్ష్యాలను సాధించడానికి వ్యక్తులు నిర్ణీత ప్రమాణాలను అనుసరిస్తూ, అనుబంధ పాత్రలను నిర్వహిస్తూ అనేక సంబంధాలు రూపొందించుకుంటారు. ఇలా ఏర్పడిన సామాజిక సంబంధాల సమూహాన్నే సామాజిక నిర్మితి అంటారు. భారతీయ సమాజంలో అనేక సంస్థలు, సమూహాలు, సంఘాలు, సముదాయాలు ఉన్నాయి. వీటన్నింటినీ కలిపి భారతీయ సామాజిక నిర్మితిగా పేర్కొంటారు. 

జాతి విభాగాలు: శరీర రంగు, తల వెంట్రుకలు, ముక్కు లాంటి భాగాలకు చెందిన జైవిక లక్షణాలు, భాష, సంస్కృతుల్లో ప్రత్యేకతను కలిగి, ఒక నిర్ణీత భౌగోళిక ప్రాంతానికి చెందిన మానవ సమూహాన్ని జాతి అంటారు. రేమండ్‌ ఫిర్త్‌ అభిప్రాయంలో జాతి అంటే అనువంశికంగా పొందే కొన్ని ప్రత్యేక శారీరక లక్షణాలు ఉన్న సమూహం.

* బి.ఎస్‌.గుహ ప్రకారం భారతదేశంలో ఆరు ప్రధాన జాతులు ఉన్నాయి. అవి నిగ్రిటో, ప్రోటో అస్ట్రలాయిడ్, మంగోలాయిడ్,  మెడిటరేనియన్‌ లేదా మెడిటరేనియస్, వెస్ట్రన్‌ బ్రాకీసెఫాలిక్, నార్డిక్‌.

* మన దేశంలో అధిక సంఖ్యాకులు కాకసాయిడ్‌ జాతికి చెందుతారు. ఉత్తర్‌ప్రదేశ్, తమిళనాడులోని బ్రాహ్మణులు; పంజాబ్‌లోని సిక్కులు, గుజరాత్‌లోని నాగర బ్రాహ్మణులు ఈ జాతికి చెందినవారే. వీరి శరీరం కొద్దిపాటి తేడాలతో తెలుపు నుంచి గోధుమ వర్ణంలో ఉంటుంది. తల వెంట్రుకలు మృదువుగా ఉంటాయి. కంటిపాపలు నీలం లేదా గోధుమ రంగులో ఉంటాయి. నాసిక (ముక్కు) ఎత్తుగా, సన్నగా ఉంటుంది.

* హిమాలయ పర్వత ప్రాంతాల్లో నివసించే భారతీయులు మంగోలాయిడ్‌ జాతికి చెందినవారు. వీరి శరీర ఛాయ పసుపు రంగు నుంచి లేత గోధుమ రంగులో ఉంటుంది. కళ్లు రెండు సన్నని చీలికలుగా ఉంటాయి. తల గుండ్రంగా, ముక్కు పొట్టిగా అణిగి ఉంటుంది. వీరిని సులభంగా గుర్తించవచ్చు.

* ప్రస్తుతం నీగ్రో జాతి లక్షణాలున్నవారు భారతదేశంలో తక్కువగా ఉన్నారు. వీరి శరీర ఛాయ గోధుమ రంగు నుంచి నలుపు రంగు వరకు కొద్దిపాటి తేడాలతో ఉంటుంది. శిరోజాలు మెలికలు తిరిగి ఉంటాయి. ముక్కు వెడల్పుగా, నోరు పెద్దదిగా, పెదవులు పైకి తిరిగి లావుగా ఉంటాయి. అండమాన్‌ దీవుల్లో నివసించే తెగలు, కేరళలోని కొడార్, మధుర ప్రాంతంలోని ఫలియాన్, ఆంధ్రప్రదేశ్‌లోని చెంచులు, మహారాష్ట్రలోని నిభిల్‌ తెగల వారిలో నీగ్రో జాతి లక్షణాలు కనిపిస్తాయి.

భాషాపరమైన సంయోజనం: సంస్కృతి వికాసం, సామాజిక సమైక్యత, భావప్రాసారానికి తోడ్పడే సాధనాల్లో భాష ప్రధానపాత్ర పోషిస్తుంది. బహుళ భాషా సమూహాలతో ఉన్న మన దేశంలో 1652 భాషలు, మాండలికాలు ఉన్నాయి. వీటిలో 23 భాషలు మాట్లాడే ప్రజలే దేశ జనాభాలో 97% ఉన్నారు. ఈ భాషలనే రాజ్యాంగం గుర్తించింది. భారతీయులు మాట్లాడే భాషలు అయిదు భాషా కుటుంబాలకు చెందినవి.

* ఆస్ట్రిన్‌ 

* ఇండో-ఆర్యన్‌ 

* ద్రావిడ 

* సైవో-టిబెటన్‌

* యూరోపియన్‌

    ఇండో-ఆర్యన్‌ భాషలు మాట్లాడేవారు 73 శాతం, ద్రావిడ భాషలు మాట్లాడేవారు 20 శాతం; ఆస్ట్రిన్, యూరోపియన్‌ భాషలు మాట్లాడేవారు 13 శాతం, సైనో-టిబెటన్‌ భాషలు మాట్లాడేవారు 0.08 శాతం ఉన్నారు. ఇతర భాషలు మాట్లాడేవారు 4.47 శాతం ఉన్నారు.

ఆస్ట్రిన్‌ భాషా కుటుంబం: భారతదేశంలో మధ్య, ఈశాన్య ప్రాంతాల్లోని గిరిజనులు మాట్లాడే భాషల మాండలికాలు ఈ భాషా కుటుంబానికి చెందినవే. వీటిని మాట్లాడే వారిలో సంతాల్, ముండా, హూ, భిల్లులు, గోండులు ఉన్నారు.

ఇండో-ఆర్యన్‌ భాషా కుటుంబం: దేశ జనాభాలో అధికశాతం ఈ భాషా కుటుంబానికి చెందినవారే. దీనిలో హిందీ, బెంగాలీ, మరాఠీ, గుజరాతీ, పంజాబీ, రాజస్థానీ, అస్సామీ, సంస్కృతం, సింధీ, కశ్మీరీ, ఉర్దూ లాంటి భాషలు ఉన్నాయి.

ద్రావిడ భాషా కుటుంబం: ఈ భాషా కుటుంబంలో దక్షిణ భారతదేశంలోని ప్రజలు మాట్లాడే భాషల మాండలికాలు ఉంటాయి. తెలుగు, తమిళం, కన్నడ, మలయాళం ఇందులోనివే.

సైనో-టిబెట్‌ భాషా కుటుంబం: దీనిలో ఈశాన్య భారతానికి చెందిన కొన్ని ఆదిమ తెగల భాషల మాండలికాలు ఉన్నాయి.

యూరోపియన్‌ భాషా కుటుంబం: ఇందులో ఇంగ్లిష్, పోర్చుగీస్, ఫ్రెంచి భాషలు ఉన్నాయి. గోవాలో పోర్చుగీసు, పుదుచ్చేరిలో ఫ్రెంచి భాషలు వాడుకలో ఉన్నాయి.

         హిందీని జాతీయ భాషగా, అధికార భాషగా; ఇంగ్లిష్‌ను అసోసియేట్‌ భాషగా గుర్తించారు. గతంలో సంస్కృతంలా ప్రస్తుతం హిందీ, ఇంగ్లిష్‌ భాషలు భారతీయ భాషల మధ్య వారధిగా ఉపకరిస్తున్నాయి. జాతీయ సమైక్యతను పెంపొందించడంలో వీటి పాత్ర గణనీయమైంది.

2011 లెక్కల ప్రకారం భారతదేశ జనాభాలో హిందీ మాట్లాడేవారు 52.83 కోట్లు (43.63%), బెంగాలీ మాట్లాడేవారు 9.72 కోట్లు (8.03%), మరాఠి మాట్లాడేవారు 8.30 కోట్లు (6.86%), తెలుగు మాట్లాడేవారు 8.11 కోట్లు (6.70%), తమిళం మాట్లాడేవారు 6.90 కోట్లు (5.70%), ఉర్దూ మాట్లాడేవారు 5.07 కోట్లు (4.19%), గుజరాతి మాట్లాడేవారు 5.54 కోట్లు (4.58%), మలయాళం మాట్లాడేవారు 3.48 కోట్లు (2.88%), పంజాబీ మాట్లాడేవారు 3.31 కోట్లు ( 2.74%), కన్నడ మాట్లాడేవారు 4.37 కోట్లు (3.61%) మంది ఉన్నారు. 

రచయిత: వట్టిపల్లి శంకర్‌ రెడ్డి

మరిన్ని అంశాలు ... మీ కోసం!

‣  కుటుంబం రకాలు

‣  పెళ్లి.. నాటి ప్రమాణాలు  

‣  బంధుత్వం - అనుబంధం

‣  ప్ర‌తిభ పేజీలు

‣  ప్ర‌తిభ ప్ర‌త్యేక పేజీలు - 2022

‣  ప్ర‌తిభ ప్ర‌త్యేక పేజీలు - 2015

• 1. భారత సమాజ నిర్మాణం:
• Indian Society-Religious and Cultural Diversity
• public policies schemes
• గ్రూప్‌ - II
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ
• పేప‌ర్ - II
• ప్రజా విధానాలు/ పథకాలు
• భారతీయ సమాజం-మత
• మౌలికాంశాలు
• సాంస్కృతిక భిన్నత్వం
• సెక్షన్ - 3 - సమాజ నిర్మాణం

గమనిక : ప్రతిభ.ఈనాడు.నెట్‌లో కనిపించే వ్యాపార ప్రకటనలు వివిధ దేశాల్లోని వ్యాపారులు, సంస్థల నుంచి వస్తాయి. మరి కొన్ని ప్రకటనలు పాఠకుల అభిరుచి మేరకు కృత్రిమ మేధస్సు సాంకేతికత సాయంతో ప్రదర్శితమవుతుంటాయి. ఆ ప్రకటనల్లోని ఉత్పత్తులను లేదా సేవలను పాఠకులు స్వయంగా విచారించుకొని, జాగ్రత్తగా పరిశీలించి కొనుక్కోవాలి లేదా వినియోగించుకోవాలి. వాటి నాణ్యత లేదా లోపాలతో ఈనాడు యాజమాన్యానికి ఎలాంటి సంబంధం లేదు. ఈ విషయంలో ఉత్తర ప్రత్యుత్తరాలకు, ఈ-మెయిల్స్ కి, ఇంకా ఇతర రూపాల్లో సమాచార మార్పిడికి తావు లేదు. ఫిర్యాదులు స్వీకరించడం కుదరదు. పాఠకులు గమనించి, సహకరించాలని మనవి.

సెక్షన్ - 3 - సమాజ నిర్మాణం, సమస్యలు, ప్రజా విధానాలు/ పథకాలు

• భారతీయ సామాజిక నిర్మితి
• భారతదేశంలో స్త్రీలు
• క్రైస్తవ మతం
• షెడ్యూల్డ్‌ కులాలు
• ఇస్లాం మతం-వివాహం
• వివాహాలు - రకాలు
• కుటుంబం రకాలు
• వర్ణం - కులం
• తెలంగాణ సామాజిక పరిస్థితులు
• భారతీయ సమాజంలో వివాహ వ్యవస్థ
• భారతీయ సమాజ నిర్మాణం
• భారతీయ సమాజం
• బంధుత్వం - అనుబంధం
• భారతదేశంలో ఆదివాసీలు, గిరిజనుల విలక్షణత
• గిరిజన సమూహాలు
• వ్యక్తులు, సమూహాలు, సముదాయాలు, సామాజిక సంస్థలు, సంబంధాలు

పాత ప్రశ్నప‌త్రాలు

• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ: పాలిటెక్నిక్‌ లెక్చరర్‌ రిక్రూట్‌మెంట్‌ టాన్నెరీ ప్రశ్నపత్రం,
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ: పాలిటెక్నిక్‌ లెక్చరర్‌ రిక్రూట్‌మెంట్‌ ఫిజిక్స్‌ ప్రశ్నపత్రం,
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ: పాలిటెక్నిక్‌ లెక్చరర్‌ రిక్రూట్‌మెంట్‌ జియాలజీ ప్రశ్నపత్రం,
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ: పాలిటెక్నిక్‌ లెక్చరర్‌ రిక్రూట్‌మెంట్‌ జీఎస్‌ అండ్‌
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ: పాలిటెక్నిక్‌ లెక్చరర్‌ రిక్రూట్‌మెంట్‌ ఈఈఈ ప్రశ్నపత్రం,
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ: పాలిటెక్నిక్‌ లెక్చరర్‌ రిక్రూట్‌మెంట్‌ ఈసీఈ ప్రశ్నపత్రం,

నమూనా ప్రశ్నపత్రాలు

• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ గ్రూప్‌-IV (పేపర్-1) 2023 - 3
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ గ్రూప్‌-IV (పేపర్-1) 2023 - 2
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ గ్రూప్‌-IV (పేపర్-2) 2023 - 2
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ గ్రూప్‌-IV (పేపర్-2) 2023 - 1
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ గ్రూప్‌-IV (పేపర్-1) 2023 - 1
• టీఎస్‌పీఎస్సీ గ్రూప్‌-I ప్రిలిమ్స్‌-2022

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List of Telugu Essays (on a variety of Topics)

30. O pennI, nA pennI (O Penny! My Penny!), ImATa Webzine, July 2006  [ pdf in Telugu ]

29. saMskRtAMdrAla madhya nalugutUnna telugu (Telugu caught between Sanskrit and English), ImATa Webzine, January 2006  [ pdf in Telugu]

28. Atma kathani rAyaTamA, mAnaTamA? (To write or not to write an autobiography?) 15 th TANA Souvenir, July 2005 [pdf in Telugu]

27. jihvakO ruci (Everyone has their own taste) ImATa Webzine, May 2005 [ pdf in Telugu ]

26. Keynote address at the Fourth Telugu Sahiti Sadassu, Bridgewater, NJ, “A bird’s eye view of the evolution of Telugu Literature through the twentieth century ,” Conducted by Vanguri Foundation of America, October 9,10 2004 [ pdf in Telugu ]

25. piThApuraM kabulrlu? (My Memories about PithapuraM) ImATa Webzine, September 2004 [ pdf in Telugu ]

24. bhavishyattulO bhArata dESAniki maroka svarnayugam umdA? (Is there another golden age in India 's future?) won the FIRST PRIZE in the Essay category in the First Telugu Creative Writing Contest for Telugu Residents of North America & NRI Telugu Writers Worldwide conducted by ATA, July 2004, to appear in America Bharati [ pdf in Telugu ]

23. hOmiyOpatI SAstraM kAdA? (Is Homeopathy not a Science?)   Andhra Bhumi Daily , July 14, 2003 (Edit Page) [ pdf in Telugu ]

22. pAtikELLanATi pravAsAMdhrulu (Daispora Telugus Twenty Five Years Ago), Kaumudi,   TANA Souvenir , San Jose , CA , July 2003. Reprinted in Rachana , July 2003, pp33-37,   For an un-edited (un-censored version, click here   [ pdf in Telugu ]

21. svIDan^lO mAtRbhAsha vADakaM, (The use of mother tongue in Sweden ), eemATa webzine,   March 2003 [ pdf in Telugu ] [ Txt in RIT ]

20. caritrani mArcina rakta dOshaM, (The Blood-disease that change the course of history), kAlanirNay^ Calendar , p 2, January 2002

19. telugulO aksharAlu EvEMiTi?, (What are the Letters of the Telugu Alphabet?), Telugu Jyothi ,   pp 16-17, June 1997, and   Rachana Intinti Paksha Patrika , pp 74-75, March 2000 [ pdf in telugu ]

18. mana pErlu, iMTipErlu (Our Names and Surnames), Vendi Velugu, Souvenir, Greater Delaware Valley Telugu Association's 25th Anniversary Issue , pp 46, 48 and 50, 1996, eemaata webzine, Issue 12, November 2000. http://www.eemaata.com/ [ pdf in Telugu ]

17. Marriage counseling

16. samudraMlO kaki reTTa (A Crow’s Dropping in the Sea), Telugu Jyothi , pp 10-11, July 1997, Also in Rachana, pp??

15. animals

14. aeroplanes

13. itara bhAshalalOni mATalani telugulO uccariMcaDaM, (Pronunciation of Foreign Words in Telugu?), Telugu Jyothi ,   pp 23-25, May 1997

12. telugulO sUkshmIkaraNa, (Standardization in Telugu Script), Rachana Intinti Paksha Patrika , pp 60-64, October 1996

11. telugu lipi sUkshmIkaraNa (Simplifying Telugu Script), Rachana Entinti Patrika , pp 9-11, November 1995

10. What logic is this, Sir? Souvenir of the Tenth Telugu Conference, Chicago , IL , pp 19-21, (Kaleidoscope Section), 1995.

9. namma SakyaM kAni nijAlu. (Unbelievable facts), Telugu Jyothi , pp 36, May 1995.

8. bharata yuddhaM eppudu jarigiMdi? (When did the Mahabharata war take place?), Telugu Jyothi , pp 14-17, May 1995.

7. amerikAlO telugu (How to Teach Telugu in the United States ?) Telugu Jyothi , pp 13-19, August 1994

6. ugAdi, yugAdi, (New Year, new era)   Telugu Jyothi , p 9, March 1993

5. biMdu siMdhu nyAyaM (Unity in Diversity), Telugu Jyothi , p 55, April 1992

4. SishTavyavahArikaM (Telugu language of the learned class), Telugu Jyothi , p 23, February 1992, Reprinted in the Souvenir, Fourth World Telugu Conference , New York, NY, p 484, July 1992.

4. mAnavakulaMlO musalaM (Destruction of the humnankind), Bharati , (Andhra Patrika’s Bharati addendum) , circa 1987

3. Some hints on translating scientific jargon into Telugu, Souvenir of the Fifth TANA Conference , Long Beach , CA , pp 75-76, 1985

2. kOpam (Anger in Telugu Literature), Souvenir of the Second Telugu Conference, Detroit , MI , May 1979. Reprinted Souvenir of the Ninth Telugu Conference , pp 160-161, July 1993.

1. Telugu script and its modern needs, Telugu Bhasha Patrika , 3(2):9-13, October 1973.

HYDERABAD | DELHI | BHOPAL | PUNE | BHUBANESWAR | LUCKNOW | PATNA | BENGALURU | CHENNAI | VIJAYAWADA | VIZAG | TIRUPATHI | KUKATPALLY | KOLKATA | AHMEDABAD Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts and Literature of Telangana

Introduction to Telangana History

Telangana, as a geographical and political entity was born on June 2 , 2014 as the 29th and the youngest state in Union of India . However, as an economic, social, cultural and historical entity it has a glorious history of at least two thousand five hundred years or more. Megalithic stone structures like cairns, cists, dolmens and menhirs found in several districts of Telangana show that there were human habitations in this part of the country thousands of years ago. Remnants of iron ore smelting found at many places demonstrate the hoary roots of artisanship and tool making in Telangana for at least two thousand years. The reference to Asmaka Janapada , part of present Telangana, as one of the 16 Janapadas in ancient India proves that there existed an advanced stage of society.

One of the first five disciples of the Buddha, Kondanna is a typical name from Telangana and though there is no exact information about his native place, the earliest known Buddhist township of Kondapur in Medak district is believed to be after him. The Buddha himself famously acknowledged that it was Kondanna who understood him properly. The Buddhist sources say that Bavari, a Brahmin from Badanakurti in Karimnagar sent his disciples to all the way to north India to learn Buddhism and spread the message in this region. Megasthenes, who visited India in the 4th century BCE, wrote that there were 30 fortified towns of Andhras and a majority of them were in Telangana. In the historical age, Telangana had given rise to mighty empires and kingdoms like the Satavahanas, Vakatakas, Ikshvakus , Vishnukundins, Chalukyas, Kakatiyas, Qutb Shahis and Asif Jahis.

The emergence and flourishing of these powerful political formations is in itself a proof of existence of a sturdy economic, social and cultural structure. Thus Telangana has been a vibrant social entity by the time of the Buddha and continued to be so for the next two and a half millennia. Endowed with such rich cultural heritage, despite the attempts by historians and scholars from Andhra region to obfuscate and erase its history, Telangana always retained and fought for its self respect and self rule. Due to the official efforts to ignore, erase, belittle and look down Telangana history and turn it into an appendage or a footnote, particularly during 1956-2014, much of Telangana history is either not properly researched or not recorded even if it was studied. Telangana rose again and secured its political identity now and is in the process of resurrecting its own glorious past. Here is an attempt to reconstruct the history of Telangana , the wonderful musical instrument with a thousand strings.

Pre-history (Up to 1000 BCE) Even though extensive exploration has not been done, particularly subjected to neglect after 1956, the archaeological department under the Nizams’ government had done tremendous work in discovering the traces of pre-historical human habitations in Telangana. These studies found that human habitations in parts of Telangana can be seen from the Paleolithic age consistently. Either the same locations or extended locations showed people continued to live and develop through the later stages of Mesolithic, Neolithic and Metal ages. Excavations discovered stone tools, microliths, cists, dolmens, cairns and menhirs. All the ten districts of Telangana showed these traces even when a proper, scientific and official research and excavations have not been done and thanks to the efforts of either the first generation researchers before 1950s or individual amateur explorations. 2 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Pre-Satavahanas (1000 BCE – 300 BCE) In the historical age beginning from 1000 BCE there are some references of Telangana as a geographical entity as well as Telugu as a linguistic entity, in the contemporary Buddhist and mythological texts. However, it needs a detailed research to discover finer aspects and establish the stage of development of pre-Satavahana society. Thought the official research into this aspect was stalled for about six decades, some enthusiasts like Thakur Rajaram Singh , B N Sastry and Dr D Raja Reddy did their own painstaking explorations and showed that there was a flourishing society before the emergence of the Satavahanas. Particularly Dr Raja Reddy proved with numismatic evidence that there were rulers before the Satavahanas with Kotalingala as capital and issued their own coins . In these excavations the coins of Gobada, Naarana, Kamvaaya and Samagopa were discovered and at least two other rulers’ names came to light. Thus Telangana happens to be the first region in the subcontinent to have issued punch-marked coins with even insignia. The Buddhist texts as well as accounts of foreigners like Magesthenes and Arrian talked about this region as having thirty forts, many of which have to be explored.

Satavahanas (250 BCE – 200 CE) After the fall of the Mauryan Empire , around the third century BC there arose the first significant kingdom under the Satavahanas from this region. The earliest capital of the Satavahanas was Kotalingala and then moved to the other popular capitals like Paithan and Amaravati ( Dharanikota ) only after two centuries of their rule. However, the first capital was either ignored or brushed aside to give prominence to the later place in coastal Andhra . The coins issued by the Satavahana kings Simuka (BC 231-208), Siri Satavahana, Satakani I, Satasiri, Satakani II, Vasishtiputra Pulumayi, Vasishtiputra Satakani and their governors were discovered in Kotalingala. Numismatic and epigraphic evidence showed that the Satavahanas ruled a larger area of the peninsula, with oceans as borders on three sides. Literature like Gathasaptashati, painting like Ajanta flourished during the Satavahana rule.

Post-Satavahana (200 CE – 950 CE) After the fall of Satavahanas in the third century AD, Telugu-speaking areas were divided under various small rulers and till the emergence of the Kakatiyas, for about six or seven centuries this fragmentation continued. Even as the mainstream Andhra historians maintained that it was a dark period in Telangana history without any political formation, the current research found that Telangana was ruled by various kingdoms like the Ikshvakus, Vakatakas, Vishnukundins, Badami Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Vemulavada Chalukyas, Kalyani Chalukyas, Mudigonda Chalukyas, Kanduri Chodas and Polvasa dynasty. A detailed research into this period is yet to take place.

Kakatiyas (950 CE – 1323 CE) The sub-feudatories of the Rashtrakutas emerged themselves as independent kings and founded the Kakatiya dynasty around 950 AD and this kingdom became strong and united whole of Telugu-speaking lands and lasted for more than three centuries and a half. The kingdom saw powerful kings like Ganapatideva, Rudradeva and Prataparudra as well as the first ever woman ruler in the subcontinent Rudramadevi. The Kakatiyas ruled from Hanumakonda in the beginning and shifted their capital to Warangal later. The Kakatiyas are known for their irrigation public works, sculpture and fine arts. Thanks to the well-planned irrigation facilities and a perfect system of chain tanks to suit the undulating nature of the terrain, the Kakatiya kingdom flourished economically leading to cultural progress also. Envy of this affluence, several neighbouring kingdoms as well as Delhi Sultanate tried to wage war on Warangal many times and failed. Finally in 1323, Delhi army could lay seize on Warangal fort and capture Prataparudra, who, according to the legend, killed himself on the banks of the Narmada unwilling to surrender when he was being taken as prisoner of war to Delhi. 3 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Post-Kakatiya Interregnum (1323 – 1496) After Prataparudra was defeated by Malik Kafur in 1323, the Kakatiya kingdom was again fragmented with local governors declaring independence and for about 150 years Telangana was again under different rulers like Musunuri Nayakas, Padmanayakas, Kalinga Gangas, Gajapatis, and Bahmanis.

Qutbshahis (1496 - 1687) Sultan Quli Qutb Shah , subedar for Telangana under the Bahamanis, with Golconda as his capital, declared his independence in 1496 and seven sultans of this dynasty ruled not only Telangana but the entire Telugu-speaking land including parts of present day Maharashtra and Karnataka . The Moghul empire waged war and defeated Golconda in 1687 and for about three decades Telangana was again witnessed chaos and fragmented rulers.

Asaf Jahis (1724-1948) In 1712, Emperor Farrukhsiyar appointed Qamar-ud-din Khan as the viceroy of Deccan and gave him the title Nizam- ul-Mulk . He was later recalled to Delhi, with Mubariz Khan appointed as the viceroy. In 1724, Qamar-ud-din Khan defeated Mubariz Khan and reclaimed the Deccan suba. It was established as an autonomous province of the Mughal empire . He took the name Asif Jah, starting what came to be known as the Asif Jahi dynasty. He named the area Hyderabad Deccan. Subsequent rulers retained the title Nizam ul-Mulk and were called Asaf Jahi Nizams or Nizams of Hyderabad. The Medak and Warangal divisions of Telangana were part of their realm. When Asaf Jah I died in 1748, there was political unrest due to contention for the throne among his sons, who were aided by opportunistic neighbouring states and colonial foreign forces. In 1769, Hyderabad city became the formal capital of the Nizams. Nasir-ud-dawlah, Asaf Jah IV signed the Subsidiary Alliance with the British in 1799 and lost its control over the state's defense and foreign affairs. Hyderabad State became a princely state among the presidencies and provinces of British India.

Post-independence When India became independent from the British Empire in 1947, Hyderabad remained an independent princely state for a period of 13 months. The peasants of Telangana waged an armed struggle to liberate the region. Scores of people lost their lives in the armed struggle. The private militia named Razakars , under the leadership of Qasim Razwi unleashed terror in the state by resorting to looting and murder. On 17 September 1948, the Indian government conducted a military operation called Operation Polo to bring Hyderabad state into the Indian Union. It appointed a civil servant, M. K. Vellodi, as first chief minister of Hyderabad State on 26 January 1950. In 1952, Dr. Burgula Ramakrishna Rao was elected chief minister of the Hyderabad State in its first democratic election. During this time, there was an agitation by locals in the state to ensure proper representation was given to locals ( mulkis ) of Hyderabad. First Telangana Movement In early 1950s, people of Telangana region in Hyderabad state, started organizing themselves with a demand for separate state. In 1953 the Indian government appointed the States Reorganization Commission (SRC) to look into various statehood demands in the country. The Commission was headed by Fazal Ali, Kavalam Madhava Panikkar and H.N. Kunzru 4 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

The SRC toured the whole country to seek representations from various sections of the society. People of Telangana region submitted several memorandums to the SRC and expressed their wish to constitute Telangana as a separate state. Telangana intellectuals such as late Prof Jayashankar and political leaders such as Sri HC Heda, Sri Konda Venkat Ranga Reddy gave memorandums containing historic, political, economic, social and cultural justifications for creating the Telangana state. The Commission submitted its report on 30 September 1955, and recommended formation of Telangana state. During the period between 1955 September and 1956 November, the people of Telangana launched a series of protests demanding statehood by implementing the SRC recommendations. But intense lobbying by leaders from Andhra state in New Delhi resulted in the merger of Telangana region in Andhra state to form the Andhra Pradesh state. Telangana leaders insisted on a Gentlemen’s Agreement before the merger could take place. The agreement was signed by Andhra and Telangana leaders and provided safeguards with the purpose of preventing discrimination against Telangana by the Andhra leaders.However, the agreement was violated from day one by the Andhra leaders.

1969 Telangana Agitation Non-implementation of Gentlemen’s Agreement and continued discrimination to Telangana region in government jobs, education and public spending resulted in the 1969 statehood agitation. In January 1969, students intensified the protests for a separate state. On 19 January, all party accord was reached to ensure the proper implementation of Telangana safeguards. Accord's main points were 1) All non-Telangana employees holding posts reserved for Telangana locals will be transferred immediately. 2) Telangana surpluses will be used for Telangana development. 3) Appeal to Telangana students to call off agitation. But the protests further intensified, as more and more students and employees joined the statehood movement. Police firing on protesters led to the death of about 369 youngsters during this phase of the agitation. Then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi called for a high-level meeting to discuss the statehood issue. After several days of talks with leaders of both regions, on 12 April 1969, the Prime Minister developed an Eight Point Plan. Sri M. Chenna Reddy, founded the Telangana Praja Samithi (TPS) political party in 1969 to spearhead the statehood movement. Mrs. Indira Gandhi had called snap parliamentary elections in March 1971. In these parliamentary elections, Telangana Praja Samithi won 10 out the 14 Parliament seats in Telangana. However, Indira Gandhi’s Congress (R) Party scored a landslide victory on a platform of progressive policies such as poverty elimination (Garibi Hatao). She was reluctant to accept the Telangana statehood demand at that juncture. Sri M Chenna Reddy then merged TPS in Congress (R) party, after formulating a Six-Point Formula to safeguard Telangana’s interests. The statehood movement continued until 1973, but subsided later.

Final Telangana Movement Since mid 1990s, the people of Telangana started organizing themselves under various organizations with a demand for separate state of Telangana. In 1997, the state unit of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) passed a resolution seeking a separate Telangana. Though the party created the states of Jharkhand , Chhattisgarh , and Uttarakhand in 2000, it did not create a separate Telangana state citing resistance of its coalition partner, Telugu Desam Party . Sri Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao (KCR), who was then the Deputy Speaker of AP State assembly, had started background work on Telangana issue in early 2000. And after detailed discussions and deliberations with a plethora of Telangana intellectuals, KCR announced the launch of Telangana Rashtra Samithi on May 17th 2001. 5 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

KCR had resigned to the post of Deputy Speaker and MLA before launching the Telangana Rashtra Samithi party. Prof Jayashankar, the ideologue of statehood movement extended his support to KCR. In 2004, TRS entered into a poll alliance with Congress party. The party won 26 MLAs and 5 MPs and entered into both the AP state and Indian government. Telangana issue found a place in UPA-1 Common Minimum Program. Statehood issue was also mentioned by President Abdul Kalam and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in their speeches. TRS president KCR, was initially allotted the Shipping portfolio. But another UPA ally DMK demanded Shipping portfolio and threatened to walk out of the coalition, if its demand was not met, KCR voluntarily relinquished the Shipping portfolio to save the fledgling UPA-1 government. KCR remained as a Union Minister without portfolio, before being given the Labour and Employment portfolio. As the UPA government continued to dilly-dally on the decades old demand for Telangana state, KCR resigned to his ministry in 2006. When a Congress leader made a belittling statement on the statehood movement in September 2006, KCR resigned to the Karimnagar Lok Sabha seat and won it with a thumping majority. The massive majority achieved by KCR in that election proved the strong statehood aspirations in the region. In April 2008, TRS party MLAs resigned also walked out of the state government in protest against the delay in Telangana formation. But, TRS could retain only 7 MLA and 2 Lok Sabha seats in this by-election. In 2009 elections, TRS allied with TDP, CPI and CPM parties. The grand alliance did not yield the desired result, as the Pro-Telangana vote got split between TRS, Congress, PRP and BJP. In the end, TRS could win only 10 MLA seats and 2 MP seats.

Intensifying the movement On Nov 29th, 2009 , KCR had announced an indefinite hunger strike demanding statehood to Telangana. But en route, the state police had arrested him and sent to Khammam sub-jail. The movement spread like wildfire with students, employees, peoples’ organizations plunging into it. In the next 10 days, the whole of Telangana region came to a standstill. The state government, headed by Sri K Rosaiah had called for an all-party meeting on 7th December. Leaders of TDP and PRP parties promised that they would support a Telangana statehood resolution if it was tabled in the state Assembly. As KCR’s health was deteriorating very fast, on Dec 9th 2009, the UPA government announced that the process of statehood for Telangana would be initiated. But within 2 weeks, resistance from Seemandhra leadership resulted in UPA backtracking on this issue. KCR then brought all political forces in Telangana region together to form the Telangana JAC – an umbrella body of several organizations and parties, with Prof Kodandaram as its Chairman. TRS cadre and leaders actively participated in several agitations and protests launched by TJAC.

State Formation After 4 years of peaceful and impactful protests, the UPA government started the statehood process in July 2013 and concluded the process by passing the statehood bill in both houses of Parliament in Feb 2014. In the General Elections held in April 2014, Telangana Rashtra Samithi emerged victorious by winning 63 of the 119 seats and formed the government. Sri K Chandrashekar Rao was sworn in as the First Chief Minister of Telangana. The Telangana state was inaugurated formally on June 2nd 2014. 6 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Important Kingdoms

1. Assaka or Ashmaka kingdom - Telugu kingdom of ancient India (700–300 BCE). • It was one of the shODasa (sixteen) Mahajanapadas in the 6th century BCE, mentioned in the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya. • The region was located on the banks of the Godavari river , between the rivers Godavari and Manjira. It was the only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the Vindhya Range , and was in Dakshinapatha . It corresponds to districts Nizamabad and parts of Adilabad in Telangana and Nanded , Yavatmal in Maharashtra states in current- day India. • The Prakrit name of Bodhan is from "bhoodaan meaning "Land given to poor as alms", identified as present day Bodhan. The capital is variously called Potali, or Podana, which now lies in the Nandura Tehsil . • The Buddhist text Mahagovinda Suttanta mentions about a ruler of Assaka, Brahmadatta who ruled from Potali. • The Matsya Purana lists twenty-five rulers ofAśmaka, contemporary to the Shishunaga rulers of Magadha . • Later, the people spread southward to the territory of the Rashtrakuta empire, which is now in modern Maharashtra.

2. Satavahanas • In the north-western Deccan on the ruins of the Mauryan empire arose the kingdom of the Satavahanas in the first century B.C., with its centre at Pratishtana (modern Paithan in Maharashtra). • The Satavahana was based from Dharanikota and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra.

Origin: • The Puranas speak only of the Andhra rule and not of the Satavahana rule. On the other hand the name Andhra does not occur in the Satvahana inscriptions. There is a lot of controversy regarding the original home of the Satavahanas. • A contrary opinion has also been put forward that the family originated in the west and extended its control to the east coast, finally giving its name, Andhra, to this region. Since the earliest inscriptions of the Satavahanas are found in the Western Deccan, the later view may be correct. Probably, Satavahanas declared independence some time after the death of Ashoka (232 BCE), as the Maurya Empire began to weaken • The Satavahanas seems to begin as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire. They seem to have been under the control of Emperor Ashoka, who claims in Rock Edict 13 that Andhras were in his domain among them.

Early Satavahanas: • The Early Satavahanas ruled Telangana and Andhra Pradesh regions which were always their heartland. The Puranas list 30 rulers. Many are known from their coins and inscriptions as well. • The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. 7 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Simuka (230–207 BCE): • After becoming independent around 230 BCE, Simuka, the founder of the dynasty, conquered the present-day Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh (including Malwa ). • He and his successors established their authority from the mouth of the Krishna to the entire Deccan plateau .

Satakarni (180–124 BCE): • The earliest of the Satavahana kings to receive wide recognition was Satakarni I, and this was due to his policy of military expansion in all directions. He is the Lord of the west who defied Kharavela of Kalinga(mentions him in the Hathigumpha inscription ). According to the Yuga Purana he conquered Kalinga following the death of Kharavela. He extended Satavahana rule over Madhya Pradesh and pushed back the Sunga from Pataliputra (he is thought to be the Yuga Purana’s “Shata”, an abbreviation of the full name “Shri Sata” that occurs on coins from Ujjain ), where he subsequently ruled for 10 years. His conquests took him north of the Narmada into eastern Malva, which at the time was being threatened by the Shakas and the Greeks. • The description of Satakarni I as ‘Dakshina patha-pati in the Nanaghat inscription of Nayanika proves that the Satavahana dominion was not confined to western Deccan alone, but included other areas of the Deccan and beyond. • Satakarni I performed two Asvamedha sacrifices and one Rajasuya sacrifice. • By this time the dynasty was well established, with its capital at kotilingalaand Pratishthanapura (Paithan).

3.Ishvakus • The founder of the line, performed Asvamedha, Agnihotra, Agnistoma and Vajpeya sacrifices. Santamula performed the Asvamedha sacrifices with a view to proclaim independence and imperial status It had become a common practice among the rulers of the subsequent dynasties to perform the Ashvamedha sacrifice in token of their declaration of independent status From this fact, it can be inferred that it was Santamula I who first declared independence and established Andhra Ikshvaku dynasty.

Virapurushadutta : • He was son and successor of Santamula through his wife Madhari. He had a sister named Adavi Santisri He took a queen from the Saka family of Ujjain and gave his daughter in marriage to Chutu prince. Almost all royal ladies were Buddhists An aunt of Virapurushadutta built a big stupa at Nagarjuna Konda. Her example was followed by other women of the royal family Virapurushadutta son Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II) ruled after a short abhira inter regnum His reign witnessed the completion of a Dvi Vihara, the Sihala Vihara, a convent founded for the accomodation of Sinhalese monks and the Chitya-Graha ( Chaitya Hall) dedicated to the fraternities (theriyas) of Tambapanni(Ceylon) Ceylonese Buddhism was in close touch with Andhra.

Rudrapurushadatta : • It was one of the name of an Ikshvaku ruler found in inscriptions from Gurujala in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh He could have been son of Ehuvula Santamula. Rudrapurushadatta ruled for more than 11 years. Probably he was the last important ruler of of the Andhra Ikshvaku family. After him there were unknown rulers according to the puranas Around 278 C.E, the abhiras might have put an end to the Ikshvakus 8 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

4.Vakatakas • The Vakaṭaka Empire was a royal Indian dynasty that originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the west to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. • They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemparanies with the Guptas in northern India. • The Vakaakas, like many coeval dynasties of the Deccan, claimed Buddhistorigin. Little is known about Vindhyasakti (250–270 CE), the founder of the family. In the Cave XVI inscription of Ajanta he was described as the banner of the Vakataka family and a Dvija. It is stated in this inscription that he added to his power by fighting great battles and he had a large cavalry. • The next ruler was Pravarasena I (270-330) was the first Vakataka ruler, who called himself a Samrat (universal ruler) and conducted wars with the Naga kings. He has become an emperor in his own right, perhaps the only emperor in the dynasty, with his kingdom embracing a good portion of North India and whole of Deccan. • It is generally believed that the Vakataka ruling family was divided into four branches after Pravarsena I. Two branches are known: Pravarpura-Nandivardhana branch and the Vatsagulma branch.

Pravarpura-Nandivardhana branch: • Rudrasena II (380-385) of Pravarpura-Nandivardhana branch is said to have married Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of the Gupta King Chandragupta II (375-415). Rudrasena II died fortuitously after a very short reign in 385 C.E., following which Prabhavatigupta (385 – 405) ruled as a regent on behalf of her two sons Divakarasena and Damodarasena (Pravarsena II) for 20 years. During this period the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta Empire . Many historians refer to this period as the Vakataka-Gupta age. • Prabhavati Gupta’s inscription mentions about one “ Deva Gupta” who is her father and the historians equated him with Chandra Gupta II. However, there is no other source to prove that Deva Gupta is really Chandra Gupta II. • Pravarasena II composed the Setubandha in Maharashtri Prakrit. A few verses of the Gaha Sattasai (originally by Hala) are also attributed to him. He shifted the capital from Nandivardhana to Pravarapura, a new city of founded by him. He built a temple dedicated to Rama in his new capital. • The highest number of so far discovered copper plate inscriptions of the Vakataka dynasty pertain to Pravarasena II. He is one of the most recorded ruler of ancient India. • Pravarsena II was succeeded by Narendrasena (440-460), under whom the Vakataka influence spread to some central Indian states. Prithvisena II, the last known king of the line, succeeded his father Narendrasena in 460. After his death in 480, his kingdom was probably annexed by Harishena of the Vatsagulma branch of Vakataka. • The Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of Badami in Deccan.

Vatsagulma branch: • The Vatsagulma branch was founded by Sarvasena, the second son of Pravarasena I. • Sarvasena (330 – 355) took the title of Dharmamaharaja. He is also known as the author of Harivijaya in Prakrit which is based on the story of bringing the parijat tree from heaven by Krishna. This work, praised by later writers is lost. He is also known as the author of many verses of the Prakrit Gaha Sattasaioriginally by Hala. 9 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• Vindhysena (355 – 400) was also known as Vindhyashakti II. He is known from the well-known Washim plates which recorded the grant of a village situated in the northern marga of Nandikata (presently Nanded). The genealogical portion of the grant is written in Sanskrit and the formal portion in Prakrit.This is the first known land grant by any Vakataka ruler. He also took the title of Dharmamaharaja. • Pravarasena II (400 – 415) was the next ruler. The Cave XVI inscription of Ajanta says that he became exalted by his excellent, powerful and liberal rule. • Harishena (475 – 500) was a great patron of Buddhist architecture, art and culture. Ajanta is surviving example of his works. The rock cut architectural cell-XVI inscription of Ajanta states that he conquered Avanti (Malwa) in the north, Kosala (Chhattisgarh), Kalinga and Andhra in the east, Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat) and Trikuta (Nasik district) in the west and Kuntala (Southern Maharashtra) in the south. • Varahadeva, a minister of Harishena and the son of Hastibhoja, excavated the rock-cut vihara of Cave XVI of Ajanta.Three of the Buddhist caves at Ajanta, two viharas – caves XVI and XVII and a chaitya – cave XIX were excavated and decorated with painting and sculptures during the reign of Harishena.

End of Vakataka: • A/C to Dasakumaracarita of Dain, which was written probably around 125 years after the fall of the Vakataka dynasty, Harishena’s son, though intelligent and accomplished in all arts, neglected the study of the Dandaniti (Political Science) and gave himself up to the enjoyment of pleasures and indulged in all sorts of vices. • Finding this a suitable opportunity, the ruler of Ashmaka instigated the ruler of Vanavasi (in the North Kanara district) to invade the Vakataka territory. • The king called all his feudatories and decided to fight his enemy on the bank of the Varada ( Wardha ). While fighting with the forces of the enemy, he was treacherously attacked in the rear by some of his own feudatories and killed. The Vakataka dynasty ended with his death

Culture: • The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. They led public works and their monuments are a visible legacy. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves was built under the patronage of Vakataka King Harishena of Vatsagulma branch.

5. VishnuKundina Dynasty Vishnukundina Empire played an important role in the history of the Deccan during the 5th and 6th centuries CE. It is believed that they where one of the ancestors of Pusapatis of Vizianagaram and hree other clans of Kshatriya Raju caste in Andhra Pradesh. The rule of Vishnukundin Empire came to an end with the conquest of the eastern Deccan by the Chalukyan, Pulakesin II. He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy to rule over the conquered lands. Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started the Eastern Chalukya dynasty .

Origin of Vishnukundina Dynasty • The Sanskrit name for Vishnukonda is Vishnukundina. The origin of this dynasty is shrouded in ystery. One History states that they belong to Koundinya of Kshatriyas who migrated from Ayodhya during the early 5th century. During the rule of Madhava Varma they became independent and conquered coastal Andhra from the Salankayanas. 10 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• It is estimated that the Vishnukudins ruled between the end of the Salankayana and the rise of the Eastern Chalukyan power in 624 AD.

Kings of Vishnukundina Empire • According to some inscriptions Indra Varma is the first ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty. It is believed that he carved out a small princedom for himself possibly as a subordinate of the Vakatakas in the last quarter of the fourth century C.E. • Madhav Varma I I Under rule of Madhav Varma II the dynasty began its imperial expansion who ruled for nearly half a century. His reign is considered as a golden age in the history of the -Vishnukundins. During his rule Vishnukundin dynasty rose to great heights. A princess of the Vakataka dynasty was given in marriage to Madhav Varma's son, Vikramendra Varma. • This increased the power of the Vishnukundina dynasty. He occupied the areas of Guntur, Tenali and Ongole . Thereafter he made Amarapura his capital. • Madhav Varma II annexed the Vengi kingdom that was ruled by Salankayanas. Godavari tract became part of the Vishnukundin territory. Post conquests he performed sacrifices like Asvamedha, Rajasuya and other Vedic sacrifices. • During the rule of Vikramendra Varma I (508-528 C.E.) Vishnukundina dynasty lost its power. The next two and half decade witnessed constant dynastic struggles during the rule of Indra Bhattaraka Varma (528-555 C.E.). The dynasty lost Kalinga. • Vikramendra Varma II After Vikramendra Varma II took over, the Vishnukundin family were able to restore their power. He shifted his capital from Bezwada to Lenduluru in order to remain close to Kalinga. He restored the fortunes of the Vishnukundins in the Kalinga region. • Govinda Varma II (569-573 C.E.) Vishnukundina Empire expanded under its able ruler Janssraya Madhav Varma IV (573-621 A.D.). He consolidated his position in Vengi. He suppressed the upheaval of his subordinate chief the Durjaya Prithvi Maharaja in Guddadivishya. • Madhav Varma IV had to face the Chalukyan assault in his last years of rule. It is believed that Madhava's son Manchana Bhattaraka might have been expelled by the Chalukyas. • Vishnukundina dynasty declined by the end of 624 A.D.

6. Vemulavada Chalukyas Founder : Vinayaditya Yudhamalla I Capitals : Bodhan (Nizamabad / Podananadu region) Gangadhara, Vemulawada (Karimnagar / Sabbinadu region). • This dynasty was a branch of the Chalukyas of Badami ruled Telangana region as Rashtrakuta Vassals. One peculiarity with this family is that it traced its descent from the Sun, while many other Chaiukya families considered themselves as of lunar descent. • Tradition associates Vemulawada with poet Bhima Kavi but the famous kannada poet Pampa lived here as the court poet of Arikesari II and dedicated his famous work Bharata or Vikramarjuna Vijaya to him. • Vemulawada Chalukyas history is defined by 3 inscriptions, Kollpara copper plates of Arikesari I, Vemulavada rock inscription of Arikesari II and the Parbhan copper plates of Arikesari III. • According to the kollipara inscription of Arikesari-I Satyasraya Ranavikrama was the founder of vemulawada chalukya dynasty. 11 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS c.641 - c.660 AD : Satyasraya Ranavikrama : • Ruled from Bodhan (Nizamabad) as Capital was in service of Pulikesi II. • c.660 - c.695 AD : Prithvipati • c.700 - c.725 AD : Maharaja • c.725 - c.750 AD : Rajaditya • All the above 3 rulers helped Vinayaditya and Vijayaditya in their wars against the palavers and the Arabs. • Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla was the real founder and first celebrated king of Vemulawada Chalukya dynasty. • c.750 - c.775 : Vinayaditya Yudhamalla I (Rajasraya)Ruled from Bodhan (Nizamabad) as Capital. • Sub-ordinate ruler of Rashtrakutas. • Yudhamalla and Rashtrakuta Dantudurga planned and carried out the overthrow of Kirtivarman II, the last Chalukya ruler of Badami in 753 AD. • Of Yudhamala I we get vert exaggerated eulogy from Kollipara plates issues by his son; he is compared to Rama in valour and described as visvarat (universal emperor); he is said to have subjugated the whole world with the aid of the boar-crest obtained by the royal family as a boon from Lord Narayan, and among the kings who bowed at his feet are counted those of Turushka, Yavana, Barbara, Kasmira, Kambhoja, Magada, Malava, Kalinga, Ganaga, Pallava, Panda, Kerala and others. • In refreshing contrast to it from later inscriptions and pampa that he ruled Sapadalaska country and his suzerainty was acknowleged by many feudatories. He made artificial tanks of brick and mortar in Podana, filled with oil for the daily bathing of 500 elephants. He captured the natutal fortress of Chitrakuta. • c.775 - c.800 AD : Arikesari Ruled from Vemulawada.Captured and ruled Vengi together with Trikalinga by the strength of his arm. Pampa says that this happened in the reign of Nirupama / Dhruva. • During a civil war of Rashtrakutas, Dhruva(AD 780-93) attacked Vishnuvardhana IV (772 - 808) of Vengi to punish him for his part in aiding Govinda II (774 - 780). Arikesari aided Dhruva greatly and was duly rewarded. We may assume that parts of Telangana definitely changed hands as a result of Arikesari's campaign. It is quite probable that after this Vemulawada became seat of their power. • c.800 - c.825 AD: Narasimha I • c.825 - c.850 AD: Yudhamalla II • c.850 - c.895 AD: Baddega I • Pampa says that Baddega was victorious in 42 battles and earned title solada-ganda (the soldier who knew no defeat). • He constructed a temple of Baddagesvara which is identified with the Bhimeswara temple atV emulawada. • Baddega suffered defeat at least once at the hands of GunugaVijayadiya (849 - 892). • Both Pamapa and the Parbhani plates say that he captured Chalukya Bhima I (892 -921)in the war that took place near the water fort of Kunala(Kolleru) in the Vengi area, who ascended the throne of Vengi after the death of his uncle Gunaga Vijayaditya III in 892. Bhima effected his escape from captivity with the aid of Kusumayudha of Mudigonda Chalukyas. • Baddega's political influences was felt as Bastar where the ancient Chatrakuta mandala was situated. • 895 - 915 AD : Yudhamalla III • 915 - 930 AD : Narasimha II • Wife : Lokambika/Jakavve (sister of Rashtrakuta Indra III) 12 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• The Vemulawada inscription attributes to him the single handed conquest of the Seven Malavas, a victory over the army of Gurjjara raja and says that he put the final seal on his frame by a victory over a group of kings on the hill of Kalapriya. Pamper furnishes the name of Gurjara king was Mahipala on whom Narasimha descended like a thunderbolt, compelling him to escape from his capital. Pampa also mentions a victory over the Latas as the first of his achievements, and adds that he had caused his horses to drink the water of the Ganges before he established his fame with his sword at Kalapriya for his overlord Rashtrakuta Indra III (914 - 929). • 930 - 955 AD : Arikesari II son of NarasimhaII and Jakavve • Wife : Revakanirmadi (daughter of Rashtrakuta Indra III 914 - 929) • His reign considered as golden period for Nizamabad and Karimnagar. • Arikesari is famous as the patron of Pamapa, and for the apparently decisive he played in the political revolution in which samanthas of Govinda IV (930 - 934) dethroned him and transferred the Rashtrakuta empire to Amogavarsha III (936 - 939).Arikesari has 2 sons namely, Vagaraja and Bhadradeva / Baddega II from Revakanirmadi and Lokambika. • c.955 - c.960 AD : Vagaraja • Ruled from Gangadhara as Capital • Patronized Somadevasuri, the author of Yasastilaka Champu who described the king as Pada-padmopajivi a worshipper of the feet of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. indicating the declining power of Vemulawada Chalukyas. • c.960 - c.965 AD : Bhadradeva / Baddega II • Ruled from Vemulawada as Capital • The bommalagutta region flourished as a center of Jainism during his rule. • c.965 - c.973 AD : Arikesari III son of Baddega II ruled from VemulawadaVassal of Krishna III (939 - 967)and makes a grant in 966 to a Jain temple erected by his father in the capital known as Subhadama Jinalava.

7. Kalyani Chalukyas • After the Chalukyas of Badami were destroyed by Dantidurga , they revived after two centuries in around 972- 73AD. This was known as Chalukyas of Kalyani and is supposed to have the same genealogy as those of the previous mighty Chalukyas (though this is disputed). This was established by Tailapa-II who was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakuta. For 200 years they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. The Hoyasala Empire finally destroyed them in 12th century. The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire. This empire has a great contribution in the modern Kannada literature as well as Sanskrit literature.

Political History of Chalukyas of Kalyani: • The last ruler of Rastrakuta Dynasty Kakka II (Karaka) was killed by Taila II or Tailapa II the scion of old Chalukya stock in 973 AD. Thus Taila II founded the dynasty of Chalukyas of Kalyani which lasted for 2 centuries. For 200 years they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. They were finally destroyed by the Hoyasala Empire in 12th century. The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire. This empire has a great contribution in the modern Kannada literature as well as Sanskrit literature. 13 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Tailapa II • Tailapa-II was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakutas. He restored the family of his ancestors to its former glory. Taila reigned for 24 years and during that time was able to recover the ancient territory of his race except the Gujarat region. We know about his reign from the Gadag records. He patronized a Kannada poet Ranna who was one the earliest poets of Kannada language. Ranna, Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna together are called three gems of Kannada literature. • Most of the time, Tailapa II kept on fighting with Munja, a Paramara king of Dhara. Munja was finally captured and probably killed in captivity. This was in 995 AD. Two years later Tailpa died and his crown was passed on to his son Satyasraya.

Satyasraya • The period of reign of Satyasraya was 997 to 1008 AD. Though, to star with, he adopted the aggressive policy of his father had enmity with the eastern Chalukyas and Cholas. His 11 years reign was disturbed and was finally faced the disastrous consequence of a war with the great Chola Rajaraja-I. Rajaraja-I overran the Chalukya country and looted and killed a large number of men, women and children. Satyasraya was followed by Vikramaditya V and Jaysimha II. The next important king was Someshwara I.

Someshwara-I • Someshwara I, who was also known as Ahavamalla or Trilokamallareigned from 1042 AD to 1068 AD. The contemporary Chola King was Rajadhiraja Chola I who became Chola king in the same year i.e. 1042. Someshwara I had established Kalyani as its capital. • He faced the attack of Rajadhiraja Chola-I, who overran initially the Chalukyan capital and demolished the forts and erected the pillars as a memorabilia of the victories, but the Chalukyan counter attack forced them out. Under Someshwara-I , the Chalukya army raided Chola capital Kanchipuram but it was repelled back. Finally in the battle of Koppam, Rajadhiraja Chola was killed. But his younger brother took the command and drove the Chalukyas back. In this attack, brother of Someshwara-I was killed. The reign of Someshwara I is known for numerous wars. • This able king of the Western Chalukya Empire ended his life by drowning himself in the river Tungabhadra, due to his inability to endure a fever. Someshwara I was succeeded by his elder son Someshwara II, but Someshwara II was soon deposed by his younger brother Vikramaditya VI, whose reign is from 1076 – 1126 AD.

Vikramaditya VI • Vikramaditya VI ascended the throne in 1076 AD which marks the beginning of Chalukya-Vikram era. Vikramaditya VI was one of the ablest kings of the Western Chalukyan Empire. He left the maximum number of inscriptions, all in Kannada. He is the hero of a historical poem (Vikramankadevacharita) by Bilhana, a Kashmir poet and reigned for around half a century in tolerable peace.

8. Mudigonda Chalukyas • Founder : Ranamarda • Capital : Mudigonda 14 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• The Mudigonda Chalukyas were based east of the Kakatiya territories. They hailed from the village of Mudigonda (located near modern Khammam), and ruled most of modern-day Khamsmam district and east area of Warangal between the 8th and 12th centuries. They were originally subordinates of the Chalukyas of Vengi, but later passed under the suzerainty of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. From c.1000 onwards, Bottu Beta and his successors ruled as subordinates of the Kakatiyas. • The history of family is known to us from the Mogilicheruvula grant of Kusumayudha IV, Kukunuru plates (krivvaka grant) of Kusumaditya and Nattaramesvaram records. • Their kingdom bordered the kingdoms of Vengi and Malkhed.

Gonagudu I Kokkiraja, Son • Ruled from Capital Mudigonda.Kokkiraja was a valorous king who ruled the kingdom with the help of his brother Ranamarda. • c.850 AD - 870 AD : Ranamarda, Brother • He must have served the Eastern Chalukyas first and was given Koravi region by them to rule, with Mudigonda as Capital. • According to Mogilicharla inscription he developed Manchikonda, Kondapalli as cities and reportedly wore a necklace called 'Ranamarda Kantiya' to denote his victories. • 870 AD - 895 AD : Kusumayudha I • Kusumayudha I aided the escape of Vengi Chalukya Bhima I (892 - 921) from Rashtrakuta Vassal Vemulawada Chalukya Baddega I (c.850-895) who showed dauntless courage and remarkable bravery in restoring the Vengi kingdom to Chalukya Bhima I. • Kusumayudha has 2 sons Vijayaditya Gonaga and Niravadya. • 895 AD - 910 AD : Vijayaditya Gonaga / Gonagudu II • Gonagayya who lost his kingdom went to Arikesari II of Vemulawada Chalukyas for help. • 910 AD - 935 AD : Niravadya (Nijjayaraja) • The Koravi grant mentions that Niravadya brother of Vijayaditya Gonaga usurped the throne.Recaptured Mudigonda in 934 AD. Ruled koravi in warangal as vassal to Vengi Chalukya Bhima II. • 935 AD - 960 AD : Kusumayudha II son of Vijayaditya Gonaga • Ruled Koravi region • 960 AD - 980 AD : Vijayaditya • 980 AD - 1000 AD : Kusumayudha III • He had four sons Gonaga, Nijjayaraja, Mallapa and Lobhachalaka. Gonaga and Nijjayaraja came to the throne successively after the death of Kusumayudha III. • 995 AD - Bottu BetaViriyala Erra supported by Western Chalukya King Taila II (973 – 997) killed Kakatiya King Gunda IV (950 - 995) and installed Bottu Beta as the ruler of koravi. • c.1000 AD - 1025 AD : Gonaga • c.1025 AD - 1050 AD : Nijjayaraja • c.1050 AD - 1075 AD : Kusumayudha IV • c.1075 AD - 1100 AD : Betaraja I 15 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• c.1100 AD - 1125 AD : Kusumayudha V • c.1125 AD - 1150 AD : Betaraja II • c.1150 AD - 1175 AD : Kusumayudha VIKaktiya Rudra in his last days deputed his general Recherla Rudra to subdue the Bottu chief of Koravi. Kusumayudha VI along with his ministers Karunadhi pati, Indaparaju and Devaraju was forced to retreat to the forest and lived underground for 12 years and later recaptured the kingdom. • 1175 AD - 1200 AD : NagatirajaNagatiraja was the last prominent ruler in this dynasty.Katakana Mahadeva died in 1198 AD and his son Ganapatidev captured, Nagatiraja attached Kaktia kingdom. Recherla Rudra came to the rescue and chased away Nagatiraja. After the release of Kakatiya Ganapatideva, he annexed the Mudigonda region to the Kaktiya empire. Thus ended the rule of Mudigonda Chalukya dynasty in c.1200 AD. • 1218 AD : According to the Srikakulam inscription, Nagatiraja who lost his kingdom lived in Konalu region. Bottu Sriramabhadra : Issued inscription in Gopalaswamy temple at Srikakulam.

9. Kakatiyas Kakatiya Dynasty • Capitals : Hanamkonda , Warangal • Languages : Telugu • Religion : Jainism, Hinduism (Saivism)Royal Emblem : Garuda , Varaha • Kakatiyas are descendants of Karikala Chola King of Durjaya clan, who initially started as vassals of the Chalukyas in India, and later emerged as a ruling dynasty, with their capital at Kakatipura (probably named after the village diety, Kakatamma) or present day Warangal, in the state of Telangana, India. • Kakatiyas were the devotees of Goddess Kakati. • They were said to originate from Chaturthakula and they allied themselves by matrimony to chiefs of the Shudra caste, although in many documents related to gifts given in the Brahmins , their ancestry has been traced to the Solar dynasty of the Ikshvaku kshatriyas. • The Kakatiya period was rightly called the brightest period of the Telugu history. The entire Telugu speaking area was under the kings who spoke Telugu and encouraged Telugu. They established order throughout the strife torn land and the forts built by them played a dominant role in the defence of the realm. Anumakonda and Gandikota among the 'giridurgas', Kandur and Narayanavanam among the 'vanadurgas', Divi and Kolanu among the 'jaladurgas', and Warangal and Dharanikota among the 'sthaladurgas' were reckoned as the most famous strongholds in the Kakatiya period. The administration of the kingdom was organized with accent on the military. • Though Saivism continued to be the religion of the masses, intellectuals favoured revival of Vedic rituals. They sought to reconcile the Vaishnavites and the Saivites through the worship of Harihara. Arts and literature found patrons in the Kakatiyas and their feudatories. Tikkana Somayaji, who adorned the court of the Telugu Chola ruler Manumasiddhi II, wrote the last 15 cantos of the Mahabharata which was lying unfinished. Sanskrit, which could not find a place in the Muslim-occupied north, received encouragement at the hands of the Kakatiyas. Prataparudra was himself a writer and he encouraged other literature. • The Kakatiya dynasty expressed itself best through religious art. Kakatiya art preserved the balance between architecture and sculpture, that is, while valuing sculpture, it laid emphasis on architecture where due. The 16 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Kakatiya temples , dedicated mostly to Siva, reveal in their construction a happy blending of the styles of North India and South India which influenced the political life of the Deccan. • Building temple and lake (an irrigation tank) side by side was the tradition of the Kakatiya. The remains of immense irrigation tanks and channels show that the rulers of the country devoted great attention to the improvement of agriculture.There was enormous accumulations of wealth, consisting of gold, precious stones (including Kohinoor diamond ), and elephants. The people appear to have been brave, happy, and prosperous, and from west to east thy were scattered around numerous holy shrines which brought together thousands of pilgrims.

Important points of Kakatiya Dynasty • Motupalli port was famous for foreign trade during the period of Kakatiyas. Ministers during the period of Kakatiyas were called as Tirthas. • Vidyanatha wrote Prataparudra Yashobhusanam. • Bayyaram Cheruvu inscription was issued by Mailamba. • Magallu inscription was issued by Danarnava. • Achitendra was the author of Hanumakonda inscription. • .Rudradeva issued Hanumakonda inscription about the victories of Prolaraja II in 1163. • The gold coin during the period of Kakatiyas was called Gadvanam.

750 - 768 : Venna Founder of the Kakatiya line. Mentioned in Bayyaram inscription. • Ganapatideva completed building Orugallu (Warangal) and shifted the capital from Hanumakonda to Warangal. • Started Inner stone wall of Warangal. • March 31, 1213 AD : Contruction of Ramappa Temple Completed by Recharla Rudra during Ganapatideva reign. • Ramappa Cheruvu, Pakala Cheruvu, Lakkavaram Cheruvu were dug during Ganapatideva reign

10. Vijayanagara kingdom • Foundation of Vijaynagar kingdom (1336 – 1646 CE):Vijaynagar kingdom was one of the important kingdoms in the medieval Indian history. Vijaynagar Dynasty rules over India for 3 centuries. It is a history full of wars with Bahamani and other muslim rulers of northern Deccan, collectively said as Deccan sultanates .Vijayanagara is in Bellary District of northern Karnataka. It is the name of the now-ruined capital city of the historic Vijayanagar Kingdom which extended over the southern part of India that included the territories of Mysore , Trichinopally, Kanara, Pondicherry, Chingalpet and Kanchivaram. • Two brothers Harihara (Hakka) I and Bukka Raya laid the foundation of the Vijaynagar city, which was on the South bank of TungabhadraRiver near Anegudi Fortress. They were also known as Sangama brothers. Vijaynagar Empire consolidated under Harihara I and began to expand and prosper under Bukka Raya which was more defensible and secure for its location between 14th and 16th century . It is said that a sage Madhav Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana were the inspirational source for this empire. The rulers were strict worshipers of the Hindu Gods and Goddess, but also tolerant towards the other religions. The emperors were great patrons of art 17 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

and culture. The region influenced a development in the streams of music, literature and architecture. Many temples built in the territories of the south represent the style of Vijaynagar kingdom. The economy of the region flourished and several coins were introduced during the reign of the rulers of theV ijaynagar Empire. • Kings of Vijaynagara Dynasty: There were four dynasties ruled over Vijaynagar -- Sangama Dynasty, Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and Aravidu Dynasty. • Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485) – longest reign Harihar and Bukka were sons of Sangama, feudatories of Kakatiyas of Warangal. The Hoysala kingdom was conquered and hence, the Vijayanagara empire was extended under Harihara. Bukka, then succeeded his brother and became the master of Raichur doab after dealing with Bahmani Sultan. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans and extended the Empire to the whole of South India. Sāyaṇa and Madhava were learned commentator on the Vedas , were ministers under Bukka I and Harihara II. The conflict between Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms was a long lasting one. The bone of contention was the Raichur Doab , between river Krishna and Tungabhadra and Krishna-Godavari delta. The greatest ruler of Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya II. During his reign, Abdur Razzak, the envoy of Shah Rukh visited the Vijaynagara kingdom. • Saluva Dynasty (1486-1505 AD) – smallest reign Saluva Narsimhan was the founder of Saluva dynasty. He silenced the rebellions of feudatories and kept the kingdom intact. Immadi Narsimha succeeded him. He was a weak ruler and hence the control of state fell into the hands of Narsa Nayaka. Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut during his time in 1498. • Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570 AD) The son of Narsa Nayaka, Vira Narsimha was the founder of Tuluva dynasty. He was succeeded by his half brother, Krishnadeva Raya in 1509 AD.

Krishnadeva Raya • At the time of Krishnadevaraya ’s accession to the throne, the condition of the empire was unstable, as he had to deal with rebellious subordinates and aggression of the Gajapathis of Orissa and the Muslim kingdoms in the north. Krishna Deva Raya won the Gajapati kingdom in present day Orissa and extended the Vijaya nagara empire to that region as well. Krishna Deva Raya defeated the Deccan Sultans in the battle of Diwani. He then invaded Raichur Doab(between Tungabhadra and Krishna river , known for its fertile soil) confronting Sultan of Bijapur , Ismail Adil Shah . He also captured Bidar . He helped the Portuguese to conquer Goa from the Bijapur rulers in 1510 and maintained friendly relations with them. This relationship also helped him obtain high bred Arabian horses and expansion of overseas trade of the empire. Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Durate Barbosa visted his court and have left accounts. Krishna Deva Raya was a contemporary of Babur. So, when the First Battle of Panipat(1526) was fought, Krishnadeva Raya was was the ruler of Vijayanagar in the southern India. Krishna Deva Raya was a Vaishainaite but respected all religions. He was a devotee of Lord Venkateshwara of Tirupati . Vallabhacharya and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the renowned saints of the bhakti movement visited his court. Madhwa saint Vyasathirtha was the Rajaguru of Krishnadevaraya. He is also known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’, for his patronage of art and literature. Also known as Abhinava Bhoja, he himself was also a scholar, he wrote the Telugu work Amuktamalyada and a Sanskrit play, Jambavati Kalyana. In his court, eight eminent scholars known as ‘Astadiggajas’ were patronized, like – Allasani Peddana (Andhra-kavita-pitamaha) and Nandi Thimmanna. The imperial court had representatives of Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil poets, who made 18 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

large contributions to their respective literatures. He built Vijaya Mahal, Hazara Ramaswamy temple and Vithal Swami temple at Vijayanagar . He also built ‘Rayagopurams’. A new city was built called ‘Nagalapuram’ in memory of his queen Nagaladevi. Also a reservoir across river Tungabhadra called Vallabapuram and a channel called Basavanna were constructed. Krishnadevaraya repaired and restored many south Indian temples, hence, most of the big towers on temples in south India have the name Raya gopuram in his honour. Acchutadeva suceeded Krishnadeva . The later rulers were Sadashiva Raya but defacto ruler then was Rama Raya. Battle of Rakshasa- TangadiRama Raya took active part in Muslim politics. In 1565 AD, all the Sultanates joined a coalition against Vijayanagr except Berar. The Battle of Talikota , also known as Battle of Rakshasa- Tangadi, led to execution of Rama Raya after being taken prisoner. Thereafter, the city of Vijayanagar was destroyed and looted.

Aravidu Dynasty(1570-1650 AD) • Tirumala Raya ruled in name of Sadashiva Raya. They failed to repopulate Vijayanagar and shifted to new capital at Penugonda and then to Chandragiri . The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III. Administration under Vijayanagar Empire: The kingdom was divided into provinces known as Mandalam, headed by ‘mandaleshwar’. It was further divided into nadu, sthala and grams. Land revenue was fixed at 1/6th of the produce. Land revenue varied according to nature of cultivated land. There were taxes on various professions. The Ayagar system: It was an important feature of the village organization in vijayanagar. According to this, every village was a separate unit and its affairs were conducted by a team of 12 functionaries who were collectively known as the ‘ayagars’. They were granted tax-free lands (manyams) which they were to enjoy in perpectuity for their services. Once granted, these ayagars had a hereditary right over their offieces. The ayagars could also sell or mortgage their offices. For justice, very harsh punishments like mutilation of body, throwing to elephants were delivered. The army under Vijayanagar Kingdom was well organised and efficient. It consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillary and elephants. The highest grade officers in army were known as ‘Nayaks or Poligars‘. They were awarded land in lieu of their services. The Nayakara system: Under this system, the king was considered to be the owner of the soil and he distributed the lands to his nayakas. Nayakas had to pay a fixed annual financial contribution to the imperial exchequer which, according to the chronicle of Nuniz, was generally half their revenue. They were required to maintain a sufficient number of troops for the king and serve them in his war. The nayaka enjoyed greater freedom in his province. There was no system of transfer from one district to another. Society under Vijayanagar empire: The city of Vijayanagar was a luxurious society with splendid buildings. Slavery was prevalent, as mentioned by Nicolo Conti. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dresses. Vijayanagar markets were noted for dealing in spices, textiles and precious stones. Religious tolerance was shown towards everyone. Muslims were also employed in the administration. A large number of temples were built during this time. Epics and Puranas were popular among masses. • Position of Women: – Women were employed in royal palaces. Some women scholars like Hannamma, Thirumalamma and Gangadevi, who wrote Madhuravijayam. Subordinate condition of women: Devadasi system was flourishing under Vijayanagar Kingdom, dancing girls were attached to the temples. Polygamy was prevalent among royal families. Sati practice was also recounted by traveller accounts. Architecture under Vijayanagar Empire: It is generally understood that the very location site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the 19 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. This is supported by the fact that, the Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. Vijayanagar rulers began the practice of wall inscriptions containing stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata on temples. Vithalswamy and Hazara Rama temple has such inscriptions. • The chief characteristic feature of Vijayanagar Architecture was the construction of tall Raya Gopurams (gateways) and kalyan mandapas(open pavilion) with carved pillars. These mandapas were meant for seating deities on festival occasions. Amman shrines were added to existing temples. The Varadhraja and Ekamparanatha temple at Kanchipuram are also examples of Vijayanagar style of Architecture.

Foreign Visitors of Vijayanagara Kingdom: • Ibn Bututa (1333-1347 A.D.) — Moroccan traveller, who visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq. And came to Vijayanagar during the reign of Harihar I. • Nicolo Conti (1420-1421 A.D.) — Venetian traveller, who gave a comprehensive account of the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar. • Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 A. D.) — Persian traveller, who stayed at the court of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has given a vivid account of the Vijayanagar city, while describing the wealth and luxurious life of the king and the nobles. • Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 A.D.) — Portuguese traveller, who has given a valuable narrative of the government and the people of the Vijayanagar empire. • Domingos Paes (1520-1522 A.D) — Portuguese traveller, who visited the court of Krishnadeva • Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537 A.D) — Portuguese merchant, who wrote the history of the empire from its earliest days to the closing years of Acchyutdeva Raya’s reign.

11. Bahmani Kingdom • The Bahmani Sultanate or Bahmanid Empire was a Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and was one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms. It was North Deccan region to the river Krishna. According to some Muslim historian a rebel chieftain of Saulatabad (an area around Ellora), was under Muhammad Bin Tughalaq. The sultanate was founded on 3rd of August 1347 by the Turkish Governor Ala-ud-Din Hassan Bahman Shah/ Hasan Gangu/ Allauddin Hassan, possibly of Tajik-Persian descent, who revolted against the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughluq . Nazir uddin Ismail Shah who had revolted against the Delhi sultanate stepped down on that day in favour of Zafar Khan/ Hassan Gangu who ascended the throne with the title of Alauddin Bahman Shah. His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state on the Deccan, including parts of present day Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh within the Delhi Sultanate's southern provinces. The Bahmani contested the control of the Deccan with the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire to the south. The Bahmani capital was Ahsanabad ( Gulbarga ) between 1347 and 1425 when it was moved to Muhammadabad (Bidar). The sultanate reached the peak of its power during the vizierate (1466–1481) of Mahmud Gawan . About eighteen kings ruled during the nearly 200 years. After 1518 the kingdom got divided into four smaller ones like Barishahi (Bidar), Kutbshahi (of Golkonda), Adamshahi( of Ahmadnagar), and Adilshahi (of Bijapur), known collectively as the Deccan sultanates. 20 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• History of Bahamani Kingdom : Allauddin Hassan, a man of humble origin assumed the name of Gangu Bahamani in memory of his patron, a brahmin. Hasan Gangu declared the founder of the Bahamani Dynasty and ruled it under the title of Bahaman Shah. Bahamani was in constant war with south, kingdom of Vijaynagar. Firuz Shah Bahamani left his remarkable foot prints over the Bahamani history. He was a learned man and having knowledge of many religions and natural science. He always wanted to develop the Deccan region as the cultural hub of India. He waged three battles against Vijaynagar Empire, and also extended his territories of Warangal. He gave up his kingdom and throne to his brother Ahmed shah I.Agriculture was the main economic activity of Bahamani kingdom for earning the main revenue of the state.The nobles in the Bahamani Kingdom were classified into two categories, Deccanis (old comers) and the Afaquis (new comers). They were always having problem of difference of opinion. Mahmud Gawan was a minister in Bahamani Empire who expanded and extended the Bahamani Kingdom rapidly. He was categorized as Afaqui and hence it was difficult for him to win the trust and confidence of the Deccanis. He was executed at the age of seventy by Muhammad Shah of Deccan in the year 1482 for his policy which made matters worse in Deccanis and Afaquis. • Culture of Bahamani : The Bahamani kingdom flourished in architectural monuments. In the field of architecture, the Bahamanis paved way for the distinct style by inviting architects from Persia, Turkey, and Arabia and blended it with local styles. The culture that developed during this time was a blend of both north and south styles and also had its own distinct styles. Gumbaz (the largest dome in the world) and Charminar located at Hyderabad are the world famous examples of Bahamani architecture. The Bahanamis of Deccan left an important heritage of Indo- Islamic art , language, and spread of Islamic tradition in South India. Hazrat Banda Nawaz (1321 - 1422 CE) the great Sufi saint was patronized by the Bahamani kings and his Dargah of Gulbarga is a place of pilgrimage for Hindus and Muslims alike. Mahmud Gawan arrived in Bidarfrom Persia in 1453. A great scholar of Islamic lore, he founded the Madarassa (institution) from his own funds on the line of universities of Samarkhand and Khorasan. A selefless worker, he became a prime-minister of Bahamani king Mahmud III (1462- 82) whom he tutored in earlier days. But Gawan became a victim of the palace intrigue and was beheaded by the drunken king.

12. Qutub-Shahi Era • The Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from the early part of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century. Sultan Quli Qutb Shah, the founder of the dynasty, served the Bahmanis faithfully and was appointed governor of Telangana in A.D.1496. He declared independence after the death of his patron king, Mahmud Shah, in A.D.1518. During his 50-year rule, Sultan Quli extended his kingdom upto Machilipatnam . He was murdered by his third son, Jamsheed, who succeeded Sultan Quli. Jamsheed reigned for seven years till A.D.1550 but remained maligned by all for his patricidal crime. His youngest brother, Ibrahim, who was hardly thirteen at the time of his father’s assassination, fled to Vijayanagar and took refuge there. It afforded him a training ground and he learned the art of administration. • After Jamsheed’s death in A.D.1550, Ibrahim returned to Golconda and ascended the throne. Ibrahim Qutb Shah, who was known as Malkibharam in the Andhra country, was the real architect of the Golconda kingdom. He ruled the kingdom for 30 years from A.D.1550 to A.D.1580. He organised the central and provincial governments and brought them into close contact. He also introduced an efficient intelligence service which kept him informed on 21 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

all affairs. The kingdom was made safe for travel and trade. Ibrahim had also many works of public utility to his credit. He dug lakes and tanks and laid out towns and gardens. He also encouraged local language Telugu and patronised Telugu scholars and poets like, Telaganarya and Gangadhara who dedicated their works to him. • Ibrahim took an active part in the battle of Rakkasi Tangadi in A.D.1565. It immensely benefited him in cash and territories, and the kingdom was extended to the south as far as Madras and Gandikota. • The next period of forty years led by Ibrahim’s son and grandson was an era of peace and prosperity. Muhammad Quli, son of Ibrahim, was a great writer and a builder. The city of Hyderabad was laid in A.D.1591 with magnificent buildings, straight roads and other civic amenities. For this purpose, he invited many Persians to settle down in Hyderabad and Machilipatnam. He was a scholar and a poet, composed a large number of poems in the Deccani language . Muhammad Quli was succeeded by his nephew and son-in-law Sultan Muhammad in A.D.1612. He was highly religious and a model of virtue and piety. He followed his uncle in promoting learning and architecture. The great mosque known as Mecca Masjid in Hyderabad was designed and its foundation laid by him, though the main structure of the Mosque was completed during the next four generations. • In 1463, disturbances broke out in the Telangana area of the Bahmani kingdom of the Deccan. Sultan Quli Qutbul-Mulk, a Turk who was a high-ranking military officer under Muhammad Shah Bahmani, was sent to quell the trouble. • He was successful and was rewarded by being made the subedar of Telangana in 1495, with Golconda as his headquarters. • Subsequently, with the disintegration of the Bahmani Kingdom in the early 16th century, Sultan Quli assumed virtual independence. Thus he founded the Qutb Shahi dynasty that lasted from 1518 right upto 1687, when Aurangzeb’s armies swept the Deccan. • Qutb Shahi dynasty spanned 171 years in the history of South India . The eight kings of this royal lineage have left a firm impression of their strong personalities upon the land and its people. • The Qutb Shahi rulers were great builders and patrons of learning. They not only patronized the Persian culture but also the regional culture of the Deccan, symbolized by the Telugu language and the newly developed Deccan kingdom.

13. Asaf Jahi Dynasty • The origins of the Asif Jahi dynasty can be traced to Chin Qalich Khan who was the grandfather of the first Nizam and the commander of the Mughal army during Aurangzeb ’s reign. Chin Qalich Khan led the attack of the Mughal army into the Deccan under his Emperor’s ambitious plans of expanding the Mughal empire. During Aurangzeb’s last siege of Golconda in 1687, Chin Qalich Khan was wounded. He died in Atapur village near Himayath Sagar. • Chin Qalich Khan’s son, Nawab Ghaziuddin Khan, married the daughter of Sadullah Khan, Prime Minister of Aurangzeb. A son was born, and the Emperor named him Mir Qumaruddin. At the age of six, Mir Qumaruddin accompanied his father to the Mughal court. Aurangzeb awarded him a mansab, and said to his father, “The star of destiny shines on the forehead of your son”. Mir Qumaruddin displayed considerable skill as a warrior and at the age of nineteen, the Emperor bestowed on him the title “Chin Fateh Khan”. At 26, he was appointed Commander in Chief and Viceroy, first at Bijapur, then Malwa and later of the Deccan. 22 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• Subsequently, the Mughal empire declined. There was much confusion after the death of Aurangzeb, and Mir Qumaruddin established his position as Viceroy Farukh Siar who was the Mughal Emperor for a brief tenure conferred on Mir Qumaruddin the title Nizam-ul-mulk Fateh Jung. He thus became the first Nizam. A subsequent Emperor, Muhammad Shah bestowed on him the title Asif Jah. The dynasty of the Nizams of Hyderabad thus came to be known as the Asif Jahi Dynasty. • Unrest and claims to the throne continued after the death of Aurangzeb, and amidst the general confusion, Asif Jah had little difficulty in asserting his independence from the weak occupants of the Delhi throne. At that time, Asif Jah was the Sudedar of Malwa. However, his independence was the cause of much jealousy, and the Delhi court secretly instructed Mubrez Khan, the Subedar of the Deccan, to oppose him. A battle was fought at Shakar- Khelda in the district of Berer in 1724, where Mubrez Khan was defeated and killed. This battle established Asif Jah's supremacy in the Deccan. After gaining independence, Asif Jah came to be known as Nizam-ul-Mulk. He first set up his capital at Auragabad but later moved to Hyderabad, which became the capital of the Asif Jahi dynasty. • Nizam-ul-Mulk's greatest achievement was the foundation of the Hyderabad Dominion. He attained his object by waging a struggle against the Marhattas and by the policy of non-involvement in the rivalry for power between the British and the French. His policy has been justified by later events as Hyderabad state survived right through the period of British rule upto the time of Indian independence. • Asif Jah ruled wisely and established an independent state in the Deccan. He was one of the ablest statesmen. However, his death at Burhanpur on 21st May 1748 at the age of 78, was followed by a struggle for the throne. By this time, foreign powers were spreading their tentacles. Asif Jah's second son Nasir Jung was supported by the British whereas Muzafar Jung, grandson of Asif Jah, was supported by the French. Nasir Jung succeeded; but after a brief rule he was slain in 1750 in an encounter with the French troops at Arcot. Thereupon, Muzafar Jung ascended the throne. In the following year he was murdered and his son Salabath Jung was put on the throne. In 1762 Salabeth Jung was dethroned by his brother Nizam Ali Khan, and confined at Bidar where he died in 1793. • Hence, Nasir Jung, Muzafar Jung and Salabath Jung, who were contestants for the sovereignty of the Deccan in the short span of thirteen years between the death of Asif Jah and accession of Nizam Ali Khan, have not been historically recognised as reigning Nizams. If they had been, Nizam Ali Khan would have been known as the fifth Nizam and not the second. • Nizam Ali Khan ascended the throne in 1763 and he ruled Hyderabad for almost forty years. This was one of the eventful periods in the history of India . Foremost among competitors for supremacy in the Deccan were the Marhattas and it was during this period that the famous French adventurer Monsieur Raymond was employed by Nizam Ali Khan. • Nizam Ali Khan died in August 1803 at the age of 72 years after a long and strenuous reign. • The succession of Sikandar Jah as Nizam was undisputed and he appointed Mir Alam as his Prime Minister. With the accession to the throne by Sikander Jah and end of war with the Marhattas, there commenced an entirely new era for Hyderabad. Unfortunately in 1808 the able Minister Mir Alam died and it was he who was responsible for maintaining good relations wit the British. In 1809, Mir Alam’s son Munir-ul-Mulk was appointed as Minister. 23 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• Sikander Jah died in May 1829 at the age of 62 after reigning for almost 26 years. Secunderabad was named after him. Sikander Jah was succeeded by his eldest son Nasir-ud-Daula. It was during his reign that Salar Jung was appointed as the Minister in 1853. Salar Jung guided the affairs of the Deccan with great wisdom and introduced several reforms to improve the finances of the Dominion. • On 17 May 1857 Nasir-ud-Daula died and his son Afzal-ud-Daula became the fifth Nizam. This was the first time the first war of Indian Independence was fought in the North and there was general disorder in the Deccan. • After a reign of twelve years, Afzal-ud-Daula expired on 26 February 1869 at the young age of forty three years, leaving behind the infant prince Mir Mahboob Ali Khan who was hardly three years old. • Mir Mahboob Ali Khan, who was born on 18 August 1866, was the only son of Afzal-ud-Daula. He was installed on the masnad by the British Resident and Sir Salar Jung, who also acted as the co-regent. Salar Jung died in 1883 and a provisional council, consisting of five members, with Mahboob Ali Khan as president and Mir Laiq Ali Khan, son of Salar Jung, as secretary was appointed for administrative purposes. • Special attention was paid to the education of Mahboob Ali Khan. With the concurrence of Salar Jung, Capt. John Clerk was appointed as his tutor. However, the personality of Salar Jung had a great influence on his life. Brought up under the guidance of this great statesman, Mahboob Ali Khan grew in his later years to be one of the greatest rulers of his time. He was a respected and dignified personality and was popularly know as ‘Mahboob Ali Pasha’. He died on Tuesday 31 August 1911. • Mir Osman Ali Khan, the seventh and the last Nizam of Hyderabad ruled for 37 years (1911 - 1948). His Dominion was lager than England and Scotland put together, with an area of 86,000 Sq. miles. • The seventh Nizam led a very simple life, yet he was one of the richest men in the world. He donated generously to every cause in India as well as abroad irrespective of caste and religion. If it was the Muslim theological school at Deoband which received financial help, it was also the privilege of the Benaras Hindu University. His list of donations included Rabindranth Tagore’s Shantiniketan and several other institutions including hospitals , schools, for famine relief , etc. The golden temple in Amritsar also enjoyed an annual donation. • The Nizam’s rule saw the growth of Hyderabad economically and culturally. Electricity, railways, roads and airways developed. Huge reservoirs and irrigation projects such as the Tungabhadra, and Nizamsagar were completed. The early work on Nagarjunasagar was undertaken. The Osmania University , Colleges and Schools were founded throughout the state. Nearly all the public buildings currently in such as the Osmania General Hospital , High Court, Central State Library, Assembly Hall, Jubilee Hall and other buildings in the Public Garden were built during Osman Ali Khan’s reign. 24 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Culture - Arts and Traditions of Telangana

Introduction The name ‘Telangana’ is derived from the word ‘Trilinga’ meaning the place of three lingas as according to legends Lord Shiva ’s lingams are found on three mountains Srisailam , Kaleshwaram and Draksharama which form the boundaries of Telangana. It is mentioned in the Mahabharata as Telingadesha and it is said that the people of this land sided with the Pandavas in their battle against the Kauravas in the Kurukshetra War. It is also mentioned in the Aitreyabrahmana, Ramayana and Puranas. The Art, Culture and Traditions of Telangana is a fusion of the Telugu and Persian culture dating back to the Nizams and Mughals. Hence, there is an influence of Hinduism and Islam . Since Buddhism was the dominant religion upto the 6th century it was also the home of Mahayana Buddhism. This can be observed in the monuments of Nagarjunakonda and the World University at the Sri Parvata presided over by Acharya Nagarjuna. In the 12th century the Kakatiyas and the Chalukyas revived Hinduism and Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire restructured old temples and built new ones.

Art Nirmal Arts Amidst the hills and forests of Adilabad one of the districts of Telangana is the small town of Nirmal. It has been considered the land of art and crafts. The big community of craftsmen in Nirmal are referred to as ‘Nakkash’. It is said that this art form originated somewhere around 14th century. By the end of 17th century, this art took a radical transformation. This town is famous for its paintings known as Nirmal paintings. These paintings were greatly admired and patronised by the Mughal rulers in the medieval period and it is said that Lady Hydri later on brought the craftsmen to Hyderabad to promote their growth and development. In this, traditional art scenes are painted from the Hindu epics¬ Ramayana and Mahabharata. The paintings have been influenced by the Indian Schools of Art like Ajanta, Kangra and from Mughal miniatures. The colours used in these paintings especially the familiar gold colour are produced indigenously from extracts of herbs, gum, vegetable dye and minerals. The paintings, whether depicting the grace of a dancer or the rhythm of a musician, enrapture the viewer. It is said that in the past the Nizam of Hyderabad on visiting Nirmal was given a grand welcome with the artisans decorating the venue and seat of the Nizam in such a way that an intricately designed banana bud suspended over the Nizam’s seat unfurled and a cascade of golden petals were showered on the Nizam.

Deccani Paintings Deccani paintings are a style of miniature paintings which flourished among the Deccani Sultanates in peninsular India in the late 16th century. It was a combination of Vijayanagar wall paintings and Persian influence with elongated figures and landscapes with floral backgrounds. The colours used were rich and luminous predominantly in gold and white.

Kalamkari paintings These paintings originated from the word ‘kalam’ meaning pen and ‘kari’ meaning work. Colourful designs are applied on cloth using vegetable dyes. Scenes from Hindu mythology are depicted though Persian designs and motifs are included due to the influence of Muslim rulers. Hand carved blocks are used to do the outlines and main features and the pen is used for finer details. 25 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Cheriyal Scroll Paintings These paintings are stylised versions of Nakashi art which is an art form practised in Cheriyaldistrict of Warangal in the Telangana region. They are used for storytelling and their themesare drawn from folklore and mythology like the Puranas and Epics. The format of thesepaintings is narrative like a film role or a comic strip. They were traditionally used by theballadeer or story telling community known as ‘Kaki Padagollu’. They went from village tovillage singing and narrating their ballads with music and dance displaying these scrolls in aseries of horizontal or vertical panels on a stage erected on four poles with a horizontal bar.The length of the scroll depended on the length of the story and each scroll could have about50 panels. The panel depicting that particular part of the story would be displayed as the bardwould narrate the story. In modern times instead of a continuous scroll single pictures arepainted as wall decorations. The making of the canvas is an elaborate procedure with Khadicotton, rice starch, white mud, boiled tamarind seeds and gum water. The artists then sketchthe outline on the canvas with a brush made of a stick with squirrel’s hair. They are painted invivid hues with the red colour predominantly in the background.

Sculptures Sculptures made of stone, marble or wood are made in the Telangana region into various animal and bird forms. Sculptures of deities in various forms in intricate and aesthetic styles are crafted by the artisans. Examples of fine sculptures can be seen in the Ramappa temple in Warangal, the thousand pillar temple built by the Kakatiyas in the town of Hanamakonda in Telangana and the Alampur temples in Mahbubnagar .

Ramappa Temple: It lies in a valley at Palampet village of Venkatapur Mandal, in erstwhile Mulug Taluq of Warangal district, a tiny village long past its days of glory in the 13th and 14th centuries.An inscription in the temple dates it to the year 1213 and said to have been built by a General Recherla Rudra, during the period of the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati Deva.

This medieval temple is a Shivalaya (where Shiva is worshipped) and named after the sculptor Ramappa. It is the only temple in the world named after its sculptor/architect. Its presiding deity, Ramalingeswara, is the form of Shiva and a personal god of the Avatar of Vishnu , Rama. The history says that it took 40 years to build this temple. Planned and sculpted by Ramappa, the temple was built on the classical pattern of being lifted above the world on a high star-shaped platform. Intricate carvings line the walls and cover the pillars and ceilings. Starting at its base to its wall panels, pillars and ceiling are sculpted figures drawn from Hindu mythology. The roof (garbhalayam) of the temple is built with bricks, which are so light that they are able to float on water.

Architecture The Thousand Pillar Temple is one of the very old temples of South India that was built by the kakatiyas. It stands out to be a masterpiece and achieved major heights in terms of architectural skills by the ancient kakathiya vishwakarma sthapathis. It is believed that the Thousand Pillar Temple was built by King Rudra Deva in 1163 AD. The Thousand Pillar Temple is a specimen of the Kakatiyan style of architecture of the 12th century. It was destroyed by the Tughlaq dynasty during their invasion of South India. It consists one temple and other building. There are one thousand pillars in the building and the temple, but no pillar obstructs a person in any point of the temple to see the god in the other temple. 26 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Alampur Temples: There are a total of nine temples in Alampur. All of them are dedicated to Shiva. These temples date back to the 7th century A.D and were built by the Badami Chalukyas rulers who were great patrons of art and architecture. Even after a time span of several hundred years, these grand temples still stand firm reflecting the rich architectural heritage of the country.

The temples are emblematic of the Northern and Western Indian styles of architecture. They do not reflect the Dravidian style of architecture as is generally common with the temples in this region. The shikharas of all these temples have a curvilinear form and are adorned with the miniature architectural devices. The plans and decoration similar to that of the rock cut temples. The Alampur Navabhrama Temples are historically important and reflect remarkable architectural skills. Alampur was previously Known as Halampuram, Hamalapuram And Alampuram. Name of this place as Hatampura, mentioned in the inscription dated AD 1101 belongs to Western Chalukya

Cultural Sites Museums Telangana has many museums which have prized collections of different civilisations depicting the culture of the various kingdoms of the state. They are:

Salar Jung MuseumIt is one of the three National museums of India and is located in the city of Hyderabad in Telangana. The art objects were collected by three generations of the Salar Jung family with the major portion of the collection acquired by Salar Jung III (Nawab Mir Yousuf Ali Khan) who devoted his entire life to collecting rare and precious art objects. It was originally stored in his ancestral palace ‘Dewan Deodi’. Thereafter his heirs decided to form a museum to store the various artefacts, books and manuscripts in 1968. The collection comprises antiques and art objects not only from India but also from Western, Middle East and Far East countries. It is a treasure house of art from different cultures like Roman, Greek, Hindu, Jain Buddhist, Islamic and Christian culture and a cultural centre for research projects, exhibits as well as an educational centre. These include paintings, sculptures, metal ware, carvings, ceramics, ivory, lacquer ware, porcelain, metal ware, glass etc and a huge library of books, journals and manuscripts.

Hyderabad MuseumIt is located at Hyderabad’s public garden and is the state’s oldest museum. It has many galleries containing bronze and stone sculptures, paintings, textiles, manuscripts, arts and antiquities representing Vijayanagara and Chalukyan period including Buddhist artefacts.

Nizam Museum or City Museum This museum which is situated in the palace ( Purani Haveli ) of the last Nizam of Hyderabad Asaf Jah VII (Osman Ali Khan Bahadur) contains treasures which include artefacts of swords, daggers studded with precious stones, figurines, Neolithic pottery, coins of Satavahana period etc.

National History Museum This museum is located inside the Nehru Zoological Park in Hyderabad and contains many artefacts and stuffed dummies of extinct animals and birds. 27 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Crafts Bidri Craft This craft form is said to have originated in Iran centuries ago and brought down by migrants. It has been nourished and maintained by future generations of practitioners and is said to have derived its name from the town Bidar of the erstwhile princely Hyderabad state now currently part of Karnataka. It is the unique art of silver engraved on metal. It involves four stages of manufacturing namely casting, engraving, inlaying and oxidising. Black colours for surface ornamentation are used for Bidri art which does not fade easily and is accompanied by silver and gold coatings. An alloy of zinc and copper called gunmetal is used for this art. Flower vases, jewellery boxes, key chains and other artefacts are made which is very popular all over the world.

Dokra Metal Craft This metal craft could be seen centuries earlier in the artefacts of Mohenjo Daro. It is a bell metal craft which combines skills of metallurgy with wax technique and though it originated in West Bengal , Chhatisgarh and Jharkhand it travelled to Orissa and Andhra Pradesh mainly in the district of Adilabad. Dokra is an ancient technique of casting wherein wax threads are wrapped around an inner core of clay model. Molten brass or bronze is poured into an opening which has been covered with another layer of clay. It is a very labour intensive work and each piece crafted is different from the other. Simple art forms and traditional designs are made like tribal Gods, figurines, caskets, bowls etc and its aesthetic beauty is in great demand in India and abroad.

Nirmal toys and handi crafts Initially the Nirmal artisans restricted themselves to art form. But later local talent was exploited and decorative and utility articles began to be manufactured. Nirmal toys are carved out of Puniki wood or ‘Puniki Chekka’ which is flexible and light and can be cut into various shapes and sizes. The various parts of the toys are then coated with ‘Chinta Leppam’ which is a specially prepared glue prepared from boiled tamarind seeds and sawdust and coated with white clay which smoothens any depressions or ridges present in the toys. The artefacts and wall plaques are made of teak wood which is well finished on lathe before painting the preconceived design. Then Duco paint in the desired background colour is sprayed on the plaque and finally the artisan paints the design. The quality and beauty of the finished products is breath taking. In modern times experimentation with various hues and shades without moving away from tradition has been evolved. A variety of aesthetic household and office furniture and decorative furnishings too are made by the craftsmen.

Banjara Needle Craft This needle craft is practised by the Banjaras or tribals of Telangana. It is made up of needlework with geometric patterns of squares, diamonds and triangles. Colourful and different types of stitches with mirror work, beads and shells are made on rich and brightly coloured clothes. These are different from the embroidery and design work of the tribals of Gujarat and Kutch region. These beautiful designs and intricate patterns are used in clothes, bags, bedspreads and bring an exotic look to the decor of a place. Bronze Castings The bronze castings of Telangana are world famous and detailed information can be obtained from the Shilpa Shastras which is a text from the Gupta period on the methodology of casting images in metal. The Vishnusamhita an appendix to the Vishnu Purana refers to wax modelling for making metal objects. The ancient Sanskrit text Manasara Shilpa has a chapter entitled Lost wax Method or Maduchhistha Vidhanam giving details of casting idols in wax. The Abhilasitartha Chintamani or Manasollasa written by King Bhulokamalla Someshvara of the Chalukya dynasty gives detailed description of lost wax and casting methods. Srikumara’s Silparatna contains instructions on the hollow casting procedure. Studying all these detailed procedures the craftsmen make the idols 28 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS with accurate measurements and descriptions of the deity in proper proportion bringing out the salient features and characteristics. Several coatings of clay on a finished wax model are used to create the mould which then imparts intricate curves to the cast image.

Lacquer Ware Lac is said to have been first mentioned in 1590 AD in Aaine Akbari written by Abul Fazl. Lac is a gummy deposit obtained from insects which are tiny and red in colour and which thrive on certain species of trees. This craft involves applying lacquer on wood in different colours which is done on a lathe or ‘turned toys’ and can be machine or hand operated. A light species of wood called Ankudu karra is generally used and the lacstick is pressed against the woodenware to be lacquered. Designs are painted on toys and figures using a brush. The lac is applied in a dry state. The lac is softened with the help of the heat evolved from the friction during the revolving of the woodenware and enables the colour to stick. The most popular form of lacquer ware are the lac bangles studded with mirrors, beads and stones in attractive colours and designs. Besides this many decorative items like bowls, vases, containers etc are made.

Telangana has a music tradition of Carnatic music and folk music. The different forms of folk music are Oggukatha It is a traditional folk singing art carried out by some communities who sing songs in the form of ballads in praise of their tribal Gods and on Lord Shiva moving from one place to another. They narrate and dramatise the stories of the Gods. Sarada Kala In this the story tellers or balladeers narrate stories in song form using the Sarada stringed instruments.

Dances Perini Shivathandavam Perini Shivathandavam is a dance which originated in the Kakatiya dynasty which ruledfor nearly two centuries and established their kingdom in Warangal. It was performedin front of the idol of Lord Shiva before the soldiers set out to fight in the battle. It is called the ‘Dance of Warriors’ and is usually performed only by males. Evidence of this dance form can be seen in the sculptures of the Ramappa temple in Warangal in the sanctum sanctorum or Garbha Gruha of the main temple. This dance is performed vigorously to the beats of drums as the dancers feel the power of Shiva entering their body as they invoke him in a deep abstract way and is considered highly invigorating and intoxicating. This dance form was on the verge of extinction after the decline of the Kakatiya Empire but has been revived in recent times.

Gobbi Dance It is performed during the Sankranthi festival and derives its name from ‘Gobbillu’ or ‘balls of cow dung’ which are placed in the middle of rangoli designs made in front of houses. These are then worshipped along with rituals, kumkum, turmeric and flowers. In the evening young girls sing and dance around the Gobbillu in a circular manner similar to the Garbha dance of Gujarat.

Burra Katha This is a form of storytelling using a musical instrument called ‘Burra’. This art evolved from a dance called Tandana Katha which was a popular means of entertainment for the rural masses. A Burra Katha group consists of three artistes the main artist being in the centre dressed with a long flowing dress called angaraksha , a colourful turban with a crest feather, a tight pyjama or dhoti , a colourful waistband and musical bells on his ankles. He holds a 29 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Burra (a kind of Tambura) in his hand and sings the ballads while playing the instrument. He is called the storyteller or Kathakudu and his stories are based on mythology or history. He also wears a metal ring called Andelu in his right hand and holds another ring in his left hand and beats music with them. He is accompanied by two other artistes one on either side called Vantalu who are similarly dressed and play the instruments called Barralu or Budigalu or dhaki which are earthern drums of two heads. One of them is called the Rajkiya who enlivens the session with his satirical political and social commentary and the other is the Hasyam clown for comic relief. The ballad compositions contain a variety of songs in content and form in different meters.

Dandaria dance This dance is generally performed by the Gonds of the hilly region of Northern Hyderabad with Dandas or sticks. The male dancers wear colourful costumes and strike their sticks dancing to the accompaniment of trumpets and drums with musicians leading the procession. They go from village to village and even the hosts sometimes accompany them in their dance. According to the Gond legend, Dandaria was an ancient Gond hero who was the creator of this dance and he was originally a descendant of the Pandavas thus the Gonds believe they too are descendants of the Pandavas and joyously celebrate this dance.

Dhamal Dance This dance is in mime form and performed by the Siddhis of Hyderabad region. The Siddhis are said to be originally from Africa and Abyssinia who were brought into Andhra as slaves in the 12th century to perform guard duties in the palaces by the Hindu Kings. The ruling classes used them as sailors, soldiers and guards. It is in the form of martial art using shields and swords and they perform various steps and is a ceremonial dance performed during marriages to the accompaniment of various musical instruments. Their exotic dances with special war like movements and exotic colourful costumes reflect the flavour of their land of origin.

Mathuri Dance This is a special dance performed by the Madhuri tribe of Adilabad during the rainy season of the month of Shravan . Unlike in most of the dance forms which are performed predominantly by men including roles of women, this dance is performed by both men and women with men in the outer semi circle and women in the inner circle. The men strike small sticks while women clap to the accompaniment of secular and devotional songs. These tribes were said to have been originally from Mathura and hence their dance is said to bear resemblance to the Ras Leela dances of Uttar Pradesh .

Bhamakalpam and Gollakalapam These are famous folk art forms of traditional drama written by Sidhendra Yogi in the 7th century. Kalapam is a one act folk play in a simple traditional dance drama form. A Sutradhar gives the main running commentary of the sequence and each character narrates his story with another character making comments or asking questions. The main emphasis is Satthvikabhinaya with Bhakti or Shringar Rasa. This dance form with emphasis on moral values was initiated by Sidhendra Yogi to differentiate it from the dances performed by the nautch girls of those times. He trained young boys from the Brahmin community with complex expressions and elaborate gestures as in the Kuchipudi dance form with philosophical stories forming the main theme wherein a simple milkmaid explains to an erudite Brahmin concepts of Dharma and the philosophy behind the various incarnations of God on earth. 30 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Festivals Besides the common festivals celebrated throughout the year there are many festivals significant to the region. They are:

Bathukamma This festival is celebrated by the women of Telangana during Mahalaya Amavasya or Bhadrapada Amavasya in the month of September – October during Navratri for a period of nine days and is now declared the State Festival of Telengana. The first day is on Mahalaya Amavasya and the last day culminates on Ashwayuja Ashtami or Durgashtami two days before Dussehra. This day is called Pedda Bathukamma or Saddula Bathukamma. ‘Bathukamma’ or ‘Divine Mother Gauri– Life Giver’ is said to be the patron Goddess for women. Women dress up in traditional finery, clean their courtyard, use cow dung as base and decorate it with various designs of Rangoli using rice flour. For the first five days five small cone shaped lumps with cow dung are arranged in the courtyard. Men help in gathering various kinds of flowers including rare and wild flowers found in the various plains of the region. These flowers are decorated and scented and stacked in a conical mound with a lotus or pumpkin flower on the top along with a symbolic mound of turmeric depicting Goddess Gauri. In the evening women form a circle around it clapping and singing folk songs slowly revolving around in small steps. The songs invoke the blessings of the various Goddesses for the happiness, good health and prosperity of their families.

Boddemma This festival commences nine days prior to Bathukamma festival and concludes on Mahalaya Amavasya. It is a festival for unmarried girls. The courtyard is cleaned and decorated with turmeric, flowers and Rangoli. An image of Boddemma is prepared in seven layers with earth in the shape of a Gopura. In the evening all unmarried girls sing and dance around it praying to the Goddess for an early and successful marriage.

Bonalu This festival is celebrated to pray to Goddess Mahakali and began during the period of the Nizams. It is said that during the outbreak of plague in the 18th century in Hyderabad, people prayed that they would instal an idol of Mahakali if the disease was destroyed and hence this festival is celebrated. Another version states that the Goddess returns to her parental home in the month of Ashadi and the occasion is welcomed and celebrated as Bonalu . Women and unmarried girls dress up in traditional finery dancing with Bonam (balancing pots) to the rhythmic beats of drums. Devotees offer a Thottelu or a small colourful paper structure supported by sticks as a mark of respect. The brother of the Goddess represented by Pothuraju is a man anointed with turmeric and vermilion draped in a red dhoti with bells in his ankles who dances to resounding drums and leads the female dancers to the temple. Streets are decorated with neem leaves and the Goddess is offered cooked rice with milk and sugar in brass or earthern pots decorated with neem leaves, turmeric and vermillion.

Sadar The people belonging to the Gola caste or the Yadav community celebrate this festival on the second day after Diwali and it is also known as the Dunnapothula Panduga or the Buffalo festival. Buffaloes are decorated in festive colours, turmeric with bells around their necks and are taken around the streets. Competitions are held and awards are presented to the owners of the buffaloes. Samakka Saralamma This festival is held once every two years in the month of February and is celebrated for four days attracting a large number of pilgrims to Warangal. Samakka and Saralamma are the mother and daughter duo revered as tribal Goddesses. According to legends they fought against 31 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS the unjust and unfair rulers of the kingdom and are worshipped and revered to this day. All the tribal population gather together and offer prayers and Thulabaram (offering objects equal to body weight) generally of jiggery to the Goddesses. They then take a dip in the Jampanna Vagu where Jampanna was said to be the son of Samakka and he died sacrificing his life for the sake of the tribal people in his battle against the Kakatiya rulers.

Bhimanna or Ayak This festival is celebrated by the Kolam tribes of Adilabad and falls in the Kolam month of Satti. It lasts for three days. Bhimanna or Ayak is the principal deity of the Kolam tribe. He is represented by a carved mace of wood crowned with peacock feathers, a pot with a belt of bells or anklets and small dolls made of mud, which are stored in a thatched shed. On a holy Thursday these relics are then brought to the heart of the village. The deity is then bathed at a hill stream and brought to the enclosure and animal or fowl sacrifice is carried out and offered to the deity. The meat is then cooked and offered to everyone.

Yedupayala This annual festival is held in Medak on the holy Mahashivaratri day in a sacred place where the seven tributaries of the Manjira River join and flow together.

Nagoba Jathara The Nagoba Jathara that occurs in the village of Keslapur in Adilabad district . The Jathara is an annual celebration by the Mesaram clan of the Gond tribes is a five day event. It is a huge event which receives participation from the Gond tribes of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.Members of the Mesaram clan revere the serpent God Nagoba which forms the main essence of this Jathara. The Nagoba, also known as Shesh Nag, is the divine serpent of Lord Shiva.Part of this ritual includes introducing newly married women to the clan by paying tribute to Nagoba, the serpent God. Women who have been married earlier but for some reason have not been able to participate in this ritual are also included. The women along with their mother-in-law touch the feet of the priests and carry a new earthenware pot to fetch water from Hastina madugu of river Godavari in Jannaram mandal near to Nagoba temple. The water is then used to make an anthill which is subsequently worshipped as a sacred object. The women then congregate at the ‘Govad’ an enclosure close to the temple and prepare Naivedyam or offering to the Lord on 22 makeshift ovens corresponding to the 22 of the Mesaram clan. The Naivedyam or the offering to the Lord comprises nine different types of food grains. The women cover their faces with their own saris and reveal their faces to Nagoba on entering his shrine. This indicates that the Lord is the first person they behold when they enter the clan on the new moon day. This is considered to be extremely auspicious for the new entrants.

Alai Balai Alai Balai is a cultural event held during the Navarathri festivities before Dussherah The festival aims to spread brotherhood among people.The festival was started by MP and Minister Bandaru Dattatreya , at Nizam College , but is now held at Jal Vihar, Tank Bund.The event is well attended by all sections and politicians of all regions. A typical ambience of the rural area in Telangana is created and is popular for the food festival for its traditional food delicacies.

Conclusion Telangana has a rich culture and tradition and the artefacts and crafts made by the artisans are in great demand throughout the world. Their historical designs on cloth and their folk and traditional arts are well known and have been passed down to generations of artisans and weavers. 32 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Historic Places of Telangana

1. Charminar • The Charminar is a monument and mosque in Hyderabad, India. The structure was built in 1591 CE. It is the most famous building of Hyderabad and also one of the most famous buildings in India. It was built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shahi to celebrate the end of a deadly plague. The Charminar lies near the bank of the river Musi. Charminar is taken from two words Char and Minar which translate as Four Towers in English, soar to a height of 48.7m each, above the ground. • The structure is of Indo- Islamic architecture with some Persian elements. It was built with granite and lime- mortar. It is a blend of 'Cazia' and Islamic style of architecture. The intertwined arches and domes are examples of typical Islamic style of the architecture. The city of Hyderabad was divided into four divisions equally around the Charminar.

2. Golconda Fort • Golconda derives its name from the Telugu words Golla konda meaning ‘shepherd’s hill’. Its establishment dates about 800 years back and was founded by Kakatiya kings of Warangal. It rose to power and fame when Quli Qutub Shah of Qutub Shahi dynasty decided to operate from there as his capital fort. It was during this dynasty’s rule that the fort expanded to a much larger area and turned out be a massive one made of granite. • An interesting fact about this historical landmark is the mind-blowing acoustic effect it produces. A clap made at the entrance gate can be heard even at the highest point of the fort called ‘Bala Hissar’ situated a kilometre away. This engineering miracle during those days is indeed remarkable and was implemented so as to protect the fort from enemy attacks. In ancient times, this was the only known source of diamond across the globe and was known for producing Kohinoor, Darya-e-nur and Hope diamonds.

3. SalarJung Museum • The Salar Jung Museum was established in 1951. The major portion of the collection of the museum was acquired by Mir Yousuf Ali Khan, popularly known as Salar Jung III. In the absence of any direct descendants of Salar Jung III, the Government of India appointed a Committee to administer the Salar Jung Estate. Later on with the idea of perpetuating his name, the Salar Jung Museum was brought into existence on 16th December, 1951 in Diwan Deodi, the residential palace of Salar Jung III and opened to the public by Pandit Jawarharlal Nehru, the then Prime Minister of India . In 1958, the Government of India took over the museum through a compromise deed. In 1961, through an Act of Parliament, the Salar Jung Museum along with its library was declared as an “Institution of National Importance”. Mir Yousuf Ali Khan was not only a collector of antiques but he also patronized poets, writers and artists, encouraging literary and cultural activities. He continued with his zeal as an art connoisseur till the very end of his life enriching his art collections and died as a bachelor on 2nd March,1949 at the age of 60.

4. Warangal Fort • Warangal Fort is located in Warangal District of Telangana. This fort was formerly the pride of Andhra Pradesh. This early medieval historical monument was erected by the Kakatiya Kings of 13th century. Although precise 33 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

dating of its construction and subsequent enhancements are uncertain, the historians and archaeologists generally accept that an earlier brick-walled structure was replaced with stone by Ganapatideva, who died in 1262, and that his successors - Rudramadevi and Prataparudra - added to its height and added gateways, square bastions and additional circular earthen walls prior to the death of Rudramadevi in the year 1323. The construction of Warangal Fort, happened towards the end of the Kakatiya period. There were later modifications between the 15th and 17th centuries, comprising principally the addition of barbicans to the four gates in the stone wall and the creation of gates in the outer earthen wall • Warangal Torana was also built by the Kakatiya Kings of Warangal of 13th Century. Now the Torana is the symbol of the Government of Telangana . The Toranas were present because, Warangal is the erstwhile capital of ancient Andhra Pradesh during 12th to 14th century. It is one of the fine examples of Kakatiya architecture.

5. Bhongir Fort • It was built in 10th Century on an isolated monolithic rock by the western Chalukya ruler Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya VI and was thus named after him as Tribhuvanagiri. • At the foot of the fortified rocks 609.6 meters above the sea level stands the town of Bhongir, it has a unique egg-shaped construction with two entry points protected by huge rocks, so the fort was considered practically impregnable by invading armies. The splendid historical fort with the awe-inspiring rock and the aesthetically fortified courts which have stood the ravages of time stir the imagination of tourists. A moat that encircles the fort, a vast underground chamber, trap doors, an armoury, stables, ponds, wells etc., can make interesting viewing. The view from the top of the surrounding countryside can be impressive. The Bala Hisar or citadel on the top of the hill gives a bird's eye view of the neighbouring area. The fort is associated with the rule of queen Rudramadevi and her grandson Prataparudra.

6. Medak Fort • Medak Fort is in Medak district about 100 kilometres from the state capital, Hyderabad. It is a huge structure located on the top of a hill, which was built about 800 years back in Medak. Built about 90 metres height from ground level and spread in about 100 acres on the hilly area, the fort attracts ones attention. On the top of the third gate, at both left and right sides the ‘Ganda Bherunda,' emblem of Vijayanagara Empire built by Srikrishna Devaraya, stands out. It was believed that the fort built by Kakatiya's was renovated by Qutub Shahis's around 400 years ago. The Medak fort, which was ruled by two dynasties -- Kakatiya's and Qutub Shahi's .

7. Medak Church • Medak Church stands at 173 feet tall made of solid white granite. The church, the single largest diocese in Asia and the second largest in the world after the Vatican is built in solid white granite. Medak Church was constructed between 1914 and 1924 and Thomas Edward Harding who is an architect put in all his best efforts building the cathedral. For the floor, tiles from famous potteries were shipped from England. The tile's design is an intricate one in six colours - red, brown, black, yellow, chocolate and grey. The three stained glass windows makes the church apart, created by Sir Frank O' Salisbury of London who painted them in a small studio for nearly 40 years. 34 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

8. Nirmal Fort • The region was ruled by Kakatiyas, Chalukyas, The Qutubshahis and Nizams who have contributed immensely to the growth of cultural heritage. • This legacy of the heritage is seen in the town where the French established a strong presence by building a magnificent fort, which stands majestically till date. The French who were reportedly very much fascinated by scenic beauty of Mother Nature here built the Nirmal fort which is also called as the Shamgarh fort.

9. Kolanpak • Kolanupaka came into prominence when it was made the capital of the Kalyani Chalukyas in the 11th century AD. The State Department of Archaeology and Museums established a sculptural gallery, which exhibits artefacts collected from the various historical monuments of Kolanupaka. Artefacts from both the Chalukyan and Kakatiyan styles are displayed in the museum. The museum has more than 100 images collected around Kolanupaka. • Situated here is the renowned Jain Mandir with a 1.5 metre high idol of Lord Mahavira , built during the Rastrkuta- Kalyani Chalukyas times. Other attractions here include the Sri Veeranarayana Swamy temple built around 1104 A.D., Someswara Swamy temple which is a splendid example of the Chalukya architecture. Kolanpaka Museum where artefacts from the Chalukyan and Kakatiyan period are on display.

10. Pembarthi • Pembarthi village in Warangal District is the hometown of this art. This art form, as the name suggests was popularised by the Pembarthi village sheet metal workers of modern day Warangal during the reign of Kakatiyas. • During the Kakatiya rule, sheet metal work adorned the chariots of the kings and noblemen and the idols of the Gods. With the increasing number of temples during the Kakatiya rule the Pembarthi sheet metal work reached the peak of its popularity. With the decline of the Kakatiya kingdom, the subsequent Muslim influences resulted in the entry of the sheet metal wares into the house holds in the forms of 'Pandans' (small boxes for carrying beetle nuts), 'Itar' pots (scent containers), vases, hanging metal lamps, plaques etc. The following years saw a mixture of both the cultures in Pembarthi articles. The art wore a secular look.

11. Falaknuma Palace • One of the finest palaces in Hyderabad, India. It is located in the common capital area shared between the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. It belonged to Paigah Hyderabad State, and it was later owned by the Nizams. It is on a 32-acre (13 ha) area in Falaknuma, 5 km from Charminar. It was built by Nawab Vikar-ul-Umra, prime minister of Hyderabad and the uncle and brother-in-law of the Nizam VI, Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali Khan Bahadur.[2] Falak-numa means "Like the Sky" or "Mirror of the Sky" in Urdu . An English architect designed this palace. The foundation for the construction was laid by Sir Vicar on March 3, 1884. He was the great grandson of Khuddus, a scientist who was a friend of Sir Charles Darwin.It took nine years to complete the construction and furnish the palace. Sir Vicar moved into the Gol Bangla and Zanana Mahel of the Falaknuma Palace in December 1889 and closely monitored the finishing work at the Mardana portion.It is made completely with Italian marble and covers an area of 93,971 square meters.The palace was built in the shape of a scorpion with two stings spread out as wings in the north. The middle part is occupied by the main building and the kitchen, 35 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Gol Bangla, Zenana Mehal, and harem quarters stretch to the south. The Nawab was an avid traveler, and his influences show in the architecture. The Falaknuma palace is a rare blend of Italian and Tudor architecture. Its stained glass windows throw a spectrum of colour into the rooms. • One of the highlights of the palace is the state reception room, whose ceiling is decorated with frescoes and gilded reliefs. The ballroom contains a two-ton manually operated organ said to be the only one of its kind in the world. Thepalace has 220 lavishly decorated rooms and 22 spacious halls. It has some of the finest treasure collections of the Nizam. Falaknuma houses a large collection of rare treasures including paintings, statues, furniture, manuscripts and books.The jade collection of the palace is considered to be unique in the world. The famed dining hall could seat 100 guests at its table. The chairs were made of carved rosewood with green leather upholstery. The tableware was made of gold and crystal to which fluted music was added. The length of the table is 108 feet, and breadth is 5.7 feet and height is 2.7 feet. The palace has a library with a walnut carved roof: a replica of the one at Windsor Castle. The library had one of the finest collections of the Quran in India.The ground floor of the palace housed the living quarters. A marbled staircase leads to the upper floor. It has carved balustrades, which supports marble figurines with candelabra at intervals. There is a billiards room. Burroughs and Watts from England designed two identical tables, one of which is in Buckingham Palace and the other in the Falaknuma palace.On the walls of the landing are many oil paintings and photographs of notable personages.The Falaknuma Palace also has the largest collection of Venetian chandeliers, with 40 138-arm Osler chandeliers in the halls.The telephone and electrical system was introduced in 1883 by Osler and the palace has one of the largest electrical switchboards in India.The palace was the private property of the Nizam family, and not normally open to the public, until 2000.

12. Qutub Shahi Tombs • The tombs of the seven Qutub Shahi rulers in the Ibrahim Bagh (garden precinct) are located close to the famous Golkonda Fort in Hyderabad, India. The galleries of the smaller tombs are of a single storey while the larger ones are two storied. In the centre of each tomb is a sarcophagus which overlies the actual burial vault in a crypt below. The domes were originally overlaid with blue and green tiles, of which only a few pieces now remain.They lie about a kilometre north of the outer perimeter wall of Golkonda Fort and its Banjara Darwaza (Gate of the Gipsies, or itinerant merchants), amidst the Ibrahim Bagh.The tombs form a large cluster and stand on a raised platform. The tombs are domed structures built on a square base surrounded by pointed arches, a distinctive style that blends Persian, Pashtun and Hindu forms. The tombs are structures with intricately carved stonework and are surrounded by landscaped gardens. The tombs were once furnished with carpets, chandeliers and velvet canopies on silver poles. Copies of the Quran were kept on pedestals and readers recited verses from the holy book at regular intervals. Golden spires were fitted over the tombs of the sultans to distinguish their tombs from those of other members of the royal family.

13. Thousand Pillars Temple • The Thousand pillars temple which is located in Hanamkonda is one of the most important parts of the Warangal City. The temple was constructed in the 1163 AD by the great Rudra Deva. Every part of the temple depicts the typical Chalukya style of architecture. The Thousand Pillar temple has three shrines inside the temple called the 36 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Trikutalayam with presiding deities, Lord Vishnu, Shiva and Surya Deva. The temple stands as a statement of the finest of arts of the Kakatiyas. It was desecrated by the Tughlaq dynasty during their invasion of the Deccan.

14. Badshahi Ashurkhana • Badshahi Ashurkhana is one of the most important structures of Telangana. This ancient monument shows the architectural grandeur of Mughal era. It is a mourning place for Shias during the festival of Moharram near Charminar in Hyderabad, India. It is a house of mourning constructed in memory of martyrdom of Imam Hussain. It was built by Muhammed Quli Qutb Shah in 1594, three years after building the Charminar. The Ashur Khana stands today with enamel tiles that have retained their lustre and vibrant colours even after four centuries. The intricate design in hexagons is exquisite.

15. Gandhari Khilla (Gandhari Kota) • Gandhari Khilla is a hill fort located near Bokkalagutta, in Mandamarri Mandal in Adilabad district in the south Indian state of Telangana. The fort was built in the 12th century by the Gondu tribals with the help of the Kakatiya people of Warangal. Archaeological work suggests that construction of the fort was begun early as the Rastrakuta era (prior to 1200 A.D.) and continued until 16th century. All the sculptures, gate (thoranam) and pillars were constructed in Kakatiyas style. By observing the decorations, the shanku and chakra, beside every sculpture we find that they are dedicated to Vishnu, while Kakatiyas worshipped Shiva. The script of Shree Oddi raju anantha raju shasanam. Basically it belonged to the Kingdom of Gondus, but later on Oddi raju anantharaju occupied it. Later it was controlled by the Qutub Sahi Sultanate (1518–1687). In 1656, the ruler of Golconda. • The fort was built within a thickly forested area which has a wealth of plant species which includes many medicinal herbs. The fort has not been fully excavated and is still partially covered by forest. Mahankali Jatara (quarry jatara) is conducted every year which attracts more than 10,000 people. Gandhari maisamma jatra is done in the temple on the fort of Gandhari for every 2 years and tribal people from Vindhya region i.e Maharastra, Chattisghad on the other bankside joins it.

16.Alampur • Alampur is a town situated on the banks Tungabhadra River, and is considered as the western gateway of Srisailam. The popular temple stands as a testimony to Chalukya Art and Culture. The Tungabhadra and Krishna are seen in a confluence near Alampur, and hence it is also know known as Dakshina Kailasam. It is also said that Brahma had performed a great penance at today’s Alampur for thousands of years, and he pleased Lord Siva who conferred the powers of creation for him. Hence, the deity is also called Brahmeswara and the goddess as Yogini or Jogulamba, a synonym for mother Parvathi.

17.Elgandal Fort • Originally known as Veligundula, Elgandal is a hillfort built during the Kakatiya dynasty (1083–1323) and served as a stronghold for the warrior Musunuri Nayaks and Recharla padmanayaks. The Qutb Shahi dynasty occupied the fort in the 16th century and posted Quinamul Mulk as commander. Subsequently, it fell under the administrative control of the Mughal Empire.Amin Khan was appointed as Khiledar of Elagandal during the 37 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

reign of Nizam of Hyderabad Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I (r. 1724–1748) followed by Muqarrab Khan. Mirza ibrahim dhamsa became Khiledar during the reign of Nawab Salabat Jung. Dhamsa rebuilt and strengthened the fort in 1754 during the reign of Sikindar Jha (r.1803-1823). Bahadur Khan and Karimuddin served as Khiledars. Karimnagar was named after Karimuddin. While reorganizing the districts, Mahbub Ali Khan, the Sixth Nizam, shifted the District Headquarters from Elagandal to Karimnagar in 1905. Elgandal Fort is situated amidst palm groves on the banks of the Manair River (a tributary of the Godavari River), approximately 10 kms from Karimnagar

18. Jagtial Fort • Jagtial Fort also throws light on the rich history of rulers but stands out because it is the only star-shaped fort in Telangana that is fitted with canons. • The Mughal dynasty used it as a Defence Fort in the 17 century. During the 17th century, the fort was designed by two European engineers – Jack and Tal. It is surrounded by four water bodies – Mote pond, Dharma Samandar, Mupparaap and Kandla Palli. The place, later known as Jagtial, was inspired by the names of these two engineers. True to its name, the fort is a must visit for heritage lovers and tourists keen on culling out the history of rulers and dynasties. It bears a strong resemblance to the castles of Europe. • According to Archaeological Department officials, it was built during the reign of Nawab Ibrahim, a Governor in the Mughal dynasty. The fort has two wooden gates, which were lifted by using pulleys. This is the only star- shaped fort in the State with a moat (water body). • History says that there used to be a row of rooms for the storage of ammunition at this fort. Though a majority of structures of the fort have been destroyed over the years, the well is safe and provides water to locals in the region

19. Nagunur Fort • It was a fort built by the people of the Kakatiya dynasty in the village of Nagunur, around 8 km north of Karimnagar. The fort is testimony to the imperial powers of the Kakatiyas. It was one of the most important forts of the emerging Kakatiya dynasty and contains ruins of a cluster of Kalyana and Kakathiya temples. The origin and style of these temples can be traced back to the era of the Kalyani, Chalukyas and Kakatiyas. However, it is strongly believed to have been built during 1200- 1300AD under the patronage of the Kakatiyas. At one point of time the place was believed to house around 400 temples. Hence it came to be known as Nalugunovalu (400). This was later changed to Nagunur. • The biggest and the most prominent among these is the triple-shrine temple of Lord Shiva.The temple is made of red stone and comprises three shrines of Lord Shiva. The shrines are placed on a raised pedestal or Upapitha.

20. Khammam Fort • Khammam Fort is a fort in the city of Khammam, Telangana, India. The fort is believed to have been built by the Kakatiya rulers in 950 AD. It served as an impregnable citadel during various regimes of different dynasties, including the Kakatiyas, Qutb Shahi’s and Asaf Jahis. • Although Khammam fort was majorly under the Kakatiya dynasty, it slowly became an independent territory within the kingdom. 38 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• After the decline of the Kakatiya dynasty, 74 Telugu speaking feudatories of the region under the leadership of Musuluri fought for 10 long years to unify the Telugu land and they did not succeed. • Shitab khan, the army commander of the Humayin shah of the Bahmani sultanate declared Khammam as his jagir (a land fief) along with Rachakonda and Warangal in the year 1503 and ruled this fort city without getting into any troubles with the then rulers between 1503 A.D to 1512 A.D. He maintained good relations with the Qutb shahi. During this time Khammam became major city of the region and Shitab khan rose to high stature in the eyes of other rulers and this fort city was declared the regional administration capital of the kingdom. • In the turbulent regional politics of the time, Quli Qutb Shah ruler of Golconda Fort (in modern Hyderabad) was asserting his dominance and Shitab Khan had to face invasions from Golconda which was just shaking off the suzerainty of the Bahmanis.Warangal succumbed to the Golconda ruler and Shitab Khan had to flee, about 1512. He joined the service of Prataparudra Gajapati, King of Kalinga (Orissa). When the legendary Vijayanagara Emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya went on his Kalinga campaign, 1516–1517, his triumphal progress was effectively hindered by the archers of Shitab Khan at the mountain pass near Simhadri(modern Visakhapatnam district). But Shitab lost the battle and, very likely, his life there. • Khammam fort fell into the hands of the Emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya during 1515 A.D. According to Nandi Thimmana (15th and 16th centuries CE), a Telugu poet and one of the Astadiggajas in the court of the king Sri Krishnadevaraya, described this historical incident in his notable work called 'Parijathaapaharanam' as Ghambham mettu (Stambhadri or Khammam mettu) grakkuna gadalche..Raja Puthrude Sri Krishnadevaraya vibhudu’. • Meaning, The Emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya invaded the City or the Fort of Khammam. • Sultan Ibrahim Qutb Shah, the fourth ruler of the kingdom of Golconda in southern India invaded this fort around 1550 AD. Later on four Qutb shahi ruled over this historic land namely Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580–1612), Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah (1612–1626), Abdullah Qutb Shah (1626–1672) and Abul Hasan Qutb Shah (1672–1689) popularly known as Tana Shah. • Mughal emperor Aurangajeb invaded this fort in the year 1687 A.D and subsequently went into the hands of the Asaf jahi rulers.The Asaf jahis appointed a Subedar named Nizam Mulki Asal ji.He later declared independence in the year 1722 A.D. • Zafar-ud-doula was appointed as the Tahasildar in between the years 1761 to 1803, under whose rule this fort has been renovated and all the new constructions including the roads took place. • In the year 1768, Zafar-ud-doula – II was appointed as the Tahasildar. He is also the younger brother of the former. The urban settlement of Dhamsalapuram was named after Zafar-ud-doula-I (also known as Dhamsa). • The Fort and the City went into the complete control of the Government created by the Nizam's during the 1800s and by the time of the Asaf Jah VII, Mir Osman Ali Khan the fort was under complete control of the Government of Nizam in the year 1937.

21. Nelakondapalli • Nelakondapalli is a historic site encompassed by a mud fortification wall covering nearly one-hundred acre. Excavations there have unearthed several foundations of brick-built viharas, wells, cisterns, a mahastupa, terracotta figurines, a bronze idol of Buddha, a miniature stupa carved in limestone and other materials from the 3rd and 4th centuries. 39 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• Also of historical and, particularly, cultural significance are two archaeological sites located approximately 1.6 km from Nelakondapalli. According to local Hindu folk tradition, the sites referred to as Virataraju Dibba and Keechaka Gundam were contemporaneous to certain events described in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. The discovery of archeological relics at the sites seems to corroborate the local Hindu folk account.

22. Parnasala • When Lord Rama, Sita and Lakshmana went for their Vanvasa, they stayed in this place called Panchavati in the forest. They built a hut on the banks of River Godavari. It is said that sage Agastya in Panchavati amidst Dandaka forest chose the site. The Gowtami River, which is another name for River Godavari, flowed nearby. It is said to be the place from where Ravana abducted Sita Devi while on their exile. A small hermitage of a structure has been constructed as a replica of the Hut used by Lord Rama. The local people believe that "Sita Vaagu" a place near by is the same location where Sita used to take bath, collect the kumkum and other necessities from the forest. • Marks on the stones of the mountain are believed to be those of Sita and the chariot wheel types of Marks on the other side of the mountain are believed to be those of the chariot of Ravana when he was taking Sita forcibly on his chariot after abducting her form the parnala after tricking her. As this place witnessed the sad mood of Lord Rama this place is called as Soka Rama.

23.Pillalamarri • Pillala Marri is an 800-year-old banyan tree located in Mahabubnagar. The tree had original main trunk and many prop roots which resemble like many trunks, like its children, hence the name. Main trunk either died out or cannot be recognized among many prop roots, It is spread over three acres of land.

24. Nandikonda • Nandikonda is a small village located along the banks of Krishna River in Nalgonda district. It is located close to the magnificent Nagarjuna Sagar dam . Nandikonda was part of the Ikshvaku Dynasty and the village shot into prominence after scores of ancient Buddhist structures like pillared halls and monasteries were unearthed. There are also ruins of a fort dating back to Ikshvaku Dynasty. The citadel consists of gates, strong fortifications , water trenches, and even as rectangular-shaped stadium were found during archeological excavations. The Nagarjuna Sagar dam was initially called Nandikonda project and the place finds place in the Buddhist circuit of Telangana.

25. Deverakonda Fort • Devarakonda Fort acted as a prominent fortified defensive structure of the rulers of Recherla Velama dynasty that rules parts of Telangana after Kakatiyas. It was built in the 14th century by the Velama Kings. The territory of Devarakonda was developed by the Padma Nayaka Velama rulers. The fortress was controlled by the ruling family from 1287 AD to 1482 AD. Then the fort was ruled by Maada Naidu who was the 8th king among the Padma Nayaka rulers. He was a great warrior and an educationist apart from being a kind ruler. During his reign, Devarakonda flourished with many temples and heritage sites. 40 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• This fort is famous for its architectural brilliance. The fort is surrounded by seven hills with some great rocks and boulder and few forest. The fort built over a hilltop has large walls with curved bastions along with it. The fort ramparts were built with artillery and cannon points. The fort complexes are built up to 2 storeys. There are many granaries found here. It has a magazine house, large living area and few small houses. There are temples of Lord Rama and Lord Shiva inside the fort. Also there is a small lake that provided water source to the residents of the fort. Now the fort lies in ruins and acts as a tourist attraction.

26. Rachakonda Fort • The Rachakonda Fort was constructed by the Padmanayaka Velama King Anapotanayaka in the 14th century AD. Till that time the Padmanayakas had their capital at Anumagallu. At around 1360 AD the capital was shifted by Anapotanayaka from Anumagallu to Rachakonda where he built a strong fort. • Anapotanayaka split the Kingdom into two for administrative convenience and his brother Madanayaka ruled from Devarakonda. Devarakonda was subservient to Rachakonda. The Padmanayakas lost control of Rachakonda in 1430 AD to the Bahamanis but held onto Devarakonda till 1475 AD when the Padmanayaka kingdom was finally extinguished and they joined the court of Hampi Vijayanagara Kingdom. • The Rachakonda kingdom stretched upto Godavari in the North, Srisailam in the South, Bahamani kingdom in the West and Kondaveedu in the East. • The Rachakonda kings initially supported the Bahamani Kingdom but later in the war between the Bahamanis and Vijayanagara kings in 1424 AD, they switched their allegiance to the Vijayanagara Kingdom. This enraged the Bhamani sultan Firoz Shah who later signed a peace treaty with Vijyanagara and attacked the Rachakonda kingdom and conquered it. By the year 1433 AD, only a few forts remained in the control of kings of Rachakonda. • The Rachakonda kings then sought the help of Kapileswara Gajapati of Orissa and also promised him large amounts of money. He sent his son Hamviradeva (known as Ambar Roy to the Muslims) along with a large army to help the Rachakonda kings. By 1461 AD, the Rachakonda kings recovered all their lost forts and became kings of Orugallu with the help of Hamviradeva but in turn lost their independence and became tributaries of the Gajapatis of Orissa. • The Bahamni kingdom under Nizam Shah again attacked Orugallu in 1475 AD and the Kingdom was annexed by the sultan. Thus the Rachakonda kingdom originated in 1350-60 AD and was finally consumed by the Bahamanis in the year 1475 AD.

27.Domakonda Fort • Domakonda Fort was constructed initially during the age of Qutub Shahis and Asaf Jahis in Nizamabad which was remodeled in the 18th century. It is also said that the Domakonda Fort was built by the Reddy rulers of Domakonda Samsthanam in the 18th century on a spot where a fort existed earlier. Domakonda was a princely region under Qutb Shahis and Asaf Jahis. The Reddy rulers of Domakonda built the fort in the 18 century at a sight where a fort existed earlier. Domakonda Fort was primarily used as a fortified defensive structure. This fort is also called Gadi Domakonda or Killa Domakonda. It is one of the beautiful forts present in Telangana. The architecture of the fortress displays both Hindu and Muslim styles. It has an elevated compound of granite rocks that forms the fort wall, followed by the beautiful two-storied fort structure. 41 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

28. Dhulikatta • Dhulikatta Buddhist Centre – Dated back to 2nd Century BC • Located on the banks of Hussainimiya Vagu in Peddapalli Taluk of Karimnagar District , Dhulikatta Buddhist Centre is an ancient Buddhist site. The presence of this ancient site bearing important relics and artifacts helps to add a different dimension to Karimnagar Tourism. Tracing its origin back to the Satavahana era, Dhulikatta is a rich repository of ancient relics and reminiscences which keeps history alive. • Known to be one of the thirty metropolitan areas which find mention in the ancient account of Megasthenes, Dhulikatta (a corrupted version of Dhulikota) was named after the mud fort (kota) found in its vicinity. As a result the area also came to be known as the Kota area. Rich excavations have helped unearth valuable artifacts which bring to light various mysteries of the bygone eras. The biggest and most interesting excavation has been that of a Buddhist Stupa on a mound and that of a Vihara. Both of these can be traced back to the 2nd century BC. • The excavation of the Stupa has also been accompanied by interesting relics like the embellished drum with sculptured veneer slabs and limestone slabs and the Ayaka platforms. These are platforms that extend out from the drums and are found at entrance gateways. The dome of the Stupa was built with the help of 47 stone slabs. • A study of the excavated remains reveals rich stories of the Satavahana period. The excavations have also revealed coins and seals belonging to the Romans and Satavahanas indicating the prevalence of trade relations between the two countries. • In the month of January, Dhulikatta celebrates the Satavahana festival which is held for three days.

29. Ramagiri Khilla • The Ramagiri Fort, also known as Ramagiri Khilla, located over a mountain top, is in the Peddapalli district . The fort was built in the 12th century by the Kakatiyas of Warangal. Later, it was controlled by the Qutub Sahi Sultanate from 1518 to 1687. In 1656, the ruler of Golconda, Abdullah Qutb Shah, gave the fort to his son-in-law, one of Aurangzeb's sons. The fort came under the control of the British Raj in 1791. Tradition has it that Kalidasa, one of the greatest Sanskrit poets, was motivated to compose his Meghadūta, a lyrical poem, by the Ramagiri Fort; however, Kalidasa is thought to have lived in the fifth century CE, well before the fort's construction. 42 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Telangana Literature

Telugu literature or Telugu Pandityam is the body of works written in the Telugu language. It consists of poems, novels, short stories, dramas and puranas. Telugu literature can be traced back to the early 11th century period when Mahabharata was first translated to Telugu from Sanskrit by Nannaya. It flourished under the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, where Telugu was one of the empire's official languages. Telugu split from Proto-Dravidian between 1500-1000 BC. Telugu became a distinct language by the time any literary activity began to appear in the Tamil land, along with Parji, Kolami, Nayaki and Gadaba languages. Telugu is a Dravidian Language native to India.

Narrative Literature The genre of narrative literature is classified into four in the Agni Purana – Akhyayika (real/historical story), Katha (imaginary story with little truth), Khanda Katha (short story), Parikatha (fairy tale) and Kathanika (small tale). Nowadays, Kathanika is one which is dialogic and modern in language and expression of feelings. But in practice, all of these are in vogue as Katha only. Fictional narrative has become the most popular of all the literary genres. Over the last decade the genre of story has seen an exuberant bloom and international status.

Among the pioneers of modern Telangana, Vattikota Alwarswamy occupies a unique place, as he inaugurated the era of popular literature. The cultural and literary resurgence in Telangana was spearheaded by Komarraju Laxmana Rao, Ravichettu Ranga Rao and others at the turn of the 20th century. The founding of Sri Krishnadevaraya Andhra Bhasha Nilayam heralded a new epoch in literary renaissance in vernaculars and spread of socio-cultural awakening. The assertion of Telugu identity in terms of ethnicity and language gave rise to the growth of library movement and Andhra Mahasabha.

Poetic literature Lyrics or ballads have become an integral part of the poetic literature. The story of Sarvaya Papanna, a cowherd who took up cudgels against the atrocities of the alien rulers heady with power and money, has been preserved in the ballads. He even ascended the throne and ruled for a day. The ballad of Sarvaya Papanna, though it relates to the Rayalaseema region, is the main root of the Telugu folk literature and of the present day poetic community. The Telangana Telugu literary movement, influenced by the trends in the ancient, the Prabandha, the lyrical andthe modern fictional literature, is flowing on with a progressive ethos. The Telangana literary history may be classified under four periods – the early, the later, the modern and the post-modern. There are quite a few significant features in the Telangana literary edifice built during the last decade (2005-2014) on the superstructure of its long history.

To begin with, the Andhra Jana Sangam was established in 1921 with the objective of establishing more libraries in Telangana region of the erstwhile Hyderabad State. It organised several conferences and established Telugu medium schools, reading rooms in order to spread literacy among the Telugus. During the first quarter of the 20th century, library movement in Telangana emerged as one of the most significant socio-cultural movements and contributed to 43 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS public awakening. Several individuals and scholars like Madapati Hanmantha Rao, Suravaram Pratapa Reddy, Kodati Narayana etc., played a significant role in the spread of the library movement and Telugu journalism in Telangana. Suravaram Pratapa Reddy had proved beyond doubt that Telugu literature had rigorously kept up its momentum and survived the critically testing times. His literary magazine ‘Golconda Patrika’ was a trend-setting journal that published some of the finest literary works of that time.

Vattikota Alwarswamy, known as the Father of Telangana Grandhalaya Udyamam, single-handedly championed the cause of people’s library and literary movement. He occupies a unique place in the literary and intellectual world of modern Telangana for his contribution to the spread of libraries in the villages of Telangana. Although the Telangana region has the famous libraries of more than 100 years old, such as Krishna Deva Raya Andhra Bhasha Nilayam, Raja Raja Narendra Andhra Bhasha Nilayam, the credit for starting village and mobile libraries goes to Vattikota Alwarswamy.

In order to make available the printed literature to village people, he personally carried books on his head and toured the villages and enabled the village folk to access modern knowledge. He also established the Deshoddaraka Granthamala and published low-cost books and distributed them among the people. The popularisation of library movement at the gross-level by Swamy had contributed to the new socio-cultural and political awakening in the Telangana rural areas. Thus, it also contributed to the growth of anti-feudal struggles under the leadership of Andhra Mahasabha.

As an active participant in the people’s movement, Alwarswamy also produced popular literature depicting the socio-economic conditions of peasantry in Telangana as well as the social evils like Vetticahkiri, Jogini, Adapapa, and championed the cause of emancipation of oppressed classes and communities. He wrote the famous novel, Prajalamanishi, in which he portrayed the socio-economic conditions in Telangana villages, feudal exploitation, the role of educated middle classes, Andhra Mahasabha and progressive forces in anti-Nizam struggles. The novel realistically represented the prevailing socio-economic-cultural conditions, customs, traditions, and people’s resistance movements against autocratic-feudal domination in the villages. Hence, Alwarswamy was considered the first Novelist of Telangana. In the making of modern Telangana, the role and contribution of intellectuals like Vattikota Alwarswamy is immense and praiseworthy. He was instrumental in facilitating the growth of public awakening through the popularisation of libraries, journalism and popular literature.

Poets of Telangana

1. Bammera Potana Born: 1450, Bammera,Warangal District Died: 1510. Pothana was an Indian Telugu poet best known for his translation of the Bhagavata Purana from Sanskrit to Telugu. He was a Telugu and Sanskrit Scholar. His work, Maha Bhagavatamu, is popularly called as Pothana Bhagavatam in Telugu. He was considered to be a natural Poet (Sahaja Kavi), needing no teacher. He was known to be very polite and was an agriculturist by occupation. Though he was a great scholar, he never hesitated to work in the agricultural fields. 44 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Accomplishments - At an early age he wrote Bhogini Dhandakam a poem wrote in praise of king Sri Singa Bhoopala’s concubine Bhogini. This was his first poetic venture which had the seeds of his great poetic talents. Bhogini Dhandakam is the earliest available Dhandaka (rhapsody which uses the same gana or foot all through) in Telugu. - His second work was Virabhadhra Vijayamu which describes the adventures of Lord Virabhadhra, son of Lord Shiva. The main theme was the destruction of a yagna performed in absence of Lord Shiva by Daksha Prajapathi.

2. Kaloji Narayana Rao Born: 9 September 1914 Madikonda , Warangal Died: 13 November 2002 Warangal. Kaloji Popularly known as Kalanna was an Indian poet, freedom fighter, Anti-fascist and political activist of Telangana. He completed his primary education in Madikonda and higher education in Warangal and Hyderabad. Rao wrote poetry in the Hindi , Marathi, Telugu and Urdu languages. He was popularly known as Praja Kavi, meaning "people's poet". He started writing poetry from an early age. He composed his first poem, in 1931 while still in his teens, in reaction to the execution of Bhagat Singh, and very soon became a voracious reader and a prominent writer.

Accomplishments - Kaloji was conferred the Padma Vibhushan, the second highest award given by the Government of India, for his service in the literary and social fields. - He is a recipient of Tamarapatra in 1972. - He received the best translation award of the Andhra Pradesh Government for his work Jeevana Geetha in 1968 and Burgula Ramakrishna Rao memorial first award. - He was felicitated by the Andhra Pradesh Government in 1981. - He was honored with the title 'Praja Kavi' and has been felicitated by various literary associations of Andhra Pradesh. - In 1992, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Kakatiya University .

3. Dr. C. Narayana Reddy Born: July 29, 1931 Hanumajipeta, Karimnagar district. Well Known Indian poet and educational minister and is considered to be an authority on Telugu literature. He is known as Cinare. Naryana Reddy married Susheela and with her had four daughters. He has instituted an award named after his wife and this is presented annually to female writers. He lives in Film Nagar , Hyderabad.

Accomplishments - Narayana Reddy won the Gnanapeet award in 1988 for his poetic work, Viswambara. - He had been awarded an honorary Kala Prapoorna by Andhra University in 1978. - Having been a recipient of the Padma Shri in 1977. 45 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

- He was conferred with the Raja- Lakshmi Award by the Sri Raja-Lakshmi Foundation in 1988 and in 1992. - He was honoured with India's third-highest civilian award, the Padma Bhushan. - Narayana Reddy was nominated to the Rajya Sabha - the upper house of the Indian Parliament - in August 1997.

4. Dr. Ande sri Born: 1961, Rebarthi villagenear Jangaon in Warangal district Telangana state, India. Ande Sri (or Andesri) his original name is Ande Ellaiah. He is an Indian poet and lyricist. Telangana state Geyam(song) "Jaya Jaya he Telangana Janani Jaya ketanam" written by Andesri. He grew up as an Orphan and did not have any formal education. He received an honorary doctorate from Kakatiya University.

Accomplishments - A song, Maayamai Pothundamma Manishanavadu which was penned by him for the film Erra Samudram has inspired the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh University syllabus committee to include it in the Telugu second year graduation text books for the next academic year starting in 2009. This is the third song to feature in Telugu syllabi after Maa Telugu Thalliki and Telugu Jathi Manadi in the 77 years of Telugu cinema . - Kakatiya University conferred him an honorary doctorate for his contribution as a lyricist. - Nandi Award for a telugu film Ganga in the best lyrics category for the song Vellipotunnava.

5. Daasarathi Krishnamacharyulu Born: July 22, 1925 Warangal district, Telangana state, India. Died : 1987 Popularly known as Daasarathi, was a Telugu Poet and Writer. Daasarathi holds the titles Abhyudhaya Kavi and Kalaprapurna. he was an erudite scholar of Indian mythology (puranas) with a fine grip on Telugu, Sanskrit and Tamil languages. He matriculated from the Khammam Government High School but gave up higher education to join the movement against the autocratic Nizam rule in the Hyderabad Kingdom.

Accomplishments - He was also the recipient of Sahitya Academy Award for his poetic work book Thimiramtho Samaram (Fight against Darkness) in 1974. - He was also chosen as Aastana Kavi of the Andhra Pradesh Government. - Daasrathi obtained fame through his revolutionary poetry. His first book Agnidhara (Flowing Fire) was published in 1947. This book is about the Telangana Armed Struggle against Nizams rule, in which young Daasarathi served as a revolutionary. Daasartathi wrote part of his book Agnidhara while he was in jail and completed it after his release.

6. Kancherla Gopanna Born: 1620, Nelakondapalli Village, Khammam district Died : 1680 Kancherla Gopanna(Goparaju) renowned as Bhaktha Ramadasu was born in an affluent Telugu Niyogi Brahmin family to Linganna Mantri and Kamamba in Nelakondapalli village of Khammamett Taluk (Warangal Division 46 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

of erstwhile Hyderabad State) of Telangana (Deccan region). His devotional lyrics toRama are famous in South Indian classical music as Ramadaasu Keertanalu. Even the doyen of South Indian classical music Saint Thyagaraja learned and later improved the style now considered standard krithi form of music composition.He also wrote Dasarathi Shatakamu with a 'makuTamu' 'Dasaradhee Karuna payonidhi', a collection of nearly 108 poems dedicated to the son of Dasaratha (Lord Rama).

Accomplishments Ramadasu composed nearly 300. Some of them are as follows: - Tarakamantramu in Dhanyasi - Ye Teeruga Nanu in Nadanamakriya - Adigo Bhadradri in Varali - Anta Ramamayam in Mohanam - O Rama ni namamu in Poorvi Kalyani - Paluke bangara mayena in Ananda Bhairavi

7. Mallinātha Sūri Born: Kolcharam, Medak District Mallinātha Sūri was an eminent critic, known for his commentaries on five mahakavyas (great compositions) of Sanskrit. During his times, he is said to have received the titles of Mahamahopadyaya and Vyakhyana Chakravarti. He lived during the reigns of Racakonda king Singabhupala and Vijayanagara king Deva Raya I. Based on the evidence from the inscriptions, it is estimated that he lived between 1350-1450 CE.

Accomplishments His Commentaries on Classical Epics of Sanskrit - Sanjīvanī - Commentary on Kalidasa's Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava and Meghaduta - Ghaṇṭāpatha - Commentary on Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya - Sarvaṅkaṣa - Commentary on Magha's Sisupalavadha - Jivātu - Commentary on Sriharsa's Naisadhiyacarita - Sarvapathīnā - Commentary on Bhaṭṭikāvya His commentaries on Śāstric works- - Tarala - commentary on Vidyadhara's Ekavali - alamkara Sastra - Niskaṇṭakā - commentary on Varadaraja's Tarkikaraksa tika

8. Gummadi Vittal Rao ( Gaddar ) Born: 1949 Toopran Gummadi Vittal Rao popularly known as Gaddar (born 1949) is a poet, pseudonym of a revolutionary Telugu balladeer. The name Gaddar was adopted as a tribute to the pre-independence Gadar party which opposed British colonial rule in Punjab during the 1910s. He attended his early schooling in Bodhan of the Nizamabad district . After completing Pre University Course (then equivalent of 12th class) from a government junior college in 47 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Hyderabad, he joined RECW to pursue Bachelor’s degree in civil Engineering. It is also said he has a bachelor’s degree in LAW as well.

Accomplishments - Gaddar is awarded the year’s best male playback singer award for his song “podusthunna poddumeeda..” in film Jai Bolo Telangana.2012. - Numerous songs were written, mostly by Vittal. They printed their first songbook. It was entitled "GADDAR"; after the famous Gadar Party of Punjab. Soon, whenever they went to perform on streets, the people began to say that the "Gaddar people have come". The name stuck, and from then on Vittalrao is known as Gaddar.

9. Suravaram Pratapa Reddy Born: May 28, 1896 in Boravelli village in Gadwal Died : 1953 He wrote a social history of the Telugu people , Andhrula Saanghika Charitra, which was first published in 1949 and has since gone through many editions. It was the first Telugu language book that to win the best national book award (Kendra Sahitya Academy Puraskaram). Pratapaareddy was a scholar in Sanskrit, Telugu, Urdu and English languages. He is famous for his research articles, novels, poetry, story writer, and literary critic. He compiled a list of 354 Telangana poets under the title "Golconda Kavulu" to prove that Telangana also had literature and poetry. Pratapareddy wrote approximately 40 books.

Accomplishments - Won prestigious "Kendra Sahitya Academy Award," a federal Indian government award for literature. - Editor and founder of Golconda Patrika, a journal in Hyderabad State. - Launched Telugu language journal "Golconda" for the benefit of Telangana people. Some of the short stories and poetries - Golconda Kavula Charitra, Raamayana Visheeshaalu,Hinduvula Pandagalu, Hindava Dharma Viirulu

10. Pamulaparthi Sadasiva Rao Born: July 17, 1921 in in Warangal district Died : August 26, 1996 A thinker, philosopher, and free-lance journalist. He started the magazine Kakatiya Patrika in Warangal, India, in 1948 with his cousin P. V. Narasimha Rao, later Prime Minister of India. PV Narasimha Rao wrote a story 'Golla Ramavva' in which an ordinary old woman, to express her protest against the Nizam rule, protects an anti-Nizam fighter. So also PV's another story 'Blue silk sari ' written in English had awakened the educated.

Accomplishments Among his Telugu writings were GatiTarkika Bhotika Vadam (on dialectic materialism), Charitra, Sanskriti, Kala (history, tradition, culture and art), and Tatva Shastra Praadhamika Paathalu (fundamentals of philosophy). He translated Theory of Knowledge, an English language book by Maurice Cornforth, into the Telugu Gyana Siddhantam, published by the Visalandhra Publishing House. 48 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

11. Venkanna Born: 1963, Mahbubnagar Goreti Venkanna is a popular Indian poet and folk singer. He became popular after his song "Palle Kanneru Peduthundo" in Khubasum Telugu movie had moved the masses and virtually prevented TDP to retain power in erstwhile Andhra Pradesh State in 2004. He also became popular by acting as a judge for the folk song program Rela Re Rela on Telugu TV channel, Maa. He is one of the main Telangana separation activists. He is one of the icons of Telangana culture.

Accomplishments - Venkanna's songs are published: Eku naadam Motha, Rela Poothalu, Alasandra Vanka - 2006 Kalaratna Hamsa Award for Literature from AP State Government. - Filmography: Sriramulayya, Kubusam, Vegu Chukkalu, Maha Yagnam, Batukamma, Mysamma IPS, Nagaram Nidra Potunna Vela.

12. Suddala Hanmanthu Suddala Hanmanthu was born in Paladugu village, Mothkur mandal, Nalgonda district . His poetry inspired the people of the Telangana to participate in the Communist-led peasant struggle against the oppressive rule of feudal lords and the Nizam. This struggle was famous in Indian history as the Telangana Rebellion . His themes were freedom from the bonded labour known as Vetti Chakiri, democracy, liberation, equality and communism . His Telugu folk song, Palletoori Pillagada, mobilised the people of his region. The speech given by Comrade Ravi Narayana Reddy, the then president of Andhra Mahasabha in 1944 inspired Hanumathu and he joined Andhra Mahasabha and became a leftist. He took charge of the arts wing of the party and began writing songs for all folk forms like Burra Katha , Golla Suddulu , Pittala Dora that penetrated deep into rural minds.

13. Makhdoom Mohiuddin Makhdoom Mohiuddin or Abu Sayeed Mohammad Makhdoom Mohiuddin Khudri (4 February 1908 – 25 August 1969) was an Urdu poet and Marxist political activist of India. He was a distinguished revolutionary Urdu poet. He founded the Progressive Writers Union in Hyderabad and was active with the Comrades Association and the Communist Party of India, and at the forefront of the 1946–1947 Telangana Rebellion against the Nizam of the erstwhile Hyderabad state. He is best known for his collection of poems entitled Bisat-e-Raqs ("The Dance Floor"), for which he was awarded the 1969 Sahitya Akademi Award in Urdu. His published works include the essay Tagore and His Poetry, a play, Hosh ke Nakhun ("Unravelling"), an adaptation of Shaw's Widowers' Houses, and a collection of prose essays. Bisat-e-Raqs is a complete collection of Makhdoom's verse including his two earlier collections Surkh Savera ("The Red Dawn", 1944) and Gul-e-Tar ("The Dewdrenched Rose", 1961) He is known as Shayar-e-Inquilab' ('Poet of the Revolution'). His ghazals and lyrics have been used in many Hindi films. Among his notable are the romantic ghazals:Ek Chameli Ke Mandve Taley, Aap Ki Yaad Aati Rahi Raat Bhar and Phir Chhidi Raat, Baat Phoolon Ki. 49 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

14. Gona Budda Reddy Gona Budda Reddy, also known as Ranganatha, (13th century CE) was a poet ruled a kingdom in Mahbubnagar district from Vardhamaanapuram (currently known as Nandi Vaddemaan) and Khilla Ghanpur (Fort Ghanpur) in modern-day Ghanpur, Mahbubnagar district. He and his family, the Gona dynasty, was mostly loyal to the Kakatiya dynasty. When he died, his brother Gona Lakuma Reddy took over the kingdom and rebelled against the Kakatiya, but his son Gona Ganna Reddy remained loyal to them in Vardamanapuram, (1262-1296 AD) indirectly supporting the rule of Kakatiya Queen Rudrama Devi against opposition to female rule. His Ranganatha Ramayanam was a pioneering work in the Telugu language on the theme of the Ramayana epic. Most scholars believe he wrote it between 1300 and 1310 A.D., possibly with help from his family. The work has become part of cultural life in Andhra Pradesh and is used in puppet shows.

15. Dasaradhi Rangacharya Dasaradhi Rangacharya, popularly known as Daasarathi (24 August 1928 – 8 June 2015), was an Indian writer and politician. He was an active member of the Telangana movement against the autocratic rule of the Nizams. He went underground and took part in the Telangana Armed Struggle till Hyderabad was liberated. He wrote Chillera Devullu, Modugupulu and Janapadam.[3] Out of those Chillera Devullu won a National Literature Award. He translated 4 Vedas, a precious of Hindu Literature, into Telugu language and Jeevanayanam is his autobiography. Srimadramayanam and Sri Mahabharatam are also his works in Telugu. Considering the feudal background and 'poor literacy rate', the two novels are widely accepted as the 'rarest of the great novels' produced in Telangana. He wrote the novels in the typical Telangana dialect, against the advice of traditional writers because he wanted them to be easily understood by people.

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Article Contents

Colonial backdrop: buddhacaritramu by the twin poets, english, the new language of power, the prabandha genre in telugu, brahmin acceptance of buddhist non-violence, gandhian buddhism: saundaranandamu by katuri and pingali, modernist critique of buddhism: buccibabu, brahminic reaction: a jātaka tale by viswanatha satyanarayana, concluding remarks.

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Buddhism in Modern Andhra: Literary Representations from Telugu

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Velcheru Narayana Rao, Buddhism in Modern Andhra: Literary Representations from Telugu , The Journal of Hindu Studies , Volume 1, Issue 1-2, 16 October 2008, Pages 93–119, https://doi.org/10.1093/jhs/hin005

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This essay explores the hermeneutics of modern Buddhism in colonial and post-colonial Andhra, the Telugu speaking area of India. Using four literary works in Telugu: Buddhacaritramu by Chellapilla Venkata Sastri and Divakarla Tirupati Sastri (known as the Twin Poets), Saundaranandamu by Pingali and Katuri, a play Tiṣyarakṣita by Buccibabu, and a short poem entitled ‘A Jataka Tale’ by Viswanatha Satyanarayana, the essay attempts to interpret each of the works in view of the social, political, and cultural background in which they were written. Each writer is introduced with brief information about his life and works, and each of the works is analysed for its literary ideology and impact. None of the writers were Buddhists and their works did not lead to a revival of Buddhism as a religion either.

The essay argues that two of the above works, Buddhacaritramu and Saundaranandamu, written under the influence of Edwin Arnold and Mahatma Gandhi, create a modern version of Buddhism that blends into a modern Hinduism. The essay also describes how the Nehruvian ideology of Indian nationalism incorporates both religions as integral parts of India's great culture. The play by Buccibabu and ‘A Jataka Tale’ by Viswanatha Satyanarayana attempt a critique of Buddhism from a modernist and Brahminic point of view respectively, but they have not made a serious difference to the general nationalist approval of Buddhism.

On 30 January 1948, the news that Gandhi had been assassinated by a Hindu fanatic named Nathuram Vinayak Godse was broadcast through the All India Radio station. Within minutes, along with the details of the news, the well-known excerpt from the Bhagavadgīta could be heard on the airwaves: 1

   yadā yadā hi dharmasya glānir bhavati bhārata , abhyuttānam adharmasya tadātmānam sṛjāmy aham      paritrāṇāya sādhūnām vināśāya ca duṣkṛtām dharmasamsthāpanârthāya sambhavāmi yuge yuge

  Son of Bharata, whenever there is       a decline     in dharma , and the absence     of dharma     increases, I create myself.

I come into being from age to age with the purpose of fixing dharma –       as a refuge for those who do good     and as a doom for those who do evil.

The idea is clear: The Mahatma is seen as an incarnation of the god Vishnu born to free India from the non- dharmic rule of the English. But when oleographs of Gandhi's images started to appear in the market–the choice of equating Vishnu with Gandhi did not work. The painters of Gandhi images were unable to come up with any Avatar of Vishnu that was non-violent, and they invariably painted Buddha in the background with Gandhi in the foreground, both blessing the people of India from up above in the sky.

A year earlier, when India's new government chose the symbols of the nation, the Ashokan chakra on the national flag and the lion capital as the seal, no one objected. Using clear Hindu symbols, on the other hand, would have been objectionable to the Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, and a number of secular-minded people. One way of avoiding religion in national symbols was to adopt Buddhist images almost as if they represented not a religion but a culture. 2 Long before these Buddhist symbols came to be acceptable as national symbols, Buddhist themes became popular in literature. Andhra is known for its Buddhist monuments, which take the memory of Buddhism back to the second century before the common era. Modern Telugu people are constantly reminded of their Buddhist past by the great monuments at Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati, and a large number of other sites. However, nothing by way of the written word from this past has survived. 3 In the early 20th century, during the colonial period, Buddhism was (re)introduced to Telugu literature via Britain, through English. In this paper, I want to explore the hermeneutics of these new writings on Buddhist themes in Telugu literature during the course of the 20th century, and how poets and writers shaped the modern understanding of Buddhism among Telugu people.

There are two striking facts related to Buddhism in the history of 20th century Telugu literature. One: an unusually large number of poets and writers wrote on Buddhist themes. Two: none of them were Buddhists. Nor did their works lead to anything like a revival of Buddhism in Andhra. I wish to examine four literary texts–three poems, and a play–written by major poets and writers in the 20th century and ask two questions of each of them: What were the reasons that led the authors to choose the Buddhist theme, and what was the meaning their readers derived from their work? I will introduce the writers briefly with some biographical information, locating their place in modern Telugu literary history, and discuss in detail the Buddhist-themed texts they wrote and their impact on readers of the time.

Buddhacaritramu is the result of collaboration between Venkata Sastri ( 1870–1950) and Tirupati Sastri (1872–1920 ) 4 . Together they called themselves Tirupati–Venkata poets (hereafter, Twin Poets). As a team they were a powerful influence on Telugu literature during the first half of the 20th century. They developed a genre called śatāvadhānam . The two of them would stand before one hundred scholars and poets and respond orally to their requests in verses created on the spot. The requests included riddles to be solved, verses to be composed in a particular metre describing some theme, person, or event, using specially chosen words which often were not easy to weave into the verse. The poets were to take up each request and give their responses in verse. They composed the verse together, i.e. if one poet composed the first line, the other would compose the next. By the end of the event, they would both recite all the verses in the order in which they had been requested. This new performance genre–called śatāvadhānam, because it demanded, avadhāna , attention, to śata , one hundred [people]–became famous. They were received by scholars and poets all over the state and zamindars awarded them their choicest honours. The Twin Poets were not just collaborators; they were friends who behaved as if they were one person living in two bodies. Their friendship was such that after the death of Tirupati Sastri, Venkata Sastri continued to publish his own work under their collective name: Tirupati–Venkata poets.

Neither Venkata Sastri nor his collaborator Tirupati Sastri knew much English; their strength was in their Telugu and Sanskrit in which they were great scholars. Their extemporaneous poems were so popular that they were memorized and quoted by educated people in conversation. Verses from their plays based on the Mahabharata theme were remembered and sung even by peasants and farmhands in villages. 5

For most of their lives, Venkata Sastri and Tirupati Sastri did not have stable jobs. Their major patrons were Telugu zamindars, who were scattered all over Andhra. One such zamindar was Krishna Rao of the Koccerlakota family. A Brahmin, he was educated in English and even had a BA degree, which was considered a very high degree in those days. He read English literature and developed a taste for it. During this time, the early 1900s, Edwin Arnold's biography of Buddha, The Light of Asia , was enjoying an unusual degree of popularity among English-educated Indians. If you did not appreciate The Light of Asia , you were not considered a person of good taste. Indians were coming to recognise the greatness of their culture through the eyes of European and British scholars and savants who had developed a deep interest and admiration in things Indian. Those who had earlier accepted the colonial message that India was a decadent and downtrodden country that needed the help of the British to be civilised began to see a new respect and admiration for their own culture in Western writings about India. Edwin Arnold's The Light of Asia came at exactly the right time to appeal to this clientele.

Krishna Rao wanted the Twin Poets to translate The Light of Asia 6 into Telugu for him. 7 The Twin Poets were rigorous Smārta Brahmins who lived by the traditions and ritual conventions that their families had practised for generations. They grew up in an atmosphere where ‘Buddhist’ was the harshest term fathers could hurl against their sons when young boys deviated from strict Brahminic practices. Furthermore, the poets were scholars who had studied Śankara's Advaita Vedānta and knew that Buddha was unacceptable to Brahmins because he rejected the authority of the Veda. This was the background in which the Twin Poets wrote the Buddhacaritramu –the life of Buddha.

It is interesting to speculate why the Twin Poets should have agreed to create a Telugu version of Buddhacaritramu , and that too using an English source, a language they did not control as well as Sanskrit, when Aśvaghoṣa's poem about Buddha's life, Buddhacarita , was easily accessible to them.

One obvious reason for not following Aśvaghoṣa is that he was not popular among Telugu scholars of Sanskrit. His Buddhacarita was not considered much of a kāvya by pundits who favoured Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, Murari, and such illustrious kāvya poets. For more substantial reasons, one has to look into the contemporary political situation, with its historical and cultural components.

It is well known that the British Raj wisely distanced itself from Christian missionary activities. It shrewdly left the Brahmins free to practise their religion without governmental interference, and even patronised Hindu temples. Most Brahmins found no difficulty in allowing the British to take over the symbolic role of the Kshatriya in the Sanskritic four- varṇa order, as long as they, the British, let the Brahmins be Brahmins without question. In the early days of the Raj, Brahmins were very supportive of the government and even enjoyed munificent administrative positions under the Raj. They quickly learned English and played the courtier to the new kings.

The Brahmin poets under the patronage of zamindars found no contradiction in accepting Queen Victoria and, later, King George V as their monarchs and praising them in the traditional style reserved for great Hindu emperors of the past. The zamindars provided a comfortable space for traditional Brahmin pundits and poets who continued to live in the imagined world of the glorious patron-king relationship familiar from the remembered history of South India. Long ago, in the sixteenth century, Emperor Krishnadevaraya held court in his assembly hall called Bhuvana-vijayam –‘Conquest of the World’–with his eight poets called aṣṭa diggajas , after the eight mythological cardinal elephants that kept the earth stable. The symbol suggests that the poets supported the empire through poetry, with their emperor enthroned in the centre. This symbol endured historical scrutiny and was firmly implanted in the minds of educated Telugu people. For Brahmin poets who were supported by one of these zamindars, their imagined world continued undisturbed.

Following the trend of the times, the Twin Poets travelled from one zamindar to another seeking support. They imagined themselves in the role of great poets like Srīnātha of the fourteenth century who travelled from king to king, patron to patron, reciting his poems for them and receiving honours including gajārohaṇa , being paraded through the town on an elephant. As was conventional with poets of the past, the Twin Poets also generated for their zamindari patrons an imagined status as great kings. For instance, the language which the Twin Poets use to describe their patron Krishna Rao unmistakably announces the glory they imagine for him. They call him Krishṇarātprabhū, Lord Krishna Rao, and Krishṇarāḍbiḍauja, Krishna Rao who is like Indra the king of gods, and so on. Furthermore, taking advantage of the similarity in name between the zamindar Krishna Rao and the sixteenth century monarch Krishna-deva-raya, the Twin Poets wrote:

Though the victorious Krishna-raya ruled his kingdom on the shores of the river Tungabhadra and supported a number of great poets, he was not happy because he was born as the son of a servant maid–so he was born again in a Brahmin family, as Krishna Rao, to rule his kingdom from the shores of the river Godavari.

There is a folk legend that Krishnadevaraya was born to a maidservant. His father was told by a sage to make love to his wife at a certain auspicious moment so a great warrior would be born. When his wife delayed coming to bed, he made love to a nearby maid so as not to let the auspicious moment pass.

Despite the glorious images the Twin Poets imagined for the zamindars, and in turn for themselves, the zamindars were hardly more than tax farmers, and the poets hardly more than everyday supplicants. Zamindars leased land from the British government and paid a fixed amount of money agreed upon at the time of lease. They enjoyed the trappings of kings sporting titles such as ‘Raja’ or, if the British Government permitted, even more glorious titles such as Maharaja, (as in the case of the Maharaja of Vizianagaram). They had no real political power and their crowns, if they wore them, were ‘hollow’, to borrow a phrase from Dirks ( 1987 ). These zamindars came in all shapes and sizes. Some of them were very learned in the two trans-regional languages of high culture, Sanskrit and Persian, and had a good English education as well. But most of them had a smattering of Sanskrit and Telugu and an English education from one of the newly established British-style colleges. Most zamindars came from land-owning castes such as Velama and Kamma, but there were a few from traditionally non-land-owning castes such as Brahmin and Vaisya. Not all zamindars were of the same status. Some, like the Maharaja of Vizianagaram, had their own kingdoms before the British took away their troops and reduced them to tax farmers. They had relatively richer properties in addition to recognition as ‘kings’ of their area. Other newer zamindars, like Krishna Rao, were upwardly mobile wealthy people who acquired their position by courting the favours of local British officers.

No matter what the origin, caste, or source of wealth of these zamindars, they were all uniformly loyal to the British raj. They were obedient servants of the British royalty, whose authority and glory they obeyed and celebrated. They invariably hung royal portraits in their court halls and made sure they paid appropriate tributes on every important occasion, such as birthdays. During the coronation of King George V, these zamindars had their court poets write poems for the king and the queen, wishing them a long and healthy life. Poems written in ornate Telugu with high-flown Sanskrit vocabulary, applying to the British royals the same epithets that were once used to celebrate great Hindu emperors such as Krishna-deva-raya, would of course make no sense to an English-speaking Christian monarch sitting in Buckingham palace in London, even assuming that the poems reached His Majesty, which they did not. Some of the best poets of the time, including the Twin Poets, wrote such poems.

While playing loyal courtier to the British King, some of these zamindars felt a faint sense of pride in their own culture. Politically, they were loyal to the British, and culturally they were getting closer to Western styles of living. They were pleased when Sanskrit scholars and Telugu poets addressed them with Sanskritic titles and praised them as if they were kings wearing a crown, while they themselves were dressed in suits, played cricket, spoke English, and enjoyed the company of white men and women. Thus they lived in two worlds, with a deep respect for Hindu/Indian culture and a sense of pride in it, and a fascination for the West. At this juncture, when Orientalist British and German scholars themselves came to admire India's great culture, these zamindars hailed them enthusiastically. For instance, publication of Max Mueller's translation of the Rig Veda was underwritten by the Maharajah of Vizianagaram.

The three gods, Siva, Vishnu and Brahma are like the Governors,         The minor gods are the lower level officials,       The great island Maṇidvīpa is like London,      And she herself is Her Majesty the Queen,     May she, the Great Goddess who rules the world,           Protect Krishna Rao with compassion.

For the Twin Poets, the location of London and the titles Queen and Governor enhance even the position of the Goddess of the universe and of the gods that surround her. This is the background to the Twin Poets' acceptance of Arnold's Light of Asia in preference to Aśvaghoṣa's Buddhacarita in writing their Buddhacaritramu.

As I will show later, Arnold's poem, once the Twin Poets began to translate it, transformed them, as it did many of its readers at the time. 8 But before we see how the English poem transformed the Twin Poet's ideas, let me outline the features of the Telugu prabandha genre, which the Twin Poets chose for their translation of Arnold's The Light of Asia , and the main problems they faced in conforming to the conventions of that genre.

            a young woman,         graceful as a golden goose, eyes like petals of a fresh lotus blossom,         breasts towering and round,     body fragrant as campak flowers,         her face veiled by shyness,             Yaśodhara –         with a lovely lower lip.

She stands before him and, as if she knew him well, asks with an intimate tone,

Where are my gifts–give them and I've got to go. 9

Siddhartha smiles and sees that all the gifts are gone, and says: 10

        “Woman with beautiful eyes!         The gifts are given away, but here is one that no one else deserves”.       He was speaking in a special way.     As everyone looked on, he took    a chain of emeralds from his neck      and placed it around hers         with his own hands.

Despite the prabandha requirements, the Twin Poets handle śṛngāra , the erotic mood, minimally so as not to compromise the main theme of the book, which depends on śānta, the mood of peace.

There is another area where the Twin Poets made a major change. While they follow Arnold's narrative fairly faithfully, they do not even mention Arnold's name. Instead they mention Aśvaghoṣa's Buddhacarita as their source. To a modern reader it is clear plagiarism not to acknowledge Arnold, and a lie to give the credit to Aśvaghoṣa. This is where we should take a careful look at the conventions of prabandha.

The template of a prabandha requires that it should begin with a prayer to the gods, blessings to the patron of the work for whom it is recited in court, detailed praise to the great Sanskrit and Telugu poets of the past (pūrva-kavi-stuti), and a censure of bad poets (kukavi-ninda) . This is followed by a full description of the family of the patron. The poet then narrates in detail the occasion in which the patron has requested a specific poem to be written for him by giving the poet betel leaves (and gold) and thus sealing the commission. The prabandha is courtly poetry, and its conventions require that the patron be described as a king. This template has been in place for at least nine hundred years, from the time Rājarāja Narendra, the Cāḷukya king of Vengi, requested his court poet Nannaya to compose in Telugu the Mahābhārata ‘spoken’ in Sanskrit by Vyāsa. Such a time-honoured template requires that the patron ask his poet to take a Sanskrit text as his original in order to compose his Telugu poem. Because the convention was so rigid, a Sanskrit book was always presented as the original even when it was not really followed. Clearly this tradition would not allow an English poem to be brought into the picture. That would be unacceptable and literarily jarring. Everyone in the literary community knew for a fact that the Twin Poets were commissioned by their patron Krishna Rao to compose a Telugu poem based on Edwin Arnold's The Light of Asia . 11 Venkata Sastri himself says in his autobiography (which he wrote in verse in third person as if someone else wrote it)

     ātaḍ' inglīṣu bhāsalon āranālḍu kavi raciñcina buddhuni katanu dĕlgu    jesi kṛti tanak immani vāsiy alara    gorě tirpati venkaṭa dhīra kavula.

‘Make into Telugu the story of the Buddha written by Aranālḍu [Arnold] in the English language and dedicate it to me’. That's what zamindar Krishna Rao asked of the Tirupati–Venkata poets. 12

The mention of Aśvaghoṣa in the preface to the Telugu poem is, as they say in Telugu, śastrāniki , to respect the convention. 13 The Twin Poets leave themselves room to bring Arnold in when they say that Krishna Rao commissioned them to ‘write the life story of Buddha following Aśvaghoṣa and others’. The tag ‘and others’ allows the Twin Poets to bring in Arnold without a problem.

One tricky point the poets faced relates to the ideal of Buddhist non-violence. One day, Bimbisāra orders a large number of goats to be slaughtered for a Vedic ritual. When Buddha sees the shepherds driving their goats from the pasture into the city earlier than their usual time, he asks why they are rushing back so soon and finds out that king Bimbisāra has ordered them to bring the goats for the ritual. Buddha, who is himself carrying a wounded goat on his shoulders in order to nurture it back to health, asks to go with them. He arrives at the ritual place where the Vedic priest is chanting the mantras and is about to raise his knife to cut off the head of a goat. Buddha dramatically stops him from bringing the knife down on the goat's neck and lectures Bimbisāra on the virtues of non-violence. Convinced that violence is wrong, Bimbisāra announces by way of an inscription that people thereafter should avoid killing animals, eating meat, and so on.

The Twin Poets adopt Arnold's description of the sacrifice very faithfully. However, powerful as this description is, it poses two problems. First, from a Brahminic perspective, ritual killing is not violence; and second, this is not the way an animal is killed at a Vedic sacrifice. What Arnold describes is the way an animal is killed for a village goddess. It is very likely that Arnold had seen such ritual sacrifices at village goddess shrines during his time in India. Technically speaking, no animal is killed with a knife in a Vedic sacrifice. It is smothered to death, spilling no blood. As David Knipe says in his seminal essays on Vedic practices in the Konasima area of Andhra Pradesh, paśubandha is practised even today by Vedic Brahmins in their śrauta rituals such as Paundarīka or other forms of the Agnicayana. 14

One might ask how these nuances were lost on the Twin Poets who were traditional Brahmins. They were the least Westernised among the Telugu poets of the 20th century. They dressed in the most conventional Brahmin way, without a shirt and with a śāluva, shawl, on their shoulders. They wore their sacred thread visibly across their chest, strictly observed restrictions on food, and meticulously followed their daily ritual observations. They were the most Brahmin of the Brahmin poets of the time. Given their lifestyle, religious learning, and knowledge about the ritual killing of animals, one might wonder why the Twin Poets found no difficulty in translating Arnold verbatim, representing all killing as violence and furthermore overlooking the technical difference between eṭa , killing of an animal at a village goddess shrine, and paśubandha the killing of an animal at a Vedic ritual.

In an essay published in 1944, some forty-two years after the publication of Buddhacaritramu, Chellapilla Venkata Sastri, the senior of the Twin Poets who survived his partner by several decades, writes thoughtfully on the concept of violence. He quotes from the Mahabharata to show that killing animals at Vedic rituals was not acceptable to some great sages of the past. He admits that Manu says in his Dharmasastra that eating meat is not wrong ( na māmsabhakṣan,e doṣam ) but interprets it as a statement for the times ‘because everyone was eating meat at that time’. After reflecting on the pros and cons of the issue, he finally declares that animal killing is cruel even if it is accepted by the Vedas. He unequivocally concludes that following the teaching of Buddha in this matter is the right thing to do. 15

Traditionally, Brahmins in South India are strictly vegetarians. They do not kill animals for food, nor do they eat the meat of animals killed by others, as Buddhists do. Their vegetarianism is so strict that they do not even go near a place where meat is being cooked, nor do they sit by the side of a person eating meat. In this sense, South Indian Brahmins are stricter vegetarians than Buddhists. Any suggestion that Vedic Brahmins ate meat and had cows killed to feed honoured guests would be repulsive to a South Indian Brahmin even if it were to be factually correct. 16 That ritual killing of animals was practised by a few Vedic Brahmin families in the secluded area of Konasima, as discussed by Knipe, was not common knowledge among all Brahmins. While the Vedas and Vedic rituals are generally glorified in Sanskrit and Telugu literary texts, the practice of killing animals at one of those rituals does not find detailed description in any of them. 17 For all practical purposes, the vegetarian Brahmins who chanted the Veda had virtually erased from their minds the idea that animals were killed at Vedic rituals and would not even know what method of killing was adopted. The only killing they would be aware of was the one low-caste people practised at a village goddess shrine.

It would therefore make sense to assume that the Twin Poets did not find it difficult to describe killing at Vedic rituals as violence and, since they apparently were not mindful of the technical difference between the Vedic paśubanda and village eṭa , went along with Arnold's description of animal sacrifice. In their mind non-violence was a Brahminic virtue as well. Generations of vegetarianism in their families easily confirmed this conclusion.

In his autobiography, Venkata Sastri describes his meeting in Madras with Annie Besant, the Irish leader of the Theosophical movement, who was hugely popular for her lectures on Hinduism among the English-educated elite. Venkata Sastri and his collaborator were mesmerised by her knowledge of Hindu religious texts and her admiration for Hinduism. The brief description Venkata Sastri gives of this meeting does not offer enough scope to measure the impact she might have had on the minds of the poets when they were young, but we do know that Theosophy's appreciation of Hinduism did not include the killing of animals at Vedic sacrifices. Furthermore, western influences on the interpretation of Hinduism and Buddhism were in the air as the Twin Poets began to move among the modern elites. Arnold's The Light of Asia clearly added to the new perspective the Twin Poets were developing. The way they blend Buddhist and Hindu concepts in their work seems to result from their understanding of the two religions as partners in peace and spirituality.

In this context it is also noteworthy that the Twin Poets detach themselves from the Hindu representation of Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu. According to this story, Vishnu is born as Buddha to willfully misguide the anti-gods to despise the Vedas and the Upanishads and to seduce their wives so as to deprive them of their pātivratya , the power of a faithful wife. When the wives lose their chastity, their husbands lose in their battle with the gods. This story, retold in poetry and song, and represented in sculpture for at least six centuries, was already losing its impact on educated minds by the time the Twin Poets wrote their work. 18 The Twin Poets would remember the negative description of Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu from the many Telugu prabandhas they knew so well that they could recite verses from them from memory. We can only conclude that they avoided any reference to that story, not only because it would be inappropriate in the text they were translating but because it was distasteful to them.

The Twin Poets smoothly pass over difficult areas where Buddhism differs from Hinduism. For instance, when Buddha, in one of his discourses, raises the question of whether there is an ātman that survives the body, the Twin Poets do not pay critical attention to the issue. They present the idea as a seamless part of a flowing narrative, and make it appear fairly non-controversial. 19 They use words such as dharma , karma, śānti , and ahimsā , throughout the poem without subjecting the concepts to serious examination that would sharpen the differences between their Brahminic and Buddhist meanings. The poets even describe the Buddhist way as jñāna mārga , the path of knowledge, giving the impression that it is similar to one of the many paths available in Brahminic teachings. This gives rise to the impression that what Buddha said was not all that different from what the Brahminic sages taught. This may appear like interpretive fuzziness, but I suggest that the Twin Poets deliberately adopt this new hermeneutics. Equating concepts represented by a terminology shared by Brahminism and Buddhism allows for a new Brahminism which accepts Buddha's teaching and a new Buddhism that finds Brahminism not too alien. The fact that such representation of Buddha's teachings was not found objectionable by scholars of the time suggests that the Twin Poets were not seen as too radical. At the end of the poem the Twin Poets have a confession to make:

Śankara was angry with this religion and crushed it, but still Buddhism flourishes in the world at large. If you put all the people in the world who follow other religions on one side of the scales and the Buddhists on the other side, the needle will tilt towards the Buddhists. Among all the religions in the world, Buddhism stands superior even today. The reason is because this religion teaches compassion to all living beings, and that's why it wins. 20

This is an extraordinary statement from Brahmin scholar poets who grew up in traditional Brahmin families. If we recall that ‘Buddhist’ was a curse word in their community during their childhood, they have travelled far indeed, as has the society around them.

The next generation of poets came under the influence of Gandhi and were sympathetic to the national movement that he was leading against the British. Among them were Katuri Venkateswara Rao (1895–1962) and Pingali Lakshmikantam(1894–1972), hereafter Katuri and Pingali, who were students of Chellapilla Venkata Sastri. In fact, nearly all major poets who came into the literary field during the 1930s were Venkata Sastri's students. The Twin poets were an inspiration and a role model for many poets of this generation. Imitating them, a number of young poets paired up in teams of two to compose their works. Following the trend, Katuri Venkateswara Rao and Pingali Lakshmikantam together wrote Saundaranandamu 21 in Telugu based on Aśvaghoṣa's Sanskrit poem. Both Katuri and Pingali were trained by traditional pundits in Sanskrit and Telugu, and Pingali was educated in English as well. Katuri, who was independently wealthy, did not need a paid job, but Pingali served as a Professor of Telugu at Andhra University and later at Sri Venkateswara University.

Although they were students of Chellapilla Venkata Sastri, they were powerfully drawn into the new poetry movement famously known as Bhāvakavitvam, (poetry of feeling). The Bhāvakavitvam movement was a response to the pundits' control of grammars and restrictions on poetry by means of an outdated alamkāra śastra –also a protest against the prabandhas which described the female anatomy, limb by limb, from head to foot, breasts and pubic hair included. The modern poets felt that an excess of interest in the female body left no room for a woman's feelings. Prema , love, in the Bhāvakavitvam vocabulary, replaced kāma , desire, in the prabandha poems. Through Bhāvakavitvam, Katuri and Pingali were exposed to the literary influence of Tagore, whose poetry emphasises love. Tagore's philosophy of love is that it should be unblemished by desire and sensuousness and find meaning in celebrating beauty. Tagore's God is in the heart of one who loves beauty. 22

Politically, Katuri was a Gandhian. Gandhi was leading a peaceful satyagraha against the British, and his message of service to the poor and downtrodden appealed to the Telugu poet. Katuri wrote some of the best poems in modern Telugu literature celebrating the entry of untouchables into the famous temple of Venkateswara at Tirupati. Pingali's political sympathies are not so clearly evident, but he was willing to be led by Katuri, who many of his contemporaries thought was the better poet of the two. 23 Two things led Katuri and Pingali to choose the theme of Saundarananda: the Gandhian philosophy of service to the poor and the downtrodden, and the Bhāvakavitvam philosophy of love free from eroticism. Neither of them were particularly Buddhist, and the poets themselves were not interested in the serious Buddhist teachings of the Sanskrit text. It is understandable that they borrowed the theme but none of the details of the narrative of Aśvaghoṣa.

Katuri and Pingali did not even mention Aśvaghoṣa's name in their work. All they needed was the title and the theme. They did not write a prabandha, as the Twin Poets had. During the Bhāvakavitvam period, the prabandha genre, with its erotic overtones, was out of favour. Instead, they created a new genre that, unlike the prabandha, enters the narrative right at the beginning and does not have room to acknowledge any sources, much less to describe the context in which the poets came to compose the work. They dedicated their book to their teacher, Chellapilla Venkata Sastri, on his sixtieth birthday as a tribute to ‘the one who created a whole world of modern poets’. However, it is common knowledge among the literary community that Katuri and Pingali had Aśvaghoṣa as their source. 24

The theme of Saundaranandamu is simple. Nanda, the younger brother of Buddha, is passionately involved with his beautiful wife Sundari, and spends every minute of his life in her presence. Sundari is everything to him. One day, Buddha comes to his door begging for food ( bhiksha ), and Nanda and Sundari, lost in each other, fail to notice. When Buddha does not get a response, he moves on to another house. Nanda realises his terrible mistake. He promises his wife that he will be back before the makeup he has applied to her face dries, and runs out to catch up with Buddha and bring him back to his house. Buddha sees his brother and without a word puts his begging bowl in his brother's hands and keeps on walking. Fearing to ask him for permission to leave, Nanda obediently follows, with Buddha's begging bowl in hand, all the time worried about his beloved at home.

Soon he finds himself in Buddha's monastery, where the monks forcefully shave his head, give him ochre robes, and ordain him while he violently kicks and screams. The next chapter describes how Sundari, so suddenly separated from her lover, becomes intensely distressed by his absence and questions his love for her. The servants tell her that they have seen him in the monastery. Unable to believe that her husband has become a monk out of his own volition, she concludes that Buddha has forced him to convert. She accuses Buddha of ruining her life and that of her husband. At the monastery, Nanda is grieving endlessly, missing his loving companion, when Buddha comes to see him. Nanda tells Buddha that his love for Sundari is not infatuation, it is a love that would brighten their world and make it a beautiful place to live in. Buddha insists that this love is rooted in passion and gives Nanda a sermon on celibacy and freedom from desire. After this eloquent speech Nanda appears to be persuaded and asks Buddha if Sundari could also be ordained, if she accepts the principles of celibacy. On Buddha's invitation Sundari is ordained and begins to serve the poor.

The narrative ends with a poignant scene where Sundari and Nanda find themselves at the bedside of a dying poor woman in an untouchable colony. They are about to call each other ‘my love’ but stop before they even complete the first syllable and instead say, ‘I surrender to Buddha’. Before she dies, the poor woman puts her little son's hand in Sundari's and her little daughter's hand in Nanda's, thus entrusting her children to them. Suddenly Buddha appears and says that even though he had separated them from each other, he is now giving a new Nanda to Sundari to raise as her little brother and a new Sundari to Nanda to raise as his little sister. The poem ends with Nanda and Sundari joyfully singing the praises of Buddha.

Compared to Aśvaghoṣa's Saundarananda 25 the Telugu Saundaranandamu reads like a romantic tale with a Buddhist flavour. The Sanskrit poem is a serious Buddhist text with relentlessly harsh Buddhist teachings. Following Nanda's forceful induction into the monastery, a monk lectures him about how unreliable, selfish, wicked, and cruel women are. Buddha takes him to heaven and shows him all the beautiful apsarasas . Nanda falls madly in love with them. But he finally realises that his desire and the handsomeness of his body are the main obstacles to nirvāṇa when he sees that even the enjoyment of pleasures with the apsarasas in heaven is a part of the cycle of rebirth and death.

Saundaranandamu was considered good poetry in Telugu and received praise soon after its publication. The carefully carved poems and the soft, smooth words that make up each stanza appealed to readers who appreciated its lyricism. A controversy about whether it worked as poetry because it combined śṛngāra (eroticism) and śānta (peace), two rasas that should never be combined, was limited to a small circle of critics and did not damage the poem's literary standing.

To a more modern taste, the work might sound sentimental and unconvincing, but in the 1930s when it was published it was received as a poem with a noble message. It appealed to the educated middle class who admired Gandhi's vow of celibacy ( brahmacarya ) , his philosophy of truth and non-violence, and his call to work for the uplift of the untouchables. In the mind of this new class, Gandhi and Buddha were easily associated together and became symbols of modern India. The untouchable colony reminded readers of actual untouchable colonies in Indian villages, with lepers and beggars looking for food on filthy and narrow streets filled with stray dogs and pigs. There is a subtle influence of Christian values in the description of Sundari serving the sick and the poor. Even the image of Buddha depicted in the poem as he preaches to the people on the streets of Kapilavastu is reminiscent of the Christian evangelists. However, the shared ethos with Christianity was not noticed by contemporary readers, and the poets themselves were unaware of it, apparently because in their minds it was inseparably mixed with the Gandhian message of service to the poor. 26 Gradually, an image of Buddhism as the religion of peace, and Buddhist monks as selfless servants of the poor and suffering masses, became popular. Buddhism was now accepted as a clean form of Hinduism, free from its caste hierarchies and the blemish of treating some members of the religion as untouchables, as Gandhi himself believed Hinduism should be.

By the mid-1930s, a new wave of critical realism became popular in Telugu. Writers and poets rewrote the epics and Purāṇas radically reinterpreting them and revising the conventional reading of problematic incidents and negative characters. These writers took tremendous risks in opening up gaps in the established meanings of classical texts. They questioned the moral stance of heroes like Rama in the Rāmāyaṇa . Sita, who suffered hardships in the original Rāmāyaṇa , received a more sympathetic treatment in their works. The more radical writers among them even had Sīta reject Rāma and declare her love for Rāvaṇa.

In this vein of critical realism, Buccibabu's play Tiṣyarakṣita (1940) 27 is a direct indictment of Buddhism and everything it stood for. The play was broadcast on All India Radio at a time when the euphoria about Buddha as a messenger of peace reverberated in poetry, theater, and film; and images of Buddha appeared in many drawing rooms of modern, educated Indians. Next in popularity was Ashoka, described in history textbooks as an emperor who chose peace, renouncing war after his victory. He was so remorseful for the violence he caused that he turned to Buddhism. He was represented as a popular emperor who ruled over a welfare state. A routine line from school textbooks in those days said that he planted trees on the roadside to provide shade for travellers.

One would think that a play which shattered popular positive images of Buddha and Ashoka would stand out as a good candidate for condemnation. Surprisingly, there was no serious negative reaction to it. Rather, it was received with appreciation. Listeners of the radio play (and readers when a longer version of it was published in 1964) 28 took it as an interesting story that revealed the darker side of a famous emperor known for his good work. It was appreciated as a human drama that depicts some of the complex psychological problems in history.

Buccibabu (1916–67), whose birth name was Sivaraju Venkata Subbarao, was educated in English literature and taught English in college before he worked for All India Radio. He was one of the few modernist writers in Telugu at a time when most of the prominent writers and poets were nationalists, Marxists, or advocates of one social reform movement or the other. Already well known for his novel Civariki migiledi (What Lasts, 1946), Buccibabu wrote in a style that created a new language of sensual expressivity in Telugu. His syntax captures the mental movements of his characters and shatters the façade of normalcy that put a lid on sexual desire, especially the sexual desire of women. One may have thought that Buccibabu's style, like that of his predecessor Chalam (1894–1979), would have provoked controversy. However, Chalam had paved the way and had made radical openness about sex less controversial. Moreover, in the minds of a modern educated middle class, legends and stories from Buddhism and even Hinduism were treated as parts of a national culture and not so much as integral aspects of specific religious belief systems. The play thus did not cause an uproar as being an attack on anyone's faith.

The theme of this play is based on a story from Buddhist lore, from Aśokâvadāna 29 , and is hardly known in Andhra except among specialists. The parts of the story in the Aśokâvadāna that Buccibabu borrows go as follows: First there is the Bodhi tree under which Buddha attained enlightenment. The emperor Ashoka worships this tree with special reverence. He sends the most precious of royal jewels to the tree. His wife Tiṣyarakṣita thinks that Bodhi is a woman and grows very jealous. She asks a sorceress to kill Bodhi, which the sorceress agrees to do for some money. When the tree begins to show signs of distress, the king's messengers inform him. Ashoka collapses at the news and says he will die if Bodhi dies. Tiṣyarakṣita comes to console him and reassures him that she will make him happy if that woman should die. The king tells her that Bodhi is not a woman but a tree. Tiṣyarakṣita realises her mistake and asks the sorceress to bring the tree back to life. The sorceress undoes her spell and nurtures the tree back to health.

The second set of events relates to Tiṣyarakṣita's falling in love with Ashoka's son Kuṇāla. Kuṇāla was born with extraordinarily beautiful eyes. He was called Kuṇāla because his eyes resembled the eyes of the Himalayan bird Kuṇāl. When Tiṣyarakṣita comes across Kuṇāla meditating alone in the forest, she is so irresistibly attracted to him that she embraces him and expresses her love for him. Kuṇāla rejects her by gently saying:

        You are mother to me!     Shun this non- dharmic path For it will lead to a lower rebirth.

Tiṣyarakṣita is wounded by this rejection and threatens his life in anger. Thereafter, Ashoka falls ill with a mysterious disease; excrement begins to come out of his mouth. When his doctors are not able to cure him, he decides to make his son Kuṇāla the emperor. Tiṣyarakṣita fears that as king Kuṇāla would put her to death, so she takes it upon herself to cure her husband. She finds a patient who suffers from the same disease and has him killed so that his body can be cut open. Finding a worm in this patient, she discovers that onions will kill the worm; she then treats her husband with onions and brings him back to health. A grateful emperor offers to give anything as a reward for her services to him. Tiṣyarakṣita asks for the kingship for seven days. When she gets the throne, she orders the blinding of Kuṇāla. She stamps the letter with the emperor's teeth when he is in deep sleep, and sends the letter off. Kuṇāla is duly blinded. When the emperor sees him and discovers that the perfidy has been masterminded by Tiṣyarakṣita, he has her brought to him to be punished. But Kuṇāla pleads for forgiveness on her behalf and says he himself does not feel any pain and has no suffering. He says he only has kind thoughts for his mother. When he says this, his eyesight is miraculously restored. Ashoka however, does not forgive Tiṣyarakṣita. He has her thrown into a lacquer house to be burned to death.

Buccibabu borrows this storyline very minimally and transforms the character of Tiṣyarakṣita from a jealous, ruthless, and cruel woman into a passionate, dynamic, brilliant, and articulate woman who is the victim of a religion that has destroyed all human emotions. Buccibabu borrows traces of the story from the Ashokāvadāna where Tiṣyarakṣita is at times passionate and intelligent–for instance in the way she takes charge of Ashoka when he falls ill, and the way she ruthlessly but brilliantly conducts her experiments with another patient afflicted with the same disease. The idea of dissecting a body to find out how a disease spreads is original (and modern) in itself, and her determination to save the emperor, while purely motivated by a selfish desire to prevent Kuṇāla from taking over, shows a strong-willed person at work. Buccibabu leaves out the details but picks up on important character traits from the original legend.

The Aśokâvadāna as a collection stories about Ashoka appears to be, as John Strong tells us, based on popular legends orally told among the community. These legends had a life of their own and served as a record of collective memory before they were written up in Sanskrit, thus acquiring an authoritative status among the Buddhists. Now a modern Telugu writer uses this to create an entirely new legend out of one of its stories. That Buccibabu did this in an atmosphere where others were rewriting legends and stories about gods, kings, queens, and ministers, reveals a revisionist attempt to reshape the collective memory. The poets and writers of this generation refused to see the ancient past as glorious and golden, as poets during the nationalist movement had. Rather, they represented the ancient heroes as human beings with faults and foibles. The evil characters of the old stories are given a new voice and more complex personalities, whereas characters that were presented as totally good now appear with deadly weaknesses.

In Buccibabu's play, the venerated Buddhist theological concept of sūnyatā , emptiness, becomes literally empty. One of his characters, a Chinese young man called Li Lov, explains what Truth is to another minor character, Sulabhā-darśini.

Li Lov opens his closed fist and shows an empty palm. He says:

That's what the Truth is. Whoever teaches it, Bodhisattva, the Devānāmpriya, Dharma-mahā-māta, whoever–that's what the Truth is. Once, Ānanda and Kaśyapa made an announcement that they were going to give away the book that contains the sacred teachings of the Buddha, and a certain monkey came all the way from China to get it, just like me. They gave the monkey an unwritten bunch of palm leaves and said that was the Sacred Book.

That is for starters. The play relentlessly demonstrates that the young and energetic Tiṣyarakṣita is surrounded by men with no desires, no feelings, and time after time we see her confronting them, even teasing them to reveal their insensitivity. Tiṣyarakṣita had been in love with Mahendra, Ashoka's brother, before Ashoka married her. Mahendra had rejected her to become a Buddhist. She tries to provoke him in an effort to rekindle a passion in him. In defense of herself she says:

Tell me which plant grows without sunlight? Which wave of the ocean that did not rise up to reach the moon took the lost sailor safely to shore? Don't reject my love. A flower that has not opened is not fit for worship. A voice does not break until you sing. There's an unknown energy in me, which one day will explode as an earthquake.

Time and again in the play, it is a frustrated and emotionally deprived Tiṣyarakṣita who continues to speak rebelliously, irreverently, and utterly fearlessly. Buccibabu uses the Bodhi tree legend from the Aśokâvadāna to show that Tiṣyarakṣita defies power, even that of the chief judge and the Emperor himself. Near the end of the play, we see Tiṣyarakṣita chopping into small pieces a branch. She tells her maidservant that she ordered the branch to be cut from the Bodhi tree because she was not happy that her husband was paying more attention to it than he was to␣her. The legend of Tiṣyarakṣita mistaking Bodhi to be a woman and correcting her mistake is not even mentioned. Buccibabu evidently presents his heroine not as a jealous woman, but as a frustrated one. Neither are her failed advances towards Kuṇāla presented in the play. We come across a mention of the incident a little before the last scene and then again when Tiṣyarakṣita is being interrogated by the chief judge, Dharma-mahā-māta. Tiṣyarakṣita admits that she is responsible for sending Kuṇāla away from the country. She has been ordered to stay away from him but she could not resist touching him as long as he stayed in the palace. She also admits that she is the one who had his eyes plucked out. 30

In an outburst of emotion at the end of the play, Tiṣyarakṣita declares Ashoka a sham. She says Ashoka married her after his first wife died because he did not want to give up the pleasures of his youth. He played with her and enjoyed himself. She thought he was in love with her and so she respected him, even worshipped him. Ashoka is not young any more, his strength and energy have waned. He has realised he cannot keep his empire through physical power. So he has resorted to Buddhism because he can maintain peace with a message of non-violence. His desire to expand his empire has now become possible through peaceful means on the basis of this religion. While his empire has grown strong in the name of religion, his fame has grown with it. Tiṣyarakṣita says that this is all a game. Now that Ashoka is old and his body has withered he wants to use religion to blame the body, so he imprisons his wives in his palaces. This is his strategy and he is even succeeding in it. Finally she declares:

Buddhism is the devil that masks all weaknesses and differences. As long as this religion is alive, human beings will not have happiness or freedom. In the end all religions will die. The human being who withstands the prophets, lives fully, enjoys pleasures, and finds freedom right here in this world.

The play ends with Tiṣyarakṣita pulling a huge stone statue of Buddha onto herself; she dies crushed under its weight.

Buccibabu's play destroys the illusion that Buddhism is a peace-loving and humanistic religion. The play's message in the end is that no religion is truly liberating and that all of them are destructive of the spirit of human freedom and life. The play, however interesting it might have appeared to middle-class intellectuals, did not create an anti-Buddhist, or anti-religious atmosphere. Rather, it helped promote a general secular understanding of Buddhism as a part of the Indian culture.

Buddhism was not perceived as a religion that people could convert to, but as a part of ancient Indian history and a symbol of national pride. Ashoka was represented as a great emperor of ancient India, unique among emperors, because he opted for peace, not because he was too weak to fight a war, but because he repented for the violence he had caused. This was the atmosphere that led to a proud acceptance of the images of Buddha and Gandhi as messengers of peace while a newly independent India inhabited the minds of middle-class intellectuals as a nation of peace. Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, went around the world as a messenger of peace refusing to align India with either the Soviets or the Western bloc that were fiercely contesting with each other to dominate the world. This euphoria was rudely disturbed by the Sino-Indian war over a disputed border in the Himalayan region. Many Indian political leaders began to question the wisdom of the Nehru government in following a policy of peace without adequate military preparation.

Satyanarayana ( 1895–1976 ) was also a student of Venkata Sastri. Satyanarayana had a phenomenal control of Sanskrit and classical Telugu; he wielded Telugu meters with a command superior even to the traditional writers of the past. His words were arcane, his syntax difficult. In everything he was different from everyone else writing during his time. He was so different that his teacher Venkata Sastri had to say:

He doesn't follow my path, nor the path of my father's or grandfather's. His way is different, and no one knows what it is. But then that is no reason to think of him as an ordinary poet. This student of mine is called the King of Poets–and he deserves that title. I am happy for him.

Satyanarayana's formidable scholarship was matched by his monumental imagination and creative energy. He took Telugu poetry to unsurpassed heights using mythological themes and writing in a classical style, but with a compelling modern sensibility. Boldly challenging those critics who argued against traditional values and traditional poetry, Satyanarayana took the less popular position, arguing that it was English education that made Telugu poets and intellectuals lose their heritage and their traditional excellence. Defying the fashionable modern position that themes like the Rāmāyaṇa were detrimental to the progress of society, he wrote a Rāmāyaṇa of his own, in six volumes, and called it Rāmāyaṇa Kalpavṛkṣamu ( Rāmāyaṇa , the Wish-Giving Tree ). Satyanarayana is best represented by a poem he wrote in one of his mythological plays expressing rage against the enemies of the Vedic sages in breathtaking Sanskrit words:

atimanobuddhyahaṅkṛtul aupaniṣadul      āttagaṇḍuṣitatrayul aurvavahni- garbhitântahtapaskulu ghanulu ṛṣulak ĕvvaḍu virodhi tad-vadhak' ĕttina yadi

        They are beyond the mind, intellect or ego. They personify the Upanishads and hold the three Vedas             in their full-throated voices. Fierce with the submarine fire in the depths of their inner self–         they are the seers, the wise men, the greats.             Anyone who dares to oppose them,                 I'll kill him.

The high-voltage Sanskrit compounds and the energetic combinations of its phonemes create an atmosphere of breathless rage. The opening vowels of the first three phrases /a/ and /au/ and the long /a/ are followed by another diphthong and a compound with the difficult consonantal cluster of / hni /; then a repetition of / ta /, once with a visarga , makes you almost breathless–but before you have the chance to catch your breath, the poem relentlessly demands utterance of an aspirate / gh /, and you cannot stop when the clause ends with / evvaḍu virodhi / but are forced to go on until the sentence ends with tad-vadhak' ettina yadi . This one-sentence poem and its style came to represent Satyanarayana in his battle against the nāstikas to protect the Vedas. As a defender of Vedic Brahminism, Satyanarayana was not ready for compromises with Buddhism, as his teacher was. He was not confused about the position of Buddha in Indian religions, and he was well informed of the major difference between Buddha's teaching and that of the Brahminic texts.

Satyanarayana's short poem, entitled ‘A Jataka Tale’, is a good example of his position on Buddhism. 31 Written in conventional meter, this poem tells a story that follows the lines of a Buddhist Jataka tale. Here is a summary of the poem.

In one of his many lives the Buddha was born as a snake. He was a wise scholar and very peaceful. He became the teacher of the king of snakes. Snakes have poison in their fangs which can be deadly when they bite. So no one touched the snakes. Therefore the snakes lived in comfort.

 The Buddha thought it was a sin to bite and kill people, and wanted to uplift the lives of the snakes. He went to the king of snakes and said: ‘Don’t bite anymore. I am the Buddha and I will teach you love'. Seeing the Buddha with a halo around his head, the king of snakes said: ‘Bhagavan, I will not bite anymore, my heart is filled with compassion. I won’t commit this sin any longer. My clan is at your feet, make us good'.

 From that day on the snakes became peace-loving Buddhists. The tigers and lions praised them. But there was a clan of rodents in the neighbouring country–a mean group that did not love peace. When the snakes became peaceful, the rats bit the snakes, crushed their throats, and ran all over the land of snakes. The rats dug up the anthills where the snakes lived. The snakes were troubled and said to themselves: this is ridiculous–we are snakes and cannot even stand up to mere rats! They went to ask their king to put an end to this nonsense.

 The king said he could not suffer even the sound of the word ‘violence’. ‘Our ancestor is the great First Snake, Adi Sesha, who peacefully serves as the bed of Vishnu’, he said. ‘It is not right to give up our cause of peace because of these silly rats. Rats fear cats. The king of cats loves peace, and is a great soul. I will seek his help’, said the king of snakes. He went to the king of cats and secured a promise that the cats would come to help. From then on, the cats stood guard at the snake holes and protected them from the menace of the rats. But the rats were trickier. They lay in wait until the cats left the place, and then they jumped on the snakes. In the course of time the population of snakes grew thinner until they were practically eliminated. When anyone would ask what a snake looked like, people would show a string of twine and say, “they were thin like this”.

Satyanarayana clearly does not accept the notion that Buddhism as a non-violent religion is more humane than Brahminism. The deceptively simple new Jataka tale he creates gives a clear message that a nation cannot exist if it follows an altruistic policy of peace at all costs, without a strong military to fight the enemy. The strategy of having your enemy killed by somebody else or, in other words, waging a proxy war is no less violent, and in principle admits to a failure of the practice of non-violence as a religion. The alternative to fighting your own war could result in total destruction of your nation.

Theoretically, Satyanarayana's poem ( 1965 ) is a response to the general national willingness to adore Gandhi as an apostle of peace. Satyanarayana was not a blind admirer of Gandhi, as were most poets of his time. He wrote subtly hinting at the incongruity of calling Gandhi an avatar of Vishnu, daridra-narāyaṇa (Vishnu as a poor man), because none of the ten avatars of Vishnu are non-violent and Vishnu took those avatars expressly to punish the evil-doers on earth. Perhaps Satyanarayana was a little too realistic for his time.

But Satyanarayana presents his Brahminic message with the skill of a poet. The poem begins with a magnificent image of Buddha in a few simple words: talacuṭṭuṅgala vĕlgu goḷam'agu buddhasvāmi , Buddha, the lord, with a globe of light encircling his head, which is immediately followed by the unconditional conversion of the king of the snakes to surrender his clan at the feet of Buddha. The power of an arresting personality and the immediate transformation of a venomous creature into a devotee of love are depicted here in a tone of calm honesty and goodness in a short couple of lines.

The poem moves into the realm of reality when thousands of snakes approach their king to present their woes. Here, Satyanarayana begins to ridicule the policy of peace, very subtly, when he describes the snake king's solution to the problem posed by the rats. The rest of the poem and the matter-of-fact but devastating ending completes the disastrous effect of Buddha's message of peace. The entire poem superficially replicates the telling of a Jataka tale, but the underlying movement or the final message of the tale makes it a quiet parody. The low-key nature of the tale serves to enhance the unspoken Brahminic critique of the Buddhist doctrine of peace. However, directly revisiting the ancient opposition between Brahminism and Buddhism would have sounded irrelevant since neither Brahminism nor Buddhism, as Satyanarayana would present them, was alive. However, the poem reinforced the political fact that Gandhi and his message of peace and non-violence had lost their appeal.

The four literary texts I have chosen represent four important phases of Telugu literary and cultural history during the 20th century. In the first phase poets were comfortable with colonial rule, as their patrons were making a good living under the umbrella of the British Raj. The Twin Poets' representation of Buddhism was received very favourably by the English educated elite. The Telugu poem reinforced their understanding of The Light of Asia , and they felt good that Buddhism was a proud part of India's cultural greatness. The Twin Poets also had a deeper impact on the traditional, non-English-educated Brahmin community. The prabandha genre they chose and the classical style they adopted achieved what a straight translation of a poem written in a western language could not have done. The teachings of Buddha couched in a language that sounded similar to Brahminic/Hindu religious texts were so convincing that devout Hindus read the work with reverence. Buddha was accepted as a revered sage who taught compassion towards all living beings. The book was reprinted as many as six times, which suggests that it was hugely popular. I sometimes wonder if not mentioning Arnold in the book had something to do with its popularity among traditional Brahmins, most of whom were still very conventional in their life style. It might be that with all the prestige English had acquired in the secular sphere, it had not yet entered the religious discourse or the puja room of Brahmin households. But their resistance to new ideas was slowly growing weaker and the influence and importance of English was surely felt in their lives.

Pingali and Katuri's Saundarandamu , a romantic tale with a Gandhian message of celibacy and service to the poor, reinforced the middle-class understanding of an ideal Indian society. The Buddhism these poets represent is close to what Gandhi talked about as an integral part of Hinduism; a ‘cleansed Hinduism’. Gandhi wrote in his autobiography how he was influenced by Arnold's The Light of Asia . Significantly Gandhi equated Arnold's work with the Bhagavadgita . Acceptance of Buddha's teachings, which Gandhi learned from Arnold, paved the way for the Mahatma to propound a new interpretation of Hinduism, which his followers fervently supported. The Gandhian interpretation toned down the colonial criticism of Hinduism as a religion that supports caste hierarchies and untouchability. Images of Gandhi and Buddha began to appear in middle-class drawing rooms, even as an understanding of Buddhism in conformity with the secularism imagined by India's greatest modern leader and its first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, gained ground. Buddhism and Hinduism were now seen as parts of the great Indian culture that could be proudly showcased to the world.

An atmosphere where religion is seen as culture, instead of as a scripturally sanctioned belief system, was precisely right for writers like Buccibabu. This was the high noon of Nehruvian India in which writers questioned and critically rewrote religious themes. Rational thought gained hold of the elite, who favoured European thinkers and writers such as Sigmund Freud, Bertrand Russell, and Aldous Huxley. Buccibabu's play Tiṣyarakṣita was welcomed by a modern, secular middle-class elite, the same elite that was already comfortable with the Nehruvian understanding of Buddhism as a part of the great culture of India. Consequently, the rationalism the play presented did not conflict with the new ideology of modern India.

Satyanarayana's poem, ‘A Jataka Tale’, which defends a Brahminical reading of Buddhism, appeared three years after the Sino-Indian war. By that time the general public opinion in India had shifted away from the Gandhi–Buddha message of peace in favour of a stronger military. Alongside the images of Gandhi dressed in a loin cloth and bent over his walking stick, statues of Subhas Chandra Bose in his military uniform began to appear in public places. Satyanarayana opposed the populist version of Buddhism and its message of peace and clearly supported a stronger Indian nation with the military capability to protect its borders from invaders. His poem was right along the lines of the new Indian ideology with its enhanced military budgets. However, it had a limited appeal, which faded as the border problem with China subsided.

In present-day Andhra, a more relaxed attitude towards Buddhism as a part of India's ancient culture prevails. A few intellectuals seriously engage with Buddhist doctrine and philosophy and make scholarly efforts to make Buddhist texts accessible in Telugu. Their efforts have been received well, even though they have not yet generated much discussion. 32

When a huge 17-meter-tall monolithic statue of Buddha, said to be the tallest in Asia, was erected (after several failed attempts) in the middle of the Hussain Sagar Lake in Hyderabad, the capital city of Andhra, it was welcomed with pride. When the Dalai Lama visited Andhra Pradesh to perform the Kālacakra ceremony in 2006, the state government gave him a red-carpet welcome and paid to renovate the ancient Buddhist stūpa at Amaravati. The press welcomed it as a tribute to the ancient culture of Andhra. Buddhism has apparently been incorporated as part of Telugu nationalism.

Thanks to David Shulman and Joyce Flueckiger for their close reading of the paper and for their suggestions both stylistic and substantial, and to Laurie Patton for her comments after reading the first draft. Thanks to Paruchuri Sreenivas and V.S.T. Sayee for making inaccessible Telugu sources available to me in record time and to Vasireddi Naveen and Sivaraju Subbalakshmi for helping me with information about Buccibabu's play.

1 Patton ( 2008 ) p. 51.

2 For a discussion of the debates in the Constituent Assembly when it adopted the flag and the seal of the new Republic of India, see Roy ( 1906–2002 ) pp. 485–527. Roy writes, ‘Nehru’s resolution was presented as a fait accompli in that there was no debate on the design or the meaning of the flag' (p. 509). For the eloquent speech of Jawaharlal Nehru introducing the resolution to adopt the national flag with the chakra of Ashoka on it, see, Asoka 2300 , Jagajjyoti (1997) pp. 165–8. In Nehru's words, ‘…the Asokan period in Indian history was essentially an international period of Indian history. It was not a narrowly national period. It was a period when India’s ambassadors went abroad to four countries and went abroad not in the way of an empire and imperialism but as ambassadors of peace and culture and goodwill' (168).

3 For the history of early Buddhism in Andhra, see Sarma ( 2008 ), and Sekhar ( 2006 ).

4 For a brief introduction to the Twin Poets, see Krishnamurthi ( 1985).

5 For more on the Twin Poets see ‘A Historical After-Essay’ in Narayana Rao ( 2003 ) pp.␣277–323.

6 Arnold ( 1969 ). For a publishing history of The Light of Asia , see Right ( 1957 ) pp. 68–75.

7 Venkata Sastri and Tirupati Sastri ( 1956 ).

8 Among the admirers of Arnold's The Light of Asia was Gandhi himself who wrote in his autobiography that he read it with even greater interest than the Bhagavadgita.

9 Buddhacaritramu, ibid, 2.62.

10 Buddhacaritramu , ibid, 2.63.

11 Also, Telugu Sāhitya kośamu: Ādhunika sāhityamu ( 1986 ), records that Buddhacaritramu of the Twin Poets is based on Edwin Arnold's The Light of Asia .

12 Venkata Sastri ( 1956 ) p. 519.

13 Sāstrāniki is a Telugu word colloquially used to indicate a symbolic gesture to satisfy a sastric prescription.

14 See Knipe ( 1997 ) pp. 306–332 and Knipe ( 2000 ). Knipe describes in rich detail the actual process of killing goats by suffocation at Vedic sacrifices in Andhra.

15 ‘Edi ahimsa’? Andhra Vani , 1944, reprinted in Venkata Sastri ( 1958 ) pp. 151–7.

16 Publications such as Jha ( 2001 ) are factually unassailable.

17 Except in a satirical manner in the Basavapurana . See Siva's Warriors: The Basava Purāṇa of Pālkuriki Somanātha . Tr. Velcheru Narayana Rao assisted by Gene Roghair, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990, pp. 232.

18 The story of the Buddha as one of the ten incarnations of Vishnu is told over and over in Telugu. The earliest reference to the Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu is in Pālkuriki Somanātha (thirteenth Century), Paṇḍitārādhyacaritramu, where it is briefly mentioned that Vishnu took the avatar of the Buddha in support of Siva who went to destroy the three cities of the anti-gods. He teaches the anti-gods to despise the Vedas because they preach violence in sacrifices. Then he seduces their wives. Reference to the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu appears continually in Telugu literary texts through the centuries. The story is told in detail in Rāmayamantri ( 1926 ).

A 20th century reference for the story is in Cinavenkataraya ( 1925 ).

19 Buddhacaritramu, ibid, 6.78 .

20 Buddhacaritramu , ibid, 6.101–102.

21 Lakshmikantam and Venkateswara Rao ( 1932 ).

22 For more on Bhāvakavitvam see Velcheru Narayana Rao, Hibiscus on the Lake, ibid pp. 277–323, and for Tagore's philosophy of love, see Kaviraj ( 2006 ) pp. 161–82.

23 As one who knew both of them and many others in the literary circles personally, I␣knew that such opinion was held by a number of people.

24 Telugu Sāhitya Kośamu, ibid, records that Katuri and Pingali's Saundaranandamu is based on Aśvaghoṣa's Saundarananda.

25 Covill ( 2007 ).

26 For more on the Christian and Gandhian influences on Pingali and Katuri see Rockwell ( 2006 ).

27 Though Telugu Sāhitya Kośamu , ibid, says it was written in 1940, it was apparently not published until 1964. The text I have is from Subbarao ( 1964 ) pp. 41–75. Unfortunately, this publication is not properly proofread. In places, sentences are garbled. A shorter version of the play, apparently abridged for broadcasting on radio, is published in an anthology entitled Subbarao. Neṭi Uttama Nāṭikalu .

28 No information is available as to the date when the play was broadcast. It must have been some time between 1948–56, when Buccibabu worked for All India Radio in Bezawada, now called Vijayawada (Oral communication via telephone from his widow Sivaraju Subbalakshmi, 23 June 2008).

29 Strong ( 1983 ). I am indebted to John Strong for all the information I have about this book, including the translation of the passage which I quote.

30 In the text that I use Tiṣyarakṣita says she was responsible for blinding Kuṇāla. The positive and emphatic admission atani kaḷḷu tīyincindi nenenu (It was I that had his eyes removed) is unequivocally clear, but a conjunction kāni , ‘but’ precedes this sentence which makes no sense. Moving kāni to the beginning of the next sentence would make more sense. I had the shorter version of the play (see footnote 27) read to me by a friend from Hyderabad on telephone, in which Tiṣyarakṣita denies blinding Kuṇāḷa. I am still uncertain as to how to interpret Buccibabu's representation of this event. My interpretation here is tentative. I am preparing a complete translation of the 1964 version of the play where I will discuss the textual problems and possible emendations.

31 Satyanarayana ( 1972 ) pp. 136–8.

32 The political arguments of the neo-Buddhist followers of Ambedkar, actively presented in the newspapers, are not relevant to this article and are not discussed here.

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Indian Culture and Tradition Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on indian culture and tradition.

India has a rich culture and that has become our identity. Be it in religion, art, intellectual achievements, or performing arts, it has made us a colorful, rich, and diverse nation. The Indian culture and tradition essay is a guideline to the vibrant cultures and traditions followed in India. 

India was home to many invasions and thus it only added to the present variety. Today, India stands as a powerful and multi-cultured society as it has absorbed many cultures and moved on. People here have followed various religion , traditions, and customs.

Although people are turning modern today, hold on to the moral values and celebrates the festivals according to customs. So, we are still living and learning epic lessons from Ramayana and Mahabharata. Also, people still throng Gurudwaras, temples, churches, and mosques. 

The culture in India is everything from people’s living, rituals, values, beliefs, habits, care, knowledge, etc. Also, India is considered as the oldest civilization where people still follows their old habits of care and humanity.

Additionally, culture is a way through which we behave with others, how softly we react to different things, our understanding of ethics, values, and beliefs.

People from the old generation pass their beliefs and cultures to the upcoming generation. Thus, every child that behaves well with others has already learned about their culture from grandparents and parents.

Also, here we can see culture in everything like fashion , music , dance , social norms, foods, etc. Thus, India is one big melting pot for having behaviors and beliefs which gave birth to different cultures. 

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Indian Culture and Religion

There are many religions that have found their origin in age-old methods that are five thousand years old. Also, it is considered because Hinduism was originated from Vedas.

Thus, all the Hindu scriptures that are considered holy have been scripted in the Sanskrit language. Also, it is believed that Jainism has ancient origin and existence in the Indus valley. Buddhism is the other religion that was originated in the country through the teachings of Gautam Buddha. 

There are many different eras that have come and gone but no era was very powerful to change the influence of the real culture. So, the culture of younger generations is still connected to the older generations. Also, our ethnic culture always teaches us to respect elders, behave well, care for helpless people, and help needy and poor people.

Additionally, there is a great culture in our country that we should always welcome guest like gods. That is why we have a famous saying like ‘Atithi Devo Bhava’. So, the basic roots in our culture are spiritual practices and humanity. 

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• Indian Culture and Tradition Essay

Essay on Indian Culture and Tradition

As students grow older, it is important for them to improve their understanding and hold over the language. This can be done only through consistent reading and writing. Writing an essay is a task that involves cooperation and coordination of both the mind and body. Students must be able to think as well reproduce their thoughts effectively without any confusion. This is important when it comes to writing answers and other important documents as ones go to higher classes. The art of writing effectively and efficiently can be improved by students through writing essays. To help students in this domain, Vedantu provides students with numerous essays. Students can go through the same and learn the correct manner of writing the essay. 

Indian Culture and Tradition

India enjoys a wide variety of cultural and traditional presence amongst the 28 states. Indian origin religions Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism are all based on dharma and karma. Even, India is a blessed holy place which is also a native place for most of the religions. Recently, Muslim and Christianity also practised working amongst the whole India population. The pledge also added the line, ‘India is my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.’  

Indians are great with cooking; their spices are special for medicinal purposes, so visitors are difficult to adjust to with such heavy spices. The cricketers touring Indian pitches are out due to such food. Frequently, it's been observed that the sportsperson arrived in India either with cooking skills or with a cook. Spices such as cumin, turmeric and cardamom have been used for a long period, to make the dishes more delicious and nutritional. Wheat, rice and pulses help to complete the meal. The majority of the population is a vegetarian one due to their religious aspects.

Talking about the language, India is blessed with a wide range of languages used. Each state has its own language. A major part of the state is unable to speak other languages than the native one. Gujrathi, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, Punjabi, Telugu and many more are the representative languages of the respective state. It's easy to recognize the person with the language he spoke. There are 15 regional languages but almost all of them Hindi is the national language of the country. Sanskrit is considered an ancient and respected language. And most of the legendary holy texts are found in Sanskrit only. Along with these, most of the people are aware of plenty of foreign languages. 

Indian clothing is adorable to most of the foreigners. Woman wearing a sari is the pride of a nation. These create a pleasant effect and she looks so beautiful that a majority of foreign country’s female want to be like her. The origin of the sari is from the temple dancers in ancient times. Sari allows them to maintain modesty and freedom of movement. On the other hand, men traditionally wear a dhoti and kurta. Actually, Dhoti is a type of cloth without any further attached work done on it. The great Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of it and in their dignity, most of the people used to wear the same. 

Apart from all the above facts, Indians are legends with arts and studious material. Shah-rukh Khan, Sachin Tendulkar, Dhirubhai Ambani, Amitabh Bachchan Rajnikant, Sundar Pichai are many more faces of India who are shining and representing India on a global scale. There are 20-30 grand festivals celebrated every year in which every festival pops up with history and respect to the respective religion. Even in terms of business, India is not behind. Agriculture is the best occupation of 70% of people in India. It’s our duty to protect the wonderful culture that we have. 

Indian culture is one of the oldest and most unique cultures known across the globe. It has various kinds of traditional values, religion, dance, festivals, music, and cloth, which varies from each state or town even. Indian art, cuisine, religion, Literature, Education, Heritage, Clothes etc has a huge impact on the whole world where everyone admires and follows it. It is known as the land of cultural diversity.  India thrives on a variety of languages, religions, and cultures due to the diverse race of people living in the country. It can be referred to as one of the world’s most culturally enriched countries. When one thinks of India, they picture colors, smiling faces of children running in the streets, bangle vendors, street food, music, religious festivals etc. 

Religion 

India is a land where different religious beliefs are followed. It is the land of many religions such as Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Jainism and Buddhism.  Four Indian religions namely Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism, and Buddhism were born in India while others are not of Indian origin but have people following those faiths. The people of India keep a solid belief in religion as they believe that following a faith adds meaning and purpose to their lives as it is the way of life. The religions here are not only confined to beliefs but also include ethics, rituals, ceremonies, life philosophies and many more.

Families 

Family plays a vital role in every Indian household. Indians are known to live together as a joint family with their grandparents, uncles and aunts, and the next generation of offspring as well. The house gets passed down from family to family throughout the generations. But with the new modern age, nuclear families are starting to become more common as children go out of town into cities for work or studies and get settled there, also everyone now prefers to have their own private life without any interference. But still, the concept of family get together and family gatherings are not lost as everyone does come together frequently. 

Indian Festivals

India is well known for its traditional festivals all over the world. As it is a secular country with diversity in religions, every month some festival celebration happens. These festivals can be religious, seasonal or are of national importance. Every festival is celebrated uniquely in different ways according to their ritual as each of them has its unique importance. National festivals such as Gandhi Jayanti, Independence Day and Republic Day are celebrated by the people of India across the entire nation. Religious festivals include Diwali, Dussehra, Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Zuha, Christmas, Ganesh Chaturthi, etc. All the seasonal festivals such as Baisakhi, Onam, Pongal, Bihu etc are celebrated to mark the season of harvest during two harvesting seasons, Rabi and Kharif. 

Festivals bring love, bond, cross-cultural exchange and moments of happiness among people.

Indian cuisine is known for a variety of spicy dishes, curry, rice items, sweets etc. Each cuisine includes a wide range of dishes and cooking techniques as it varies from region to region. Each region of India cooks different types of dishes using different ingredients, also food varies from every festival and culture as well. Hindus eat mostly vegetarian food items such as pulao, vegetables, daal, rajma etc whereas people from Islamic cultural backgrounds eat meat, kebabs, haleem etc. In the southernmost part of India, you will find people use a lot of coconut oil for cooking purposes, they eat a lot of rice items such as Dosa, Idli, Appam etc with Coconut chutney, sambhar.

Indian Clothing is considered to be the epitome of modesty and every style is very different in each region and state. But the two pieces of clothing that represent Indian culture are dhoti for men and saree for women. Women adorn themselves with a lot of bangles and Payal that goes around their ankles. Even clothing styles varied from different religions to regions to cultures. Muslim women preferred to wear salwar kameez whereas Christian women preferred gowns. Men mostly stuck to dhoti, lungi, shalwar and kurta.In modern days, people have changed their sense of style, men and women now wear more modern western clothes. Indian clothes are still valued but are now in more trendy and fashionable styles. 

There is no single language that is spoken all over India; however , Hindi is one common language most Indians know and can speak or understand. Every region has a different language or dialect. As per the official language act, Hindi and English are the official languages in India. Other regions or state wise languages include- Gujarati, Marathi, Bangla, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Kashmiri, Punjabi etc. 

FAQs on Indian Culture and Tradition Essay

1. What are the Popular Spices in India?

Popular spices in India include - Haldi(Turmeric), Chakri Phool(Star Anise), Til (Sesame seeds/ Gingili seeds), Saunf(Fennel Seeds), Kesar(Saffron), Laal Mirch(Red chilli), Khas(Poppy seeds), Jayphal(Nutmeg), Kalonji(Nigella Seeds), Rai/Sarson(Mustard Seeds), Pudina(Mint), Javitri(Mace), Patthar ke Phool​(Kalpasi), Kala Namak/ Sanchal/ Sanchar powder(Black salt/ Himalayan rock salt/ Pink salt), Sonth(Dry ginger powder), Methi dana(Fenugreek seeds), Suva Bhaji/ Sua Saag(Dill)

Kadi Patta(Curry Leaves), Sukha dhania(Coriander seeds), Laung(Cloves), Dalchini(Cinnamon), Sabza(Chia seeds), Chironji(Charoli), Ajwain(Carom seeds, thymol or celery seeds), Elaichi(Cardamom), Kali Mirch(Black Pepper (or White Pepper), Tej Patta(Bay Leaf), Hing(Asafoetida), Anardana(Pomegranate seeds), Amchoor(Dry mango powder)

2. What is the Language Diversity Available in India?

The Indian constitution has 22 officially recognized languages. Apart from it, there are around 60 languages that are recognized as smother tongue with more than one million speakers. India also has around 28 minor languages spoken by over one hundred thousand and one million people. Apart from these, there are numerous dialects spoken by a various sect of people based on their region of origin. 

3. Who are Some of the Most Famous Indian Celebrities Popular Across the Globe? 

India has people excelling in all aspects of art and activities. Few prominent celebrities to garner global fame include - Sudha Murthy, Amitabh Bacchan, Virat Kohli, Saina Nehwal, Sania Mirza, Priyanka Chopra, MS Dhoni, Sachin Tendulkar, Mohanlal, A R Rehman, Mukesh Ambani, Ratan Tata, Narayana Murthy, Kiran Majumdar Shah, Narendra Modi, Amith Shah. all these people have received great accolades in their respective area of expertise globally and getting recognition to India on a global level. 

4. How to Improve Writing and Reading Skills for Producing Good Essays?

Writing an essay becomes a tedious task when the mind and hand do not coordinate. It is important for you to be able to harness your mental ability to think clearly and reproduce the same on paper for a good essay. Always remember the first few thoughts that you get as soon as you see an essay topic is your best and purest thoughts. Ensure to note them down. Later you can develop your essay around these points. Make sure your essay has an introduction, body and the final conclusion. This will make the reader understand the topic clearly along with your ability to convey the any information without any hesitation or mistake. 

5. How many religions are there in India? 

As of now, there are a total of 9 major religions in India with Hinduism being the majority. The remaining religion includes- Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Baha'i Faith. 

6. Which is the oldest language in India? 

Indian classical oldest language is Sanskrit, it belongs to the Indo- Aryan branch of Indo- European languages. 

7. What are the few famous folk dances of India? 

Folk dances are the representation of a particular culture from where they are known to originate. Eight famous classical dances are- Bharatnatyam from Tamil Nadu, Kathakali from Kerala, Kathak from North, West and Central India, Mohiniyattam from Kerala, Kuchipudi from Andhra Pradesh, Odissi from Odisha, Manipuri from Manipur, Sattriya from Assam. 

8. How many languages are spoken in India? 

Other than Hindi and English there are 22 languages recognised by the constitution of India. However, more than 400 languages and dialects in India are still not known as they change after every town. Over the years, about 190 languages have become endangered due to very few surviving speakers. 

9. Describe the Indian Culture. 

Indian culture is very diverse and the people of India are very warm and welcoming. They have a strong sense of family and firmly believe in unity in diversity. In India, there's a saying saying 'Atithi Devo Bhava'  means 'the guest is equivalent to god'. So if one visits India, they will never feel unwanted.

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India’s 2024 General Election: What to Know

By Mujib Mashal

Reporting from New Delhi

Why does this election matter?

How does india vote.

Who is running and who is likely to win?

When will we find out the results?

Where can I find out more information?

What other elections are happening?

India is holding its multiphase general elections from April 19 to June 1, in a vote that will determine the political direction of the world’s most populous nation for the next five years.

The usually high-turnout affair, which was formally set on Saturday, is a mammoth undertaking described as the biggest peacetime logistical exercise anywhere.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi, whose power is well entrenched, is seeking a third term. In his decade at the helm, he has projected himself as a champion of India’s development, trying to address some of the basic failures — like antiquated infrastructure and a lack of clean water and toilets — holding the country back from reaching its potential as a major power. But his push to reshape India’s secular democracy as a Hindu-first nation has aggravated the religious and ethnic fault lines in the hugely diverse country.

In a region of frequent political turmoil, India is deeply proud of its nearly undisrupted electoral democracy since its founding as a republic more than 75 years ago. Although independent institutions have come under assault from Mr. Modi’s efforts to centralize power and the ruling party is seen as having an unfair advantage over political fund-raising , voting in India is still seen as free and fair, and results are accepted by candidates.

India has a parliamentary system of governance. The party leading the majority of the 543 seats in the lower house of the Parliament gets to form the government and appoint as prime minister one of its winning candidates.

The country has over 960 million eligible voters, with about 470 million of them women. Turnout in Indian elections is usually high, with the parliamentary elections in 2019 drawing a 67 percent turnout.

The votes are cast electronically across more than a million polling stations that require about 15 million employees during balloting. To reach every possible voter in Himalayan hamlets and isolated islands, election officials will travel by any means possible, in railroads and helicopters, on horseback and boats.

India’s elections are the most expensive in the world, with political parties spending more than $7 billion in the 2019 parliamentary elections, according to studies . That spending is expected to double in the current elections. In a sign of how much of a factor money is, Indian authorities seized the equivalent of hundreds of millions of dollars before the last parliamentary election — in cash, gold, liquor and drugs — that they said was meant for bribing voters.

Who is running, and who is likely to win?

Prime Minister Modi’s Bharatiya Janata Party holds a strong majority in the 543-seat Parliament. The B.J.P. won 303 seats in 2019, and along with its coalition partners enjoyed a majority of 352 seats.

Although Indian elections are known to throw surprises, Mr. Modi’s B.J.P. is well placed to return to power. His party, relentless in trying to expand its base, is rich in cash and has a strong election machinery. Mr. Modi has built on it a multipronged approach that offers everyone something: There is the wider emotional appeal of his Hindu majoritarian ideology for his main base, coupled with a broad range of welfare and infrastructure programs that tries to win new constituencies to the B.J.P.

The opposition has struggled to match Mr. Modi’s appeal.

The Indian National Congress, the main opposition party, ruled India for decades, but it has been reduced to shadow of its former glory in two consecutive national elections. In 2019, it won only 52 seats.

In the lead-up to this parliamentary election, the opposition has tried to unite as one bloc. They are brought together by fears that a third term for Mr. Modi, who has jailed many opposition party leaders and bogged down others in investigations, would further marginalize them.

But the opposition has struggled to pitch a cohesive ideological alternative beyond a criticism of Mr. Modi’s divisive politics, and its bickering over seat-sharing in constituencies often spills out in messy public fights.

Because of India’s vast geography, the voting for the parliamentary election happens over seven phases, and it takes nearly six weeks to complete, from the first region casting its vote to the last. Scheduling is a tricky task, entailing trying to find a sweet spot that factors in climate extremes and is considerate of the frequent cultural and religious festivals across India.

The last stage of voting will be completed on June 1. All results are tallied and announced by end of day on June 4.

Where can I find more information?

Modi Opens a Giant Temple in a Triumph for India’s Hindu Nationalists

India Is Passing China in Population. Can Its Economy Ever Do the Same?

India’s Quiet Push to Steal More of China’s iPhone Business

Why Is Narendra Modi So Popular? Tune In to Find Out.

An earlier version of this article incorrectly identified the Indian Parliament chamber that has 543 seats. It is the lower house, not the upper house.

How we handle corrections

Mujib Mashal is the South Asia bureau chief for The Times, helping to lead coverage of India and the diverse region around it, including Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan. More about Mujib Mashal

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