study of quality thesis

Ensuring bachelor’s thesis assessment quality: a case study at one Dutch research university

Higher Education Evaluation and Development

ISSN : 2514-5789

Article publication date: 30 May 2023

In the Netherlands, thesis assessment quality is a growing concern for the national accreditation organization due to increasing student numbers and supervisor workload. However, the accreditation framework lacks guidance on how to meet quality standards. This study aims to address these issues by sharing our experience, identifying problems and proposing guidelines for quality assurance for a thesis assessment system.

Design/methodology/approach

This study has two parts. The first part is a narrative literature review conducted to derive guidelines for thesis assessment based on observations made at four Dutch universities. The second part is a case study conducted in one bachelor’s psychology-related program, where the assessment practitioners and the vice program director analyzed the assessment documents based on the guidelines developed from the literature review.

The findings of this study include a list of guidelines based on the four standards. The case study results showed that the program meets most of the guidelines, as it has a comprehensive set of thesis learning outcomes, peer coaching for novice supervisors, clear and complete assessment information and procedures for both examiners and students, and a concise assessment form.

Originality/value

This study is original in that it demonstrates how to holistically ensure the quality of thesis assessments by considering the context of the program and paying more attention to validity (e.g. program curriculum and assessment design), transparency (e.g. integrating assessment into the supervision process) and the assessment expertise of teaching staff.

• Quality assurance
• Accreditation
• Thesis assessment

Hsiao, Y.-P.(A). , van de Watering, G. , Heitbrink, M. , Vlas, H. and Chiu, M.-S. (2023), "Ensuring bachelor’s thesis assessment quality: a case study at one Dutch research university", Higher Education Evaluation and Development , Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/HEED-08-2022-0033

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2023, Ya-Ping (Amy) Hsiao, Gerard van de Watering, Marthe Heitbrink, Helma Vlas and Mei-Shiu Chiu

Published in Higher Education Evaluation and Development . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http:// creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

According to data from the universities of the Netherlands, the number of bachelor’s students at Dutch research universities has been steadily increasing from 2015 to 2021 [1] , leading to increased workload for teaching staff due to the need for greater supervision of students [2] . This increased supervision is particularly evident in the supervision of students’ final projects. In the Netherlands, students can begin working on their final projects in the final year of their program’s curriculum once they pass the first-year diploma (the so-called Propaedeutic phase based on a positive binding study advice, BSA), earn a required number of European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits and meet other requirements. A bachelor’s degree is awarded when a student has “demonstrated by the results of tests, the final projects, and the performance of graduates in actual practice or in postgraduate programmes” (The Accreditation Organisation of the Netherlands and Flanders [Nederlands-Vlaamse Accreditatieorganisatie], hereinafter abbreviated as the NVAO, 2018 , p. 34).

The Bachelor’s thesis is the culmination of the Bachelor’s programme. A Bachelor’s thesis is carried out in the form of a research project within a department. It is an opportunity to put the knowledge learned during the programme into practice. The Bachelor’s thesis is used to assess the student’s initiative and their ability to plan, report and present a project. The difficulty level of the thesis is described by the attainment targets of the programme and the modules followed up until that moment. Students work independently on a Bachelor’s thesis or Individual Assignment (IOO) under the guidance of a supervisor.

This definition highlights the pedagogical value of the thesis (i.e. the opportunity to carry out an independent project) and the purpose of thesis assessment (i.e. to determine the extent to which the intended learning outcomes have been achieved). While this definition acknowledges the importance of a bachelor’s thesis, relatively little research has been done on examining the quality of undergraduate thesis assessment ( Hand and Clewes, 2000 ; Shay, 2005 ; Webster et al ., 2000 ; Todd et al ., 2004 ), let alone in the Dutch context where thesis supervisors and examiners of bachelor’s students are experiencing an increasing workload.

In recent years, the Dutch government has placed increasing emphasis on assessment quality in higher education ( Inspectorate of Education [Inspectie van het Onderwijs], 2016 ). The NVAO has established the Assessment Framework for the Higher Education Accreditation System of the Netherlands (hereinafter abbreviated as the Framework, NVAO, 2018 ). The standards for the accreditation of initial and existing study programs emphasize whether a program has established an adequate student assessment system that appropriately assesses the intended learning outcomes ( NVAO, 2018 ). According to the quality standards of the Framework, thesis assessment should be valid, reliable, transparent and independent. Assessment literature in the higher education context has defined these criteria as follows (e.g. Biggs and Tang, 2007 ; Bloxham and Boyd, 2007 ). Validity refers to the extent to which an assessment accurately measures what it is intended to measure. Reliability refers to the consistency of the assessment results, or how well they accurately reflect a student’s actual achievement level. Transparency is the clarity and specificity with which assessment information is communicated to both students and examiners. Independency is a necessary condition for ensuring the validity and reliability of an assessment, as it requires that examiners remain objective in the assessment process.

Despite the inclusion of these standards in the Framework ( NVAO, 2008 ), official guidance on establishing a quality system of assessing graduation projects that test achievement of the exit level of a study program at Dutch research universities is limited. As assessment practitioners (the first four authors of this article), we have found that it is often unclear for a program’s curriculum and/or management team to establish appropriate thesis assessment procedures at the undergraduate level that meet the NVAO’s quality standards. We hope that our experience can provide valuable insights and guidance for programs seeking to ensure quality assurance for thesis assessment.

Aims and research questions

The purpose of this study is to share our experience and the challenges we faced during internal and external quality assurance processes of thesis assessment. Based on these challenges, we conducted a narrative literature review to develop a set of guidelines for ensuring thesis assessment quality that aligns with the four standards outlined in the Framework ( NVAO, 2018 ): (1) intended learning outcomes, (2) teaching and learning environment, (3) assessment and (4) achieved learning outcomes. To illustrate the application of these guidelines, we present a case study of bachelor’s thesis assessment practices at one Dutch research university.

What are the guidelines for ensuring the quality of thesis assessment procedures that meet the standards specified in the Framework?

How can these guidelines be applied to evaluate the quality of thesis assessment in a study program?

It is important to note that this study is limited to the context of four Dutch research universities, where we encountered common issues during internal quality assurance processes of thesis assessment. Our goal is to share our experience and offer insights that could be useful to other institutions seeking to ensure the quality of thesis assessment. We do not intend to assume that these problems are present at all Dutch research universities.

Problems and guidelines in meeting the four standards

According to the didactic principle of constructive alignment ( Biggs and Tang, 2007 ), which is commonly used in Dutch higher education, the three education processes, teaching, learning and assessment, should be aligned with the intended learning outcomes. We begin with Standards 1 and 2, which set out the conditions under which thesis assessment takes place, and then we place more emphasis on Standards 3 and 4, which focus on the quality criteria for thesis assessment.

Standard 1: intended learning outcomes

To ensure that a study program meets Standard 1 of the Dutch Qualification Framework ( NLQF, 2008 ), the intended learning outcomes for graduates in specific subject areas and qualifications are typically developed using the Dublin Descriptors ( Bologna Working Group, 2005 ), which provide generic statements of competencies and attributes. However, it is often assumed that a thesis should assess all of these program learning outcomes (PLOs) since it is intended to evaluate the achieved learning outcomes at the exit level. Unfortunately, these PLOs can be global and unclear, which can confuse and hinder students from trying to understand the expectations for thesis assessment. Our observation is that programs often utilize PLOs as thesis learning outcomes (TLOs), although a thesis is not equivalent to the entire program curriculum.

According to Biggs and Tang (2007) , it is important for teachers to first clearly define the learning outcomes before designing instructional activities to guide students toward achieving them. In addition, the outcomes at the program and course levels (i.e. a thesis is also a course) should also be constructively aligned, and the course-level outcomes should be specific to the context of the course. Therefore, to design effective thesis activities (such as supervision) and develop assessment criteria, it would be more pedagogically valuable to formulate thesis-specific learning outcomes and explain how they contribute to the PLOs and Dublin Descriptors, rather than directly using the PLOs for thesis assessment.

In addition, a thesis course often involves most of the teaching staff in the program. Therefore, it is important to establish clear and specific expectations for what students should achieve at the end of a bachelor’s thesis course ( Willison and O'Regan, 2006 ; Todd et al ., 2004 ), such as the scope and type of research (e.g. scaffolded or self-initiated), integrating disciplinary knowledge and research skills from earlier program curriculum, demonstrating critical thinking through well-supported arguments and developing independent learning skills for future work ( Willison and O'Regan, 2006 ).

Standard 2: teaching-learning environment

According to Standard 2 of the Dutch Qualification Framework ( NLQF, 2008 ), the quality of the teaching and learning environment should be designed to help students achieve the intended learning outcomes of the program curriculum. However, our experience has revealed problems in this area. In informal discussions with thesis supervisors, we have found that students often report a lack of preparedness for a bachelor’s thesis, as they have not been adequately taught or practiced certain academic and research skills such as communication, information seeking and methodologies. Conversely, many teachers in the program believe they have covered these skills in their courses. Furthermore, during thesis calibration sessions, we have observed that novice examiners lack expertise due to insufficient experience in research education, a lack of training as thesis examiners, and unclear instructions on thesis assessment procedures.

To meet Standard 2, we recommend the following two guidelines. First, as suggested by research on curriculum alignment ( Wijngaards-de Meij and Merx, 2018 ) and research skills development ( Willison, 2012 ; Reguant et al ., 2018 ), the program-level curriculum design should arrange domain-specific subjects in a logical order and gradually develop students’ research, communication and independent learning skills so that they are well prepared to work on the thesis. At the same time, universities should focus on converting teaching staff’s research experience into research education expertise ( Maxwell and Smyth, 2011 ) for the long term.

Second, the program should ensure the quality of the teaching staff because examiners’ practices are crucial for the quality of thesis assessment ( Golding et al ., 2014 ; Kiley and Mullins, 2004 ; Mullins and Kiley, 2002 ). According to the literature, thesis examiners should receive sufficient instructions and training on how to grade a thesis ( Hand and Clewes, 2000 ; Kiley and Mullins, 2004 ). In addition, the university should provide teaching staff with written instructions to regulate and communicate thesis assessment procedures for supervisors, examiners and students, as well as assessment training on using the assessment forms and holding calibration sessions to achieve consistency in interpreting criteria and grade points. The literature on how supporting teaching staff in assessment practices contributes to consistency is discussed further in the section on Reliability.

Standards 3 and 4: student assessment and achieved learning outcomes

Ensuring validity starts with clearly defining what the assessment is intended to measure. According to the definition of validity and principle of constructive alignment ( Biggs and Tang, 2007 ), thesis assessment should be aligned with learning outcomes.

We have identified two problems in this regard. The first problem is the use of a generic assessment form with a set of uniform criteria across different programs within the same department or school. We believe this practice does not follow the principle of constructive alignment ( Biggs and Tang, 2007 ). In particular, the same assessment form cannot be used directly for different degrees (i.e. Bachelor, Master and PhD) based on the Dublin Descriptors. It would be difficult for a generic assessment form to assess the different levels of cognitive demand and skills required at each degree level. For example, the concept of “originality” is defined very differently at each degree level and this should be reflected in the assessment criteria.

The second problem is the quality of the assessment form itself. We have observed the following issues: (1) some criteria are not always directly relevant to the TLOs, (2) the assessment form only lists the names of criteria without defining them or providing specific indicators for each criterion, (3) it is unclear whether different criteria are given equal weight and (4) it is unclear how the final grade is determined (e.g. whether each criterion must be “sufficient” or “passing”).

To address these problems, we recommend the following guidelines. The assessment criteria listed in the form should align with the TLOs and should describe the characteristics of student work that provide relevant, representative and important evidence of their attainment of the learning outcomes ( Brookhart, 2013 , 2018 ; Walvoord and Anderson, 2011 ). In addition to aligning the criteria with the outcomes, the quality of the criteria also affects what is actually being assessed. The criteria should avoid vagueness that leads to multiple interpretations of quality indicators ( Biggs and Tang, 2007 ; Bloxham et al ., 2011 ; Hand and Clewes, 2000 ; Webster et al ., 2000 ). To ensure that the assessment measures what it is intended to measure, the criteria should meet the following five criteria ( Brookhart, 2013 , 2018 ; Walvoord and Anderson, 2011 ): they should be definable, observable, distinct from one another, complete and able to support descriptions along a continuum of quality.

Another important aspect of validity is the weighting of multiple assessment criteria. The weighting should reflect the relative importance of the criteria based on the disciplinary focus of the study program. For example, the criterion of “method and data analysis” might carry more weight in psychology than it would in philosophy.

Reliability and independency

Reliability is a necessary condition for validity and refers to the consistency of assessment results. Reliability is important because it allows us to confidently interpret and determine students’ true performance on a thesis.

Independency between examiners is necessary to ensure the reliability (or objectivity) of the assessment process, as it helps prevent influence on each other’s judgment. Independent grading is often specified in the Education and Examination Regulations of an institution.

Intra-rater reliability refers to the consistency of a single examiner’s grading process over time. Inconsistencies may occur due to internal influences rather than true differences in student performance. We have observed inconsistencies in completed assessment forms, including discrepancies between comments and scores given by the same examiner across different student theses.

Analytical: Examiners assign a rating to each criterion and then determine a thesis grade based on the grading guidelines.

Analytical and then holistic: Examiners assign a rating to each criterion and then determine a thesis grade based on the grading guidelines. If the thesis grade does not match the holistic judgment, examiners adjust the ratings of the criteria.

Holistic and then analytical: Examiners hold an initial grade (in their mind) based on holistic judgment. Next, examiners assign a rating to each criterion and determine a thesis grade based on the grading guidelines. If the thesis grade is different from the initial grade, examiners adjust the ratings of the criteria to make sure that these two grades are the same.

To ensure intra-rater reliability, it is essential to clearly define each criterion to prevent multiple interpretations by examiners. Additionally, examiners should be provided with bias-reduction training ( Wylie and Szpara, 2004 ) to make them aware of potential biases, such as supervisor bias ( Bettany-Saltikov et al ., 2009 ; McQuade et al ., 2020 ; Nyamapfene, 2012 ), and to take actions to prevent them. During the grading process, examiners should also consistently revisit the established criteria and level descriptors to maintain consistency.

To improve inter-rater reliability, the literature suggests establishing standard assessment procedures and improving examiners’ assessment practices ( Hand and Clewes, 2000 ; Kiley and Mullins, 2004 ; Pathirage et al ., 2007 ). Standard assessment procedures should clearly outline the process for considering the relative importance of multiple criteria and the relative importance of various indicators within a criterion ( Hand and Clewes, 2000 ; Bloxham et al ., 2016a ; Pathirage et al ., 2007 ; Webster et al ., 2000 ). To improve examiners’ assessment practices, common approaches include providing examiners with the following three processes ( Sadler, 2013 ):

Prior to grading, to ensure consistent grading, examiners should have a shared understanding of the expectations for each criterion and score level. This can be achieved through the use of anchor or exemplar theses, which are previously graded theses that illustrate the characteristics of each score level ( Osborn Popp et al ., 2009 ). Examiners can refer to these anchor theses as they grade to ensure that they are accurately distinguishing between the different score levels. It should also be clear to examiners how to complete the grading form and whether they are allowed to discuss with other examiners during the grading process ( Pathirage et al ., 2007 ; Dierick et al ., 2002 ).

During the grading process, moderation refers to the process of two examiners arriving at a collective thesis grade ( Bloxham et al ., 2016b ). It is important to have clear instructions on how to control evaluative judgments and stay within reasonable limits during the moderation process. Examiners should also be informed of score resolution methods in case of large discrepancies between their scores, as averaging the scores may not be sufficient in such cases ( Johnson et al ., 2005 ; Sadler, 2013 ). If a third examiner is involved in the moderation process, it should be clear who is qualified for this task and how their results are used to determine the final thesis grade ( Johnson et al ., 2005 ).

As a “post-judgment” process, calibration is the act of ensuring that examiners grade student work against the agreed quality criteria and “how a particular level of quality should be represented” ( Sadler, 2013 , p. 6). It can be helpful to think of calibration as similar to checking the accuracy of a weighing scale by comparing it to a standard and making adjustments to bring it into alignment. In a similar vein, the thesis assessment form (including criteria and score-level descriptors) and examiners’ assessment practices should be calibrated, particularly when there are significant changes in thesis assessment procedures. As noted by Sadler (2013) , high-quality evaluative judgments also require the development of “calibrated” academics who serve not only as custodians of quality criteria and level standards but also as consultants for novice and short-term examiners. Calibration can be implemented alongside the normal grading period as part of an internal quality assurance system ( Andriessen and Manders, 2013 ; Bergwerff and Klaren, 2016 ).

Transparency

Transparency in assessment has received increasing attention in higher education in recent years ( Bamber, 2015 ; Bell et al ., 2013 ; O'Donovan et al ., 2004 ; Price, 2005 ). It refers to making the perceptions and expectations of assessors, including requirements, standards and assessment criteria, known and understood by all participants, particularly students ( O'Donovan et al ., 2004 ).

To ensure transparency in thesis assessment, it’s not enough to only provide students with assessment forms and instructions on assessment procedures. Our observations indicate that without discussing the deeper meaning of criteria and standards, there is a risk of different interpretations by examiners and students.

To address this issue, it is important to foster shared understanding and promote assessment for learning and feedback on progress. This can be achieved by helping students develop their understanding of the quality criteria and standards through observation, discussion and imitation of good-quality theses ( Malcolm, 2020 ). Using anchor theses ( Orsmond et al ., 2002 ; Sadler, 1987 ) and involving students in peer review and grading of each other’s theses using the criteria ( O'Donovan et al ., 2004 ; Rust et al ., 2003 ) can be effective ways to do this.

To ensure transparency, supervisors should use the assessment form not only for thesis examination but also during supervising activities, and should clearly explain the criteria and score levels to their students using anchor theses for illustration ( O'Donovan et al ., 2004 ; Rust et al ., 2003 ).

Overview of guidelines

Formulate program-specific TLOs.

Thesis assessment should be appropriate for the program curriculum and assessment plan.

The program should ensure examiners’ assessment expertise by providing training or instructions.

Standards 3 and 4 – student assessment and achieved learning outcomes

TLOs, thesis supervision and thesis assessment should be constructively aligned.

The assessment criteria should be clearly defined and meet quality requirements. The weighting of multiple criteria should reflect the relative importance of TLOs.

Intra-rater reliability: Examiners should revisit the established criteria to ensure consistency and strive to prevent any possible assessor bias.

○ The program should make assessment procedures consistent across examiners.

○ The program should improve examiners’ assessment practices through the use of anchor or exemplary theses, moderation prior to and during assessment practices, and calibration after thesis assessment.

The program should inform students of what is expected of them and how their thesis will be assessed.

The program should instruct supervisors to explicitly use the criteria during supervising activities.

To illustrate the application of these guidelines, we present a case study of a psychology-related bachelor’s program at a Dutch research university. We chose to focus on this program because all of the authors have experience in quality assurance at various psychology programs. The documents for this case study were provided by one of the co-authors, who played a significant role in the quality assurance of assessment at the program. These documents include the program’s learning outcomes, a thesis handbook, a thesis assessment form, grading instructions for examiners and a self-assessment report (which includes reflections on the four standards of the Framework and is required to be submitted to the NVAO before a site visit).

Four of the authors and the vice program director (as a self-reflection exercise) examined these documents and answered open-ended questions derived from the guidelines in Box 1 . The findings were then structured based on the guidelines in Box 1 .

Motivation for participating in this study

Improving the quality of the assessment criteria to prevent multiple interpretations by examiners.

Clearly defining the roles, tasks and responsibilities of supervisors (as the first examiner) and the second examiner.

The vice program director indicated that the assessment form is still in development and that it is a dynamic improvement process, based on examiners’ accumulated experience and feedback from supervisors, examiners, students and assessment specialists.

Brief course descriptions of the Bachelor’s thesis

In this thesis course, students perform a study that covers the entire empirical research cycle, from developing a specific research question to using theory to answer the question and testing the theory through data collection. They integrate knowledge from various disciplines and practice conducting research on a technology-related problem. Students may collaborate in groups for literature search or data collection, but they must formulate a specific question to be answered in their individually written bachelor’s thesis.

Standard 1 – intended learning outcomes

PLO1 – Competent in scientific disciplines

PLO2 – Competent in doing research

PLO3 – Competent in designing

PLO4 – Use of a scientific approach

PLO5 – Basic intellectual skills

PLO6 – Competent in cooperating and communicating

PLO7 – Take into account the temporal, technological and social context.

TLO1 – formulate a research question fitted to the problem and relevant scholarly literature (PLO1,2)

TLO2 – conduct a literature search (PLO1,2,3,4,6)

TLO3 – apply and modify relevant scientific theory in order to solve a technology-related problem (PLO1,2,4,5,7)

TLO4 – make an adequate research design for empirical research (PLO2,3,4)

TLO5 – apply relevant scientific methods for empirical research (PLO1,2,3,4,5)

TLO6 – relate interpretation of data to theory and to design and/or policy recommendations (PLO1,2,3,4,5,7)

TLO7 – individually write a scientific report (PLO5,6)

TLO8 – reflect and think systematically (PLO5,6,7)

We conclude that TLOs contribute to the development of all seven competences outlined in the PLOs, as well as the five components of the Dublin Descriptors.

Standard 2 – teaching-learning environment

The bachelor’s thesis builds upon the knowledge and skills developed in previous courses. According to the curriculum and program assessment plan, student skills progress from year 1 to 3 and are assessed through various types of assessment, such as presentations, reports and reflective writing. However, there is no specific learning trajectory for academic and research skills available.

To ensure student readiness for working independently on their thesis, students must have passed the propaedeutic phase and obtained a required number of ECTS upon enrolment in the bachelor’s thesis course. They must also have passed the two methods courses.

Written instructions, including a detailed explanation of assessment procedures, criteria and rubrics, are provided in a thesis handbook for supervisors, examiners and students.

The program requires novice examiners to go through an “examiner internship” with senior examiners (mentors). They are guided and monitored by their mentors when assessing graduation theses in their first year of practice. They can directly approach mentors when encountering problems during supervision and assessment.

C1 – Abstract (TLO7,8)

C2 – Introduction/Theory (TLO1,2,3,8)

C3 – Method and results (TLO2,4,5,6)

C4 – Discussion (TLO1,2,3,6,8)

C5 – Writing style (TLO7)

C6 – Process/Work attitude (TLO7,8)

Each criterion on the assessment form includes a short definition and a number of indicators, which are graded using a five-point rating scale (Poor–Insufficient–Sufficient–Good–Very good). It is required that qualitative comments be added to all of the criteria.

It is not clear how each criterion is weighted.

It is not clear how the ratings of multiple indicators and criteria are aggregated to determine the total grade.

Although a rating scale is provided, score-level descriptors are not available. It is not clear whether the indicators describe the “Very good” or “Sufficient” score level.

These issues correspond to areas that the program is currently working to improve, as mentioned at the beginning of this section.

Reliability

New examiners receive a one-day training, in which they practice assessing theses based on the rubric, and discuss their practice results with senior examiners. They also receive guidance on how to use the criteria during the supervision process.

The first and second examiners assess the thesis independently by using the same rubric and register their initial grading results separately to the administration system.

It is obligatory for both examiners to hold a moderation meeting in order to arrive at collective grading results. In this meeting, they go through each criterion and discuss the differences. Then they register the collective results in the administration system, which generates the thesis grade.

When the discrepancies between two examiners cannot be moderated during the meeting, both examiners register these in the administration system. Next, a subcommittee from the Examination Board is informed, which carries out additional grading. The members of the subcommittee are senior examiners who are often mentors assigned to the novice examiners during the examiner internship.

There are no institution-wide guidelines on the moderation and calibration process. These quality assurance processes are organized by study programs. How they are implemented depends on the available resources, assessment expertise and time per study program.

Although no calibration procedure is established, the subcommittee regularly regrades a sample of the borderline theses around the fail/pass grade, the theses with a resit, and theses for which the two examiners differ substantially in their initial grading. In addition, this subcommittee holds a regular plenary meeting to discuss their assessment practices and report their findings regularly to the Examination Board.

After the assessment, both examiners and students are asked to fill out a survey to evaluate the use of rubric and the assessment procedures. The results are used for improving the quality of rubric.

These procedures are in line with most of our guidelines. Still, we suggest that the subcommittee systematically analyses their findings of regrading practices and acts on the improvements in order to complete the quality assurance cycle. In addition, as lessons learned from one university, we highly recommend the Examination Board or the program to carry out a regular review of the completed assessment forms to detect whether there is any assessor bias in order to safeguard intra-rater reliability.

The program has established clear guidelines on how to ensure transparency. At the beginning of the final project, an information session is organized to explain the supervision and assessment procedures and rules to students. It is made clear what the role tasks and responsibilities of supervisor, examiner and student are, in what way the thesis is assessed, and what is assessed (i.e. the criteria in the rubric). The criteria and indicators per criterion are explained in detail in this information session.

The program also makes it clear that the criteria should be used from the beginning and during the supervision activities, as well as in the assessment process. Supervisors are instructed to formulate feedback based on the criteria.

To sum up, this case study shows that their thesis assessment practices apply most of the guidelines suggested in this study.

Conclusion and discussion

This study presents problems encountered from a practitioner’s perspective and derives guidelines from the literature to address these issues. These guidelines cover the entire education process, taking the context of the program into account. They not only explain how to meet the quality criteria of validity, reliability, transparency and independence but also include the conditions that increase the likelihood of meeting these criteria, such as the importance of examiners’ assessment expertise and how the institution should facilitate their development in this area. The case study demonstrates how these guidelines are applied to examine thesis assessment practices at a bachelor’s psychology-related program at a Dutch academic university.

Our experience highlights the importance of applying the didactic principle of constructive alignment at the exit level, as it is not always clear to teaching staff what this means in the context of thesis assessment (despite its widespread use at the course level for instructional design) and how it can be used to ensure the four standards of the Framework. This has led to a focus on reliability, as noted by Webster et al . (2000) , such as revising thesis assessment forms and ensuring consistency among examiners. Our study aims to draw the attention of program teams to validity by considering the program’s curriculum and assessment design and the didactic purpose of using a thesis as a graduation project.

While other studies have focused on specific thesis assessment quality criteria such as reliability (e.g. Pathirage et al ., 2007 ), transparency (e.g. Malcolm, 2020 ) and independence ( Todd et al ., 2004 ; e.g. Nyamapfene, 2012 ), our case study shows how to ensure all of these criteria and carry out a complete quality assurance process. This does not mean that a program needs to address all of them at the same time. Instead, we want to emphasize the importance of research education in a bachelor’s program and recommend that the program align its thesis assessment design with its curriculum design for research education (i.e. as a learning trajectory) and its overall assessment design. Improving thesis assessment alone is not sufficient for students to achieve the intended learning outcomes of the program.

A final, and perhaps the most important, aspect to consider is how to effectively use limited resources to improve teaching staff’s assessment expertise so that they can continuously contribute to the improvement of thesis assessment practices. The guidelines presented in this study can be further developed or adapted as training materials for teaching staff.

Limitations

We would like to acknowledge two limitations of this study. First, unlike more traditional research methods such as surveys and interviews, the problems we reported here were compiled from various sources at four Dutch research universities. Without a more rigorous synthesis of these sources, it is possible that there may be some subjectivity and selection bias present. Second, the guidelines we derived from a narrative review of these problem topics may not include all relevant references.

It is important to note that our use of only one psychology-related bachelor’s program for the case study does not allow us to generalize our findings to all bachelor’s psychology programs at other Dutch academic universities. Rather, our aim is to share our experience and research-informed guidelines, and to examine thesis assessment quality from a practitioner perspective. In line with the goals of Koris and Pello’s (2022) article, our aim is to gradually find solutions that are appropriate for our context through several subsequent iterations in the future.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the reviewers for their thorough review and valuable feedback, which allowed the authors to improve the quality of the manuscript. The authors appreciate the time and effort they put into the review process.

Funding: This work was supported by National Chengchi University (DZ15-B4). The funder only provides financial support and does not substantially influence the entire research process, from study design to submission. The authors are fully responsible for the content of the paper.

Corresponding author

About the authors.

Ya-Ping (Amy) Hsiao is an assessment specialist and teacher trainer at Tilburg University. Her current research focuses on the reflection, portfolio and performance assessment of the graduation projects.

Gerard van de Watering is a policy advisor at Eindhoven University of Technology. His research and development interest focus on assessment and evaluation, student-centered learning environments, independent learning and study skills. He is also the founder of a network of assessment specialists in academic higher education in the Netherlands.

Marthe Heitbrink is a testing and assessment coordinator at the Psychology department of the University of Amsterdam.

Helma Vlas is an educational consultant, teacher trainer/assessor and assessment specialist at the University of Twente. She is stationed at the Centre of Expertise in Learning and Teaching. She is coordinator of the Senior Examination Qualification trajectory at the University of Twente.

Mei-Shiu Chiu is a full professor of Education at National Chengchi University in Taiwan. Her research interests focus on interactions between emotion/affect, cognition and culture for diverse knowledge domains (e.g. mathematics, science and energy) in relation to teaching, assessment and large-scale databases.

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• Introduction
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• Research limitations
• Getting started
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Research quality

All research has limitations , which negatively impact upon the quality of the findings you arrive at from your data analysis . This is the case whether you are an undergraduate or master?s level student doing a dissertation, a doctoral student, or a seasoned academic researcher. Quite simply, the better the research quality of your dissertation, (a) the fewer problems you will experience when carrying out your dissertation research, (b) the less time you will need to write up the Research Limitations section of your Conclusions chapter (i.e., Chapter Five: Conclusions ), and (c) the greater the likelihood of a high mark. Reducing such limitations involves (a) understanding the types of research limitation you may face when doing a dissertation, (b) anticipating what these will be in your dissertation, and (c) avoiding them becoming a reality (where possible).

Qualitative research designs are generally assessed in terms of their credibility , confirmability , dependability and transferability , amongst other factors. However, the research quality of quantitative research designs is determined in terms of their internal validity , external validity , construct validity , reliability and objectivity . In the article below, we also discuss content validity , convergent and divergent validity , and criterion validity ( concurrent and predictive validity ) because these are ways of assess the construct validity of the measurement procedures/research methods you used in your dissertation. In addition, since many undergraduate (and even master?s students) sometimes use little more than face validity , we discuss this also.

You will notice from the articles below that we focus on factors that are used to assess research quality in quantitative research designs. However, we plan to introduce guides to assess research quality in qualitative research designs in the not too distant future. If you would like to know when these guides become available, please leave feedback .

• Internal validity
• External validity
• Extraneous and confounding variables
• Construct validity: Getting started
• Convergent and divergent validity
• Content validity
• Criterion validity (concurrent and predictive validity)
• Face validity
• Reliability in research

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What is a thesis | A Complete Guide with Examples

Table of Contents

A thesis is a comprehensive academic paper based on your original research that presents new findings, arguments, and ideas of your study. It’s typically submitted at the end of your master’s degree or as a capstone of your bachelor’s degree.

However, writing a thesis can be laborious, especially for beginners. From the initial challenge of pinpointing a compelling research topic to organizing and presenting findings, the process is filled with potential pitfalls.

Therefore, to help you, this guide talks about what is a thesis. Additionally, it offers revelations and methodologies to transform it from an overwhelming task to a manageable and rewarding academic milestone.

What is a thesis?

A thesis is an in-depth research study that identifies a particular topic of inquiry and presents a clear argument or perspective about that topic using evidence and logic.

Writing a thesis showcases your ability of critical thinking, gathering evidence, and making a compelling argument. Integral to these competencies is thorough research, which not only fortifies your propositions but also confers credibility to your entire study.

Furthermore, there's another phenomenon you might often confuse with the thesis: the ' working thesis .' However, they aren't similar and shouldn't be used interchangeably.

A working thesis, often referred to as a preliminary or tentative thesis, is an initial version of your thesis statement. It serves as a draft or a starting point that guides your research in its early stages.

As you research more and gather more evidence, your initial thesis (aka working thesis) might change. It's like a starting point that can be adjusted as you learn more. It's normal for your main topic to change a few times before you finalize it.

While a thesis identifies and provides an overarching argument, the key to clearly communicating the central point of that argument lies in writing a strong thesis statement.

What is a thesis statement?

A strong thesis statement (aka thesis sentence) is a concise summary of the main argument or claim of the paper. It serves as a critical anchor in any academic work, succinctly encapsulating the primary argument or main idea of the entire paper.

Typically found within the introductory section, a strong thesis statement acts as a roadmap of your thesis, directing readers through your arguments and findings. By delineating the core focus of your investigation, it offers readers an immediate understanding of the context and the gravity of your study.

Furthermore, an effectively crafted thesis statement can set forth the boundaries of your research, helping readers anticipate the specific areas of inquiry you are addressing.

Different types of thesis statements

A good thesis statement is clear, specific, and arguable. Therefore, it is necessary for you to choose the right type of thesis statement for your academic papers.

Thesis statements can be classified based on their purpose and structure. Here are the primary types of thesis statements:

Argumentative (or Persuasive) thesis statement

Purpose : To convince the reader of a particular stance or point of view by presenting evidence and formulating a compelling argument.

Example : Reducing plastic use in daily life is essential for environmental health.

Analytical thesis statement

Purpose : To break down an idea or issue into its components and evaluate it.

Example : By examining the long-term effects, social implications, and economic impact of climate change, it becomes evident that immediate global action is necessary.

Expository (or Descriptive) thesis statement

Purpose : To explain a topic or subject to the reader.

Example : The Great Depression, spanning the 1930s, was a severe worldwide economic downturn triggered by a stock market crash, bank failures, and reduced consumer spending.

Cause and effect thesis statement

Purpose : To demonstrate a cause and its resulting effect.

Example : Overuse of smartphones can lead to impaired sleep patterns, reduced face-to-face social interactions, and increased levels of anxiety.

Compare and contrast thesis statement

Purpose : To highlight similarities and differences between two subjects.

Example : "While both novels '1984' and 'Brave New World' delve into dystopian futures, they differ in their portrayal of individual freedom, societal control, and the role of technology."

When you write a thesis statement , it's important to ensure clarity and precision, so the reader immediately understands the central focus of your work.

What is the difference between a thesis and a thesis statement?

While both terms are frequently used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings.

A thesis refers to the entire research document, encompassing all its chapters and sections. In contrast, a thesis statement is a brief assertion that encapsulates the central argument of the research.

Here’s an in-depth differentiation table of a thesis and a thesis statement.

Now, to craft a compelling thesis, it's crucial to adhere to a specific structure. Let’s break down these essential components that make up a thesis structure

15 components of a thesis structure

Navigating a thesis can be daunting. However, understanding its structure can make the process more manageable.

Here are the key components or different sections of a thesis structure:

Your thesis begins with the title page. It's not just a formality but the gateway to your research.

Here, you'll prominently display the necessary information about you (the author) and your institutional details.

• Title of your thesis
• Your full name
• Your department
• Your institution and degree program
• Your submission date
• Your Supervisor's name (in some cases)
• Your Department or faculty (in some cases)
• Your University's logo (in some cases)
• Your Student ID (in some cases)

In a concise manner, you'll have to summarize the critical aspects of your research in typically no more than 200-300 words.

This includes the problem statement, methodology, key findings, and conclusions. For many, the abstract will determine if they delve deeper into your work, so ensure it's clear and compelling.

Acknowledgments

Research is rarely a solitary endeavor. In the acknowledgments section, you have the chance to express gratitude to those who've supported your journey.

This might include advisors, peers, institutions, or even personal sources of inspiration and support. It's a personal touch, reflecting the humanity behind the academic rigor.

Table of contents

A roadmap for your readers, the table of contents lists the chapters, sections, and subsections of your thesis.

By providing page numbers, you allow readers to navigate your work easily, jumping to sections that pique their interest.

List of figures and tables

Research often involves data, and presenting this data visually can enhance understanding. This section provides an organized listing of all figures and tables in your thesis.

It's a visual index, ensuring that readers can quickly locate and reference your graphical data.

Introduction

Here's where you introduce your research topic, articulate the research question or objective, and outline the significance of your study.

• Present the research topic : Clearly articulate the central theme or subject of your research.
• Background information : Ground your research topic, providing any necessary context or background information your readers might need to understand the significance of your study.
• Define the scope : Clearly delineate the boundaries of your research, indicating what will and won't be covered.
• Literature review : Introduce any relevant existing research on your topic, situating your work within the broader academic conversation and highlighting where your research fits in.
• State the research Question(s) or objective(s) : Clearly articulate the primary questions or objectives your research aims to address.
• Outline the study's structure : Give a brief overview of how the subsequent sections of your work will unfold, guiding your readers through the journey ahead.

The introduction should captivate your readers, making them eager to delve deeper into your research journey.

Literature review section

Your study correlates with existing research. Therefore, in the literature review section, you'll engage in a dialogue with existing knowledge, highlighting relevant studies, theories, and findings.

It's here that you identify gaps in the current knowledge, positioning your research as a bridge to new insights.

To streamline this process, consider leveraging AI tools. For example, the SciSpace literature review tool enables you to efficiently explore and delve into research papers, simplifying your literature review journey.

Methodology

In the research methodology section, you’ll detail the tools, techniques, and processes you employed to gather and analyze data. This section will inform the readers about how you approached your research questions and ensures the reproducibility of your study.

Here's a breakdown of what it should encompass:

• Research Design : Describe the overall structure and approach of your research. Are you conducting a qualitative study with in-depth interviews? Or is it a quantitative study using statistical analysis? Perhaps it's a mixed-methods approach?
• Data Collection : Detail the methods you used to gather data. This could include surveys, experiments, observations, interviews, archival research, etc. Mention where you sourced your data, the duration of data collection, and any tools or instruments used.
• Sampling : If applicable, explain how you selected participants or data sources for your study. Discuss the size of your sample and the rationale behind choosing it.
• Data Analysis : Describe the techniques and tools you used to process and analyze the data. This could range from statistical tests in quantitative research to thematic analysis in qualitative research.
• Validity and Reliability : Address the steps you took to ensure the validity and reliability of your findings to ensure that your results are both accurate and consistent.
• Ethical Considerations : Highlight any ethical issues related to your research and the measures you took to address them, including — informed consent, confidentiality, and data storage and protection measures.

Moreover, different research questions necessitate different types of methodologies. For instance:

• Experimental methodology : Often used in sciences, this involves a controlled experiment to discern causality.
• Qualitative methodology : Employed when exploring patterns or phenomena without numerical data. Methods can include interviews, focus groups, or content analysis.
• Quantitative methodology : Concerned with measurable data and often involves statistical analysis. Surveys and structured observations are common tools here.
• Mixed methods : As the name implies, this combines both qualitative and quantitative methodologies.

The Methodology section isn’t just about detailing the methods but also justifying why they were chosen. The appropriateness of the methods in addressing your research question can significantly impact the credibility of your findings.

Results (or Findings)

This section presents the outcomes of your research. It's crucial to note that the nature of your results may vary; they could be quantitative, qualitative, or a mix of both.

Quantitative results often present statistical data, showcasing measurable outcomes, and they benefit from tables, graphs, and figures to depict these data points.

Qualitative results , on the other hand, might delve into patterns, themes, or narratives derived from non-numerical data, such as interviews or observations.

Regardless of the nature of your results, clarity is essential. This section is purely about presenting the data without offering interpretations — that comes later in the discussion.

In the discussion section, the raw data transforms into valuable insights.

Start by revisiting your research question and contrast it with the findings. How do your results expand, constrict, or challenge current academic conversations?

Dive into the intricacies of the data, guiding the reader through its implications. Detail potential limitations transparently, signaling your awareness of the research's boundaries. This is where your academic voice should be resonant and confident.

Practical implications (Recommendation) section

Based on the insights derived from your research, this section provides actionable suggestions or proposed solutions.

Whether aimed at industry professionals or the general public, recommendations translate your academic findings into potential real-world actions. They help readers understand the practical implications of your work and how it can be applied to effect change or improvement in a given field.

When crafting recommendations, it's essential to ensure they're feasible and rooted in the evidence provided by your research. They shouldn't merely be aspirational but should offer a clear path forward, grounded in your findings.

The conclusion provides closure to your research narrative.

It's not merely a recap but a synthesis of your main findings and their broader implications. Reconnect with the research questions or hypotheses posited at the beginning, offering clear answers based on your findings.

Reflect on the broader contributions of your study, considering its impact on the academic community and potential real-world applications.

Lastly, the conclusion should leave your readers with a clear understanding of the value and impact of your study.

References (or Bibliography)

Every theory you've expounded upon, every data point you've cited, and every methodological precedent you've followed finds its acknowledgment here.

In references, it's crucial to ensure meticulous consistency in formatting, mirroring the specific guidelines of the chosen citation style .

Proper referencing helps to avoid plagiarism , gives credit to original ideas, and allows readers to explore topics of interest. Moreover, it situates your work within the continuum of academic knowledge.

To properly cite the sources used in the study, you can rely on online citation generator tools  to generate accurate citations!

Here’s more on how you can cite your sources.

Often, the depth of research produces a wealth of material that, while crucial, can make the core content of the thesis cumbersome. The appendix is where you mention extra information that supports your research but isn't central to the main text.

Whether it's raw datasets, detailed procedural methodologies, extended case studies, or any other ancillary material, the appendices ensure that these elements are archived for reference without breaking the main narrative's flow.

For thorough researchers and readers keen on meticulous details, the appendices provide a treasure trove of insights.

Glossary (optional)

In academics, specialized terminologies, and jargon are inevitable. However, not every reader is versed in every term.

The glossary, while optional, is a critical tool for accessibility. It's a bridge ensuring that even readers from outside the discipline can access, understand, and appreciate your work.

By defining complex terms and providing context, you're inviting a wider audience to engage with your research, enhancing its reach and impact.

Remember, while these components provide a structured framework, the essence of your thesis lies in the originality of your ideas, the rigor of your research, and the clarity of your presentation.

As you craft each section, keep your readers in mind, ensuring that your passion and dedication shine through every page.

Thesis examples

To further elucidate the concept of a thesis, here are illustrative examples from various fields:

Example 1 (History): Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the ‘Noble Savage’ on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807 by Suchait Kahlon.

Example 2 (Climate Dynamics): Influence of external forcings on abrupt millennial-scale climate changes: a statistical modelling study by Takahito Mitsui · Michel Crucifix

Checklist for your thesis evaluation

Evaluating your thesis ensures that your research meets the standards of academia. Here's an elaborate checklist to guide you through this critical process.

Content and structure

• Is the thesis statement clear, concise, and debatable?
• Does the introduction provide sufficient background and context?
• Is the literature review comprehensive, relevant, and well-organized?
• Does the methodology section clearly describe and justify the research methods?
• Are the results/findings presented clearly and logically?
• Does the discussion interpret the results in light of the research question and existing literature?
• Is the conclusion summarizing the research and suggesting future directions or implications?

Clarity and coherence

• Is the writing clear and free of jargon?
• Are ideas and sections logically connected and flowing?
• Is there a clear narrative or argument throughout the thesis?

Research quality

• Is the research question significant and relevant?
• Are the research methods appropriate for the question?
• Is the sample size (if applicable) adequate?
• Are the data analysis techniques appropriate and correctly applied?
• Are potential biases or limitations addressed?

Originality and significance

• Does the thesis contribute new knowledge or insights to the field?
• Is the research grounded in existing literature while offering fresh perspectives?

Formatting and presentation

• Is the thesis formatted according to institutional guidelines?
• Are figures, tables, and charts clear, labeled, and referenced in the text?
• Is the bibliography or reference list complete and consistently formatted?
• Are appendices relevant and appropriately referenced in the main text?

Grammar and language

• Is the thesis free of grammatical and spelling errors?
• Is the language professional, consistent, and appropriate for an academic audience?
• Are quotations and paraphrased material correctly cited?

Feedback and revision

• Have you sought feedback from peers, advisors, or experts in the field?
• Have you addressed the feedback and made the necessary revisions?

Overall assessment

• Does the thesis as a whole feel cohesive and comprehensive?
• Would the thesis be understandable and valuable to someone in your field?

Ensure to use this checklist to leave no ground for doubt or missed information in your thesis.

After writing your thesis, the next step is to discuss and defend your findings verbally in front of a knowledgeable panel. You’ve to be well prepared as your professors may grade your presentation abilities.

Preparing your thesis defense

A thesis defense, also known as "defending the thesis," is the culmination of a scholar's research journey. It's the final frontier, where you’ll present their findings and face scrutiny from a panel of experts.

Typically, the defense involves a public presentation where you’ll have to outline your study, followed by a question-and-answer session with a committee of experts. This committee assesses the validity, originality, and significance of the research.

The defense serves as a rite of passage for scholars. It's an opportunity to showcase expertise, address criticisms, and refine arguments. A successful defense not only validates the research but also establishes your authority as a researcher in your field.

Here’s how you can effectively prepare for your thesis defense .

Now, having touched upon the process of defending a thesis, it's worth noting that scholarly work can take various forms, depending on academic and regional practices.

One such form, often paralleled with the thesis, is the 'dissertation.' But what differentiates the two?

Dissertation vs. Thesis

Often used interchangeably in casual discourse, they refer to distinct research projects undertaken at different levels of higher education.

To the uninitiated, understanding their meaning might be elusive. So, let's demystify these terms and delve into their core differences.

Here's a table differentiating between the two.

Wrapping up

From understanding the foundational concept of a thesis to navigating its various components, differentiating it from a dissertation, and recognizing the importance of proper citation — this guide covers it all.

As scholars and readers, understanding these nuances not only aids in academic pursuits but also fosters a deeper appreciation for the relentless quest for knowledge that drives academia.

It’s important to remember that every thesis is a testament to curiosity, dedication, and the indomitable spirit of discovery.

Good luck with your thesis writing!

Frequently Asked Questions

A thesis typically ranges between 40-80 pages, but its length can vary based on the research topic, institution guidelines, and level of study.

A PhD thesis usually spans 200-300 pages, though this can vary based on the discipline, complexity of the research, and institutional requirements.

To identify a thesis topic, consider current trends in your field, gaps in existing literature, personal interests, and discussions with advisors or mentors. Additionally, reviewing related journals and conference proceedings can provide insights into potential areas of exploration.

The conceptual framework is often situated in the literature review or theoretical framework section of a thesis. It helps set the stage by providing the context, defining key concepts, and explaining the relationships between variables.

A thesis statement should be concise, clear, and specific. It should state the main argument or point of your research. Start by pinpointing the central question or issue your research addresses, then condense that into a single statement, ensuring it reflects the essence of your paper.

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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• How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

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Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

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Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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Graham, R. Ian. "A study into large companies' quality management systems and their registration against ISO 9000 with third party registration bodies." Thesis, Cranfield University, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.309657.

Lilly, John. "The complex relationship between quality assurance interventions and effective school improvement." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2000. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.365541.

Mak, On-kei Angel. "A study of total quality management, quality assurance system, the 5-S practice and its influence in the management of residential estates in Hong Kong /." View the Table of Contents & Abstract, 2006. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B36438649.

Lee, Kam-hung. "Implementation of ISO 9000 in electrical & mechanical services Department /." Hong Kong : University of Hong Kong, 1996. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B17983769.

Mak, On-kei Angel, and 麥安琪. "A study of total quality management, quality assurance system, the 5-Spractice and its influence in the management of residential estates inHong Kong." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2006. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B4500867X.

James, Raymond Oscar. "Die bestuur van die geintegreerde gehaltebestuurstelsel." Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/682.

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Study population, statistical analysis: quality indicator performance in california and georgia, demographic characteristics, antibiotic prophylaxis, tcd screening, acknowledgments, national quality indicators in pediatric sickle cell anemia.

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Ashaunta T. Anderson , Wendy J. Mack , Sophia S. Horiuchi , Susan Paulukonis , Mei Zhou , Angela B. Snyder , Jason N. Doctor , Michele Kipke , Thomas Coates , Gary Freed; National Quality Indicators in Pediatric Sickle Cell Anemia. Pediatrics April 2024; 153 (4): e2022060804. 10.1542/peds.2022-060804

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Video Abstract

To assess nationally endorsed claims-based quality measures in pediatric sickle cell anemia (SCA).

Using data from the Sickle Cell Data Collection programs in California and Georgia from 2010 to 2019, we evaluated 2 quality measures in individuals with hemoglobin S/S or S/β-zero thalassemia: (1) the proportion of patients aged 3 months to 5 years who were dispensed antibiotic prophylaxis for at least 300 days within each measurement year and (2) the proportion of patients aged 2 to 15 years who received at least 1 transcranial Doppler ultrasound (TCD) within each measurement year. We then evaluated differences by year and tested whether performance on quality measures differed according to demographic and clinical factors.

Only 22.2% of those in California and 15.5% in Georgia met or exceeded the quality measure for antibiotic prophylaxis, with increased odds associated with rural residence in Georgia (odds ratio 1.61; 95% confidence interval 1.21–2.14) compared with urban residence and a trend toward increased odds associated with a pediatric hematologist prescriber (odds ratio 1.28; 95% confidence interval 0.97, 1.69) compared with a general pediatrician. Approximately one-half of the sample received an annual assessment of stroke risk using TCD (47.4% in California and 52.7% in Georgia), with increased odds each additional year in both states and among younger children.

The rates of receipt of recommended antibiotic prophylaxis and annual TCD were low in this sample of children with SCA. These evidence-based quality measures can be tracked over time to help identify policies and practices that maximize survival in SCA.

Children with SCA are at an increased risk of early mortality. Few nationally endorsed measures exist to track the quality of care received by children with SCA.

This study extends previous evaluations of 2 claims-based quality measures in SCA with similar evaluations that include only children with laboratory-confirmed diagnoses of SCA.

Sickle cell anemia (SCA) is an inherited form of severe anemia associated with acute painful episodes, end-organ damage, and early mortality. It affects ∼100 000 individuals in the United States, 1   including 1 in 400 African Americans and 1 in 19 000 Latinos. 2   Over the past several decades, longevity has increased, but only to the fifth decade of life. 3 , 4   Among children, the most common causes of death include sepsis and acute chest syndrome, followed by multiorgan failure syndrome and stroke. 5   Evaluation of the Dallas Newborn Cohort links the recent significant reduction in deaths due to bacterial sepsis to the delivery of high-quality care, including prophylactic penicillin 6   and pneumococcal and Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines. 5   Despite clinical guidelines that proactively support such care, 7   poor outcomes persist. 8 , 9   Evidence-based quality indicators can be tracked over time to help identify policies and practices to maximize survival in SCA.

There were no nationally endorsed indicators of quality in pediatric SCA until 2016. 10   There are now 2 such measures for children with SCA, the most common and severe form of sickle cell disease. 11 , 12   The first quality indicator assesses the proportion of children aged 3 months to 5 years with SCA who are dispensed prophylactic antibiotics on 300 or more days in a given year. The authors of a randomized controlled trial documented an 84% decrease in pneumococcal sepsis with daily preventive use of penicillin in children with SCA. 6   The second nationally vetted quality indicator assesses the proportion of children aged 2 to 15 years with SCA who received their annual screening for stroke risk using transcranial Doppler ultrasonography (TCD). Children with abnormal TCD screens have a 40% risk of stroke within 3 years. 13   The initiation of chronic blood transfusions reduces the risk of stroke by 92% among children at the highest risk of stroke, as identified by TCD screening. 13 , 14   In this study, we aimed to assess these nationally endorsed claims-based quality measures among children with SCA and to identify demographic and clinical characteristics (eg, age, sex, and provider type) that may facilitate targeted quality improvement efforts.

We analyzed data from the Sickle Cell Data Collection (SCDC) programs in California and Georgia from 2010 to 2019. The SCDC is a longitudinal, population-based surveillance system that includes linked data from multiple sources to identify individuals living with SCA. 15 , 16   SCDC is overseen by the Division of Blood Disorders of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. This project was reviewed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and was determined to be a non-research, public health practice activity. The Georgia Public Health Department and the Georgia State University Institutional Review Board declared the project exempt from review, whereas the California Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects reviewed and approved the study with a waiver of consent for individual data collection. In addition, specialty hemoglobinopathy treatment center institutional review boards similarly exempted the project from review or approved with a waiver of consent. State data requests were reviewed by the appropriate agency, assuring that data privacy safeguards were in place.

We included all individuals with hemoglobin (Hb) S/S or Hb S/β 0 -thalassemia who were reported by newborn screening or one of the participating hemoglobinopathy specialty treatment centers in Georgia and California from 2004 to 2019 with a laboratory-confirmed diagnosis based on the results of clinical laboratory evaluation that included quantitative Hb identification by Hb electrophoresis, high-performance liquid chromatography, or DNA analysis. These individuals were then linked to 2010 to 2019 Medicaid eligibility and claims files by using probabilistic methods in Georgia and deterministic methods based on social security numbers in California. Linkage processes and sources are further detailed elsewhere. 15   Participants who were Medicaid beneficiaries for all 12 months of the study year were included.

Definition of Quality Indicators: Antibiotic Prophylaxis

The numerator is the number of children aged 3 months to 4 years with SCA who were dispensed appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis for at least 300 days within the measurement year (ie, must not have a fifth birthday within the measurement year). The age range begins at 3 months of age to account for any lag in confirmation of the SCA status of the child. Each measurement year extends from January 1 to December 31. Although the guidelines specifically recommend penicillin for antibiotic prophylaxis, some children may have penicillin sensitivity. Therefore, this measure uses a definition of antibiotic prophylaxis beyond penicillin (ie, aminopenicillins, β-lactamase inhibitors, macrolides, natural penicillins, erythromycin-sulfisoxazole, and vancomycin). The drugs were identified in the data by the National Drug Code. The denominator is the number of children aged 3 months to 4 years with SCA and continuous enrollment in Medicaid for 12 months of the measurement year. The resulting proportion may be interpreted such that higher proportions indicate better quality.

Definition of Quality Indicators: TCD

The numerator is the number of children aged 2 to 15 years with SCA who received at least 1 TCD screening within the measurement year (ie, must not have a second or 16th birthday within the measurement year). The receipt of TCD screening is identified as the presence of at least 1 current procedural terminology code for any of 5 acceptable ultrasonography tests (ie, 93886, 93888, 93890, 93892, and 93893) within the measurement year among children in the target population. The denominator is the number of children aged 2 to 15 years with SCA and continuous enrollment in Medicaid for 12 months of the measurement year. As before, the resulting proportion may be interpreted such that higher proportions indicate better quality.

Demographic and Clinical Measures

Age was defined as of January 1 of the year of study. Sex, race, and state of residence were defined as of the last entry date in the Medicaid files during the year of study. Rural or urban status was defined by using 2013 USDA Urban Rural Continuum Codes ( https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/rural-urban-continuum-codes.aspx ) and was based on the patient’s residence county as reported in Medicaid enrollment data. California’s SCA population is heavily concentrated in areas deemed to be “urban;” counts of those in rural areas are too small to be reported, so urban and rural analyses are provided for Georgia data only. Because children are administered medications while receiving inpatient care, antibiotic prescription days were defined as the total days of filled prescriptions plus the number of days hospitalized during the year of study. To categorize the prescribing provider type, we used the National Provider Identifier file from the Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services’ Web site ( https://download.cms.gov/nppes/NPI_Files.html ), which lists the provider’s primary and up to 14 additional taxonomy codes, and linked it to the prescription claims. Some of the children had >1 prescribing provider type. If the child had at least 1 antibiotic prescription from a pediatric hematologist, pediatric hematologist was tallied. If the child did not have a prescribing pediatric hematologist but did have an antibiotic prescription from a pediatrician, pediatrician was tallied. In the case of any other provider type, the tally for prescriber type was “other.” Of note, the available data did not provide a link between provider type and TCD events. Further discussion of the link between provider type and claims data may be found in previous work. 17  

We examined SCDC data in strata of state and year with summary counts of persons meeting and not meeting the antibiotic prophylaxis and TCD quality indicators. Within each of the state, year, and quality indicator strata, analyses were further stratified by variables in 5 separate data tables of summary counts within (1) state, year, and age strata, (2) state, year, and sex strata, (3) state, year, and race (African American, not African American, unknown) strata, (4) state, year, and residence (urban, rural) strata, and (5) state, year, and provider type (pediatric hematologist, pediatrician, other) strata (for antibiotic prophylaxis indicators only). Antibiotic prophylaxis data were categorized into age groups of 3 months to 1 year, 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years. TCD data were categorized into age groups of 2 to 4 years, 5 to 7 years, 8 to 10 years, and 11 to 14 years. Within each state, we calculated the proportion of persons meeting antibiotic prophylaxis and TCD quality indicators by year with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Differences by year in proportions meeting quality indicators were tested by using a χ-square test and a test for trend by year using the Cochran–Armitage test for trend. We used logistic regression to test whether the achievement of quality indicators differed by age, sex, race, urban or rural residence, or provider type. Because data were summarized by separate strata of these independent variables (as described above), we were unable to combine all the variables in a single regression model; each of these variables was modeled separately, with the inclusion of state and year. Given the small numbers of rural residents in the California data, urban or rural residence was analyzed by using only Georgia data. The dependent binary variable indicated whether a child met the performance metric in a given state or measurement year. A robust variance–covariance parameter matrix was used to account for model misspecification due to children contributing data to multiple measurement years. 18   Measurement year was modeled as an indicator variable, with associations estimated as odds ratios (ORs) with 95% CIs, relative to the 2010 referent year. Measurement year was also modeled as a single variable to assess trends. Interactions of each variable (age, sex, etc) with year were also included to evaluate if these associations differed by year. See the Supplemental Information for further specification of the models. All statistical tests were performed by using 2-sided P < .05. Analyses were performed by using SAS 9.4 and Stata 17.0. 19 , 20  

Approximately one-third of the sample was represented in claims data from California, and the remainder was from Georgia. Most children resided in urban areas, and more than one-half relied on pediatric hematologists to prescribe prophylactic antibiotics. General pediatricians were the next most common prescribers of antibiotics, serving ∼1 in 5 children with filled antibiotic prescriptions. More than 90% of the sample reported African American race. The distribution across age and sex groups was approximately even. These demographic trends were observed in the overall sample and in both the antibiotic prophylaxis and TCD ultrasound subsamples ( Tables 1 and 2 ).

Demographic Characteristics: Antibiotic Prophylaxis Population

Urban/rural residence analysis limited to Georgia.

Demographic Characteristics: TCD Population

Regardless of demographic characteristics, few children had antibiotic prescriptions filled for 300 or more days per year from 2010 to 2019 ( Fig 1 ). Over this time period, the overall proportion of children meeting or exceeding this quality measure was 22.2% in California and 15.5% in Georgia. The odds of appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis were not dependent on age, sex, or year. Only rural residence in Georgia (OR 1.61; 95% CI 1.21–2.14) compared with urban residence was associated with increased odds of appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis; pediatric hematologist prescriber (OR 1.28; 95% CI 0.97–1.69) compared with pediatrician prescriber revealed a trend toward increased antibiotic prophylaxis ( Table 3 ).

Antibiotic prophylaxis. Percentage of children aged 3 months to 4 years old with SCA who were dispensed appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis for at least 300 days within each measurement year.

Association With Antibiotic Prophylaxis ≥300 Days per Year

All models use logistic regression, including state and year as covariates; —, the indicated statistical analysis was not performed.

Estimates of ORs and probabilities by year are limited to the sex–year model for brevity (estimates are consistent across models).

Residence model limited to Georgia data.

Approximately one-half of children with SCA received an annual assessment of stroke risk using TCD, with 47.4% in California and 52.7% in Georgia. There was an increased odds of receiving TCD screening in both California (OR 1.04; 95% CI 1.01–1.06 per year) and Georgia (OR 1.09; 95% CI 1.07–1.11 per year) with each additional year of observation ( Fig 2 ). In contrast, age was associated with decreased receipt of TCD screening, such that older children were less likely to undergo TCD screening. As observed for antibiotic prophylaxis, sex was not associated with performance rates ( Table 4 ).

TCD screening. Percentage of children aged 2 to 15 years old with SCA who received at least 1 TCD screening within each measurement year.

Association With ≥1 TCD Screening per Year

All models use logistic regression, including state and year as covariates; —, the indicated statistical analysis was not performed.

We used Medicaid claims data to assess the quality of care for children with SCA in California and Georgia from 2010 to 2019. In doing so, we determined that the majority of children with SCA in our sample did not receive appropriate amounts of recommended antibiotic prophylaxis, and approximately one-half received annual TCDs to assess stroke risk. We also examined key demographic and clinical characteristics as potential predictors of performance on these quality measures. We found that children with SCA had a greater likelihood of receiving appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis when they lived in rural areas of Georgia; there was also a trend toward increased antibiotic prophylaxis with pediatric hematologist prescribers. Those who were <5 years old had a greater likelihood of receiving annual TCDs. Therefore, in these preliminary analyses, age, residence, and provider type appeared to influence the quality of care in pediatric SCA.

Performance rates on both quality measures were similar to those in previous studies. A recent evaluation of children 3 months to 5 years of age with SCA in Florida, Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, South Carolina, and Texas (2005–2012) revealed that only 18% of children had 300 or more filled antibiotic prescriptions each year. 21   The odds of receiving appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis increased with the number of well child visits and SCA-related outpatient visits, but not age, sex, year, or state. We similarly found that age, sex, and year did not predict the rates of antibiotic prophylaxis. Analysis of claims data from the same states (2005–2010) for 2- to 16-year-old children with SCA showed annual TCD screening rates of 22% to 44%. 22   The previous receipt of TCD and number of well child visits predicted greater odds of TCD screening, whereas older age predicted lower odds. Older children in our sample and another cohort 15   were also less likely to receive timely TCD screening.

The examination of similar Medicaid claims in New York and Michigan (2011–2018) revealed annual prophylactic antibiotic rates of 16% to 22% and TCD screening rates of 39% to 45%. 23   Performance on these measures remained the same or decreased over the evaluation period. In contrast, trend analyses of TCD screening rates in our data from 2010 to 2019 increased in both California and Georgia. There were measurement differences in that we limited our claims data to those with laboratory-confirmed cases of SCA, but several other factors potentially contributed to these outcomes. For instance, the average annual TCD screening rate for eligible patients in a large pediatric sickle cell center was 45%, but there was an average cancellation rate by patients of 20%. 24   It was also found that providers who had at least 1 opportunity per year to order TCD screening did so 65% to 80% of the time. One study links low rates of TCD completion to low provider expectations that families will have access to testing or agree to a chronic transfusion protocol if a significant stroke risk is detected. 25   In fact, provider-perceived low patient adherence to TCD appointments and distance to a vascular laboratory have been identified as barriers to TCD screening. 26   However, providers, especially primary care physicians, may also lack the self-efficacy and awareness of TCD recommendations to make the necessary orders. 25 , 26   Further study is needed to disentangle the factors that affect TCD screening rates and devise approaches to improve care.

Importantly, scholars have identified enhanced national surveillance systems and access to care as targets to decrease the health inequities experienced by individuals with SCA. 27   However, as recently as 2018, there was an opportunity to include filled antibiotic prescriptions and TCD screenings into the core set of 25 pediatric quality measures that track the performance of the Medicaid program. Despite expert recommendations, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services did not include these measures in the core set provided to states that opt to track quality in cohorts with complex chronic disease. 28   Since then, isolated statewide evaluations of Medicaid data continue to reveal the same poor outcomes: low likelihood that a child with SCA in the United States will receive appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis and a coin toss that he or she will receive regular screenings to assess stroke risk.

This analysis represents an opportunity to systematically track outcomes in pediatric SCA with some limitations. Unlike previous evaluations of nationally endorsed quality measures in pediatric SCA, we did not use claims data to identify cases. Instead, we included only children with laboratory-confirmed diagnoses of Hb SS disease or Hb S/β 0 -thalassemia. This increased our accuracy in identifying cases, but may not be replicable in states without access to such data. Notably, users of the claims-based approach to identify children with SCA have reported methods with high accuracy. 29   – 31   Such data have also been successfully used to track the receipt of TCDs. 32   Our findings were consistent with those based exclusively on claims data and may be reinforced by analyses that compare our findings with those based on administrative data alone.

Similar to previous evaluations, we report quality measures based on Medicaid claims, which exclude children with SCA who have other means of health insurance. Studies suggest that those with private insurance are more likely to receive regular antibiotic prophylaxis and TCD screens. 24 , 33   However, the majority of health care for pediatric SCA is supported by the Medicaid program, 34   so our findings are expected to reflect the reality faced by most patients. In addition, this analysis was based on aggregated data stratified by year and demographic characteristics; therefore, we cannot report performance rates by combinations of those characteristics. The data use agreement does not allow the patient-level analysis that would be required. Finally, the data revealed few rural residents in California because large urban counties capture most residents but do not necessarily equate to urban-based care for all residents. As a result, the comparison of rural versus urban residence was not a reliable marker of rural versus urban care in California.

In sum, despite support from high-quality studies and explicit clinical guidelines, many children with SCA do not receive adequate antibiotic prophylaxis or annual screenings for stroke risk. This may reflect gaps in provider knowledge and practice alongside challenges families face accessing care, as evidenced by suboptimal rates of health supervision visits, hematologist visits, and pneumococcal vaccination. 17 , 35 , 36   There remains a critical need to know where we stand in the delivery of care to children with SCA to implement quality improvement programs, compare with appropriate benchmarks, and track progress over time. The next steps may include further inquiry into statewide approaches to care, focus groups on provider expectations and patient experience, and surveys of general pediatrician knowledge of care in SCA. In the absence of such quality assessments, we risk failing this vulnerable population and squandering the opportunity to learn from high-performing systems of care.

We would like to express our gratitude for the advisory contributions provided by Sarah Hunter of the RAND Corporation during the developmental and execution phases of the present analysis. We are also grateful for the contributions provided by the children affected by sickle cell disease in this analysis and the providers who care for them.

Dr Anderson conceptualized and designed the study and drafted the initial manuscript; Dr Mack cleaned the data, performed and summarized all statistical analyses, including tables and figures, and drafted portions of the methods and results sections of the manuscript; Ms Horiuchi provided access to and interpretation of the California data and conducted the descriptive analysis of California data; Ms Paulukonis provided access to and interpretation of the California data and provided counsel during study conceptualization, design, and data analysis; Ms Zhou provided access to and interpretation of the Georgia data and conducted the descriptive analysis of Georgia data; Dr Snyder provided access to and interpretation of the Georgia data and provided counsel during study conceptualization, design, and data analysis; Drs Doctor and Kipke contributed to the conception and design of the work and the interpretation of the data; Dr Coates provided counsel during study conceptualization and design; Dr Freed assisted in design of the study and data analysis; and all authors reviewed and revised the manuscript, approved of the final manuscript as submitted, and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

FUNDING: This article was supported by grant UL1TR001855 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Science (NCATS) of the US National Institutes of Health. The contributions from the Sickle Cell Data Collection teams from California and Georgia were supported by a cooperative agreement from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Sickle Cell Data Collection Program (CDC-RFA-DD20-2003). The funder did not participate in the work.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURES: The authors have indicated they have no potential conflicts of interest relevant to this article to disclose.

COMPANION PAPER: A companion to this article can be found online at https://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2023-064284 .

confidence interval

sickle cell anemia

transcranial Doppler ultrasonography

Supplementary data

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Steven Meisler Thesis Defense: White Matter Structural Correlates of Reading Abilities, Disabilities, and Intervention

Time:  Wednesday, April 10th, 12:30 PM EST

Place : Singleton Auditorium (room 3002)

Virtual Link:   https://mit.zoom.us/j/98593266994?pwd=d2RuWEc2WnpDZnY3Vnk3bml6T0M0Zz09  (pwd: mri-read)

Title:  White Matter Structural Correlates of Reading Abilities, Disabilities, and Intervention

Advisor:  John Gabrieli

Reading is a complex, uniquely human invention for communication through print. It is a critical ability for making progress in education. Students with reading difficulties, the most common learning disability, struggle with reading fluency and accuracy. Skilled reading is enabled by the coordination of a network of brain regions interconnected by white matter pathways. Microstructural properties and plasticity of white matter can be characterized by diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI). Despite a few reports of correlations between white matter microstructure and individual and group differences in reading skills, meta-analytic summaries of extant DWI literature have suggested few-to-none robust relationships of this kind. Several methodological considerations in data processing, study design, and sample sizes may have precluded generalizability of findings across diverse studies.

This dissertation aimed to address such methodological issues to rigorously investigate white matter structural correlates of reading abilities, disabilities, and intervention among children and adolescents. My first study describes one of the initial large-scale studies of white matter microstructural associations with reading skills, which found null results similar to the aforementioned meta-analysis. Innovating on advances in data processing techniques, my second study builds upon this work by employing a novel DWI paradigm, the fixel-based analysis. This study found that the more nuanced metrics derived from this model, reflecting axonal volume, positively related to reading skill in reading-related white matter pathways, underscoring the utility of acquiring high-quality and dense DWI images. Finally, my third paper takes a different approach from the previous two, gaining statistical power with a longitudinal design in the context of an intensive summer reading intervention. In this study, improvements in white matter microstructure, primarily in core-reading circuitry, were related to improvements in reading performance over the summer. Collectively, the work in this dissertation reaffirms the previously tested notion that reading performance can be reflected in white matter properties, especially within the left-hemispheric network of bundles that supports reading. The work also emphasizes the importance of being intentional and rigorous in study design and analytical techniques.

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Office of graduate and postdoctoral education, 12 grad students named as finalists for 2024 three minute thesis competition.

Mar 26, 2024

After six intense preliminary rounds, twelve exceptional scholars have emerged from a pool of 65 talented candidates, earning their place as finalists in Georgia Tech's highly anticipated annual Three Minute Thesis (3MT) competition. On Friday, April 5, 2024, these finalists will hit the stage, harnessing their research expertise, to deliver compelling presentations in a three-minute format.

Congratulations to the following twelve finalists:

Karina Bhattacharya MID Industrial Design 

Vinodhini Comandur, Ph.D. Aerospace Engineering 

Mo Jarin, Ph.D. Environmental Engineering 

Anamik Jhunjhunwala, Ph.D. Biomedical Engineering 

Valeria Juarez, Ph.D. Biomedical Engineering 

Alexandra Patterson, Ph.D. Bioengineering 

Jeffrey Pattison, Ph.D. Aerospace Engineering 

Kantwon Rogers, Ph.D. Computer Science 

Mallika Senthil, MS Biomedical Engineering 

Wenting Shi, Ph.D. Chemistry and Biochemistry 

Shreyas Srivathsan, Ph.D. Aerospace Engineering 

Raghav Tandon, Ph.D. Machine Learning 

This year’s 3MT competition takes place on Friday, April 5, 2024, at 5:30 p.m. in the Atlantic Theater in the John Lewis Student Center. The entire Georgia Tech community is encouraged to attend the competition, which occurs as the finale of the 2024 Grad Student Appreciation Week. 3MT will also be streamed online and can be viewed at https://gatech.zoom.us/j/98696536715 .  Audience members and online viewers can vote for their favorite presenter to win the People’s Choice Award.  

Ph.D. winners can win up to $2,000 in research travel grants. The master's winner will receive a $1,000 research travel grant.   

Tech’s 3MT competition is coordinated by the Office of Graduate Education in partnership with the Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL), The Naugle Communications Center, and the Language Institute.  

For more information, visit grad.gatech.edu/3mt . 

Brittani Hill | Marketing and Communications Manager 

Office of Graduate and Postdoctoral Education 

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Resultados científicos revolucionarios en la estación espacial de 2023

Science in space: march 2024.

Optical fibers are used on Earth and in space for applications in medicine, defense, cybersecurity, and telecommunications. Parabolic research showed that optical fibers produced in microgravity can be higher quality than those made in normal gravity, and the International Space Station provides a potential platform for commercial production of these fibers. The Production of Flawless Space Fiber ( Flawless Space Fibers-1 ) investigation is using the space station to demonstrate new manufacturing technology developed by Flawless Photonics to improve the quality and length of optical fiber produced in space.

Preliminary results have been promising. From mid-February to mid-March, the investigation manufactured a total of more than seven miles (11.9 km) of optical fiber. Eight of the runs (called draws) produced more than 2,200 feet (700 meters) of fiber, demonstrating that the results are repeatable. The investigation also drew more than 3,700 feet (1141 meters) in one day, surpassing the prior record of 82 feet (25 meters) for the longest fiber manufactured in space. Seven of the draws exceeded 2,296 feet (700 meters), demonstrating for the first time that commercial lengths of fiber can be produced in space. The space-drawn fibers are set to return to Earth soon for analysis of their quality.

These fibers are made using ZBLAN, a glass alloy made of zirconium, barium, lanthanum, sodium, and aluminum fluorides, each with different densities and crystallization temperatures. Its unique properties allow light to travel through a fiber over a broader range, providing more than ten times the capacity of traditional silica-based fibers and transmitting considerably more data over the same length of fiber. If fibers can be made long enough and of high enough quality, the increased efficiency of ZBLAN could translate into significant energy savings by reducing the need to boost the signal on long-distance transmissions.

However, when ZBLAN is drawn into fibers on the ground, crystals form that scatter signals and make the fiber brittle. Because crystals grow more slowly in microgravity, the approach is to cool drawn fibers before crystals have a chance to form. Microgravity also counters effects of sedimentation, convection, and buoyancy that limit the length and quality of fibers drawn on Earth. Manufacturers use drop towers to manufacture ZBLAN on Earth, but in-space manufacturing provides much more time to draw longer and eventually better fibers.

The Flawless Space Fibers investigation is sponsored by the ISS National Laboratory and involves support from the  Luxembourg Space Agency, University of Adelaide in Australia, and NASA’s InSpace Production Applications (InSPA). InSPA advances sustainable, scalable, and profitable in-space manufacturing in low Earth orbit, working with the ISS National Lab to provide companies with access to the space station for demonstrating production of advanced materials and products for terrestrial applications. Flawless Space Fibers has achieved three of four goals for ZBLAN set by InSPA, including achieving 20 meters on a single run, repeating that amount on a separate draw, and scaling up to runs of commercial length. The analysis of fibers after return to ground is needed to determine whether the investigation meets InSPA’s fourth goal, producing fiber of ten times greater quality than on Earth.

Results may help reduce gravity-induced defects in optical glass products developed on Earth and advance in-space manufacturing models. The investigation also opens the door to creating other valuable specialty fibers in space.

NASA conducted early work processing ZBLAN in microgravity through Marshall Space Flight Center in the 1990s and early 2000s. Development of ZBLAN manufacturing on the space station began in 2014.

Other investigations that examined manufacturing ZBLAN optic fibers in microgravity include Optical Fiber Production in Microgravity ( Made In Space Fiber Optics ), which conducted the first privately funded ZBLAN fiber draw, Fiber Optic Production , and Fiber Optic Production-2 ( FOP-2 ), which first demonstrated repeated production of 20-meter lengths of fiber in microgravity. Another investigation, Fiber Optics Manufacturing in Space ( Space Fibers ), developed by FOMS Inc, first demonstrated a fully operational space facility for fiber manufacturing. 1

These efforts support commercial development of space and low Earth orbit and offer opportunities for development of next-generation technologies in space for applications on Earth.

John Love, ISS Research Planning Integration Scientist Expedition 70

Search this database of scientific experiments to learn more about those mentioned above.

1 Starodubov D, McCormick K, Dellosa M, Erdelyi E, Volfson L. Facility for orbital material processing. Sensors and Systems for Space Applications XI, Orlando, Florida. 2018 May 2; 10641106410T. DOI:  10.1117/12.2305830.

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How do wildfires affect mental health? A new UW study examines the connection

“there are a lot of vulnerable groups of people and these fires have substantial mental health impact we need to prepare for.”.

Checking air quality and staying indoors when smoke inundates Washington has become second nature during Washington’s wildfire season in recent years. But new research highlights how wildfires can affect a less visible aspect of well-being: mental health.

A University of Washington study published in late February found an increase in prescriptions to treat depression and anxiety or stabilize mood in the six weeks after wildfires. The study used prescription data, commercial insurance claims and pharmacy records to examine the impact of 25 large California wildfires from 2011 to 2018.

“California experienced a substantial burden of wildfires from 2011 to 2018, and as wildfires become more intense and frequent in the context of anthropogenic climate change, it is increasingly important to understand and address their mental health effects,” the authors wrote.

Extensive research has focused on how wildfires and smoke affect cardiovascular and respiratory health; a study published in February found that the overlap of extreme heat and wildfire smoke had a compound effect and increased hospitalizations.

But few studies have examined how fires affect mental health. Previous research on the connection has been more qualitative, using focus groups to examine the effect of one fire in one region, said Zack Wettstein, the lead author of the study and a UW Medicine emergency medicine doctor. He conducted the research as a guest researcher with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Climate and Health Program.

“All too often we’re overlooking these mental health impacts,” Wettstein said. “There are a lot of vulnerable groups of people and these fires have substantial mental health impact we need to prepare for.”

Sleep disruption and decreased sense of safety likely affect mental health, particularly among those who must evacuate and face property loss, researchers wrote. Wildfires can also cause or exacerbate mental health conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression and complex grief.

Wettstein has practiced emergency medicine in California, Idaho and Washington during wildfire season. Summer is already one of the busiest times in the emergency department, he said, and fires add an influx of patients.

“When smoke waves and heat waves roll through, it feels like we’re being inundated with patients experiencing a range of conditions from these exposures,” Wettstein said. “We’re seeing lots of folks coming in with stress and anxiety related to smoke exposure, let alone folks in closer proximity to fires who are evacuating, or have lost family or property.”

The study recommends “ensuring access to mental health services and supporting programs that promote mental health resilience before, during and after wildfires” as interventions to mitigate mental health effects. Wettstein hopes that hospitals will consider how to allocate resources during wildfire season and plan for potential surges.

“I don’t know how much people have considered upstaffing our mental health teams in the emergency department and otherwise,” Wettstein said. “There are opportunities to consider what to do in advance of these events. Providers can make sure their patients have enough medication on hand, so they don’t find themselves short.”

As in all studies, there are limitations: The data only includes patients enrolled on commercial insurance, meaning it didn’t reflect the experience of uninsured people, or those on Medicaid or Medicare. The data didn’t specify whether the prescriptions were new or refills, making it hard to tell whether smoke exposure led to new diagnoses or exacerbated existing mental health conditions.

Researchers also focused on metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs), a geographic designation the CDC uses to highlight urbanized areas with a population of at least 50,000. This means that rural communities, which “face a disproportionate burden of wildfire exposure and concomitant lack of mental health resources,” the authors wrote, are likely underrepresented.

There hasn’t been a similar study done in Washington, Wettstein said; he sees a “huge opportunity” to use this approach to examine other regions of the U.S. besides California.

The research findings raise a broader question: How do we deliver mental health care, especially when an emergency affects broad swaths of the population?

“Our mental health care system is already overtaxed,” Wettstein said. “With the projections of climate related impacts on temperature, air quality and other conditions in Washington, there’s going to be a greater burden of health impacts related to these events. What can we do to help prepare our system and make it more resilient, so we can treat everybody?”

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