research methods in psychology lesson plan

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Specifications that use this resource:

• AS and A-level Psychology 7181; 7182

Lesson activity: practical activities for research methods

This resource contains ideas for relevant and engaging practical activities which can be either incorporated into your teaching of the research methods section of the psychology specification, or your students can follow independently.

Activity 1: investigating short term memory

Research suggests that Short Term Memory (STM) cannot hold very much information. You are going to design and carry out an experiment to see whether the capacity of STM differs between two groups: A-level students and older people.

Generate a hypothesis for this study. Justify the direction of your hypothesis. Identify the IV and DV in this experiment.

• gain their consent to take part
• enable them to carry out the task appropriately.
• length of words
• type of words
• number of words
• word presentation.

Participants

Decide upon and justify your choice of participants for the two conditions (the two age groups). Identify and justify your sampling method.

Ethical issues

Before you collect your data, identify and address any relevant ethical issues which may arise from the study you have designed. For example, consider how participants will be debriefed afterwards.

Once you have collected your results, produce a summary table which includes appropriate measures of central tendency. Also generate an appropriate graphical display. Ensure these are appropriately labelled and have a title.

Ask another student to interpret your table and graph for the rest of the class.

Activity 2: investigating handedness

Research suggests that around 10% of the population are left handed or 'sinistral'.

You are going to design a study to compare two types of A-level student. You are aiming to see whether left handedness is more common in some subject groups, such as art students or geographers.

Consider whether you will carry out an observation – eg by counting the number of left handers and right handers from within lessons you attend, or whether you will use a verbal survey of students in the common room.

Describe any materials needed for your chosen method. Remember, if someone wanted to replicate your study they would need to know exactly what you did.

Describe and justify your choice of the A-level subject groups you have chosen for this investigation. Include information about the size of the sample in each condition.

Consider and compare at least two ethical issues associated with each method before deciding which one you will use. How, for example, would you gain consent from students you are observing? How would you gain consent from a verbal survey?

Identify and justify the type of data (level of measurement) you will collect (will it be nominal, ordinal or interval?).

Consider two potential methodological variables associated the use of your chosen method. For example, are demand characteristics likely to be a problem?

Once you have collected your data, summarise it into a correctly labelled pie chart for each of the subject group you measured (eg artists and geographers). Do your findings reflect 10% left handedness in both groups?

In order to practise the skill of reference writing, find three references for studies which have investigated handedness. Include them here in an academically accepted format.

Hint : look at the reference section of an academic text book. What do you notice about their order and format?

Activity 3: investigating gender stereotyping

It has been suggested by some researchers that males and females are often gender stereotyped by others when it comes to their expected and/or perceived roles and behaviours. Your task is to investigate whether gender stereotyping occurs in product marketing aimed at children.

• examine online promotional material
• look at television advertisements
• examine children's comics.

Generate a suitable aim and hypothesis for your study. Justify your choice of a directional or non-directional hypothesis.

Decide upon a specific age range for the children targeted by your chosen media source.

In pairs, decide upon an appropriate working definition of stereotyping for your study. In other words, clearly 'operationalise' the concept you will measure.

You might decide to measure:

• the number of times that boys or girls interact with particular toys
• how often certain colours are used to promote toys for girls and boys
• the type of words used to promote toys for girls and boys
• the actions associated with certain toys (physical or passive).

Well operationalised definitions make it much easier to identify your IV and DV.

Once you have collected your data, summarise it into a correctly labelled graph and present your findings to the rest of the class in a five minute presentation.

Ask your peers for questions about your investigation and answer one or two of these.

Discussions

Research findings are an important tool for informing social change.

In two or three paragraphs, discuss the possible social and/or developmental implications of your findings.

Activity 4: investigating aggression

Researchers have come up with theories to try and explain why people become aggressive. One explanation is to do with 'nurture'. That is, we learn to be aggressive from environmental influences such as computer games.

Your aim is to compare the perceived level of aggression in games designed for two different age groups: those under 12 and those over 18 years of age.

In a small group, generate the names of six computer games intended for play by individuals over the age of 18 and six games which are intended for children under 12. Randomly select three games from the 'over 18' list and three from the 'under 12' list. Produce a random list of these six games.

How and why would random selection be used to produce the list?

Selection of game raters

Select an equal number of male and female students aged eighteen or over. Their job will be to rate the games for levels of aggression. Explain and justify your choice of game raters. For example, why would you need a balance of males and female raters?

Ask the raters to give each game on the list a rating for aggression from 1 to 10 (where 1 = no aggression and 10 = high levels of aggression).

Calculate an appropriate measure of central tendency for each 'over 18s' game and each 'under 12s' game.

Carry out an 'eyeball test' to see which set of games appears to have the highest levels of aggression. The ones designed for under 12s or over 18s?

Which statistical test would you use if you wanted to see whether there were significantly different levels of aggression in games for older and younger people? Justify your choice of test.

In a paragraph or two, explain the methodological and ethical issues arising when asking people to rate levels of aggression in computer games.

Explain the possible implication of your findings relative to theories of aggression.

Activity 5: investigating age and sleep patterns

Research has shown that the human body clock is very important in determining sleep and wake patterns. Your task will be to design a study to investigate the relationship between age and sleep duration.

Generate an appropriate directional hypothesis for this correlational study.

Design a response sheet for people to complete in order to record the amount of time they sleep over a number of nights. You will need to consider how many nights, which days of the week and how they are to record their sleep (eg minutes/hours/clock times). Justify your choices.

What other information will you need on this sheet to enable you carry out the study? For example, how will you record the age of your participants?

In terms of sampling, who will be your target population and what type of sampling will you use? Justify your choices. Decide upon and operationalise the age groups you hope to measure. You should aim to include a wide age range and therefore address the ethical requirements associated with these, particularly with regard to any participants under 16 years of age.

Once you have collected your data, produce a suitable scattergraph to show the relationship between age and sleep duration.

Do the results appear to support your predictions? Justify your answer.

Which statistical test would you use to look for a significant relationship between age and sleep duration? Why would you choose to use this test?

In two or three paragraphs, and as part of the 'Discussion' section of a psychological investigation, briefly consider the possible methodological implications of your findings, particularly with regard to confounding variables within the study.

In order to practise the skill of reference writing, find three references for studies which have investigated sleep. Include them here in an academically accepted format.

Activity 6: investigating cognitive psychology

The Cognitive Approach in psychology places a great deal of importance on the influence of higher thought processes on decision making and behaviour.

Your task is to design and carry out a study to investigate the possible influence of expectation and perceptual bias on decision making processes.

Participants will simply be asked to rate the suitability of someone who has applied for a particular (named) job. Think carefully what this could be.

You should produce a short and credible education/career summary for a fictitious individual. This could include a list of their GCSE results, A-levels, degree details and work experience. You may decide not to include all of these depending on the job vacancy you have chosen to use.

People often have preconceptions regarding ability and a person’s age or gender, so look at one of these factors. If you choose age, then produce two identical versions of the CV differing only in terms of the persons specific age. The applicant's name could be an extraneous variable in this study. How will you control this EV?

Identify and justify an appropriate participant sample and sampling method.

Half of the participants should see the 'young' CV version, and be asked to rate the suitability of the person for the vacancy. You will need to devise a suitable rating scale for this and a clear set of instructions for participants to follow.

The remaining participants will rate the 'older' candidate.

Identify, explain and justify the experimental design used in your study. Is it repeated measures, independent groups or matched pairs? Would it have been possible to use a different design to the one you have used? Explain your answer.

Summarise your findings using descriptive statistics, perhaps a table and a graph.

In two or three paragraphs, explain the implications of your findings with regard to any age bias you may or may not have found.

Activity 7: investigating stress

People often report feeling high levels of stress at certain points in their lives. Students, for example, often feel stressed in the run up to examinations.

Your task is to devise a self-report measure to try and find the possible reasons for examination stress in AS/A Level students or GCSE students.

You should devise a questionnaire asking students to list and briefly describe possible reasons for examination stress in students.

You should emphasise in your brief that their answers may not necessarily be a reflection of their own stressors and that their answers will be confidential and anonymous. Write a set of ethically sound procedures to explain how this will be achieved.

Decide upon a sample of students. Informed consent must be addressed. If you decide to sample GCSE students, for example, you must first (and also) gain consent from parents or those in loco parentis. Explain why and how this will be done and evidenced.

Identify and justify whether the students responses will generate qualitative or quantitative data. Identify one strength and one weakness of the data type you have collected in this investigation.

From the answers given, think about how you could summarise these to generate a suitable graph. This could include identifying types or categories of stressor. You could then calculate the percentage of students who identified these as potential stressors.

Ask another student (who was not involved with your investigation) to interpret and describe the results using your graph. This will tell you whether your graph is a clear summary of your results.

Write two or three paragraphs to consider the implications of your findings. This might, for example, be ways of helping to reduce examination stress.

Activity 8: investigating social development

It has often been suggested that small animals, including humans, are born with certain physical features (such as large eyes) that encourage others to take care of them.

You will design a study to see whether babies look cuter when their eyes are open compared to when their eyes are closed.

You will need two photographs – one of you as a baby/toddler with your eyes wide open and one of you at a similar age with your eyes closed. If you are creative, you could use the same photograph manipulated in a photographic software programme.

Only the face should be visible. Explain the methodological reasons for using the same photograph and two other controls you consider relevant to this investigation.

These might, for example, include a justification of the size of the photograph or whether it is in colour or black and white.

Explain the ethical reasons for using photos of yourself in this study.

You will then ask people to rate the cuteness of the 'two' babies using an independent groups (unrelated) design. How will you allocate people to the 'open eyes' and 'closed eyes' conditions? Justify your answer.

Devise a suitable 'cuteness' rating scale for this study. Justify how long you will give participants to rate the photograph. Explain why participants will not be given unlimited time to give their ratings. Generate an appropriate set of instructions, a brief and debrief for use in this study.

Produce an appropriate graph from the data collected. Which statistical test would be appropriate for analysing this data? Justify your choice. Explain whether the test you have chosen is parametric or non-parametric.

Produce an abstract (summary) which could be used when writing up this study. Try to keep this to a maximum of 200 words, but include reference to: the aim of the study, theory behind the study, how it was tested, participants, summary of findings and a conclusion.

Activity 9: investigating food preference

Many theories have been offered to explain food preference in humans; some of which are biological, others due to environmental influence. For example, it is said that more people are now choosing to eat vegetarian diets than ever before.

You will carry out a study to record:

• Whether more males or females are vegetarians
• How long the males and female participants have been vegetarian (in an attempt to identify which gender has been a vegetarian the longest)

Participants in this study should be over 16 years of age. Explain why.

Design your study to gain participants using volunteer sampling. How will you achieve this? Outline the main methodological problems arising from using a volunteer sampling method for this investigation. Outline and justify a better way of sampling in this study which could contribute to more valid results.

Decide whether this will take the form of written responses to a simple questionnaire or a verbal survey of participants. Design and justify your materials accordingly.

Whichever method you choose, you should plan and produce an appropriate set of procedures for your investigation. This way, you will know exactly what you intend to do and/or say to participants and what they have to do/say during the investigation.

A 'Procedures' section, when written up, would normally be:

• written in the past tense
• include all steps and 'verbatim' instructions (find out what does this means)
• written in the third person.

So although you must plan this ahead prospectively, you must write this up afterwards retrospectively. Try doing this by writing up your 'Procedure' in this way.

Identify and justify the type of data you will collect in each part of the study.

Produce a summary of your findings using appropriate descriptive statistics.

Include a written conclusion of your findings.

Eating behaviour can be a sensitive topic for some people. Perhaps their diet is governed by illness or other personal factors. Outline at least two ways in which you will ensure that your participants are not placed in a position of psychological discomfort by taking part in your study.

Activity 10: investigating food preference

When psychologists design studies, they have to consider the validity of their research. That is, are they really measuring what they set out to measure?

You will be considering issues of validity in this exercise when you attempt to design the materials for a study intending to measure social influence. Obedience is one form of social influence; conformity is another.

In small groups, collect and agree upon ten celebrity faces for use in this investigation. What will you need to consider when choosing the faces for this study? Perhaps how well known the person is or their gender.

Explain how these and other factors might impact upon the validity of your study.

You will need to duplicate these photographs. One set of the faces will remain 'whole', whilst the other set should only show the eyes of the same celebrities.

One way of testing validity is through 'face validity'. In this case, the researchers would be asking whether the measure looks, at face value, as though it measures obedience.

The class should therefore look at all of the questions generated and explain whether the questions designed to test obedience actually look as though they do this.

What if one of the questions reads 'Your neighbour asks you to move her dustbin? Do you?' or 'All of your friends make a noise in the library, do you join in?'

Are these valid measures of obedience or something else? Justify your answer.

If such questions were to be used in a study, how would the participant's responses be recorded? Would it be through yes/no answers or some other measure? Describe and justify way of measuring obedience other than through yes/no responses.

Identify and explain at least two potential methodological issues which might arise in such a study of obedience.

Identify and explain at least two ethical issues which might arise. One of these should relate to confidentiality.

As an alternative task, you could start to look around your school, supermarkets etc for posters/signs which encourage obedience. Categorise the techniques used, eg obedience through fear, and consider which technique is more likely to cause obedience in the real world.

Activity 11: investigating holism v reductionism

One of many important debates in psychology is that of Holism versus Reductionism. In Cognitive Psychology, for example, this can be seen in theories of face recognition. The holistic view would argue that we need to see a whole face in order to identify it. The reductionist view argues that single features alone are sufficient.

You will carry out an investigation to test holism and reductionism in face recognition.

Design/participants

Using an independent groups (unrelated) design, randomly allocate 10 people to Condition 1 (whole face) and 10 people to Condition 2 (eyes only). Explain why the independent groups design would be used. Could you use a different design in this study?

The participants simply have to name the celebrity. You will time them using a stopwatch to see how long it takes to name all ten celebrities in each condition (whole or eyes). Devise a suitable system for accurately recording total reaction time.

Carry out a pilot study with two or three people prior to the main study in order to test and improve the procedure and/or materials. You may, for example, have to consider what you will do if the participant answers incorrectly, or takes a long time to answer.

Produce a summary table and graph to summarise the findings from your study. Which side of the debate seems to be supported? Explain your answer.

Name and justify an appropriate parametric test which could be used to analyse your data. Name and justify the use of an alternative non-parametric test.

Activity 12: investigating honesty

Some researchers believe that when we are being truthful, our eyes look to the left, but it we are not being honest, we gaze to the right and that this process is reversed for left handed people. Other researchers are not so sure.

Your task is to design two ways in which this could be tested.

Design an observational study which could be carried out in a sixth form setting using stratified sampling.

You will need to describe:

• how the researcher could consistently determine gaze direction
• the questions asked in order to elicit truthful and non-truthful answers
• the type of observation undertaken and why
• the ethical issues associated with a study of this nature
• how the stratified sample would be achieved.

Design a second experiment in which eye gaze direction could be measured through the use of more physiological means such as an EOG (look online for this).

• the ethical issues associated with a study of this nature and how they differ from the observation study described above
• an appropriate brief and debrief and how these might differ from those given in the observation study described above
• the type of experiment undertaken and why. For example, would this be a lab experiment or a field experiment, and why?

In order to practise the skill of reference writing, find three references for studies which have investigated this topic. Include them here in an academically accepted format.

Activity 13: investigating reliability

When psychologists design studies, they have to consider the reliability (consistency) of their findings. That is, if someone else were to carry out the same study, would they get the same or very similar results?

The Psychology teacher should select a 4 or 6 mark memory question from a past Psychology examination paper. Students will be answering and then double marking this. The mark scheme should be kept confidential at this point.

Students should then consider and devise a system whereby they are each randomly allocated an identification number. This will replace their names on their answer to the question they are about to answer. Justify this in terms of appropriate ethical and/or methodological issues.

In silence, students should then write their answer to the question set. An appropriate time limit should be set for this task. Students should consider what this should be and base their decision on the amount of time you would normally expect to allocate to 4 (or 6) mark question.

The answer papers should then be randomly allocated to other members of the class for marking according to the mark scheme.

This process should be done twice. This will allow you to consider inter-marker reliability regarding the marking of the students answers.

As a possible control of potential EVs, explain why it is important to ensure that the second marker does not know or see the mark awarded by the first marker. Describe how this could be achieved.

The two marks awarded to each anonymous student should then be examined. What would you expect to find if the marking is reliable? Briefly outline the results and what these mean in terms of inter-marker reliability.

Explain how inter-marker reliability could be checked statistically.

Produce an appropriate graphical display of the findings.

As a potential discussion/improvement point, briefly explain why the answers might have been better word processed than hand written.

Document URL https://www.aqa.org.uk/resources/psychology/as-and-a-level/psychology/teach/practical-activities-for-research-methods

Last updated 07 Sep 2020

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Privacy Overview

Research Methods In Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Research methods in psychology are systematic procedures used to observe, describe, predict, and explain behavior and mental processes. They include experiments, surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observations, ensuring data collection is objective and reliable to understand and explain psychological phenomena.

Hypotheses are statements about the prediction of the results, that can be verified or disproved by some investigation.

There are four types of hypotheses :

• Null Hypotheses (H0 ) – these predict that no difference will be found in the results between the conditions. Typically these are written ‘There will be no difference…’
• Alternative Hypotheses (Ha or H1) – these predict that there will be a significant difference in the results between the two conditions. This is also known as the experimental hypothesis.
• One-tailed (directional) hypotheses – these state the specific direction the researcher expects the results to move in, e.g. higher, lower, more, less. In a correlation study, the predicted direction of the correlation can be either positive or negative.
• Two-tailed (non-directional) hypotheses – these state that a difference will be found between the conditions of the independent variable but does not state the direction of a difference or relationship. Typically these are always written ‘There will be a difference ….’

All research has an alternative hypothesis (either a one-tailed or two-tailed) and a corresponding null hypothesis.

Once the research is conducted and results are found, psychologists must accept one hypothesis and reject the other. 

So, if a difference is found, the Psychologist would accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null.  The opposite applies if no difference is found.

Sampling techniques

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.

A sample is the participants you select from a target population (the group you are interested in) to make generalizations about.

Representative means the extent to which a sample mirrors a researcher’s target population and reflects its characteristics.

Generalisability means the extent to which their findings can be applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part.

• Volunteer sample : where participants pick themselves through newspaper adverts, noticeboards or online.
• Opportunity sampling : also known as convenience sampling , uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.
• Random sampling : when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. An example of random sampling would be picking names out of a hat.
• Systematic sampling : when a system is used to select participants. Picking every Nth person from all possible participants. N = the number of people in the research population / the number of people needed for the sample.
• Stratified sampling : when you identify the subgroups and select participants in proportion to their occurrences.
• Snowball sampling : when researchers find a few participants, and then ask them to find participants themselves and so on.
• Quota sampling : when researchers will be told to ensure the sample fits certain quotas, for example they might be told to find 90 participants, with 30 of them being unemployed.

Experiments always have an independent and dependent variable .

• The independent variable is the one the experimenter manipulates (the thing that changes between the conditions the participants are placed into). It is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
• The dependent variable is the thing being measured, or the results of the experiment.

Operationalization of variables means making them measurable/quantifiable. We must use operationalization to ensure that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.

For instance, we can’t really measure ‘happiness’, but we can measure how many times a person smiles within a two-hour period. 

By operationalizing variables, we make it easy for someone else to replicate our research. Remember, this is important because we can check if our findings are reliable.

Extraneous variables are all variables which are not independent variable but could affect the results of the experiment.

It can be a natural characteristic of the participant, such as intelligence levels, gender, or age for example, or it could be a situational feature of the environment such as lighting or noise.

Demand characteristics are a type of extraneous variable that occurs if the participants work out the aims of the research study, they may begin to behave in a certain way.

For example, in Milgram’s research , critics argued that participants worked out that the shocks were not real and they administered them as they thought this was what was required of them. 

Extraneous variables must be controlled so that they do not affect (confound) the results.

Randomly allocating participants to their conditions or using a matched pairs experimental design can help to reduce participant variables. 

Situational variables are controlled by using standardized procedures, ensuring every participant in a given condition is treated in the same way

Experimental Design

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to each condition of the independent variable, such as a control or experimental group.

• Independent design ( between-groups design ): each participant is selected for only one group. With the independent design, the most common way of deciding which participants go into which group is by means of randomization. 
• Matched participants design : each participant is selected for only one group, but the participants in the two groups are matched for some relevant factor or factors (e.g. ability; sex; age).
• Repeated measures design ( within groups) : each participant appears in both groups, so that there are exactly the same participants in each group.
• The main problem with the repeated measures design is that there may well be order effects. Their experiences during the experiment may change the participants in various ways.
• They may perform better when they appear in the second group because they have gained useful information about the experiment or about the task. On the other hand, they may perform less well on the second occasion because of tiredness or boredom.
• Counterbalancing is the best way of preventing order effects from disrupting the findings of an experiment, and involves ensuring that each condition is equally likely to be used first and second by the participants.

If we wish to compare two groups with respect to a given independent variable, it is essential to make sure that the two groups do not differ in any other important way. 

Experimental Methods

All experimental methods involve an iv (independent variable) and dv (dependent variable)..

• Field experiments are conducted in the everyday (natural) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting. It may be possible to control extraneous variables, though such control is more difficult than in a lab experiment.
• Natural experiments are when a naturally occurring IV is investigated that isn’t deliberately manipulated, it exists anyway. Participants are not randomly allocated, and the natural event may only occur rarely.

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. It uses information from a range of sources, such as from the person concerned and also from their family and friends.

Many techniques may be used such as interviews, psychological tests, observations and experiments. Case studies are generally longitudinal: in other words, they follow the individual or group over an extended period of time. 

Case studies are widely used in psychology and among the best-known ones carried out were by Sigmund Freud . He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity. However, it is difficult to generalize from individual cases as each one has unique characteristics.

Correlational Studies

Correlation means association; it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. One of the variables can be regarded as the predictor variable with the other one as the outcome variable.

Correlational studies typically involve obtaining two different measures from a group of participants, and then assessing the degree of association between the measures. 

The predictor variable can be seen as occurring before the outcome variable in some sense. It is called the predictor variable, because it forms the basis for predicting the value of the outcome variable.

Relationships between variables can be displayed on a graph or as a numerical score called a correlation coefficient.

• If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other, then this is known as a positive correlation .
• If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other, then this is known as a negative correlation .
• A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.

After looking at the scattergraph, if we want to be sure that a significant relationship does exist between the two variables, a statistical test of correlation can be conducted, such as Spearman’s rho.

The test will give us a score, called a correlation coefficient . This is a value between 0 and 1, and the closer to 1 the score is, the stronger the relationship between the variables. This value can be both positive e.g. 0.63, or negative -0.63.

A correlation between variables, however, does not automatically mean that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in the values of the other variable. A correlation only shows if there is a relationship between variables.

Correlation does not always prove causation, as a third variable may be involved. 

Interview Methods

Interviews are commonly divided into two types: structured and unstructured.

A fixed, predetermined set of questions is put to every participant in the same order and in the same way. 

Responses are recorded on a questionnaire, and the researcher presets the order and wording of questions, and sometimes the range of alternative answers.

The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee.

There are no set questions, and the participant can raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. Questions are posed about participants’ answers to the subject

Unstructured interviews are most useful in qualitative research to analyze attitudes and values.

Though they rarely provide a valid basis for generalization, their main advantage is that they enable the researcher to probe social actors’ subjective point of view. 

Questionnaire Method

Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, or post.

The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid bias or ambiguity in the questions, ‘leading’ the respondent or causing offense.

• Open questions are designed to encourage a full, meaningful answer using the subject’s own knowledge and feelings. They provide insights into feelings, opinions, and understanding. Example: “How do you feel about that situation?”
• Closed questions can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or specific information, limiting the depth of response. They are useful for gathering specific facts or confirming details. Example: “Do you feel anxious in crowds?”

Its other practical advantages are that it is cheaper than face-to-face interviews and can be used to contact many respondents scattered over a wide area relatively quickly.

Observations

There are different types of observation methods :

• Covert observation is where the researcher doesn’t tell the participants they are being observed until after the study is complete. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular observation method.
• Overt observation is where a researcher tells the participants they are being observed and what they are being observed for.
• Controlled : behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll study).
• Natural : Here, spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural setting.
• Participant : Here, the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing. The researcher becomes a member of the group they are researching.  
• Non-participant (aka “fly on the wall): The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being observed. The observation of participants’ behavior is from a distance

Pilot Study

A pilot  study is a small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate the feasibility of the key s teps in a future, full-scale project.

A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher.

A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.

Sometimes the task is too hard, and the researcher may get a floor effect, because none of the participants can score at all or can complete the task – all performances are low.

The opposite effect is a ceiling effect, when the task is so easy that all achieve virtually full marks or top performances and are “hitting the ceiling”.

Research Design

In cross-sectional research , a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time

Sometimes, we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.

In cohort studies , the participants must share a common factor or characteristic such as age, demographic, or occupation. A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study in which researchers monitor and observe a chosen population over an extended period.

Triangulation means using more than one research method to improve the study’s validity.

Reliability

Reliability is a measure of consistency, if a particular measurement is repeated and the same result is obtained then it is described as being reliable.

• Test-retest reliability :  assessing the same person on two different occasions which shows the extent to which the test produces the same answers.
• Inter-observer reliability : the extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers.

Meta-Analysis

A meta-analysis is a systematic review that involves identifying an aim and then searching for research studies that have addressed similar aims/hypotheses.

This is done by looking through various databases, and then decisions are made about what studies are to be included/excluded.

Strengths: Increases the conclusions’ validity as they’re based on a wider range.

Weaknesses: Research designs in studies can vary, so they are not truly comparable.

Peer Review

A researcher submits an article to a journal. The choice of the journal may be determined by the journal’s audience or prestige.

The journal selects two or more appropriate experts (psychologists working in a similar field) to peer review the article without payment. The peer reviewers assess: the methods and designs used, originality of the findings, the validity of the original research findings and its content, structure and language.

Feedback from the reviewer determines whether the article is accepted. The article may be: Accepted as it is, accepted with revisions, sent back to the author to revise and re-submit or rejected without the possibility of submission.

The editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the research report based on the reviewers comments/ recommendations.

Peer review is important because it prevent faulty data from entering the public domain, it provides a way of checking the validity of findings and the quality of the methodology and is used to assess the research rating of university departments.

Peer reviews may be an ideal, whereas in practice there are lots of problems. For example, it slows publication down and may prevent unusual, new work being published. Some reviewers might use it as an opportunity to prevent competing researchers from publishing work.

Some people doubt whether peer review can really prevent the publication of fraudulent research.

The advent of the internet means that a lot of research and academic comment is being published without official peer reviews than before, though systems are evolving on the internet where everyone really has a chance to offer their opinions and police the quality of research.

Types of Data

• Quantitative data is numerical data e.g. reaction time or number of mistakes. It represents how much or how long, how many there are of something. A tally of behavioral categories and closed questions in a questionnaire collect quantitative data.
• Qualitative data is virtually any type of information that can be observed and recorded that is not numerical in nature and can be in the form of written or verbal communication. Open questions in questionnaires and accounts from observational studies collect qualitative data.
• Primary data is first-hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.
• Secondary data is information that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research e.g. taken from journals, books or articles.

Validity means how well a piece of research actually measures what it sets out to, or how well it reflects the reality it claims to represent.

Validity is whether the observed effect is genuine and represents what is actually out there in the world.

• Concurrent validity is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure and obtains close results. For example, a new intelligence test compared to an established test.
• Face validity : does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure ‘on the face of it’. This is done by ‘eyeballing’ the measuring or by passing it to an expert to check.
• Ecological validit y is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings / real life.
• Temporal validity is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other historical times.

Features of Science

• Paradigm – A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
• Paradigm shift – The result of the scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.
• Objectivity – When all sources of personal bias are minimised so not to distort or influence the research process.
• Empirical method – Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience.
• Replicability – The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers.
• Falsifiability – The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue.

Statistical Testing

A significant result is one where there is a low probability that chance factors were responsible for any observed difference, correlation, or association in the variables tested.

If our test is significant, we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis.

If our test is not significant, we can accept our null hypothesis and reject our alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is a statement of no effect.

In Psychology, we use p < 0.05 (as it strikes a balance between making a type I and II error) but p < 0.01 is used in tests that could cause harm like introducing a new drug.

A type I error is when the null hypothesis is rejected when it should have been accepted (happens when a lenient significance level is used, an error of optimism).

A type II error is when the null hypothesis is accepted when it should have been rejected (happens when a stringent significance level is used, an error of pessimism).

Ethical Issues

• Informed consent is when participants are able to make an informed judgment about whether to take part. It causes them to guess the aims of the study and change their behavior.
• To deal with it, we can gain presumptive consent or ask them to formally indicate their agreement to participate but it may invalidate the purpose of the study and it is not guaranteed that the participants would understand.
• Deception should only be used when it is approved by an ethics committee, as it involves deliberately misleading or withholding information. Participants should be fully debriefed after the study but debriefing can’t turn the clock back.
• All participants should be informed at the beginning that they have the right to withdraw if they ever feel distressed or uncomfortable.
• It causes bias as the ones that stayed are obedient and some may not withdraw as they may have been given incentives or feel like they’re spoiling the study. Researchers can offer the right to withdraw data after participation.
• Participants should all have protection from harm . The researcher should avoid risks greater than those experienced in everyday life and they should stop the study if any harm is suspected. However, the harm may not be apparent at the time of the study.
• Confidentiality concerns the communication of personal information. The researchers should not record any names but use numbers or false names though it may not be possible as it is sometimes possible to work out who the researchers were.

Find what you need to study

1.2 Research Methods in Psychology

4 min read • january 5, 2023

Jillian Holbrook

Sadiyya Holsey

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Overview of Research Methods

There are various types of research methods in psychology with different purposes, strengths, and weaknesses.

Whenever researchers want to prove or find causation, they would run an experiment.

An experiment you'll learn about in Unit 9 that was run by Solomon Asch investigated the extent to which one would conform to a group's ideas.

Image Courtesy of Wikipedia .

Each person in the room would have to look at these lines above and state which one they thought was of similar length to the original line. The answer was, of course, obvious, but Asch wanted to see if the "real participant" would conform to the views of the rest of the group.

Asch gathered together what we could call "fake participants" and told them not to say line C. The "real participant" would then hear wrong answers, but they did not want to be the odd one out, so they conformed with the rest of the group and represented the majority view.

In this experiment, the "real participant" was the control group , and about 75% of them, over 12 trials, conformed at least once.

Correlational Study

There could be a correlational study between anything. Say you wanted to see if there was an association between the number of hours a teenager sleeps and their grades in high school. If there was a correlation, we cannot say that sleeping a greater number of hours causes higher grades. However, we can determine that they are related to each other. 💤

Remember in psychology that a correlation does not prove causation!

Survey Research

Surveys are used all the time, especially in advertising and marketing. They are often distributed to a large number of people, and the results are returned back to researchers.

Naturalistic Observation

If a student wanted to observe how many people fully stop at a stop sign, they could watch the cars from a distance and record their data. This is a naturalistic observation since the student is in no way influencing the results.

A notable psychological case study is the study of Phineas Gage :

Image Courtesy of Vermont Journal

Phineas Gage was a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury in 1848. The accident occurred when an iron rod was accidentally driven through Gage's skull, damaging his frontal lobes . Despite the severity of the injury, Gage was able to walk and talk immediately after the accident and appeared to be relatively uninjured.

However, Gage's personality underwent a dramatic change following the injury. He became impulsive, irresponsible, and prone to outbursts of anger, which were completely out of character for him before the accident. Gage's case is famous in the history of psychology because it was one of the first to suggest that damage to the frontal lobes of the brain can have significant effects on personality and behavior.

Key Terms to Review ( 27 )

Association

Case Studies

Cause and Effect

Control Group

Correlational Studies

Cross-Sectional Studies

Cross-Sectional Study

Ethical Issues

Experiments

Frontal Lobes

Generalize Results

Hawthorne Effect

Human Development Stages

Independent Variables

Longitudinal Studies

Naturalistic Observations

Personality Change

Phineas Gage

Research Methods

Response Rates

School Grades

Solomon Asch

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100 Activities for Teaching Research Methods

• Catherine Dawson - Self-employed researcher and writer
• Description

A sourcebook of exercises, games, scenarios and role plays, this practical, user-friendly guide provides a complete and valuable resource for research methods tutors, teachers and lecturers. 

Developed to complement and enhance existing course materials, the 100 ready-to-use activities encourage innovative and engaging classroom practice in seven areas:

• finding and using sources of information
• planning a research project
• conducting research
• using and analyzing data
• disseminating results
• acting ethically
• developing deeper research skills.

Each of the activities is divided into a section on tutor notes and student handouts. Tutor notes contain clear guidance about the purpose, level and type of activity, along with a range of discussion notes that signpost key issues and research insights. Important terms, related activities and further reading suggestions are also included.

Not only does the A4 format make the student handouts easy to photocopy, they are also available to download and print directly from the book’s companion website for easy distribution in class.

Supplements

Catherine's book is a fantastic resource for anyone who is teaching research methods in the social sciences. Covering all aspects of the research process, it is packed full of innovative ideas, useful tips, and structured activities for use within the classroom. If you are a tutor, teacher, or lecturer who is looking to provide interesting and engaging content for your students, this book is an absolute 'must have'.

Every university with a Social Science department has to deliver research methods in some capacity, but there is no need for us all to sit in our institutional silos and reinvent the wheel. Dawson provides a huge and varied list of pre-designed activities for methods teachers to draw upon covering the whole research process and an eclectic range of methodological approaches. The activities are pedagogically engaging, comprehensively resourced and provide us with an opportunity to rethink how social science research methods can be taught in a more interactive and engaging way.

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Sample materials & chapters.

100 Activities for Teaching Research Methods: Listening to Interviewees

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The Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP) curates and distributes teaching and advising materials to all teachers of psychology (e.g., 4-year instructors, 2-year instructors, and high-school teachers).  The resources available below are documents that can pertain to any aspect of teaching. (NOTE:  Syllabi have their own listings under Project Syllabus .)

Instructors have generously shared classroom activities, annotated bibliographies, film guides, lab manuals, advising aids, textbook compendiums, and much more. Notations indicate those that developed from Instructional Resource Awards .

Guidelines for Authors and Reviewers of Prospective Resources

All of These Resources are Peer-Reviewed

Did you know that all of the resources on this site are peer-reviewed before they are accepted for distribution?  In this way, STP attempts to encourage teaching as scholarship and to provide an endorsement of such work to heighten its value at the local level.  Our peer-review process requires all submissions to describe how the resource is based on evidence-based practices.

Please note:   Because we require all resources on this page to undergo our peer-review process, we do not include links to any resources available from other websites that have not first undergone our peer-review process.

Do you have an idea for a teaching or advising resource that we could distribute? If you are interested in discussing an idea for a possible project, please contact Ashley Waggoner Denton, STP's Editor of Best Practices in Teaching and Learning, at [email protected] .

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Would you like to volunteer to review new teaching resource submissions? Reviewing resources is a great way to contribute to STP with a modest time commitment.  If you would like to join the reviewer pool, please send the following information to  Ashley Waggoner Denton, STP's Editor of Best Practices in Teaching and Learning, at  [email protected] .  1) Complete contact information, especially e-mail address, phone number, and institution(s) where you teach 2) A list of courses you teach 3) Other areas that you feel competent to review (e.g., Advising, Careers, Ethics, Film, Practica/Internships, Technology)

Abnormal/Clinical/Counseling   Return to Index

An experiential approach to teaching counseling skills: instructional modules for undergraduate and graduate students in psychology (2020).

Note: 2019 Instructional Resource Award

Educating Students about Professional Licensure in Health Service Psychology (2016)

Dsm-5: using key changes to highlight critical teaching points for undergraduate psychology instructors (2014), why does johnny tantrum (2014).

• Introduction to narration (Word)
• Why Does Johnny Trantrum (PowerPoint)  

Author: Ennio Cipani Affiliation: National University Description: The PowerPoint file provides an introductory narrated presentation (under 8 min.) on a functional behavioral perspective on human behavior, especially explaining why challenging problem behaviors occur. Dr. Cipani contrasts this approach to understanding human behavior with a more traditional approach. The Word document suggests how to use the narration to stimulate class discussion.

Advising    Return to Index

Developing and enhancing students’ job search skills and motivation: an online job search intervention training module (2018).

STP Best Practices Author: Christopher J. Budnick & Larissa K. Barber Affiliation: Southern Connecticut State University & Northern Illinois University Description: This 47-page online training program provides a flexible, low labor, and low cost approach to implementing undergraduate student job search skills and motivation training into psychology courses. Designed to be easily modifiable, this module can be presented via online survey software (e.g., Qualtrics, SurveyMonkey) and housed/deployed using learning management systems. Although this resource should be useful for any instructor wishing to embed job search training in their courses, it will likely especially benefit internship advisors, psychology instructors teaching career-focused courses, and industrial-organizational psychology instructors discussing application and selection processes.

Note: 2016 Instructional Resource Award

Interpersonal Helping Skills Instruction in Undergraduate Psychology Internship Courses (2017)

• Part 1:  Introduction to Resources and Background
• Part 2:  Student Handouts
• Part 3:  Instructor’s Guide

Author: Melissa J. Himelein Affiliation: University of North Carolina, Asheville Description: This 3-part resource advocates a curriculum focused on the instruction of interpersonal helping skills, defined as communication strategies that demonstrate a listener’s attention, interest, understanding, self-awareness, and ability to help. The resource provides instructors with the tools needed to integrate a helping skills curriculum into practicum-centered courses. Part 1 summarizes research establishing the theoretical and empirical basis of a helping skills curriculum. Part 2 provides a set of handouts, which can be distributed to students, summarizing each of 10 specific helping skills. Part 3 offers an instructor’s guide for faculty teaching internship courses containing background information, pedagogical strategies, and resource suggestions pertinent to the teaching of each skill.

Creating a Successful Career in Art Therapy: Advising Guide for Psychology Faculty and Students (2017)

An online career-exploration resource for psychology majors (2018).

For Faculty:  A Formal Introduction to the Resource For Students:  An Online Career-Exploration Resource for Psychology Majors For Departments:  An Online Career-Exploration Resource for Psychology Majors (Poster) - 2016.pptx  (Version for modifying to suit your needs) For Departments: A n Online Career-Exploration Resource for Psychology Majors Poster - PDF (Version for printing or viewing on a mobile device) For High School Teachers:  An Online Vocational-Exploration Resource for High School Psychology Students

Author: Drew C. Appleby Affiliation: Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis

Description: This resource is composed of the following four parts.

• The first (for faculty) is a formal introduction containing ways to use the resource to promote student success and lists of printed and online sources to aid faculty in their career-advising activities.  
• The second (for students) consists of more than 2,400 hotlinks psychology majors can use to explore 300 careers they can prepare to enter that have been organized into 15 broad occupational categories to facilitate searching.  Persons employed in 57 of these careers are psychologists who must hold the appropriate graduate degree. The remaining 243 psychology-related careers (i.e., those that require the demonstration of psychological knowledge and skills, but which do not carry the title of psychologist) are divided almost equally into two categories: those that can be entered with a bachelor’s degree and those that require a graduate degree.  
• The third is a poster departments can print and post. Faculty, advisors, and administrators can use this resource in classes, advising sessions, and departmental websites to help psychology majors begin the process of accomplishing Goal 5: Professional Development of APA’s Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major: Version 2.0 by acquiring an understanding of the “settings in which people with backgrounds in psychology typically work,” thus helping them to “develop meaningful professional directions.” 
• The fourth is a poster that high school teachers can use to help their students begin the process of accomplishing the Vocational Applications component of APA’s  National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula  by identifying “careers in psychological science and practice,” “careers related to psychology,” and “degree requirements for psychologists and psychology-related careers.”

Three New Ways to Bring Students’ Attention to the Kisses of Death in the Graduate School Application Process (2015)

Psychology career advice videos (2015), internship supervision resources for developing student employability (2015), educating prospective students of professional psychology about the supply-demand internship crisis (2013), a job list of one's own: creating customized career information for psychology majors (2009), doctor of psychology programs today: location, accreditation, administration, specialization (2007), undergraduate preparation for graduate training in forensic psychology (2006), so your students want to be sport psychologists (2003), a student's guide to careers in the helping professions (1999), position opening: professor--is college teaching a career you should consider (1992), writing letters of recommendation for students: how to protect yourself from liability (1991), what departments and faculty can do to assist their undergraduate students with their graduate school planning (1990), capstones   return to index, work-integrated learning internships in psychology (2023), child development    return to index, the benefits of incorporating a community project in a child development course (2021).

Authors: Jason McCartney and Rhyannon Bemis

Lev’s Research Legacy: A Developmental Psychology Research Methods Activity (2016)

Punishment on trial: a resource guide to child discipline (2009), curriculum guide for instruction in child maltreatment (2007), cognitive psychology    return to index, cognitive psychology games day manual (2024), conference hosting    return to index, how to host an undergraduate twitter poster conference (2021), how to host a student psychology conference at your college: a model from the national office of psi beta (1999), diversity    return to index, social justice pedagogy in psychology: advocating for access to mental health care for youth (2019), increasing inclusiveness and awareness: disability in introductory psychology (2019), presidential taskforce on diversity education (ptde)  (2012).

Author: Mary Kite, Ball State University, Chair, Rosemary Blieszner, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, James E. Freeman, University of Virginia, Ladonna Lewis, Glendale Community College, Jeffery Scott Mio, California State Polytechnic University Description: The APA Task Force on Diversity Education Resources was established by the 2006 APA President Gerry Koocher. The group’s mission was to provide support for instructors who want to address diversity issues in their classrooms. The Task Force compiled annotated bibliographies of teaching resources, including books, book chapters, journal articles, films, websites, and other media. Topics (noted on the navigational bar on the left of this page) included cross-cutting issues, such as assessment, institutional support for diversity education and, power and privilege and specific categories such as Race/Ethnicity, Religion, Gender/Sex, Sexual Orientation, and Age. The resources were developed for teachers of psychology at the high school, undergraduate, graduate, and post-graduate level. The Division 2 Diversity Committee will continue the PTDE's work by making yearly updates to these resources.

Diversity Related Bibliography and Resources (2008)

Understanding and expanding multicultural competence in teaching: a faculty guide (2005), psychology of peace and mass violence -- genocide, torture, and human rights: informational resources (2004), psychology of peace and mass violence -- war, ethnopolitical conflict, and terrorism: informational resources (2004), psychology of peace and mass violence: instructional resources (2004), simulation of a world congress of sexology symposium on aids (2001), informational resources for teaching cross-cultural issues in psychology (1998), activities and videos for teaching cross-cultural issues in psychology (1998), including gay, lesbian, and bisexual students on campus: a short annotated reading list (1994), environmental psychology    return to index, teaching psychology for sustainability: a manual of resources (2006), ethical issues    return to index, plagiarism prevention tutorial: how to avoid common forms of plagiarism (2020, revised).

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Auteure: Kosha Bramesfeld Affiliation: Humber College Description : Le tutoriel de 79 diapositives traite des erreurs fréquentes pouvant mener au plagiat, incluant (a) ne pas citer ses sources correctement; (b) copier les mots ou la structure du travail d’autres auteurs; (c) surutiliser le travail d’autres auteurs, aux dépens de sa propre contribution. Les étudiants apprennent comment corriger ces erreurs au fur et à mesure de leur progression à travers les cinq sections du tutoriel : (1) Qu’est-ce que le plagiat; (2) Citer ses sources selon les normes de l’APA; (3) Reformuler; (4) S’assurer que votre travail vous appartient; (5) Mettre en forme une liste de références. Les ressources disponibles comprennent une description du tutoriel et une banque de questions de type vrai ou faux et de questions à choix de réponses multiples. Le corrigé du questionnaire est accessible sur la section du site réservée aux membres ou en contactant l’auteure par courrier électronique. La traduction par: Marie-Claude Richard & Sophie Dubé (Université Laval) Note : La ressource suivante a été traduite du texte original en anglais vers le français avec la permission de la Division 2 de l’Association américaine de psychologie. La Division 2 ne garantit pas l’exactitude de la traduction qui n’est pas un produit officiel de la Division 2 de l’Association américaine de psychologie. Pour tout renseignement concernant cette ressource ou toute autre publication de la Division 2 de l’Association américaine de psychologie, veuillez envoyer un courriel à [email protected].

IRBs and Research on Teaching and Learning (2014)

Activities guide: teaching ethics in the introduction to psychology course (2013), beyond milgram: expanding research ethics education to participant responsibilities (2012), educating students about plagiarism (2012), scientific misconduct: an annotated bibliography of articles selected for their lecture development value (1994), sensitizing undergraduate students to the nature, causes, scope, and consequences of research fraud: preliminary report (1993), ethical issues in teaching and academic life: annotated bibliography (1993), faculty development    return to index, video clips of elements of master teaching (2013), peer review of teaching: an overview (1998), film in psychology    return to index, documentary films for teaching psychology (2011), films illustrating psychopathology (2009), films illustrating character strengths and virtues (2008), using film to teach psychology: a resource of film study guides (2006), history of psychology    return to index, women in psychology (2003), human sexuality    return to index, the development of sexual orientation: a teaching resource (2007 – module 8 added in 2009), industrial/organizational psychology    return to index, materials for incorporating i/o into an introductory psychology course (2013), international psychology    return to index, taking psychology abroad: resources for designing your study abroad course (2009), international psychology: a compendium of textbooks for selected courses evaluated for international content (2002), international psychology: annotated bibliography, relevant organizations, and course suggestions (2002), introductory psychology    return to index, introductory psychology scientific reasoning modules (for small classes) (2019).

• Table of Contents
• ZIP file with Resources

Accessible Modules for Improving Scientific Reasoning in Large Introductory Psychology Classes (2019)

Game-based experiential learning in introductory psychology (2016).

• Instructor's Guide
• Student's Guide

Author(s): Jaclyn Spivey Affiliation: York College Description: This resource introduces a game-based approach to out-of-class activities for Introductory Psychology students. The 16-page instructor’s guide provides background and implementation advice; the 4-page students’ guide lists 9 individual and 6 small-group activities. Because of the asynchronous nature of the activities and required social media documentation, these activities can be used in traditional as well as online settings. Note: 2015 Instructional Resource Award

Writing to Learn, Reciting to Remember: Applying Learning and Memory Principles to Flashcards (2015)

Author(s): Mark L. Mitchell and Janina M. Jolley Affiliation: Clarion University Description: This resource is a tutorial (using PowerPoint®) for students to help them understand, retain, and apply both effective concept learning strategies and effective memory strategies, primarily by creating and then studying from flashcards.  Following the presentation of material, students can take a quiz and print out their results to turn in to their instructor.  In addition, a 5-page document summarizes for instructors what students will be learning.

Statistical Literacy in the Introductory Psychology Course (2014)

• Psychology major learning goals
• Introductory Psychology learning goals
• Literacy resources

Author(s): STP Statistical Literacy Taskforce 2012

Description: The Taskforce created two sets of statistical literacy standards: one for Introductory Psychology at both the high school and college levels and one for undergraduates majoring in basic and applied psychological science. In addition they created a 40-page annotated list of resources that provides examples of the kinds of resources that might be useful for instructors who want to implement the learning goals. Those resources are organized around the topics of general statistical literacy issues, general teaching resources, specific activities and assignments, technology, assessment, websites with more general resources, and ethics/research methods.

Scientific Literacy in a Psychology Curriculum Module (2013)

• Instructional Materials
• Student Materials
• PowerPoint Slides (If using internet explorer, ignore the username/password box that appears when you click on "open")
• Undercover.pptx

Flashcards-Plus: A Strategy to Help Students Prepare for Three Types of Multiple-Choice Questions Commonly Found on Introductory Psychology Tests (2013)

• Introductory Article
• PowerPoint Slides  (If using internet explorer, ignore the username/password box that appears when you click on "open")

Author: Drew C. Appleby Affiliation: Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (Retired) Description: The purpose of this resource is to provide students with a research-based study strategy (creating flashcards) designed to help them understand, prepare for, and take multiple-choice tests more successfully. The 32 slides that accompany the introductory article familiarize students with three types of cognitive processes their instructors will commonly ask them to use in their classes and then invite them to model the behavior of their instructors by creating flashcards.  Their flashcards should contain verbatim definitions for retention questions, accurate paraphrases for comprehension questions, and realistic examples for application questions.

Integrating Mnemonics into Psychology Instruction (2011)

A compendium of introductory psychology texts (2003-2006) (2006), frequently cited concepts in current introduction to psychology textbooks (2006), principles of psychology: experimental foundations laboratory manual (2002), learning and memory    return to index, writing to learn, reciting to remember: applying learning and memory principles to flashcards (2015), learning and memory strategy demonstrations for the psychology classroom (2014), cases in negative reinforcement (2010), media psychology    return to index, teaching scientific literacy and public engagement with social media (2018), instructor resources for media psychology (2010), taking it to the streets: how to give psychology away and become a local media hero (2009), national standards    return to index, national standards for the teaching of high school psychology (2011), principles for quality undergraduate education in psychology (2011), apa guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major (2007), open educational resources    return to index, a primer on open educational resources (oer) for psychology instructors: background, resources, and materials (2017), outcomes    return to index, the employable skills self-efficacy survey: an assessment of and resource for fostering skill development (2017), an electronic workbook for assessing the dunn et al. (2007) “quality benchmarks in undergraduate psychology programs" (2008), measuring the varied skills of psychology majors: a revision and update of the academic skills inventory (2013), a guide to writing learning objectives for teachers of psychology (2012), goals and objectives for the undergraduate psychology major: recommendations from a meeting of california state university psychology faculty (2000), physiological / biological psychology    return to index, authentic assessments for biopsychology: encouraging learning and retention by applying biopsychological knowledge in real-world contexts (2019), enhancing the physiological psychology course through the development of neuroanatomy laboratory experiences and integrative exercises (2013), interactive teaching activities for introductory biopsychology (2012), positive psychology    return to index, positive psychology teaching tools: supplemental readings to core texts (2012), psychology and law    return to index, psychology and law: a teaching resource (2005), sensation and perception    return to index, build-your-own sensation and perception lab kits: a compilation of inexpensive, accessible activities (2022), sensation and perception: activities to enhance learning (2017), using the drawing and animation tools in powerpoint® to build your own visual perception demonstrations (2010), problem-based group activities for a sensation & perception course [english version] (2009), actividades grupales basadas en problemas para un curso sobre sensación & percepción [spanish translation] (2009), social psychology    return to index, “c’est la vie: the game of social life: a role-playing game for teaching about privilege, oppression, and intersectionality” (2015).

Author: Kosha D. Bramesfeld Institution: Ryerson University Description:  This resource is an empathy-based privilege and oppression awareness intervention that can be used to help students engage in difficult dialogues surrounding the issues of privilege, oppression, and intersectionality.  The materials include (a) 64 character profiles and game sheets that describe the demographic characteristics and resources assigned to each player’s character, (b) a strategy game that presents students with a variety of different decision scenarios that interact with their character’s resources (described in a 33-slide presentation), and (c) an instructor’s guide that covers the development of the game, its recommended uses, and a debriefing and discussion points that help students reflect on the outcomes of the game, its connections with real life inequality, and the role that privilege and oppression might play in the students’ own lives.

Activities for Teaching about Prejudice and Discrimination (2013)

Statistics and research methods    return to index, writing testable research hypotheses: a guided student activity (2023).

• Writing Testable Research Hypotheses: A Guided Student Activity (DOCX)
• Hypothesis Activity Instructional Slides: PDF
• Hypothesis Activity Instructional Slides: Powerpoint Slides
• Hypothesis Activity Instructional Slides: Powerpoint Slides (Accessible Version)
• Hypothesis Activity Student Handout (PDF)
• Hypothesis Activity Student Handout (DOCX)

Author: Kate G. Anderson Affiliation: Presbyterian College Description: This three-part resource describes an activity for teaching students how to write testable research hypotheses. Through this scaffolded activity, students are introduced to the structure of a testable hypothesis and are given the opportunity to practice writing operational definitions and testable correlational and experimental hypothesis. Suitable for use in an introductory research methods class, this activity can be also used by instructors looking to review these fundamental skills in any course. The resource includes an instructor guide, ready-to-use instructional slides, and a student handout.

Making Research Reproducible (2022)

• Making Research Reproducible: Teaching Guide
• Making Research Reproducible: Powerpoint Slides
• Music and Room Color Data

Authors: Jason McCarley & Raechel Soicher Affiliations: Oregon State University Description: This 32-page resource (plus supplementary materials) provides instructors with the resources they need to teach analytical reproducibility to undergraduate students. It includes an introduction to the concept of reproducibility and its importance, a discussion of the challenges researchers face when trying to reproduce others' work, and an activity that teaches students how to prepare their materials in a reproducible way (with step-by-step instructions for both JASP and R users). Instructors will also benefit from a set of ready-to-use PowerPoint slides. Note: 2021 Instructional Resource Award

Evaluating Research Summaries (2021)

Answers & Explanations  (PDF)

Authors: Keith Millis 1 , Diane Halpern 2 , Katja Wiemer 1 , Patricia Wallace 1 Affiliations: 1 Northern Illinois University, 2 Claremont McKenna College Description: This two-part resource, geared toward undergraduate and high school students, provides students with opportunities to learn ways research may be flawed or limited. The first document includes 16 research summaries that contain one or more methodological flaws (e.g., no control group, small sample size). Students must identify which of the 12 possible flaws could be limiting the research presented. Answers and explanations are provided in the second document.

An Exercise to Assess Student Understanding of Bottleneck Concepts in Research Methods (2018)

Statistics that stick: embedding humor in statistics related teaching materials (2016), poker chip people: using manipulatives in a college level statistics course (2015).

• Instructor Manual
• Male Face Labels
• Female Face Labels
• Back labels:  Page 1   -  Page 2

Instructor Materials for Teaching Research Methods Using a Consulting Model (2015)

Increasing graphing literacy and graphing ability in undergraduate psychology majors through active learning based exercises (2014) .

Author: Meridith Pease Selden Affiliation: Yuba College Description: This 63-page resource is designed to increase students’ ability to read graphs and to create a variety of types of graphs in Microsoft’s Excel program. In-class activities and detailed instructions (including screen shots) are appropriate primarily for the graphing unit in a statistics or research methods class, but other instructors who want to help students read primary sources can select particular stand-alone activities from the set provided. Note: 2010 OTRP Instructional Resource Award 

Statistical Literacy Taskforce Learning Goals and Resources (2014)

Instructor's guide to using research methods and statistics concept maps (2013), research readings and statistical exercises using spss and excel (2012), statistics assignments using excel(r) (2010), factorial research design (2010), a template paper with comments for illustrating the 6th edition of apa style (2010), why and how to write apa-style citations in the body and reference section of your papers (2010), exemplar studies for teaching research methodology (2010), yes, you can write in a statistics class: an instructional tool to reduce anxiety and improve statistics performance (2010), statistics decision aids [english version] (2009), ayudas para la decisión estadística [spanish translation] (2009), assessing student learning: a collection of evaluation tools (2009), a self-scoring exercise on apa style and research language (2008), teaching statistics and research methods: a collection of hands-on activities and demonstrations (2008), a student-faculty research agreement (2007), guidelines for preparing posters using powerpoint presentation software (2001), an instructor's guide to electronic databases of indexed professional literature (2000), publication and award opportunities for undergraduate students (1998), teaching tools / programs    return to index, effective study strategies exercises in online or blended delivery (2023).

• Powerpoint Slides (.pptx)

Authors: Sue Morris 1 , Jacquelyn Cranney 1 , and Carolyn Elizabeth Alchin 2

Affiliations: 1 School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2 School of Psychology and Wellbeing, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia

Description: This 17-page resource provides instructors with resources and activities they can use to help students reflect on their own study strategies and understand which study strategies are supported by research and which are not. Task instructions, sample rubrics, PowerPoint slides, and links to additional instructional resources (e.g., videos) are provided. The resource also includes a helpful table for instructors wishing to connect the material to key learning and memory concepts.

Teaching Students to Synthesize Research Articles: An Online Interactive Tutorial (2023)

• Powerpoint Lecture (.pptx)

Authors: Nikole D. Patson 1 , Emily S. Darowski 2 , and Elizabeth Helder 3

Affiliations: 1 Ohio State University at Marion, 2 Brigham Young University, 3 Augustana College

Holding Space for Reflection: Bringing Current Events into the Classroom  (2022)

Authors: Amy Maslowski

Affiliation: University of North Dakota

Description:  This 25-page resource provides guidance for instructors on how to incorporate the discussion of current events into their psychology classes. It outlines the potential benefits of addressing current events before the start of class and offers advice on how instructors can best structure and plan for these discussions. A sample syllabus statement is provided, as well as specific tips for facilitating these conversations and dealing with challenges that may arise. The resource concludes with a call for more research on the potential effects of including open spaces for discussion in the classroom.

• Instructor Guide
• Fillable PDF Form
• Multiple Courses
• Sample Final

Authors: Ashley Waggoner Denton

Affiliation: University of Toronto

Description:  This 12 page resource and accompanying documents is a resource designed to help psychology students better identify and understand how what they have learned within their courses will transfer to their career and life after graduation. More specifically, this resource helps students be able to articulate the professional skills they have acquired in their psychology courses and understand the competencies that are the basis of these skills. A sample worksheet is provided along with the worksheets that can be utilized with psychology students as they examine either an individual course or when examining multiple courses.

Note: 2021 Instructional Resource Award

Sequential Assignments to Critically Evaluate Psychological Journal Articles (2020)

Authors: Suzanne Wood and Vanessa Chan Affiliations: University of Toronto Description: This 24-page resource contains a series of assignments to teach students the skills needed to interpret and critically evaluate original psychological research (APA Goal #2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking.) There are five separate activities varying in complexity according to Bloom’s taxonomy. Each assignment includes an overview, guidelines, and a suggested rubric for grading. The individual assignments are hyperlinked in the table of contents to assist in navigation.   Note: 2019 Instructional Resource Award

Critical Thinking in Psychology (& Life) Workshop Series: Instructional Materials (2018)

Authors: Ashley Waggoner Denton and Thalia Vrantsidis Affiliations: University of Toronto Description: This 17-page resource describes the first workshop from a newly developed series of critical thinking workshops aimed at early undergraduate students. This initial workshop,  Setting the Stage: An Introduction to Good Thinking , introduces students to the notion of actively open-minded thinking and emphasizes the idea that critical thinking involves habits, skills, and mindsets that can be developed and continually improved with practice. The purpose of this resource is to offer instructors a brief, effective, and freely available guide that will enable them to incorporate lessons on critical thinking into their existing courses or allow them to run their own critical thinking workshop. The resource includes a list of learning outcomes for the workshop, corresponding lessons and activities, as well as potential assessment strategies. Throughout the resource, the authors also offer insight into which strategies or activities have worked particular well for them, and offer suggestions for alternatives or variations that may work well for others.   Note: 2016 Instructional Resource Award

A Guide to Incorporating Social-Emotional Learning in the College Classroom: Busting Anxiety, Boosting Ability (2018)

Authors: Kristel M. Gallagher and Shevaun L. Stocker Affiliation: Theil College and University of Wisconsin - Superior Description:  This 69-page comprehensive teaching manual describes a novel application of social-emotional learning in the college classroom. It describes an easy-to-implement and scientifically-driven intervention targeting the stress and anxiety experienced by students both within and outside of the classroom. The program includes 15 short, weekly activities that promote key mindfulness and anxiety-reduction practices. Included in the manual are all program materials (including a detailed narrative describing the implementation of the program), as well as an empirical assessment of the efficacy of the program, ideas for possible variations of the program, and a summary of key background research with accompanying references and recommended readings. Note: Note: 2017 Instructional Resource Award

This Class is a Joke! Humor as a Pedagogical Tool in the Teaching of Psychology (2015)

Authors: Dan J. Segrist and Stephen D. A. Hupp Affiliation: Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Description:  This 31-page annotated bibliography provides a representative and relatively comprehensive list of articles, book chapters, and books on the use of humor in teaching psychology, including using humor as a teaching tool, on exams, and in online teaching, and students' perceptions of instructor humor. Note: 2012 OTRP Instructional Resource Award

Instructor Resources for Psychology: Learning to Blog -- Blogging to Learn (2011)

Student Response Systems ("Clickers") in the Psychology Classroom: A Beginner's Guide" (2009)

Traveling psychology fair: learner-centered outreach activities to stimulate interest in psychology (2006), building community in the classroom through ice-breakers and parting ways [english version] (2004), construyendo un sentido de comunidad en clase a través de estrategias para “romper el hielo” y estrategias de cierre [spanish translation] (2004).

How to Teach a Course in Research Methods for Psychology Students

• © 2020
• Ross A. Seligman 0

Social Sciences Division, Pasadena City College, Pasadena, USA

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Provides new undergraduate or graduate instructors with a step-by-step guide on how to create a psychological research methods course, from textbook selection to grading final reports

Offers myriad examples of weekly labs to help aid in course instruction

Discusses hypothetical difficult topics or situations that may occur in the classroom and suggests strategies for how to address them

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Table of contents (10 chapters)

Front matter, meeting with the dean and getting hired.

Ross A. Seligman

Creating the Research Methods Syllabus

Finding the right textbook, the first day of class, weekly overview of the course: lecture and lab, creating exams for a research methods class, the final project, the student experience: what is it like being a student in a research methods course, teaching research methods online, alternative labs, back matter.

• teaching psychological research methods
• college-level instruction
• designing psychological experiments
• research pedagogy
• research presentations
• research methods in psychology
• classroom research versus publishable research
• assessing student performance in a research methods class
• how to teach research methods online
• final evaluation in a research methods course
• basic versus applied pedagogy
• syllabus creation for research methods course
• assessing classroom materials for research methods course
• student motivation in the classroom
• handling student anxiety in classroom
• learning and instruction

About this book

How to Teach a Course in Research Methods for Psychology Students  is a valuable resource for anyone teaching a quantitative research methods course at the college or university level.  

“The book is likely to be more useful for less advanced lecturers. … For beginner tutors … it can be a helpful guide. … For experienced lecturers, it can be a time-saving book in which they can look at a well-crafted instruction for the organization of a methodological course and thus be inspired to work with their PhD students in the role of tutor. Therefore, the book can be a tool for supervisors to guide future lecturers.” (Jana Dlouhá, ISCB News, iscb.info, June, 2022)

“The book How to Teach a Course in Research Methods for Psychology Students by Ross A. Seligman will be useful for new teachers. It will also be interesting for Research Methods professors to read this book as an exchange of experience. In addition, this book was interesting to me personally as a way of acquiring new information about higher education in the United States, which is different from my experience in the Ukraine.” (Maria Ivanchuk, ISCB News, iscb.info, Issue 70, December, 2020)

Authors and Affiliations

About the author.

Ross A. Seligman has been teaching Psychology Classes for over 27 years. He currently teaches at Pasadena City College in Pasadena, CA.  Professor Seligman earned his B.A. Degree in Psychology at Occidental College in Los Angeles. He earned his M.A. Degree in Clinical Psychology at California State Los Angeles.  He also completed his Ph.D. Coursework at The Claremont Graduate University in Claremont, CA.  Professor Seligman has taught 16 different Psychology Courses throughout his career at several different Colleges and Universities.  He has also worked as a Department Chair and Dean. 

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : How to Teach a Course in Research Methods for Psychology Students

Authors : Ross A. Seligman

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42878-5

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Behavioral Science and Psychology , Behavioral Science and Psychology (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-42877-8 Published: 14 April 2020

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-42880-8 Published: 14 April 2021

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-42878-5 Published: 13 April 2020

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XVII, 117

Number of Illustrations : 13 b/w illustrations, 11 illustrations in colour

Topics : Psychological Methods/Evaluation , Research Methodology , Statistical Theory and Methods , Teaching and Teacher Education , Learning & Instruction

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MTLP Lesson Plan - Research Methods - Week 05 Ethics in Psychology

Subject: Psychology

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

15 October 2018

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