qualitative research topic about phenomenology

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What is phenomenology in qualitative research?

Last updated

7 February 2023

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Take a closer look at this type of qualitative research along with characteristics, examples, uses, and potential disadvantages.

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• What is phenomenological qualitative research?

Phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach that builds on the assumption that the universal essence of anything ultimately depends on how its audience experiences it .

Phenomenological researchers record and analyze the beliefs, feelings, and perceptions of the audience they’re looking to study in relation to the thing being studied. Only the audience’s views matter—the people who have experienced the phenomenon. The researcher’s personal assumptions and perceptions about the phenomenon should be irrelevant.

Phenomenology is a type of qualitative research as it requires an in-depth understanding of the audience’s thoughts and perceptions of the phenomenon you’re researching. It goes deep rather than broad, unlike quantitative research . Finding the lived experience of the phenomenon in question depends on your interpretation and analysis.

• What is the purpose of phenomenological research?

The primary aim of phenomenological research is to gain insight into the experiences and feelings of a specific audience in relation to the phenomenon you’re studying. These narratives are the reality in the audience’s eyes. They allow you to draw conclusions about the phenomenon that may add to or even contradict what you thought you knew about it from an internal perspective.

• How is phenomenology research design used?

Phenomenological research design is especially useful for topics in which the researcher needs to go deep into the audience’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

It’s a valuable tool to gain audience insights, generate awareness about the item being studied, and develop new theories about audience experience in a specific, controlled situation.

• Examples of phenomenological research

Phenomenological research is common in sociology, where researchers aim to better understand the audiences they study.

An example would be a study of the thoughts and experiences of family members waiting for a loved one who is undergoing major surgery. This could provide insights into the nature of the event from the broader family perspective.

However, phenomenological research is also common and beneficial in business situations. For example, the technique is commonly used in branding research. Here, audience perceptions of the brand matter more than the business’s perception of itself.

In branding-related market research, researchers look at how the audience experiences the brand and its products to gain insights into how they feel about them. The resulting information can be used to adjust messaging and business strategy to evoke more positive or stronger feelings about the brand in the future.

• The 4 characteristics of phenomenological research design

The exact nature of phenomenological research depends on the subject to be studied. However, every research design should include the following four main tenets to ensure insightful and actionable outcomes:

A focus on the audience’s interpretation of something . The focus is always on what an experience or event means to a strictly defined audience and how they interpret its meaning.

A lack of researcher bias or prior influence . The researcher has to set aside all prior prejudices and assumptions. They should focus only on how the audience interprets and experiences the event.

Connecting objectivity with lived experiences . Researchers need to describe their observations of how the audience experienced the event as well as how the audience interpreted their experience themselves.

• Types of phenomenological research design

Each type of phenomenological research shares the characteristics described above. Social scientists distinguish the following three types:

Existential phenomenology —focuses on understanding the audience’s experiences through their perspective. 

Hermeneutic phenomenology —focuses on creating meaning from experiences through the audience’s perspective.

Transcendental phenomenology —focuses on how the phenomenon appears in one consciousness on a broader, scientific scale.

Existential phenomenology is the most common type used in a business context. It’s most valuable to help you better understand your audience.

You can use hermeneutic phenomenology to gain a deeper understanding of how your audience perceives experiences related to your business.

Transcendental phenomenology is largely reserved for non-business scientific applications.

• Data collection methods in phenomenological research

Phenomenological research draws from many of the most common qualitative research techniques to understand the audience’s perspective.

Here are some of the most common tools to collect data in this type of research study:

Observing participants as they experience the phenomenon

Interviewing participants before, during, and after the experience

Focus groups where participants experience the phenomenon and discuss it afterward

Recording conversations between participants related to the phenomenon

Analyzing personal texts and observations from participants related to the phenomenon

You might not use these methods in isolation. Most phenomenological research includes multiple data collection methods. This ensures enough overlap to draw satisfactory conclusions from the audience and the phenomenon studied.

Get started collecting, analyzing, and understanding qualitative data with help from quickstart research templates.

• Limitations of phenomenological research

Phenomenological research can be beneficial for many reasons, but its downsides are just as important to discuss.

This type of research is not a solve-all tool to gain audience insights. You should keep the following limitations in mind before you design your research study and during the design process:

These audience studies are typically very small. This results in a small data set that can make it difficult for you to draw complete conclusions about the phenomenon.

Researcher bias is difficult to avoid, even if you try to remove your own experiences and prejudices from the equation. Bias can contaminate the entire outcome.

Phenomenology relies on audience experiences, so its accuracy depends entirely on how well the audience can express those experiences and feelings.

The results of a phenomenological study can be difficult to summarize and present due to its qualitative nature. Conclusions typically need to include qualifiers and cautions.

This type of study can be time-consuming. Interpreting the data can take days and weeks.

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Chapter 6: Phenomenology

Darshini Ayton

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Identify the key terms, concepts and approaches used in phenomenology.
• Explain the data collection methods and analysis for phenomenology.
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of phenomenological research.

What is phenomenology ?

The key concept in phenomenological studies is the individual .

Phenomenology is a method and a philosophical approach, influenced by different paradigms and disciplines. 1

Phenomenology is the everyday world from the viewpoint of the person. In this viewpoint, the emphasis is on how the individual constructs their lifeworld and seeks to understand the ‘taken for granted-ness’ of life and experiences. 2,3 Phenomenology is a practice that seeks to understand, describe and interpret human behaviour and the meaning individuals make of their experiences; it focuses on what was experienced and how it was experienced. 4 Phenomenology deals with perceptions or meanings, attitudes and beliefs, as well as feelings and emotions. The emphasis is on the lived experience and the sense an individual makes of those experiences. Since the primary source of data is the experience of the individual being studied, in-depth interviews are the most common means of data collection (see Chapter 13). Depending on the aim and research questions of the study, the method of analysis is either thematic or interpretive phenomenological analysis (Section 4).

Types of phenomenology

Descriptive phenomenology (also known as ‘transcendental phenomenology’) was founded by Edmund Husserl (1859–1938). It focuses on phenomena as perceived by the individual. 4 When reflecting on the recent phenomenon of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is clear that there is a collective experience of the pandemic and an individual experience, in which each person’s experience is influenced by their life circumstances, such as their living situation, employment, education, prior experiences with infectious diseases and health status. In addition, an individual’s life circumstances, personality, coping skills, culture, family of origin, where they live in the world and the politics of their society also influence their experience of the pandemic. Hence, the objectiveness of the pandemic is intertwined with the subjectiveness of the individual living in the pandemic.

Husserl states that descriptive phenomenological inquiry should be free of assumption and theory, to enable phenomenological reduction (or phenomenological intuiting). 1 Phenomenological reduction means putting aside all judgements or beliefs about the external world and taking nothing for granted in everyday reality. 5 This concept gave rise to a practice called ‘bracketing’ — a method of acknowledging the researcher’s preconceptions, assumptions, experiences and ‘knowing’ of a phenomenon. Bracketing is an attempt by the researcher to encounter the phenomenon in as ‘free and as unprejudiced way as possible so that it can be precisely described and understood’. 1(p132) While there is not much guidance on how to bracket, the advice provided to researchers is to record in detail the process undertaken, to provide transparency for others. Bracketing starts with reflection: a helpful practice is for the researcher to ask the following questions and write their answers as they occur, without overthinking their responses (see Box 1). This is a practice that ideally should be done multiple times during the research process: at the conception of the research idea and during design, data collection, analysis and reporting.

Box 6.1 Example s of bracketing prompts

How does my education, family background (culture), religion, politics and job relate to this topic or phenomenon?

What is my previous experience of this topic or phenomenon? Do I have negative and/or positive reactions to this topic or phenomenon? What has led to this reaction?

What have I read or understood about this topic or phenomenon?

What are my beliefs and attitudes about this topic or phenomenon? What assumptions am I making?

Interpretive or hermeneutic phenomenology was founded by Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), a junior colleague of Husserl. It focuses on the nature of being and the relationship between an individual and their lifeworld. While Heidegger’s initial work and thinking aligned with Husserl’s, he later challenged several elements of descriptive phenomenology, leading to a philosophical separation in ideas. Husserl’s descriptive phenomenology takes an epistemological (knowledge) focus while Heidegger’s interest was in ontology 4 (the nature of reality), with the key phrase ‘being-in-the-world’ referencing how humans exist, act or participate in the world. 1 In descriptive phenomenology, the practice of bracketing is endorsed and experience is stripped from context to examine and understand it.

Interpretive or hermeneutic phenomenology embraces the intertwining of an individual’s subjective experience with their social, cultural and political contexts, regardless of whether they are conscious of this influence. 4 Interpretive or hermeneutic phenomenology moves beyond description to the interpretation of the phenomenon and the study of meanings through the lifeworld of the individual. While the researcher’s knowledge, experience, assumptions and beliefs are valued, they do need to be acknowledged as part of the process of analysis. 4

For example, Singh and colleagues wanted to understand the experiences of managers involved in the implementation of quality improvement projects in an assisted living facility, and thus they conducted a hermeneutic phenomenology study. 6 The objective was to ‘understand how managers define the quality of patient care and administrative processes’, alongside an exploration of the participant’s perspectives of leadership and challenges to the implementation of quality improvement strategies. (p3) Semi-structured interviews (60–75 minutes in duration) were conducted with six managers and data was analysed using inductive thematic techniques.

New phenomenology , or American phenomenology , has initiated a transition in the focus of phenomenology from the nature and understanding of the phenomenon to the lived experience of individuals experiencing the phenomenon. This transition may seem subtle but fundamentally is related to a shift away from the philosophical approaches of Husserl and Heidegger to an applied approach to research. 1 New phenomenology does not undergo the phenomenological reductionist approach outlined by Husserl to examine and understand the essence of the phenomenon. Dowling 1 emphasises that this phenomenological reduction, which leads to an attempt to disengage the researcher from the participant, is not desired or practical in applied research such as in nursing studies. Hence, new phenomenology is aligned with interpretive phenomenology, embracing the intersubjectivity (shared subjective experiences between two or more people) of the research approach. 1

Another feature of new phenomenology is the positioning of culture in the analysis of an individual’s experience. This is not the case for the traditional phenomenological approaches 1 ;  hence, philosophical approaches by European philosophers Husserl and Heidegger can be used if the objective is to explore or understand the phenomenon itself or the object of the participant’s experience. The methods of new phenomenology, or American phenomenology, should be applied if the researcher seeks to understand a person’s experience(s) of the phenomenon. 1

See Table 6.1. for two different examples of phenomenological research.

Advantages and disadvantages of phenomenological research

Phenomenology has many advantages, including that it can present authentic accounts of complex phenomena; it is a humanistic style of research that demonstrates respect for the whole individual; and the descriptions of experiences can tell an interesting story about the phenomenon and the individuals experiencing it. 7 Criticisms of phenomenology tend to focus on the individuality of the results, which makes them non-generalisable, considered too subjective and therefore invalid. However, the reason a researcher may choose a phenomenological approach is to understand the individual, subjective experiences of an individual; thus, as with many qualitative research designs, the findings will not be generalisable to a larger population. 7,8

Table 6.1. Examples of phenomenological studies

Phenomenology focuses on understanding a phenomenon from the perspective of individual experience (descriptive and interpretive phenomenology) or from the lived experience of the phenomenon by individuals (new phenomenology). This individualised focus lends itself to in-depth interviews and small scale research projects.

• Dowling M. From Husserl to van Manen. A review of different phenomenological approaches. Int J Nurs Stud . 2007;44(1):131-42. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2005.11.026
• Creswell J, Hanson W, Clark Plano V, Morales A. Qualitative research designs: selection and implementation. Couns Psychol . 2007;35(2):236-264. doi:10.1177/0011000006287390
• Morse JM, Field PA. Qualitative Research Methods for Health Professionals. 2nd ed. SAGE; 1995.
• Neubauer BE, Witkop CT, Varpio L. How phenomenology can help us learn from the experiences of others. Perspect Med Educ . 2019;8(2):90-97. doi:10.1007/s40037-019-0509-2
• Merleau-Ponty M, Landes D, Carman T, Lefort C. Phenomenology of Perception . 1st ed. Routledge; 2011.
• Singh J, Wiese A, Sillerud B. Using phenomenological hermeneutics to understand the experiences of managers working with quality improvement strategies in an assisted living facility. Healthcare (Basel) . 2019;7(3):87. doi:10.3390/healthcare7030087
• Liamputtong P, Ezzy D. Qualitative Research Methods: A Health Focus . Oxford University Press; 1999.
• Liamputtong P. Qualitative Research Methods . 5th ed. Oxford University Press; 2020.
• Abbaspour Z, Vasel G, Khojastehmehr R. Investigating the lived experiences of abused mothers: a phenomenological study. Journal of Qualitative Research in Health Sciences . 2021;10(2)2:108-114. doi:10.22062/JQR.2021.193653.0
• Engberink AO, Mailly M, Marco V, et al. A phenomenological study of nurses experience about their palliative approach and their use of mobile palliative care teams in medical and surgical care units in France. BMC Palliat Care . 2020;19:34. doi:10.1186/s12904-020-0536-0

Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Darshini Ayton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Qualitative study design: Phenomenology

• Qualitative study design

Phenomenology

• Grounded theory
• Ethnography
• Narrative inquiry
• Action research
• Case Studies
• Field research
• Focus groups
• Observation
• Surveys & questionnaires
• Study Designs Home

Used to describe the lived experience of individuals.

• Now called Descriptive Phenomenology, this study design is one of the most commonly used methodologies in qualitative research within the social and health sciences.
• Used to describe how human beings experience a certain phenomenon. The researcher asks, “What is this experience like?’, ‘What does this experience mean?’ or ‘How does this ‘lived experience’ present itself to the participant?’
• Attempts to set aside biases and preconceived assumptions about human experiences, feelings, and responses to a particular situation.
• Experience may involve perception, thought, memory, imagination, and emotion or feeling.
• Usually (but not always) involves a small sample of participants (approx. 10-15).
• Analysis includes an attempt to identify themes or, if possible, make generalizations in relation to how a particular phenomenon is perceived or experienced.

Methods used include:

• participant observation
• in-depth interviews with open-ended questions
• conversations and focus workshops. 

Researchers may also examine written records of experiences such as diaries, journals, art, poetry and music.

Descriptive phenomenology is a powerful way to understand subjective experience and to gain insights around people’s actions and motivations, cutting through long-held assumptions and challenging conventional wisdom.  It may contribute to the development of new theories, changes in policies, or changes in responses.

Limitations

• Does not suit all health research questions.  For example, an evaluation of a health service may be better carried out by means of a descriptive qualitative design, where highly structured questions aim to garner participant’s views, rather than their lived experience.
• Participants may not be able to express themselves articulately enough due to language barriers, cognition, age, or other factors.
• Gathering data and data analysis may be time consuming and laborious.
• Results require interpretation without researcher bias.
• Does not produce easily generalisable data.

Example questions

• How do cancer patients cope with a terminal diagnosis?
• What is it like to survive a plane crash?
• What are the experiences of long-term carers of family members with a serious illness or disability?
• What is it like to be trapped in a natural disaster, such as a flood or earthquake? 

Example studies

• The patient-body relationship and the "lived experience" of a facial burn injury: a phenomenological inquiry of early psychosocial adjustment . Individual interviews were carried out for this study.
• The use of group descriptive phenomenology within a mixed methods study to understand the experience of music therapy for women with breast cancer . Example of a study in which focus group interviews were carried out.
• Understanding the experience of midlife women taking part in a work-life balance career coaching programme: An interpretative phenomenological analysis . Example of a study using action research.
• Holloway, I. & Galvin, K. (2017). Qualitative research in nursing and healthcare (Fourth ed.): John Wiley & Sons Inc.
• Rodriguez, A., & Smith, J. (2018). Phenomenology as a healthcare research method . Journal of Evidence Based Nursing , 21(4), 96-98. doi: 10.1136/eb-2018-102990
• << Previous: Methodologies
• Next: Grounded theory >>
• Last Updated: Apr 3, 2024 11:54 AM
• URL: https://deakin.libguides.com/qualitative-study-designs

Phenomenological Research: Methods And Examples

Ravi was a novice, finding it difficult to select the right research design for his study. He joined a program…

Ravi was a novice, finding it difficult to select the right research design for his study. He joined a program to improve his understanding of research. As a part of his assignment, he was asked to work with a phenomenological research design. To execute good practices in his work, Ravi studied examples of phenomenological research. This let him understand what approaches he needed and areas he could apply the phenomenological method.

What Is Phenomenological Research?

Phenomenological research method, examples of phenomenological research.

A qualitative research approach that helps in describing the lived experiences of an individual is known as phenomenological research. The phenomenological method focuses on studying the phenomena that have impacted an individual. This approach highlights the specifics and identifies a phenomenon as perceived by an individual in a situation. It can also be used to study the commonality in the behaviors of a group of people.  

Phenomenological research has its roots in psychology, education and philosophy. Its aim is to extract the purest data that hasn’t been attained before. Sometimes researchers record personal notes about what they learn from the subjects. This adds to the credibility of data, allowing researchers to remove these influences to produce unbiased narratives. Through this method, researchers attempt to answer two major questions:

• What are the subject’s experiences related to the phenomenon?
• What factors have influenced the experience of the phenomenon?

A researcher may also use observations, art and documents to construct a universal meaning of experiences as they establish an understanding of the phenomenon. The richness of the data obtained in phenomenological research opens up opportunities for further inquiry.

Now that we know what is phenomenological research , let’s look at some methods and examples.

Phenomenological research can be based on single case studies or a pool of samples. Single case studies identify system failures and discrepancies. Data from multiple samples highlights many possible situations. In either case, these are the methods a researcher can use:

• The researcher can observe the subject or access written records, such as texts, journals, poetry, music or diaries
• They can conduct conversations and interviews with open-ended questions, which allow researchers to make subjects comfortable enough to open up
• Action research and focus workshops are great ways to put at ease candidates who have psychological barriers

To mine deep information, a researcher must show empathy and establish a friendly rapport with participants. These kinds of phenomenological research methods require researchers to focus on the subject and avoid getting influenced.

Phenomenological research is a way to understand individual situations in detail. The theories are developed transparently, with the evidence available for a reader to access. We can use this methodology in situations such as:

• The experiences of every war survivor or war veteran are unique. Research can illuminate their mental states and survival strategies in a new world.
• Losing family members to Covid-19 hasn’t been easy. A detailed study of survivors and people who’ve lost loved ones can help understand coping mechanisms and long-term traumas.
• What’s it like to be diagnosed with a terminal disease when a person becomes a parent? The conflict of birth and death can’t be generalized, but research can record emotions and experiences.

Phenomenological research is a powerful way to understand personal experiences. It provides insights into individual actions and motivations by examining long-held assumptions. New theories, policies and responses can be developed on this basis. But, the phenomenological research design will be ineffective if subjects are unable to communicate due to language, age, cognition or other barriers. Managers must be alert to such limitations and sharp to interpret results without bias.

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Investigating modes of being in the world: an introduction to Phenomenologically grounded qualitative research

• Open access
• Published: 16 February 2021
• Volume 22 , pages 149–169, ( 2023 )

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• Allan Køster 1 , 2 &
• Anthony Vincent Fernandez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1376-4520 3 , 4  

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In this article, we develop a new approach to integrating philosophical phenomenology with qualitative research. The approach uses phenomenology’s concepts, namely existentials, rather than methods such as the epoché or reductions. We here introduce the approach to both philosophers and qualitative researchers, as we believe that these studies are best conducted through interdisciplinary collaboration. In section 1, we review the debate over phenomenology’s role in qualitative research and argue that qualitative theorists have not taken full advantage of what philosophical phenomenology has to offer, thus motivating the need for new approaches. In section 2, we introduce our alternative approach, which we call Phenomenologically Grounded Qualitative Research (PGQR). Drawing parallels with phenomenology’s applications in the cognitive sciences, we explain how phenomenological grounding can be used to conceptually front-load a qualitative study, establishing an explicit focus on one or more structures of human existence, or of our being in the world. In section 3, we illustrate this approach with an example of a qualitative study carried out by one of the authors: a study of the existential impact of early parental bereavement. In section 4, we clarify the kind of knowledge that phenomenologically grounded studies generate and how it may be integrated with existing approaches.

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Doing Phenomenological Research. Dwelling with the Mystery

• Phenomenology

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Phenomenology is a philosophical investigation of experience, subjectivity, and the lifeworld. But the human and social sciences, including psychology, education, anthropology, and nursing, have adapted it as a paradigm for qualitative research. Footnote 1 In many adaptations, they take phenomenology’s philosophical methods—such as the epoché and the hermeneutic circle—and transform them into empirical methods that facilitate interviewing and data analysis. In other adaptations, an approach is called phenomenological simply because it investigates experience from the first-person perspective. Footnote 2 However, while these qualitative researchers draw from the philosophical texts, many have developed their qualitative methodologies without collaborating with philosophically trained phenomenologists.

In this article, we propose an approach to integrating philosophical phenomenology with qualitative research that uses phenomenology’s concepts, rather than its methods, to ground the domain or focus of a qualitative study. We here introduce the approach to both philosophers and qualitative researchers, as we believe that these studies are best conducted through interdisciplinary collaboration. In section 1, we review the debate over phenomenology’s role in qualitative research and argue that qualitative theorists have not taken full advantage of what philosophical phenomenology has to offer, thus motivating the need for new approaches. In section 2, we introduce our alternative approach, which we call Phenomenologically Grounded Qualitative Research (PGQR). Drawing parallels with phenomenology’s applications in the cognitive sciences, we explain how phenomenological grounding can be used to conceptually front-load a qualitative study, establishing an explicit focus on one or more structures of human existence, or of our being in the world. In section 3, we illustrate this approach with an example of a qualitative study carried out by one of the authors: a study of the existential impact of early parental bereavement. In section 4, we clarify the kind of knowledge that phenomenologically grounded studies generate and how it may be integrated with existing approaches.

2 Phenomenology and qualitative research: The state of the debate

Most phenomenological qualitative theorists claim roots in the philosophical tradition of phenomenology. But the degree to which their approaches are genuinely phenomenological has become a matter of debate. Both Amedeo Giorgi ( 2010 ) and Max van Manen ( 2017 ) have questioned the philosophical foundations of Jonathan Smith’s Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), one of the most popular phenomenological approaches to qualitative research today. Smith ( 2010 , 2018 ) defended the philosophical foundations of his approach, arguing that it draws extensively from the classic phenomenological and hermeneutic texts, including the work of Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Hans-Georg Gadamer. But both Giorgi ( 2011 ) and van Manen ( 2018 ) remain unconvinced. Giorgi acknowledged that Smith’s method has some hermeneutic inspiration; but he argued that Smith fundamentally misinterprets key aspects of the phenomenological method, specifically with respect to notions of bracketing and the reduction. Van Manen took a similar line of argument, suggesting that Smith fails to distinguish phenomenological from psychological methods. Following van Manen’s most recent critique, Dan Zahavi ( 2018 , 2019 ; Zahavi and Martiny 2019 ) questioned the philosophical foundations of both Giorgi’s and van Manen’s approaches. He argued that they misinterpret or (at least in the case of Giorgi) misapply various aspects of the phenomenological method—especially the epoché or reduction. Van Manen ( 2019 ) defended his own position and James Morley ( 2019 ) defended Giorgi’s. But the debate continues, with Zahavi ( 2020 ) leveling a further critique against van Manen’s approach.

These approaches derive much of their legitimacy from their philosophical lineage, which is now in question. And, in the wake of these debates, many qualitative researchers have become skeptical of phenomenological approaches. But this skepticism and concern has proved productive. Already, qualitative theorists have taken the opportunity to clarify their use of phenomenology, including their phenomenological approach to interviews. Footnote 3 We expect that this trend will continue, with current methodologies clarified in productive ways.

The approach that we introduce here, however, diverges in significant respects from the dominant approaches to phenomenological qualitative research (including those of Giorgi, van Manen, and Smith). Our approach does not adapt philosophical phenomenology’s methods, although it may be compatible with approaches that use such methods. Rather, our approach draws on philosophical phenomenology’s concepts—specifically, what phenomenologists call “invariant” or “existential” structures, and what Heidegger refers to, simply, as “existentials.” As we explain in the following section, these structural features of human existence, or being in the world, can be used to ground the domain of a qualitative study. They provide a framework that allows the qualitative researcher to focus on a specific feature of human existence and investigate its particular modes. In so doing, our approach takes advantage of many of phenomenology’s philosophical concepts in ways that other approaches to qualitative research do not. Footnote 4

3 Phenomenologically grounded qualitative research

What is phenomenological grounding? The general idea is fairly simple: Philosophical phenomenology provides a rich account of the essential structures of being in the world, which we refer to as “existentials.” These include intentionality, selfhood, empathy, embodiment, temporality, spatiality, and affectivity, among others. Footnote 5 The existentials provide a conceptual framework that qualitative researchers can use to organize and focus the domain of their study. For example, rather than ask how chronic illness shapes one’s experience in general, we can ask how chronic illness shapes one’s temporal experience, embodied experience, sense of self, and so on. And each of these might be investigated in more detail. With respect to embodied experience, we might ask how illness disrupts one’s habituated styles of bodily movement, how it alters one’s bodily engagement with one’s environment, or how it modifies one’s bodily experience in social interactions. Phenomenologically grounded studies will, therefore, have clearly delimited research questions and aims for the interview—at least in comparison to most phenomenological qualitative approaches.

In this section, we introduce the basics of phenomenological grounding as a qualitative research methodology. First, we clarify the distinction between existentials and modes. This is key to distinguishing between ontological and ontic studies in phenomenology. Second, we explain how to design a phenomenologically grounded study, drawing analogies with how phenomenology has been successfully integrated with cognitive science research. In this introductory article, we do not discuss methods of interviewing or data analysis in detail. Footnote 6 We will return to these stages of PGQR in future work.

3.1 Existentials and modes

We use “existentials” as a synonym for what phenomenologists call “invariant,” “existential,” or “ontological” structures. The existentials are the constitutive elements of human existence, or being in the world. Moreover, we follow Heidegger in acknowledging that being in the world is a unified phenomenon: “Being-in-the-world is a structure which is primordially and constantly whole ” (Heidegger [ 1927 ] 1962, 225). This means that these constitutive elements aren’t independent of each other. But even Heidegger had to investigate being in the world through its “constitutive items,” that is, its existentials. Analyzing the structure of human existence in this way is a necessary starting point, even if our goal is to provide a more unified account. In much the same way, when we perform qualitative studies of particular ways of being in the world, it’s best to start from specific existentials, even if our ultimate goal is to provide an account of this way of being in its totality.

But qualitative researchers aren’t typically interested in the existentials themselves. They don’t engage in the philosophical articulation of the invariant structural features of human existence, such as temporality, selfhood, and so on. If the analysis of existentials is, for the most part, a philosophical project, then why should qualitative researchers care about existentials? On our approach, a phenomenologically grounded qualitative study investigates what we call a “mode” of an existential. This is a way of being that is, to some degree, particular. This might include a way of being that is considered characteristically masculine or feminine, a way of being that is culturally specific, a way of being that arises from living through a particular kind of life event, and so on. It might be an individual’s way of being. But, in most cases, the researcher will be interested in the way of being of a particular class of subjects (e.g., people diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (Køster 2017a ), people who are refugees in western Europe, or people living with a long-term disability). When we articulate what’s distinctive about these ways of being, we’re not describing the existentials or the invariant structural features of human existence. We use the existentials as a guide or framework for an empirical study of particular ways of being.

How should we think of the relationship between existentials and modes? We can think of each existential as a category and the modes as the phenomena that belong to this category (Fernandez 2017 ; Fernandez and Køster 2019 ). We can illustrate this distinction with an example from Heidegger. We may, for instance, articulate the general structure of affective situatedness [ Befindlichkeit ]. As Heidegger argues, we always find ourselves attuned to the world through some mood or other; our moods disclose the world (and ourselves) and allow things to matter to us. When he articulates the structure and function of affective situatedness, he doesn’t describe any particular mood. He describes the structure of affective situatedness in general—the existential itself.

But Heidegger also describes modes of affective situatedness, that is, particular moods. These include, among others, anxiety, joy, and boredom. When he describes these moods, his phenomenological investigation takes on a fundamentally new kind of object. He’s no longer engaged in fundamental ontology—that is, an analysis of the general structure of being in the world. Rather, he’s now engaged in a study of particular modes, or ways, of being in the world, which he refers to as “ontic” studies (Heidegger [ 1927 ] 1962, 172). In this case, he describes particular modes of affective situatedness. What’s important here is the distinction between (a) the (ontological) investigation of moods as such and (b) the (ontic) investigation of particular moods. We can draw the same distinction for all of the existentials. For example, we can describe the general structure of temporality; but we can also describe the particular temporal modes of whiling away the time or of eager anticipation. Alternatively, we can describe the general structure of body image; but we can also describe the body image of a particular person or class of people. These are two fundamentally different kinds of projects. The former is ontological; the latter is ontic (see, e.g., Heidegger [ 1987 ] 2001, 207). And, for our purposes, the former provides a framework for the latter. Footnote 7 In section 3, we provide a detailed example of how this approach has been used in a qualitative study. However, before we get to the illustration, we need to explain how existentials can inform qualitative research.

3.2 Preparing a phenomenologically grounded study

It’s not enough to say that philosophical phenomenologists study existentials and phenomenological qualitative researchers study the modes of existentials. We need to describe how, exactly, the existentials inform the design of a qualitative study. To clarify this stage of phenomenological grounding, we draw parallels between two approaches to integrating phenomenology with the cognitive sciences. The first is “retrospective” phenomenology. The second is “front-loaded” phenomenology (Gallagher 2003 ; Gallagher and Zahavi 2012 ).

Retrospective phenomenology involves the interpretation, or reinterpretation, of already existing empirical data or analyses. Glenn Braddock ( 2001 ) defends this use of phenomenology. But the approach itself is not new. One of the best examples is Merleau-Ponty’s reinterpretation of the case of Schneider, a World War One veteran whose perception and motility were fundamentally altered following a brain injury. Schneider’s case was originally studied by the psychologist, Adhemar Gelb, and the neurologist, Kurt Goldstein. Together, Gelb and Goldstein collected observational accounts of Schneider’s behavior and first-person reports from Schneider himself. They then analyzed and interpreted this data, providing an account of how Schneider’s lived world had altered. Merleau-Ponty critically reinterpreted Gelb and Goldstein’s data and analyses, providing a competing phenomenological account of Schneider’s condition. He argued that Schneider lost what he calls “the function of projection.” Conscious life is, according to Merleau-Ponty, “underpinned by an ‘intentional arc’ that projects around us our past, our future, our human milieu, our physical situation, our ideological situation, and our moral situation” ([ 1945 ] 2012, 137). He says that Schneider, having lost this function, is bound to his current situation—he can’t imagine other possibilities for himself, speculate about the future, and so on. Here, Merleau-Ponty’s use of phenomenology is retrospective: He uses a phenomenological understanding of experience to critically assess previous scientific analyses and provide alternative interpretations of how experience has been altered or disturbed. Gallagher acknowledges that this approach can produce competing interpretations of a case. But it’s important to keep in mind that these interpretations are not conclusive. As he says, “Merleau-Ponty’s account of the case remains simply one of several possible theoretical accounts” (Gallagher 2003 , 89). This kind of retrospective interpretation, when employed in the context of experimental cognitive science, generates testable hypotheses. It does not provide definitive conclusions. If one’s interpretation of a case is accurate, then it should, in principle, stand up to experimental testing.

When using a retrospective approach in the design of qualitative study, the researcher should consult both the relevant scientific literature (e.g., previous psychological and/or qualitative studies) and first-person descriptions (e.g., memoirs, previous interviews, etc.). As we’ll illustrate in section 3, a phenomenologically informed interpretation may identify aspects of a condition, or way of being, that’s been neglected in previous studies. Or, alternatively, the phenomenological orientation may provide a more nuanced interpretation of an experience that’s already been studied. For example, a researcher may review previous studies of bodily objectification in health care settings. By critically reviewing the results of these studies in light of their phenomenological understanding of embodiment, they may be able to conceptually distinguish among different kinds of bodily objectification that haven’t been disambiguated in existing studies. This provides the groundwork for developing a new study that will focus on specific modes of bodily objectification and provide more nuanced insight into these kinds of experiences.

After identifying the specific aspect of being in the world that the researcher wants to investigate, they should turn to the front-loading process. Here, again, it’s helpful to review how this approach has been successfully used within the cognitive sciences. According to Gallagher, the retrospective approach can produce alternative interpretations that generate new hypotheses for empirical (in his case, experimental) research. Front-loading, in contrast, is used to design the studies that will test the hypothesis. The cognitive scientist can draw upon phenomenological concepts and conceptual distinctions to frame their empirical study. The front-loading of new concepts in the study-design leads to the generation of new data (Gallagher 2003 ; Gallagher and Zahavi 2012 , 44–45).

To get a better sense of this approach, consider one of Gallagher’s examples: In most bodily experiences, the sense of bodily self-agency and the sense of bodily self-ownership are nearly indistinguishable. When I walk down the street, drink a cup of coffee, or grab a book off the shelf, I have the tacit sense that I am both the agent of this bodily movement and that it is my body that is moving. However, if someone pushes me, then I do not experience any agency for this movement—I experience the person who pushed me as the agent. Yet I still experience the movement as happening to me—I experience my body being pushed. I therefore have an experience of ownership without an experience of agency. As Gallagher stresses, this is not simply a higher-order attribution of agency or ownership. The distinction holds at the level of first-order phenomenal consciousness. As he says, “They are part of a pre-reflective (non-conceptual) self-awareness implicit to the experience of action” (Gallagher 2003 , 92). With this conceptual distinction in hand, cognitive scientists can design experimental studies that investigate, for instance, the neurological processes that underpin or correlate with these distinct experiences. Without such a conceptual distinction—and, thus, without the ability to accurately identify the phenomena in question—it would be impossible to design an empirical study that investigates the different mechanisms that underly bodily agency in contrast with bodily ownership.

How can a front-loaded approach be used in qualitative research? Qualitative researchers don’t conduct experiments and they aren’t concerned with neurobiological mechanisms. But the general principles of front-loading still apply. To put phenomenological concepts to use, qualitative researchers might use the conclusions of their own retrospective interpretations of previous data and analyses to formulate new research questions and an interview protocol. But they may also use critical reinterpretations developed by philosophically trained phenomenologists as a jumping off point for their empirical investigations. Just as Heidegger investigated particular modes of affective situatedness, many philosophically trained phenomenologists investigate particular modes of being in the world. These philosophical investigations are empirical, to a degree, since they draw on and critically engage with empirical research. But they don’t typically generate their own data through interviews or analyses. For example, one of the most famous applications of philosophical phenomenology is Iris Marion Young’s study of feminine body movement (Young 1980 ). In this study, Young uses Merleau-Ponty’s general account of embodiment as a foundation for describing characteristically feminine modes of body comportment. A qualitative researcher interested in women’s embodied experiences may, for instance, use Young’s philosophical study as a starting point for their own qualitative study, designing interview questions that will help flesh out some of the experiences that Young described in fairly broad strokes. Moreover, this kind of empirical study also has the potential to correct or revise Young’s account if the findings conflict with Young’s descriptions.

Young’s study is just one example of a kind of retrospective phenomenological analysis that can provide conceptual foundations and guiding clues for qualitative researchers. Many philosophically trained phenomenologists provide accounts of, for example, women’s experience, African-American experience, the experience of chronic illness, the experience of living with various mental disorders, and so on. Typically, these phenomenological accounts draw upon and critically engage with empirical research. But they don’t generate their own data. Footnote 8 There is, therefore, an open question about how broadly their interpretations apply, whether they apply equally to other populations, and so on. These kinds of philosophical studies therefore provide excellent starting points for qualitative researchers to develop their own empirical studies that might flesh out, or even correct, the philosophical accounts.

4 Designing a phenomenologically grounded study of modal alterations

Up to this point, our discussion has been fairly abstract. In this section, we provide a concrete example of a PGQR study conducted by one of the authors, focusing primarily on the study-design. This will exemplify how existentials can ground the domain of the study and orient the researcher toward the specific modes that they’re concerned with. The study involved in-depth phenomenological interviews with 20 people who had experienced early parental bereavement (between the age of 5–18). The overall aim of the study was to investigate how this kind of profound event in early life may have impacted the overall mode of being in the world of the individual. To achieve such an analysis, the study was phenomenologically grounded by using existentials as lenses for structuring and guiding the interviews. Because the aim was to identify alterations in the overall way of being in the world, the focus of the interview was ex post facto (i.e., backwards-looking at how the loss shaped the experiences of the interview across the life-span). The participants were between 20 and 50 years old and were interviewed for a total of 6–8 hours over the course of 3–4 interviews.

As already discussed in detail above, the kind of phenomenologically grounded study that we propose requires extensive familiarity with and understanding of the relevant existentials. This familiarity allows the researcher to structure and focus his attention on the specific kinds of experiences, or contents of experience, that are relevant to the study. The interview is conducted in an explorative and inherently hermeneutic attitude. But this attitude differs significantly from what one might expect from other qualitative studies, such as the semi-structured interviews of IPA, where the exploration is primarily guided by selected themes (Smith et al., 2009 ), or the completely open attitude of an inductive approach such as grounded theory (Charmaz 2014 ), where theory is generated exclusively based on methodological gathering and analysis of data. Rather, in a phenomenologically grounded approach, the interview is guided by a phenomenological sensitivity that, to some degree, privileges the researcher’s extensive knowledge of existentials. It is important to emphasize that the process of grounding draws exclusively on the structure and dynamics of the existentials. These provide the conceptual framework for the study, allowing the researcher to focus in on the particular modal alterations, which must be investigated empirically; our understanding of the particular mode—in contrast with our understanding of the existentials—emerges from the interview and subsequent data analysis. Hence, by using existentials as a conceptual framework, the researcher does not impose experiential content on the interviewee. Rather, the existential provides a lens that allows the researcher to focus on and explore the specific content that they want to understand and describe with the interviewee.

Grounding the design of the bereavement study had two stages, which parallel our earlier discussion of retrospective and front-loaded phenomenology: (1) The selection of relevant existentials and (2) the articulation of a guiding research question that frames an investigation of the modes of this existential.

4.1 Selecting the existential and designing a research question

When designing a phenomenologically grounded qualitative study, the researcher shouldn’t simply select an existential at random. Which existentials a researcher should focus on—and how she justifies this focus—will depend on both the phenomenon under investigation and the state of current research on the topic. In the parental bereavement study, the existentials that guided the investigations were selected based on a comprehensive engagement with two sets of literature on grief and bereavement experiences: (1) psychological studies and (2) first-person descriptions from memoirs and poetry that express personal experiences of loss. Critically engaging with these two sets of literature constituted the retrospective stage of the study (analogous to the retrospective use of phenomenology in cognitive science research discussed above). In what follows, we illustrate how these two sets of literature were used to (a) select a relevant existential for the study and (b) design a research question within the domain of this existential. This account should be considered illustrative and not prescriptive. The study investigated modal alterations in a total of five existentials, each of which had separate research questions and interview protocols, and the design process was not identical across these. In fact, the relevance of one existential, namely body memory , was discovered through the interview process itself; nothing in the surveyed literature had highlighted the importance of this aspect of grief (Køster 2020b ). In this case, the design stage was not disconnected from the hermeneutics of the interview process.

First, by engaging with the existing psychological (and philosophical) literature on grief, it was clear that grief is recognized as an ambiguous and complex affective phenomenon (O’Connor et al. 2008 ; Parkes and Prigerson 2013 ; Boerner et al., 2013 ). According to standard psychological accounts, the emotivity of grief has a wavelike character—what, since Lindemann ( 1944 ), has been referred to as ‘pangs of grief’. Footnote 9 The affective dimension of grief is therefore predominantly understood as what phenomenologists call an “emotion,” that is, a short-lived affective state that is directed toward something within the world—in this case, the lost loved one.

Once this phenomenon—i.e., the affective dimension of grief—was understood within the current scientific literature, memoirs and other first-personal literature on grief were consulted to see if these descriptions enrich or perhaps conflict with the scientific accounts. Roland Barthes’ Mourning Diary ( 2010 ) provided an especially enlightening perspective. Here, he insists that there is an encompassing affective component integral to his experience of bereavement that is separate from what he calls the ‘emotivity’ of grief: “Emotion (emotivity) passes, suffering remains” (Barthes 2010 , 103), he tells us. Hence, according to Barthes, there is an affective dimension that both precedes and exceeds the emotional level. Barthes consistently refers to this as “suffering” and insists that it is an affective constant, a kind of altered affective tonality that governs the way of being in the world of the individual in much the same way that one’s being in the world is modified when in love (Barthes 2010 , 126). However, Barthes does not actually describe this affective state in any detail. He points to it as a significant experiential domain and calls it “suffering,” yet he provides no systematic description. But this should not be surprising: it was not Barthes’ intention with the text. Barthes’ diaries point to an affective phenomenon that has not been adequately investigated in the psychological literature and, therefore, motivates the need for a systematic investigation. His first-person accounts suggested a deeper affective alteration—one that doesn’t come in waves, but is a pervasive background way of finding oneself affectively attuned to the world. This suggested an alteration in what phenomenologists have traditionally called ground moods (Heidegger [ 1927 ] 1962; 2001) and which has more recently been addressed, in a slightly modified form, as existential feelings (Ratcliffe 2008 ). To avoid terminological confusion, we shall refer to these as existential feelings in the following. This notion is not part of a standard taxonomy in empirical psychology, in which both emotions and moods are defined as temporally delimited states (Coleman 2008 ). However, as Peter Goldie ( 2002 ) has pointed out, this conceptualization characterizes affectivity as purely contingent to experience—an add-on element that temporarily colours and disturbs experiences, implying that the mind is typically free of affect.

Contrary to this, the phenomenologists argue that not only does existence always feel a certain way, but existential feelings are responsible for structuring how we find ourselves in the world. Hence, while emotions express a short-term evaluative attitude towards specific objects, existential feelings are non-intentional or pre-intentional affective states that determine our mode of being in the world. Existential feelings shape our sense of reality and both open and constrain our range of intentional states, including emotions and desires. However, while phenomenologists have clearly articulated what existential feelings are, and even provided analyses of particular feelings (e.g., existential anxiety, profound boredom, deep guilt), there has not been a systematic investigation into whether bereavement experiences produce alterations in existential feelings. Footnote 10

It’s important to remember that this stage, which critically engages with both the scientific and non-scientific literature, is only the retrospective stage of the analysis. What one can learn from existing literature is necessarily limited. These texts remain a fixed testimony to an experience that can be unpacked only to a limited degree if one does not move beyond the text. Eventually, one exhausts an existing first-person report and will require new data to gain a richer understanding of the relevant phenomenon. This retrospective stage therefore generates new research questions informed by the existing literature. But, to answer these questions, we need to turn to the front-loading stage, in which phenomenological concepts are incorporated into the design of an empirical qualitative study.

The retrospective engagement with the existing literature led to the following guiding research questions: Do profound experiences of bereavement manifest in alterations at the level of existential feelings? If so, how should these changes be characterized from a phenomenological point of view? Importantly, the generation of this research focus was itself created through phenomenological grounding. An explicit and active hermeneutic awareness and sensitivity to phenomenological analysis and conceptuality formed the research focus.

4.2 The interview-guide and phenomenological sensibility in the hermeneutics of the interview

The above-mentioned research question formed the basis of one of the project’s interview guides, which was specifically aimed at disclosing potential modifications at the level of existential feelings. At this point, it should be noted that the type of interview we are proposing is not one with a pre-defined set of questions that the interviewees should be taken through in a sequence. Rather, the interview guide functions as a broad hermeneutic roadmap for the interview. It steers the interview through a few predefined focus points, which ensure that the research question is explored in a thorough manner. Such focus points included an exploration of a range of overlapping categories that all emphasize how existential feelings are the connective tissue between self and world, such as the character of how it felt to be alive, the feeling of the relation to the world, the embodied sense of presence in the world, and so on. As such, the interview guide is far more theory-loaded and specific in its focus than one would expect from a standard semi-structured and thematically guided approach to interviews (Brinkmann and Kvale 2015 ). Furthermore, the overlapping nature of the categories was intentional and rooted in the rationale that it is in fact an unfamiliar activity for non-phenomenologists to address this type of phenomenon and that it is therefore productive to reiterate through a variety of phrasings and points of entry.

Although the structure of the interview guide was already phenomenologically grounded, a more encompassing grounding is found in the inquisitive and hermeneutic attitude of the interviewer. Throughout the interview, the researcher should use his understanding of the existentials to cultivate his attention toward the phenomenon under investigation. The researcher should take up an exploratory attitude, attending to any hints or clues that the interviewee might offer and asking follow-up questions that encourage the interviewee to describe this aspect of their experience in more detail. Certain expressions and statements of the interviewee should be systematically flagged and become the object of dedicated investigations. For example, if an interviewee were asked to describe what he felt like in the period after being bereaved, he might refer to a range of affective states, such as emotions of longing and anger, as well as a general feeling of being distanced from everything. In this case, the interviewer should flag the feeling of being distanced as particularly relevant since it points to what a phenomenologist would recognize as an existential feeling and attempt to systematically unpack it through a series of follow-up questions, such as, “What does it feel like to be distanced?”; “How does one notice distance?”; “How does distance announce itself?”; “Distance from what?”; “Is distance similar to or connected to other feelings?”; etc. Specifically, in respect to existential feelings, which are often expressed in metaphorical and allegoric language (Ratcliffe 2008 , 38), it is productive to both invite such types of language and at the same time not assume that these metaphors can be understood off-hand. Rather, metaphors should be extensively unpacked and explored. Quite often, this involves an attitude of lingering with and focusing on the particular phenomenon for a much longer duration than we are used to and comfortable with in everyday conversation. While it might feel familiar to the trained phenomenologist to linger with the process of bringing tacit, pre-reflective experiences to expression, this is a rather unfamiliar activity to an average interviewee and it may feel both tedious and unnecessary. Hence this aspect of the interview should be addressed with the interviewee beforehand.

At this point, the reader might worry that there is something rather circular about this approach, and that the method might run the risk of generating the phenomena it is looking for. Does the strong focus on front-loading not compromise the open explorative attitude that sets qualitative studies apart from more quantitative approaches in psychology? These are valid concerns. However, in response to such worries, we emphasize two key points:

Since the focus of PGQR is to explore altered modes of being in the world through modal alterations in existentials, we are dealing with a level of experience that is inherently difficult to access and does not often reveal itself in everyday reflection. This means that the type of descriptions we are looking for will not pop up in the typical and oft-rehearsed self-narratives that may be offered by the interviewees in a qualitative study. Rather, the interviewer needs to push beyond (or below) these scripted narratives in an attempt to evoke descriptions of pre-reflective and often embodied experiences that have not previously been reflected on or narrated by the interviewee. Footnote 11 The interviewee might, for instance, have lived through profound alterations in existential feelings post-bereavement, but without being reflectively aware of this or able to pin-point and articulate this alteration. Because we investigate experiences that seldom offer themselves in the interviewee’s narrative, PGQR relies on front-loading to privilege the researcher’s knowledge of existentials.

Front-loading the interview does not predetermine the content of the interviewees’ descriptions. There is a significant difference between predefining the focus of an investigation and predefining what will emerge from this focus. That is, a predefined focus on existential feelings does not dictate the kind of alteration that might emerge. In fact, it might even turn out that there are no alterations to be found here at all. Therefore, the pre-structured focus developed in the retrospective phase is open to a degree of falsification. Obviously, this should not be taken in a strict sense of hypothesis testing; rather, the assumptions that guide the investigation are sensitive to the concrete experiential content described in the interviews.

4.3 Examples of descriptions generated

To illustrate the kinds of descriptions that this type of interview can produce, let’s turn to some examples. First, it should be noted that the interviews confirmed the tentative supposition that bereavement manifested in alterations in existential feelings. All the participants, save one, Footnote 12 expressed profound changes in existential feelings in the years immediately following bereavement. Most of them, with significant scalar differentiations in intensity and frequency, considered these changes a lasting disposition and something that characterized their particular mode of being in the world.

The kind of modal alteration reported was similar across all participants and there was a striking similarity in the choice of metaphors used to express this alteration. In a condensed manner, the alteration can be characterized as world-distancing . Briefly stated, world-distancing refers to a continued or recurring feeling of being disconnected from the world. The world appears separate, akin to watching an event from a distance—not standing within the bustling crowd, but observing the crowd while feeling distinctly separate from it, pushed back on yourself and out of the flow of the world. This affective state is a profound existential feeling that has implications on both the experiential dimension of temporality and sociality. The following examples illustrate some aspects of this alteration, but are not exhaustive of it. It should also be noted that these rather clear descriptions provided by informants are the result of a lengthy and laborious collaborative process of bringing experiences to words, which required repetition, lingering, and refining expressions. However, they are exclusively the words of the informants.

Let’s start with the following description of a 49-year-old man who lost his mother suddenly at age 12. He describes the emergence of a world distancing affective attunement in the following way:

To me this feeling of distancing is similar to watching a train running by. It’s my life, and I am on the platform watching the train run by. You know, the best metaphor is perhaps looking at a party and, just for a few seconds, having stepped out into the garden and watching the party from afar. You know there are a lot of people, and I have a relation to all of them. Everybody is having fun, but I have stepped outside. I observe it all. And it is perhaps really that observing stance from the outside that best describes the changed feeling. It’s a kind of bubbling up. It’s a different feeling of being in a blur, like things are a bit out of focus because I experience it from afar. When thinking of this state all I can think of is calmness. There is no noise. Perhaps I can describe it by saying there is no sound. And this kind of displacement was not only an initial feeling. It is a recurring feeling, one that has become a property of my way of being... In this sense the world has become much more two-dimensional. It has no depth. The world is no longer as nuanced, I think. There are not as many layers, I think, or that’s what I am left with when I say that it’s soft and calm. You know, when you observe from a distance, you don’t get all the details, some of the senses don’t exist, as for instance the sense of smell, because you are watching things from afar.

To anyone familiar with Heidegger’s notion of Befindlichkeit or Ratcliffe’s expansion of this concept to existential feelings, it should be clear that this description depicts a clear modal alteration in this level of experience. That is, the very mode of being in the world is altered. It is a feeling of “being in a bubble,” of “being in a blur,” a feeling that alters the way the world manifests in the sense that it is now “more two-dimensional,” without color and lacking in sensory qualities, partially because it is observed from afar.

The contours of this description are echoed by a 33-year-old woman who lost her father at the age of 16. However, she adds an important temporal dimension to this modal change in affective attunement, which illustrates the inherently interrelated constitution of existentials:

I consider it, this feeling of distancing, as almost a metaphysical feeling. I am in my body but the world is cloudy. I am confined to my own shell, and time has stopped; everybody else is continuing their lives, but I am stuck in stillness. It’s a kind of vacuum, where time feels abstract. It’s a feeling of being fundamentally alone in the world... One might perhaps also say that I feel like I am continuously caught behind a glass plate and watching the world and other people through this screen.

Again, she explicitly refers to the sense of distancing as a feeling, in this case a “ metaphysical feeling ,” that describes a particular way of finding herself in the world. As emphasized, however, she adds a clear temporal dimension to this experience: distancing is a feeling of being “ stuck in stillness ” because “ time has stopped ,” separated from the temporal flow of the world.

A 28-year-old woman who lost her mother at age 10 complements these descriptions by elaborating on the social implications of world-distancing as a particular mode of attunement:

I think it is a bit like being in a bubble; well, it’s a feeling of being in a bubble and when somebody is talking to you it just becomes this myriad of words, this stream of fuzzy talk, because it is difficult to localize it, because you are caught in your own bubble. One keeps thinking that this is what is happening, and then that only makes it worse. Often, I feel, though, that I am able to tune-in on the conversation, but it is really hard to remain present. I hear the words, but I can’t be fully present, so I end up just saying hmmm, and platitudes like “I know that.” Sometimes I feel like shaking my head a bit, to see if it disappears, but it’s really difficult. It’s a bit like having the hiccups and trying to think it away—it does not work. I start thinking that they notice that, they can tell you are not listening. It’s really unpleasant. I get this feeling very often, almost daily, since my mum passed. At least it feels like that.

In this passage, she emphasizes how the feeling of distance impacts the capacity to follow the rhythm and resonance of social interaction. She feels cut off from the interaction as a result of the preceding affective state of distance. The broader anatomy of this altered affective integration with the world is complex and it had a profound impact on the overall well-being of the informants. However, the reader might wonder to what extent this state is in fact specific to grief. A similar kind of world distancing is, for instance, sometimes reported in connection to states of dissociation and, from a phenomenologically inspired clinical perspective, Robert Stolorow associates a similar state of world-distancing with trauma more generally (although he specifically uses grief as his example) (Stolorow 2011 , 2019 ). Lastly, world-distancing as an affective state shows similarities to Heidegger’s description of anxiety. Our claim is therefore obviously not to propose that world-distancing is exclusive to the experiences of grief. Assuming that an experience is correlated to one specific affective state in this uniform way would be naïve and out of tune with the broader natural history and evolution of our affective repertoire. However, we find it reasonable to expect that there is a certain way that world-distancing manifests or unfolds in grief experiences. Although it far exceeds the scope of this paper to justify and expand on this claim here, we can indicate that there is a particular feeling of existential loneliness associated with post-bereavement feelings of world-distancing that differs in kind from other types of trauma (Køster 2019 ).

These are examples of the descriptions that a PGQR study can generate. Getting to these descriptions is only the first step in the broader research process. Important work is still needed to provide a thorough phenomenological analysis of the kind of experiential modification that they constitute. However, it should also be clear that the kinds of descriptions generated by the focus points and sensitivities of PGQR differ from the descriptions that would flow naturally into a typical grief narrative. Rather, the descriptions emerge as a result of the phenomenological grounding of the interview.

5 Type of knowledge generated

As already mentioned, there are a number of well-established phenomenological approaches to qualitative research. So far, we have focused on how PGQR is distinctive by grounding the research process in pre-selected existentials. These existentials provide the foundation for well-focused research questions and the design of interview protocols that help the researcher attend to the pre-reflective level of experience. We’ve also seen the kind of insightful and illuminating descriptions that participants can provide when interviewed through this approach. However, what kind of knowledge do PGQR studies generate? Is PGQR relevant to all types of qualitative research agendas and can it be integrated with all types of qualitative methods? We intend to provide detailed answers to these questions in future work. But, for now, we provide an initial account of the scope and conditions for applications of PGQR.

We are not suggesting that PGQR replace existing phenomenological approaches to qualitative inquiry. Rather, PGQR’s conceptual orientation can be integrated with a variety of existing approaches to qualitative research, both phenomenological and non-phenomenological. As we see it, PGQR has its merits in the particular type of knowledge that it generates, which in turn also restricts its range of application. As already mentioned, PGQR investigates altered modes of being in the world. We might also refer to this as the way one finds oneself in the world or the how of one’s being in the world. Importantly, these modes or ways are often pre-reflective. One can, in principle, reflect upon one’s mode of being. But, in everyday life, how we find ourselves in the world is often tacit or implicit. PGQR orients the researcher toward pre-reflective and embodied aspects of experience and allows the interviewee to articulate these aspects of experience without recourse to ready-made and culturally scripted narratives of experience.

This kind of research broadens our understanding of our pre-reflective experiential life, including how it undergoes alterations in significant life events. However, the kind of knowledge generated by PGQR can also be integrated with other kinds of studies. The prevalence of descriptions of world-distancing as an aspect of the affectivity of grief is, for instance, currently being investigated in an encompassing quantitative study. Footnote 13 Based on this kind of survey material, it will perhaps be possible to determine whether world-distancing differs across types of loss and if it can be predictive of complicated grief reactions or states of prolonged grief disorder.

The specific focus of PGQR also means, however, that PGQR might not be the best choice if one wants to understand, for instance, particular practices, be they cultural or more personal, such as when Ashworth ( 2016 ) investigates the practice of gift giving or when van Manen ( 1990 , 104–6) examines childhood secrets. But PGQR may still be able to supplement such studies. For example, while it does not provide resources for understanding the practice of telling or listening to secrets, it may help us understand how holding a secret modifies one’s general orientation toward others. PGQR also does not seem obvious for ethnographic research that focuses on social interaction in situ, in so far as these studies aim to understand the logic of human actions within a confined social context or environment, rather than the modes of being that these individuals find themselves in. Moreover, PGQR does not typically inquire into interviewees’ opinions, beliefs, or values.

It may also be helpful to show how PGQR differs from a popular approach to applied phenomenology that also draws extensively on the philosophical texts: micro-phenomenology, which has been developed by Claire Petitmengin and colleagues (Petitmengin 2006 ; Petitmengin et al., 2019 ). There are several overlaps between PGQR and micro-phenomenology, such as a focus on bringing pre-reflective experiences to language and the explicit methodological intention of letting the interview be structured and guided by the interviewer’s extensive “meta-knowledge” of experiential structures (see, e.g., Petitmengin 2006 , 250), which is similar to what we have framed in terms of front-loading. However, at least two constitutive differences should be emphasized.

First, there is a manifest difference in focus : PGQR studies investigate broad existential orientations and characterize alterations in the overall mode of being in the world of the person, partitioned through the lens of existentials. Micro-phenomenology, in contrast, studies particular, temporally delimited cognitive processes, such as specific acts of memorizing or detecting cues for anticipating epileptic seizures (Petitmengin et al., 2006 ). Such cognitive processes can, according to micro-phenomenology, only be investigated through “singular acts” (Petitmengin 2006 , 692). The research protocol for micro-phenomenology provides a rich and detailed methodology for investigating such singular acts. However, it is not obvious how this framework would be appropriate for investigations of broader modes of being in the world. This is not to say that the two frameworks can’t supplement each other or that the methodological innovations for investigating singular acts cannot enrich and be applicable to aspects of a PGQR. However, the overall focus is fundamentally different.

Second, micro-phenomenology specifically aims to uncover invariant experiential structures through empirical investigations that move from individual experiences toward “progressively abstract categories” (Petitmengin et al. 2019 , 702). PGQR, in contrast, moves in a different direction. It utilizes philosophical accounts of invariant structures, or existentials, to frame empirical investigations of particular modal alterations, which are often generalizable to a population but are not invariant structures of existence. There may be potential for PGQR studies to inform our understanding of invariant structures; but this is not its primary aim.

To which types of inquiry is PGQR therefore suited? It’s well-suited for any study where modifications in one’s mode of being in the world can reasonably be expected. As noted above, philosophically trained phenomenologists often take modes of being in the world as their primary object of study, even if they don’t use this kind of language when characterizing their investigation. A few examples include alterations in modes of affectivity in mental disorders (Ratcliffe 2008 ; Stanghellini and Rosfort 2013 ); modes of embodiment in chronic or life-threatening illness, or even following treatment (Aho and Aho 2009 ; Carel 2013 ; Nancy and Hanson 2002 ; Slatman 2016 ; Toombs 1995 ); and the discursively shaped modes of both embodiment and spatiality that are characteristic of feminine ways of being (Young 1980 ). In sum, PGQR generates knowledge by uncovering alterations in the basic modes that constitute how a person finds herself in the world.

6 Conclusion

In this article, we have argued that qualitative research can benefit from a conceptual grounding in philosophical phenomenology. We have proposed PGQR as a framework for this interdisciplinary integration. On this approach, the qualitative researcher frames her empirical study through the concepts and analyses found in philosophical phenomenology. Each stage of a qualitative study, from designing a research question to analyzing the data, should be guided by phenomenological concepts and analyses. This process of phenomenological grounding directs the researcher toward specific existentials, allowing the researcher to investigate the modes of this existential and, thus, one’s way of being in the world. This, moreover, enables the researcher to investigate aspects of experience that are typically pre-reflective, orienting the interviewee toward aspects of her experience that she may have been largely unaware of and never before put into words.

Where should we go from here? As we noted above, there’s considerably more to say about further stages of research within the PGQR paradigm. We’ll need to clarify how phenomenological concepts should inform the interview process, including the dynamics between interviewer and interviewee; how these concepts should be used to analyze interview transcripts; and, also, how the interviews themselves can generate new questions for future studies. This article provides an initial introduction. But we intend to follow up on these aspects of PGQR and develop them in future work.

Some of the better-known approaches have been developed by Peter Ashworth ( 2003 ); Paul Colaizzi ( 1978 ); Karin Dahlberg et al. ( 2008 ); Amedeo Giorgi ( 2009 ); Darren Langdridge ( 2007 ); Max van Manen ( 2016 ); Claire Petitmengin ( 2006 ); and Jonathan Smith et al. ( 2009 ).

Shaun Gallagher argues that some of these approaches even fail to reach the lived experience of the interviewee, instead arriving at opinions or explanations for how the interviewee felt about an experience ( 2012 , 306).

One example is found in the work of Magnus Englander, who had previously written on phenomenological approaches to interviewing (Englander 2012 ) but, following Zahavi’s critique, returned to the topic and clarified his position (Englander 2020 ).

Readers who are familiar with phenomenological approaches to qualitative research may recognize an apparent similarity with the work of van Manen ( 1990 , 2016 ), Ashworth ( 2003 , 2016 ), and Les Todres et al., ( 2007 ; see also Dahlberg et al., 2009 ; Todres et al., 2009 ). All of these authors appeal to existentials, although they may refer to them under different names (Ashworth calls them “fractions of the life-world” and Todres, Galvin, and Dahlberg call them “constituents of the lifeworld”). One distinctive feature of our approach is the use of a single existential or a selection of existentials to determine the scope of the study in advance. This allows for a highly focused study of a specific structural feature of human existence, such as temporality, spatiality, selfhood, or affectivity. In this respect, our approach shares much in common with the method of conceptual front-loading used in phenomenology’s successful application in the cognitive sciences (Gallagher 2003 ).

To our knowledge, no one has attempted to provide an exhaustive list of existentials and no one has provided necessary and sufficient criteria for determining what counts as an existential. However, there’s general agreement among phenomenologists on what these key structures are, although they may have different ways of describing and distinguishing them.

For recommendations on philosophically informed approaches to phenomenological interviewing, see Høffding and Martiny ( 2016 ) and Gallagher and Francesconi ( 2012 ).

We acknowledge that there are competing interpretations of what Heidegger means by “fundamental ontology” and what the relationship is between ontological and ontic investigations in his work. To provide a clear and viable approach to applied phenomenology, we put some of these interpretive debates aside and simply rely on an interpretation that’s useful for qualitative researchers. However, we do believe that our distinction between the ontological and the ontic is largely consistent with Heidegger’s characterization in the Zollikon Seminars , where he explains to a group of psychiatrists that their studies of mental illnesses are ontic, whereas his own studies of being in the world are ontological (Fernandez 2018 ; Heidegger [ 1987 ] 2001 , 207). There’s also a sense in which investigations of particular phenomena (e.g., particular moods) provide resources for articulating the general features that hold for this entire class of phenomena (e.g., moods as such). However, for the sake of simplicity, we will not discuss this aspect of phenomenological research here.

There are a few exceptions. See, for example, Jenny Slatman’s phenomenologically informed qualitative studies of women’s experience following a mastectomy (Slatman et al., 2016 ).

In DSM-5, grief is also distinguished from Major Depressive Disorder through its wave-like character: “The dysphoria in grief is likely to decrease in intensity over days to weeks and occurs in waves, the so-called pangs of grief. These waves tend to be associated with thoughts or reminders of the deceased. The depressed mood in MDE is more persistent and not tied to specific thoughts or preoccupations” (American Psychiatric Association 2013 ).

This is not to say that grief has not been a topic of philosophy. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in grief from a phenomenological perspective (see, e.g., Fuchs 2018 ; Køster 2019 , 2020a , 2021 ; Ratcliffe 2017 , 2020 ).

For a detailed analysis of this process see (Køster 2017b ).

It is not in itself an aim of PGQR that all the descriptions for the interviewees align or overlap. Contrasts in experiences can provide rich sources for phenomenological elaboration. For an example of how this unpacks see (Køster 2020b , 2021 ).

The prevalence of world distancing as an aspect of grief experiences has recently been investigated as part of a controlled, randomized intervention project titled “TABstudy” based in Aarhus University, Denmark. On the basis of the descriptions generated in PGQR interviews, we developed a psychometric scale of measurement which was sent out to 1600 participants from 2016–2020. The results are currently in the process of being published.

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Acknowledgments

We thank Ola Borek, Svend Brinkmann, Shaun Gallagher, Jim Morley, Marta Santillo, Dan Zahavi, and researchers as the “Culture of Grief” for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article. This work was supported by the Den Obelske familiefond (#28153) and the Global Research Network program through the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2017S1A2A2039388).

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Køster, A., Fernandez, A.V. Investigating modes of being in the world: an introduction to Phenomenologically grounded qualitative research. Phenom Cogn Sci 22 , 149–169 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-020-09723-w

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500+ Qualitative Research Titles and Topics

Table of Contents

Qualitative research is a methodological approach that involves gathering and analyzing non-numerical data to understand and interpret social phenomena. Unlike quantitative research , which emphasizes the collection of numerical data through surveys and experiments, qualitative research is concerned with exploring the subjective experiences, perspectives, and meanings of individuals and groups. As such, qualitative research topics can be diverse and encompass a wide range of social issues and phenomena. From exploring the impact of culture on identity formation to examining the experiences of marginalized communities, qualitative research offers a rich and nuanced perspective on complex social issues. In this post, we will explore some of the most compelling qualitative research topics and provide some tips on how to conduct effective qualitative research.

Qualitative Research Titles

Qualitative research titles often reflect the study’s focus on understanding the depth and complexity of human behavior, experiences, or social phenomena. Here are some examples across various fields:

• “Understanding the Impact of Project-Based Learning on Student Engagement in High School Classrooms: A Qualitative Study”
• “Navigating the Transition: Experiences of International Students in American Universities”
• “The Role of Parental Involvement in Early Childhood Education: Perspectives from Teachers and Parents”
• “Exploring the Effects of Teacher Feedback on Student Motivation and Self-Efficacy in Middle Schools”
• “Digital Literacy in the Classroom: Teacher Strategies for Integrating Technology in Elementary Education”
• “Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices: A Case Study in Diverse Urban Schools”
• “The Influence of Extracurricular Activities on Academic Achievement: Student Perspectives”
• “Barriers to Implementing Inclusive Education in Public Schools: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “Teacher Professional Development and Its Impact on Classroom Practice: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “Student-Centered Learning Environments: A Qualitative Study of Classroom Dynamics and Outcomes”
• “The Experience of First-Year Teachers: Challenges, Support Systems, and Professional Growth”
• “Exploring the Role of School Leadership in Fostering a Positive School Culture”
• “Peer Relationships and Learning Outcomes in Cooperative Learning Settings: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “The Impact of Social Media on Student Learning and Engagement: Teacher and Student Perspectives”
• “Understanding Special Education Needs: Parent and Teacher Perceptions of Support Services in Schools

Health Science

• “Living with Chronic Pain: Patient Narratives and Coping Strategies in Managing Daily Life”
• “Healthcare Professionals’ Perspectives on the Challenges of Rural Healthcare Delivery”
• “Exploring the Mental Health Impacts of COVID-19 on Frontline Healthcare Workers: A Qualitative Study”
• “Patient and Family Experiences of Palliative Care: Understanding Needs and Preferences”
• “The Role of Community Health Workers in Improving Access to Maternal Healthcare in Rural Areas”
• “Barriers to Mental Health Services Among Ethnic Minorities: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “Understanding Patient Satisfaction in Telemedicine Services: A Qualitative Study of User Experiences”
• “The Impact of Cultural Competence Training on Healthcare Provider-Patient Communication”
• “Navigating the Transition to Adult Healthcare Services: Experiences of Adolescents with Chronic Conditions”
• “Exploring the Use of Alternative Medicine Among Patients with Chronic Diseases: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “The Role of Social Support in the Rehabilitation Process of Stroke Survivors”
• “Healthcare Decision-Making Among Elderly Patients: A Qualitative Study of Preferences and Influences”
• “Nurse Perceptions of Patient Safety Culture in Hospital Settings: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “Experiences of Women with Postpartum Depression: Barriers to Seeking Help”
• “The Impact of Nutrition Education on Eating Behaviors Among College Students: A Qualitative Approach”
• “Understanding Resilience in Survivors of Childhood Trauma: A Narrative Inquiry”
• “The Role of Mindfulness in Managing Work-Related Stress Among Corporate Employees: A Qualitative Study”
• “Coping Mechanisms Among Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder”
• “Exploring the Psychological Impact of Social Isolation in the Elderly: A Phenomenological Study”
• “Identity Formation in Adolescence: The Influence of Social Media and Peer Groups”
• “The Experience of Forgiveness in Interpersonal Relationships: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “Perceptions of Happiness and Well-Being Among University Students: A Cultural Perspective”
• “The Impact of Art Therapy on Anxiety and Depression in Adult Cancer Patients”
• “Narratives of Recovery: A Qualitative Study on the Journey Through Addiction Rehabilitation”
• “Exploring the Psychological Effects of Long-Term Unemployment: A Grounded Theory Approach”
• “Attachment Styles and Their Influence on Adult Romantic Relationships: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “The Role of Personal Values in Career Decision-Making Among Young Adults”
• “Understanding the Stigma of Mental Illness in Rural Communities: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “Exploring the Use of Digital Mental Health Interventions Among Adolescents: A Qualitative Study”
• “The Psychological Impact of Climate Change on Young Adults: An Exploration of Anxiety and Action”
• “Navigating Identity: The Role of Social Media in Shaping Youth Culture and Self-Perception”
• “Community Resilience in the Face of Urban Gentrification: A Case Study of Neighborhood Change”
• “The Dynamics of Intergenerational Relationships in Immigrant Families: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “Social Capital and Economic Mobility in Low-Income Neighborhoods: An Ethnographic Approach”
• “Gender Roles and Career Aspirations Among Young Adults in Conservative Societies”
• “The Stigma of Mental Health in the Workplace: Employee Narratives and Organizational Culture”
• “Exploring the Intersection of Race, Class, and Education in Urban School Systems”
• “The Impact of Digital Divide on Access to Healthcare Information in Rural Communities”
• “Social Movements and Political Engagement Among Millennials: A Qualitative Study”
• “Cultural Adaptation and Identity Among Second-Generation Immigrants: A Phenomenological Inquiry”
• “The Role of Religious Institutions in Providing Community Support and Social Services”
• “Negotiating Public Space: Experiences of LGBTQ+ Individuals in Urban Environments”
• “The Sociology of Food: Exploring Eating Habits and Food Practices Across Cultures”
• “Work-Life Balance Challenges Among Dual-Career Couples: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “The Influence of Peer Networks on Substance Use Among Adolescents: A Community Study”

Business and Management

• “Navigating Organizational Change: Employee Perceptions and Adaptation Strategies in Mergers and Acquisitions”
• “Corporate Social Responsibility: Consumer Perceptions and Brand Loyalty in the Retail Sector”
• “Leadership Styles and Organizational Culture: A Comparative Study of Tech Startups”
• “Workplace Diversity and Inclusion: Best Practices and Challenges in Multinational Corporations”
• “Consumer Trust in E-commerce: A Qualitative Study of Online Shopping Behaviors”
• “The Gig Economy and Worker Satisfaction: Exploring the Experiences of Freelance Professionals”
• “Entrepreneurial Resilience: Success Stories and Lessons Learned from Failed Startups”
• “Employee Engagement and Productivity in Remote Work Settings: A Post-Pandemic Analysis”
• “Brand Storytelling: How Narrative Strategies Influence Consumer Engagement”
• “Sustainable Business Practices: Stakeholder Perspectives in the Fashion Industry”
• “Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges in Global Teams: Strategies for Effective Collaboration”
• “Innovative Workspaces: The Impact of Office Design on Creativity and Collaboration”
• “Consumer Perceptions of Artificial Intelligence in Customer Service: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “The Role of Mentoring in Career Development: Insights from Women in Leadership Positions”
• “Agile Management Practices: Adoption and Impact in Traditional Industries”

Environmental Studies

• “Community-Based Conservation Efforts in Tropical Rainforests: A Qualitative Study of Local Perspectives and Practices”
• “Urban Sustainability Initiatives: Exploring Resident Participation and Impact in Green City Projects”
• “Perceptions of Climate Change Among Indigenous Populations: Insights from Traditional Ecological Knowledge”
• “Environmental Justice and Industrial Pollution: A Case Study of Community Advocacy and Response”
• “The Role of Eco-Tourism in Promoting Conservation Awareness: Perspectives from Tour Operators and Visitors”
• “Sustainable Agriculture Practices Among Smallholder Farmers: Challenges and Opportunities”
• “Youth Engagement in Climate Action Movements: Motivations, Perceptions, and Outcomes”
• “Corporate Environmental Responsibility: A Qualitative Analysis of Stakeholder Expectations and Company Practices”
• “The Impact of Plastic Pollution on Marine Ecosystems: Community Awareness and Behavioral Change”
• “Renewable Energy Adoption in Rural Communities: Barriers, Facilitators, and Social Implications”
• “Water Scarcity and Community Adaptation Strategies in Arid Regions: A Grounded Theory Approach”
• “Urban Green Spaces: Public Perceptions and Use Patterns in Megacities”
• “Environmental Education in Schools: Teachers’ Perspectives on Integrating Sustainability into Curricula”
• “The Influence of Environmental Activism on Policy Change: Case Studies of Grassroots Campaigns”
• “Cultural Practices and Natural Resource Management: A Qualitative Study of Indigenous Stewardship Models”

Anthropology

• “Kinship and Social Organization in Matrilineal Societies: An Ethnographic Study”
• “Rituals and Beliefs Surrounding Death and Mourning in Diverse Cultures: A Comparative Analysis”
• “The Impact of Globalization on Indigenous Languages and Cultural Identity”
• “Food Sovereignty and Traditional Agricultural Practices Among Indigenous Communities”
• “Navigating Modernity: The Integration of Traditional Healing Practices in Contemporary Healthcare Systems”
• “Gender Roles and Equality in Hunter-Gatherer Societies: An Anthropological Perspective”
• “Sacred Spaces and Religious Practices: An Ethnographic Study of Pilgrimage Sites”
• “Youth Subcultures and Resistance: An Exploration of Identity and Expression in Urban Environments”
• “Cultural Constructions of Disability and Inclusion: A Cross-Cultural Analysis”
• “Interethnic Marriages and Cultural Syncretism: Case Studies from Multicultural Societies”
• “The Role of Folklore and Storytelling in Preserving Cultural Heritage”
• “Economic Anthropology of Gift-Giving and Reciprocity in Tribal Communities”
• “Digital Anthropology: The Role of Social Media in Shaping Political Movements”
• “Migration and Diaspora: Maintaining Cultural Identity in Transnational Communities”
• “Cultural Adaptations to Climate Change Among Coastal Fishing Communities”

Communication Studies

• “The Dynamics of Family Communication in the Digital Age: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “Narratives of Identity and Belonging in Diaspora Communities Through Social Media”
• “Organizational Communication and Employee Engagement: A Case Study in the Non-Profit Sector”
• “Cultural Influences on Communication Styles in Multinational Teams: An Ethnographic Approach”
• “Media Representation of Women in Politics: A Content Analysis and Audience Perception Study”
• “The Role of Communication in Building Sustainable Community Development Projects”
• “Interpersonal Communication in Online Dating: Strategies, Challenges, and Outcomes”
• “Public Health Messaging During Pandemics: A Qualitative Study of Community Responses”
• “The Impact of Mobile Technology on Parent-Child Communication in the Digital Era”
• “Crisis Communication Strategies in the Hospitality Industry: A Case Study of Reputation Management”
• “Narrative Analysis of Personal Stories Shared on Mental Health Blogs”
• “The Influence of Podcasts on Political Engagement Among Young Adults”
• “Visual Communication and Brand Identity: A Qualitative Study of Consumer Interpretations”
• “Communication Barriers in Cross-Cultural Healthcare Settings: Patient and Provider Perspectives”
• “The Role of Internal Communication in Managing Organizational Change: Employee Experiences”

Information Technology

• “User Experience Design in Augmented Reality Applications: A Qualitative Study of Best Practices”
• “The Human Factor in Cybersecurity: Understanding Employee Behaviors and Attitudes Towards Phishing”
• “Adoption of Cloud Computing in Small and Medium Enterprises: Challenges and Success Factors”
• “Blockchain Technology in Supply Chain Management: A Qualitative Exploration of Potential Impacts”
• “The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Personalizing User Experiences on E-commerce Platforms”
• “Digital Transformation in Traditional Industries: A Case Study of Technology Adoption Challenges”
• “Ethical Considerations in the Development of Smart Home Technologies: A Stakeholder Analysis”
• “The Impact of Social Media Algorithms on News Consumption and Public Opinion”
• “Collaborative Software Development: Practices and Challenges in Open Source Projects”
• “Understanding the Digital Divide: Access to Information Technology in Rural Communities”
• “Data Privacy Concerns and User Trust in Internet of Things (IoT) Devices”
• “The Effectiveness of Gamification in Educational Software: A Qualitative Study of Engagement and Motivation”
• “Virtual Teams and Remote Work: Communication Strategies and Tools for Effectiveness”
• “User-Centered Design in Mobile Health Applications: Evaluating Usability and Accessibility”
• “The Influence of Technology on Work-Life Balance: Perspectives from IT Professionals”

Tourism and Hospitality

• “Exploring the Authenticity of Cultural Heritage Tourism in Indigenous Communities”
• “Sustainable Tourism Practices: Perceptions and Implementations in Small Island Destinations”
• “The Impact of Social Media Influencers on Destination Choice Among Millennials”
• “Gastronomy Tourism: Exploring the Culinary Experiences of International Visitors in Rural Regions”
• “Eco-Tourism and Conservation: Stakeholder Perspectives on Balancing Tourism and Environmental Protection”
• “The Role of Hospitality in Enhancing the Cultural Exchange Experience of Exchange Students”
• “Dark Tourism: Visitor Motivations and Experiences at Historical Conflict Sites”
• “Customer Satisfaction in Luxury Hotels: A Qualitative Study of Service Excellence and Personalization”
• “Adventure Tourism: Understanding the Risk Perception and Safety Measures Among Thrill-Seekers”
• “The Influence of Local Communities on Tourist Experiences in Ecotourism Sites”
• “Event Tourism: Economic Impacts and Community Perspectives on Large-Scale Music Festivals”
• “Heritage Tourism and Identity: Exploring the Connections Between Historic Sites and National Identity”
• “Tourist Perceptions of Sustainable Accommodation Practices: A Study of Green Hotels”
• “The Role of Language in Shaping the Tourist Experience in Multilingual Destinations”
• “Health and Wellness Tourism: Motivations and Experiences of Visitors to Spa and Retreat Centers”

Qualitative Research Topics

Qualitative Research Topics are as follows:

• Understanding the lived experiences of first-generation college students
• Exploring the impact of social media on self-esteem among adolescents
• Investigating the effects of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction
• Analyzing the perceptions of employees regarding organizational culture
• Examining the impact of parental involvement on academic achievement of elementary school students
• Investigating the role of music therapy in managing symptoms of depression
• Understanding the experience of women in male-dominated industries
• Exploring the factors that contribute to successful leadership in non-profit organizations
• Analyzing the effects of peer pressure on substance abuse among adolescents
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with disabilities in the workplace
• Understanding the factors that contribute to burnout among healthcare professionals
• Examining the impact of social support on mental health outcomes
• Analyzing the perceptions of parents regarding sex education in schools
• Investigating the experiences of immigrant families in the education system
• Understanding the impact of trauma on mental health outcomes
• Exploring the effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy for individuals with anxiety
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful intergenerational relationships
• Investigating the experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of online gaming on social skills development among adolescents
• Examining the perceptions of teachers regarding technology integration in the classroom
• Analyzing the experiences of women in leadership positions
• Investigating the factors that contribute to successful marriage and long-term relationships
• Understanding the impact of social media on political participation
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with mental health disorders in the criminal justice system
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community-based programs for youth development
• Investigating the experiences of veterans in accessing mental health services
• Understanding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health outcomes
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood obesity prevention
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful multicultural education programs
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of poverty on academic achievement
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful employee retention strategies
• Investigating the experiences of caregivers of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease
• Understanding the impact of parent-child communication on adolescent sexual behavior
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health services on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in the workplace
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of mentorship on career success
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with physical disabilities in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community-based programs for mental health
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of social media on romantic relationships
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding child discipline strategies
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful cross-cultural communication in the workplace
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on healthcare delivery
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with hearing loss in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful parent-teacher communication
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with depression in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of childhood trauma on adult mental health outcomes
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding alcohol and drug use on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful mentor-mentee relationships
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with intellectual disabilities in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of work-family balance on employee satisfaction and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in vocational rehabilitation programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful project management in the construction industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in peer support groups
• Understanding the impact of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction and mental health
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood nutrition
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful environmental sustainability initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with bipolar disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of job stress on employee burnout and turnover
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with physical disabilities in recreational activities
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful strategic planning in nonprofit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with hoarding disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of culture on leadership styles and effectiveness
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding sexual health education on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain management in the retail industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with personality disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of multiculturalism on group dynamics in the workplace
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in mindfulness-based pain management programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful employee engagement strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with internet addiction disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of social comparison on body dissatisfaction and self-esteem
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood sleep habits
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful diversity and inclusion initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with schizophrenia in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of job crafting on employee motivation and job satisfaction
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with vision impairments in navigating public spaces
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer relationship management strategies in the service industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative amnesia in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural intelligence on intercultural communication and collaboration
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding campus diversity and inclusion efforts
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain sustainability initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of transformational leadership on organizational performance and employee well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with mobility impairments in public transportation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful talent management strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in harm reduction programs
• Understanding the impact of gratitude practices on well-being and resilience
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood mental health and well-being
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful corporate social responsibility initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with borderline personality disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of emotional labor on job stress and burnout
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with hearing impairments in healthcare settings
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer experience strategies in the hospitality industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with gender dysphoria in gender-affirming healthcare
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on cross-cultural negotiation in the global marketplace
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding academic stress and mental health
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain agility in organizations
• Understanding the impact of music therapy on mental health and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with dyslexia in educational settings
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful leadership in nonprofit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in online support groups
• Understanding the impact of exercise on mental health and well-being
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood screen time
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful change management strategies in organizations
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on international business negotiations
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with hearing impairments in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in corporate settings
• Understanding the impact of technology on communication in romantic relationships
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community engagement strategies for local governments
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of financial stress on mental health and well-being
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful mentorship programs in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with gambling addictions in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of social media on body image and self-esteem
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood education
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful virtual team management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative identity disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on cross-cultural communication in healthcare settings
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in cognitive-behavioral therapy programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community-building strategies in urban neighborhoods
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with alcohol use disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of personality traits on romantic relationships
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health stigma on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful fundraising strategies for political campaigns
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with traumatic brain injuries in rehabilitation programs
• Understanding the impact of social support on mental health and well-being among the elderly
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in medical treatment decision-making processes
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful innovation strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on cross-cultural communication in education settings
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood physical activity
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful conflict resolution in family relationships
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with opioid use disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of emotional intelligence on leadership effectiveness
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with learning disabilities in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful change management in educational institutions
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in recovery support groups
• Understanding the impact of self-compassion on mental health and well-being
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding campus safety and security measures
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful marketing strategies for nonprofit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with postpartum depression in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of ageism in the workplace
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with dyslexia in the education system
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in cognitive-behavioral therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of socioeconomic status on access to healthcare
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood screen time usage
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain management strategies
• Understanding the impact of parenting styles on child development
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with addiction in harm reduction programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful crisis management strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with trauma in trauma-focused therapy programs
• Examining the perceptions of healthcare providers regarding patient-centered care
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful product development strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in employment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural competence on healthcare outcomes
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in healthcare navigation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community engagement strategies for non-profit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with physical disabilities in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of childhood trauma on adult mental health
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain sustainability strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with personality disorders in dialectical behavior therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of gender identity on mental health treatment seeking behaviors
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with schizophrenia in community-based treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful project team management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder in exposure and response prevention therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural competence on academic achievement and success
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding academic integrity
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful social media marketing strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with bipolar disorder in community-based treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of mindfulness on academic achievement and success
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in medication-assisted treatment programs
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in exposure therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of healthcare disparities on health outcomes
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain optimization strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with borderline personality disorder in schema therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of culture on perceptions of mental health stigma
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with trauma in art therapy programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful digital marketing strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in online support groups
• Understanding the impact of workplace bullying on job satisfaction and performance
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health resources on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain risk management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in mindfulness-based pain management programs
• Understanding the impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety disorder
• Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on mental health and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful leadership in business organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in cognitive-behavioral therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on intercultural communication
• Examining the perceptions of teachers regarding inclusive education for students with disabilities
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with depression in therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of workplace culture on employee retention and turnover
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with traumatic brain injuries in rehabilitation programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful crisis communication strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in mindfulness-based interventions
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in healthcare settings
• Understanding the impact of technology on work-life balance
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with learning disabilities in academic settings
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful entrepreneurship in small businesses
• Understanding the impact of gender identity on mental health and well-being
• Examining the perceptions of individuals with disabilities regarding accessibility in public spaces
• Understanding the impact of religion on coping strategies for stress and anxiety
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in complementary and alternative medicine treatments
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer retention strategies in business organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with postpartum depression in therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of ageism on older adults in healthcare settings
• Examining the perceptions of students regarding online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in virtual work environments
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with gambling disorders in treatment programs
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in peer support groups
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful social media marketing strategies for businesses
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with ADHD in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of sleep on cognitive and emotional functioning
• Examining the perceptions of individuals with chronic illnesses regarding healthcare access and affordability
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with borderline personality disorder in dialectical behavior therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of social support on caregiver well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in disability activism
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful cultural competency training programs in healthcare settings
• Understanding the impact of personality disorders on interpersonal relationships
• Examining the perceptions of healthcare providers regarding the use of telehealth services
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative disorders in therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of gender bias in hiring practices
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with visual impairments in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful diversity and inclusion programs in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of online dating on romantic relationships
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood vaccination
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful communication in healthcare settings
• Understanding the impact of cultural stereotypes on academic achievement
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in sober living programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful classroom management strategies
• Understanding the impact of social support on addiction recovery
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health stigma
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful conflict resolution in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of race and ethnicity on healthcare access and outcomes
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder in treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful project management strategies
• Understanding the impact of teacher-student relationships on academic achievement
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer service strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with social anxiety disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of workplace stress on job satisfaction and performance
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with disabilities in sports and recreation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful marketing strategies for small businesses
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with phobias in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of culture on attitudes towards mental health and illness
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding sexual assault prevention
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful time management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with addiction in recovery support groups
• Understanding the impact of mindfulness on emotional regulation and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful conflict resolution in romantic relationships
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in social skills training programs
• Understanding the impact of parent-child communication on adolescent substance use
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood mental health services
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful fundraising strategies for non-profit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in support groups
• Understanding the impact of personality traits on career success and satisfaction
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with disabilities in accessing public transportation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in sports teams
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in alternative medicine treatments
• Understanding the impact of stigma on mental health treatment seeking behaviors
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding diversity and inclusion on campus.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Best 151+ Phenomenological Research Topics For Students

Phenomenological research, centered on understanding the essence of human experiences, has garnered increasing attention in academic circles. Its popularity in education stems from its unique ability to offer students a deeper understanding of the intricacies of human existence. 

In the realm of education, phenomenological research holds significant importance. It empowers students to connect theory with practice, fostering a deeper appreciation for the human dimensions of learning and development. 

Through phenomenological investigations, students gain valuable insights into diverse perspectives, enhancing their empathy and understanding.

Research topics in phenomenology are crucial for students as they provide avenues for exploration and growth. These topics allow students to investigate various aspects of human experience, from the mundane to the extraordinary, unveiling layers of meaning and significance.

In this blog, we will explore a wide range of phenomenological research topics tailored specifically for students. From unraveling the essence of consciousness to exploring the lived experiences of individuals in different contexts.

Our aim is to inspire and guide students in their research endeavors, empowering them to uncover the richness of human existence through the lens of phenomenology.

Phenomenological research: What Exactly Is It?

Table of Contents

Phenomenological research delves into the essence of human experiences, aiming to understand the subjective aspects of reality. 

It explores how individuals interpret and make sense of the world around them, focusing on their lived experiences rather than objective observations. This approach emphasizes the importance of understanding the unique perspectives and perceptions of individuals, recognizing that reality is shaped by personal experiences. 

Phenomenological research involves rigorous reflection, analysis, and interpretation, with the goal of uncovering the underlying meanings and structures inherent in human consciousness. 

It offers a valuable framework for exploring the intricacies of human existence and has applications across various disciplines, including psychology, sociology, and education.

Criteria for Selecting Phenomenological Research Topics

Selecting phenomenological research topics involves careful consideration of various factors to ensure the relevance, significance, and feasibility of the study. Here are some criteria to consider when choosing phenomenological research topics:

• Personal Interest: Choose a topic that genuinely interests you, as enthusiasm will fuel your research efforts.
• Relevance: Ensure the topic aligns with your academic or professional goals and contributes to existing knowledge in your field.
• Feasibility: Consider the resources, time, and access needed to conduct research on the chosen topic.
• Clarity: Select a topic with clear boundaries and research questions, facilitating focused investigation.
• Significance: Opt for topics that address meaningful questions or issues, offering potential insights or solutions.
• Accessibility: Ensure the availability of relevant literature, data, and resources to support your research.
• Ethical Considerations: Reflect on the ethical implications of your research topic and ensure compliance with ethical guidelines and standards.

List of Phenomenological Research Topics & Ideas In Education

Phenomenological research in education focuses on exploring lived experiences, perceptions, and meanings related to various aspects of teaching, learning, and educational contexts. Here is a list of potential phenomenological research topics and ideas in education:

Student Experience

• The Lived Experience of First-Generation College Students
• Understanding Student Motivation in Online Learning Environments
• Perceptions of Academic Stress Among High School Students
• Exploring Student-Teacher Relationships in Early Childhood Education
• The Lived Experience of Bullying Among Middle School Students
• Student Perspectives on the Transition to Remote Learning During COVID-19
• The Meaning of Success for College Students
• Navigating Cultural Identity in Higher Education
• Exploring the Impact of Extracurricular Activities on Student Well-being
• Student Perspectives on Inclusive Education Practices
• The Lived Experience of Homeschooling
• Student Perceptions of STEM Education
• Understanding Student Engagement in Project-Based Learning
• The Meaning of Achievement for High-Achieving Students
• Exploring Student Resilience in the Face of Academic Challenges
• The Lived Experience of Special Education Students

Teacher Experience

• The Lived Experience of New Teachers in Urban Schools
• Teacher Perspectives on the Integration of Technology in the Classroom
• Exploring Teacher Burnout and Stress in Secondary Education
• The Meaning of Teaching Excellence
• Teacher Experiences with Classroom Management Strategies
• The Lived Experience of Teaching Students with Disabilities
• Teacher Perceptions of Professional Development Programs
• Understanding Teacher Identity and Role Perception
• Exploring Teacher Collaboration in Professional Learning Communities
• Teacher Perspectives on Inclusive Classroom Practices
• The Lived Experience of Teaching in Multicultural Classrooms
• Teacher Attitudes Towards Standardized Testing
• Exploring Teacher Well-being and Self-care Practices
• The Meaning of Teacher Leadership
• Teacher Perspectives on Parental Involvement in Education
• The Lived Experience of Teaching in Rural Schools

Parental Involvement

• Parent Perspectives on Early Childhood Education Programs
• The Lived Experience of Parenting a Child with Special Needs
• Understanding Parental Involvement in Homework Practices
• Exploring Parent-Teacher Communication in Elementary Schools
• Parent Perspectives on School Choice and Education Policy
• The Meaning of Parental Engagement in Education
• Parent Experiences with Homeschooling
• Understanding Parental Expectations and Aspirations for Their Children
• Exploring Parental Involvement in Extracurricular Activities
• Parent Perspectives on Inclusive Education for Children with Disabilities
• The Lived Experience of Being a Single Parent in Education
• Parental Perceptions of Social and Emotional Learning Programs
• Exploring Parental Involvement in Early Literacy Development
• The Meaning of Parent-Teacher Partnerships
• Parent Experiences with Remote Learning During the Pandemic
• Understanding Parental Involvement in College Preparation

School Climate and Culture

• Student Perspectives on School Safety Measures
• The Lived Experience of School Bullying Prevention Programs
• Teacher Perceptions of School Leadership and Administration
• Exploring School Climate and Its Impact on Student Well-being
• Parent Perspectives on School Culture and Diversity
• The Meaning of Equity and Inclusion in School Environments
• Student Experiences with Restorative Justice Practices in Schools
• Understanding the Role of School Climate in Academic Achievement
• Exploring Cultural Competency in School Settings
• Teacher Perspectives on Building Positive Classroom Culture
• The Lived Experience of Student Discipline Policies
• Parental Involvement in School Decision-Making Processes
• Exploring Teacher-Student Relationships and Trust in Schools
• The Meaning of Respect and Belonging in School Communities
• Student Perspectives on Peer Relationships and Social Dynamics
• Teacher Experiences with Classroom Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives

Curriculum and Instruction

• Student Perspectives on Project-Based Learning Experiences
• The Lived Experience of STEM Education Programs
• Teacher Perspectives on Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices
• Exploring Student Engagement in Differentiated Instruction
• Parent Perspectives on Homeschool Curriculum Choices
• The Meaning of Authentic Assessment in Education
• Student Experiences with Inquiry-Based Learning Approaches
• Understanding Teacher Decision-Making in Curriculum Design
• Exploring Student Voice and Choice in Learning
• Teacher Experiences with Integrating Social and Emotional Learning
• The Lived Experience of Outdoor and Experiential Education
• Parent Perspectives on Early Literacy Curriculum
• Exploring the Role of Arts Education in Student Development
• The Meaning of Global Citizenship Education
• Student Perspectives on Online Learning Platforms
• Teacher Experiences with Flipped Classroom Models

Educational Policy and Reform

• Student Perspectives on Standardized Testing Practices
• The Lived Experience of Education Policy Implementation
• Teacher Perceptions of Educational Equity Initiatives
• Exploring the Impact of School Funding Policies on Student Achievement
• Parent Perspectives on School Choice Options and Charter Schools
• The Meaning of Educational Justice in Policy Discourse
• Student Experiences with No Child Left Behind and Every Student Succeeds Acts
• Understanding Teacher Resistance to Education Reform Efforts
• Exploring the Role of Advocacy Groups in Shaping Education Policy
• Teacher Perspectives on Teacher Evaluation Systems
• The Lived Experience of High-Stakes Testing Pressure
• Parental Involvement in Education Policy Advocacy
• Exploring the Impact of Immigration Policies on Education Access
• The Meaning of Educational Accountability in Policy Implementation
• Student Perspectives on School Discipline Policies and Zero Tolerance
• Teacher Experiences with Education Policy Changes During the Pandemic

Technology in Education

• Student Perspectives on Digital Learning Platforms
• The Lived Experience of Online Education Programs
• Teacher Perceptions of Educational Technology Integration
• Exploring Student Engagement in Virtual Classroom Environments
• Parent Perspectives on Screen Time and Technology Use in Education
• The Meaning of Digital Literacy in the 21st Century Classroom
• Student Experiences with Blended Learning Models
• Understanding Teacher Professional Development in Educational Technology
• Exploring the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Personalized Learning
• Teacher Experiences with Overcoming Technological Barriers in Education
• The Lived Experience of Cyberbullying and Online Safety Measures
• Parent Perspectives on Distance Learning During the Pandemic
• Exploring Student Creativity and Innovation in Technology-Enhanced Learning
• The Meaning of Educational Access and Equity in Digital Spaces
• Student Perspectives on Social Media Use and Its Impact on Education
• Teacher Experiences with Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Applications in Education

Special Education and Inclusive Practices

• Student Perspectives on Inclusive Education Programs
• The Lived Experience of Students with Learning Disabilities in Mainstream Classrooms
• Teacher Perceptions of Individualized Education Plans (IEPs)
• Exploring Parental Involvement in Special Education Decision-Making
• The Meaning of Inclusion and Belonging for Students with Disabilities
• Student Experiences with Assistive Technology in Education
• Understanding Teacher Attitudes Towards Inclusive Classroom Practices
• Exploring the Role of Paraprofessionals in Supporting Students with Special Needs
• Teacher Experiences with Differentiated Instruction for Diverse Learners
• The Lived Experience of Transition Planning for Students with Disabilities
• Parent Perspectives on Advocating for Special Education Services
• Exploring Student Self-Advocacy Skills in Special Education Settings
• The Meaning of Success and Achievement for Students with Disabilities
• Student Perspectives on Peer Relationships in Inclusive Classrooms
• Teacher Experiences with Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
• Understanding the Impact of Stigma and Stereotypes on Students with Disabilities

Higher Education and Career Development

• Student Perspectives on College Readiness and Preparation
• Teacher Perceptions of College and Career Readiness Programs
• Exploring Parental Expectations for Higher Education
• The Meaning of Success in Higher Education
• Student Experiences with Internship and Work-Study Programs
• Understanding Teacher-Student Relationships in College Settings
• Exploring the Role of Mentoring in College and Career Success
• Teacher Experiences with Advising and Counseling College-Bound Students
• The Lived Experience of Non-Traditional Students in Higher Education
• Parent Perspectives on College Affordability and Financial Aid
• Exploring Student Decision-Making in Choosing a College Major
• The Meaning of Employability and Career Preparedness
• Student Perspectives on Work-Life Balance During College
• Teacher Experiences with Supporting Students’ Transition to the Workforce
• Understanding the Impact of College Experiences on Long-Term Career Trajectories

Global Perspectives in Education

• Student Perspectives on International Education Programs and Exchanges
• The Lived Experience of Cultural Adjustment for International Students
• Teacher Perceptions of Global Citizenship Education
• Exploring Parental Attitudes Towards Global Learning Initiatives
• The Meaning of Diversity and Inclusion in Global Education
• Student Experiences with Service-Learning and Volunteer Abroad Programs
• Understanding Teacher-Student Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges
• Exploring the Role of Technology in Connecting Global Classrooms
• Teacher Experiences with Incorporating Global Issues into Curriculum
• The Lived Experience of Language Learning and Multilingualism
• Parent Perspectives on the Value of Global Education for Their Children
• Exploring Student Perspectives on Cultural Identity and Belonging
• The Meaning of Intercultural Competence in Education
• Student Perspectives on Global Environmental Education and Sustainability
• Teacher Experiences with Leading Global Education Initiatives
• Understanding the Impact of Globalization on Education Systems and Practices

These topics offer avenues for exploring the subjective experiences, perceptions, and meanings embedded within educational contexts, shedding light on diverse aspects of teaching, learning, and the educational experience.

Importance of Phenomenological Research Topics

Phenomenological research topics hold significant importance for several reasons:

Deep Understanding

Phenomenological research topics allow researchers to delve into the depth of human experiences, providing insights into the subjective aspects of reality.

Personal Connection

These topics resonate with individuals personally, fostering empathy and understanding of diverse perspectives.

Practical Application

Findings from phenomenological research can inform educational practices, policy-making, and interventions aimed at improving student outcomes and enhancing the educational experience.

Meaningful Exploration

Phenomenological research topics offer opportunities for meaningful exploration of complex phenomena, contributing to advancing knowledge in education and related fields.

Tips for Conducting Phenomenological Research Topics

Conducting phenomenological research requires careful attention to methodological principles and approaches that facilitate the exploration of lived experiences and subjective meanings. Here are some tips for conducting phenomenological research:

• Immersion: Immerse yourself fully in the phenomenon under study, experiencing it firsthand to gain deeper insight.
• Bracketing: Set aside preconceived notions and biases to approach the research with an open mind.
• Reflexivity: Reflect on your own experiences and how they may influence your interpretation of the data.
• Participant Selection: Choose participants who have experienced the phenomenon in question and can provide rich, detailed accounts.
• Data Collection: Utilize methods such as interviews, observations, and journaling to gather in-depth data.
• Thematic Analysis: Identify common themes and patterns in the data to uncover the essence of the phenomenon.
• Member Checking: Validate findings with participants to ensure accuracy and authenticity.
• Ethical Considerations: Respect participants’ privacy, autonomy, and confidentiality throughout the research process.

Final Thoughts

The selection of appropriate phenomenological research topics is crucial for delving into the richness of human experience and uncovering subjective meanings. 

It empowers students to explore the complexities of lived experiences, fostering empathy, understanding, and meaningful insights. 

By embracing phenomenology, researchers can advance knowledge and understanding across diverse fields, shedding light on the intricacies of the human condition. 

As students embark on their research endeavors, may they be inspired to engage deeply with the phenomenological approach, recognizing its profound potential to contribute to scholarship, practice, and the pursuit of truth.

1. What are some common challenges in conducting phenomenological research?

Challenges may include ensuring participant confidentiality and privacy, managing researcher bias, and interpreting subjective experiences. Additionally, researchers may encounter difficulties in selecting appropriate data collection methods and analyzing rich qualitative data.

2. Can phenomenological research be applied across different disciplines?

Yes, phenomenological research can be applied in various fields, including psychology, sociology, education, healthcare, and more. The subjective nature of phenomenological inquiry allows researchers to explore diverse phenomena and perspectives, making it adaptable to different disciplines.

3. What are some examples of phenomenological research topics in education?

Examples include exploring student experiences in online learning environments, understanding teacher perspectives on inclusive education practices, and investigating parental involvement in early childhood education programs.

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• Open access
• Published: 01 April 2024

Midwives’ lived experiences of caring for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium in Eswatini: a qualitative study

• Annie M. Temane 1 ,
• Fortunate N. Magagula 2 &
• Anna G. W. Nolte 1  

BMC Women's Health volume  24 , Article number:  207 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

46 Accesses

Metrics details

Midwives encounter various difficulties while aiming to achieve excellence in providing maternity care to women with mobility disabilities. The study aimed to explore and describe midwives’ experiences of caring for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium in Eswatini.

A qualitative, exploratory, descriptive, contextual research design with a phenomenological approach was followed. Twelve midwives working in maternal health facilities in the Hhohho and Manzini regions in Eswatini were interviewed. Purposive sampling was used to select midwives to participate in the research. In-depth phenomenological interviews were conducted, and Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological method was used for data analysis.

Three themes emerged from the data analysis: midwives experienced physical and emotional strain in providing maternity care to women with mobility disabilities, they experienced frustration due to the lack of equipment to meet the needs of women with mobility disabilities, and they faced challenges in providing support and holistic care to women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium.

Conclusions

Midwives experienced challenges caring for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and the puerperium in Eswatini. There is a need to develop and empower midwives with the knowledge and skill to implement guidelines and enact protocols. Moreover, equipment and infrastructure are required to facilitate support and holistic maternity care for women with mobility disabilities.

Peer Review reports

Globally, few studies have focused on midwives’ views of providing maternity care to women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and the puerperium [ 1 ]. In The Disabled World [ 2 ], the World Health Organisation (WHO) defines ‘disability’ as an umbrella term covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. Furthermore, the WHO defines an ‘impairment’ as a problem in bodily function or structure; an ‘activity limitation’ as a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; and ‘participation restriction’ as a problem experienced by an individual in various life situations [ 2 ]. In this study, mobility disabilities refer to an impairment in the functioning of the upper and lower extremities as experienced by women during pregnancy, labour and the puerperium.

Midwives, as frontline workers in the delivery of maternity care [ 3 ] responsible for the lives of the mother and the baby, are accountable for providing competent and holistic care for women during pregnancy, labour and puerperium. As part of healthcare provision, midwives play an important role in ensuring that every woman, including women with mobility disabilities, receives the best maternity care during pregnancy, labour and puerperium. Moridi et al. [ 4 ] state that women with mobility disabilities are entitled to feel safe, respected and well cared for by midwives, who must be sufficiently prepared to care for these women.

According to the Global Population Report, [ 5 ] more than one billion people have some form of disability. Eswatini is classified as a middle-income setting in the southern African region, measuring 17 000 square kilometres with a population of 1 093 238. Of the population, 76.2% reside in rural areas (833 472), and 23.8% (259 766) reside in urban areas [ 6 ]. The economy is largely agricultural as most industries manufacture agricultural products [ 7 ]. Of the Eswatini population, 146 554 (13%) live with disabilities, with most being women (87 258; 16%), 22,871 (14.1%) and 26,270 (14.3%) of them reside in the Hhohho and Manzini regions respectively [ 8 ]. 15% (125 545) of people with disabilities live in rural areas, and 85% of the disabled population is unemployed [ 8 ], which means most of these individuals are economically disadvantaged. Furthermore, according to the Eswatini Central Statistics Office, 8 26.5% of people with disabilities have a mobility (walking) disability, with 63.5% of these being women.

Midwives may encounter difficulties while aiming to achieve excellence in providing maternity care to women with mobility disabilities in what may be challenging circumstances [ 9 ]. The WHO [ 10 ] claims people with disabilities do not receive the health services they need and are thus likely to find healthcare providers have inadequate skills. Lawler et al. [ 11 ] argue that ineffective interactions and poor communication with women needing care, particularly among health professionals engaged in providing maternity services, limit these women’s opportunities to participate in decision-making processes during pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum care. According to the University of Johannesburg, [ 12 ] the midwife, together with the mother, have to engage collaboratively in order to come up with opportunities to promote health while removing any challenges that could impede the achievement thereof.

Walsh-Gallagher et al. [ 13 ] postulate that healthcare professionals tend to view women with disabilities as liabilities and regard them as high risk; they often exclude them from the individualised plan of care, which leads to an increase in these women’s fears about their maternity care. These challenges frequently result in health disparities and prevent women with mobility disabilities from receiving optimal maternity care. By exploring midwives’ experiences of this phenomenon, guidelines for support can be developed to extend available knowledge on maternity care for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium.

Study design

The aim of the study was to explore and describe midwives’ experiences of caring for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium in the Hhohho and Manzini regions of Eswatini. A qualitative, [ 14 ] exploratory, [ 15 ] descriptive, [ 16 ] contextual [ 17 ] research design with a phenomenological approach [ 18 ] was applied for this study to gain insight and understanding of the research phenomenon [ 19 ]. The phenomenon under study was midwives’ lived experiences caring for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium. The participants were approached face-to-face to participate in the study. The researchers followed the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) to report on this qualitative study [ 20 ].

The setting for the study was the Hhohho and Manzini regions of Eswatini. The researcher collected data at the site where participants experienced the phenomenon, as emphasised by Yildiz, [ 21 ] within the context in which they were comfortable to be interviewed [ 22 ]. This setting included maternal health facilities in hospitals and public health units.

Population and sampling

The study’s population comprised midwives working in maternal health facilities in hospitals and public health units, that is, one referral hospital and one public health unit in the Hhohho region and two referral hospitals and one public health unit in the Manzini region of Eswatini. Purposive sampling was used to select midwives to participate in the study; [ 16 ] 12 midwives from both regions were included. The midwives were between the ages of 35 and 55, and all midwives were black in race and identified as females. The years of experience in the field ranged between 5 and 15 years. The criteria for inclusion were midwives who had provided maternity care to women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium for a period of not more than two to three years, willing to participate in the study. The sample size was determined by repetitions of key statements about the research phenomenon during data collection, termed data saturation [ 23 ]. None of the participants refused to participate in the study.

Table  1 summarises the participants’ demographic characteristics.

Data collection

In-depth phenomenological, face-to-face, individual interviews were conducted to collect data [ 17 ]. The researcher who was a Midwifery lecturer held a Master’s Degree in Maternal and Neonatal science at the time of the study requested approval from the Unit manager to seek permission from the midwives to take part in the study. The midwives were given an information letter which included objectives of the study and the reasons for conducting the study. After recruiting midwives and obtaining their written consent to participate in the study and permission to audio-record the interviews, the researcher set up appointments with them for the interviews, and the data collection process commenced. The central question posed to participants was: How was it for you to care for a woman with a mobility disability during pregnancy, labour and puerperium? A pilot of the tool was performed on the first participant who met the inclusion criteria and possessed the same characteristics as those of the study sample. The pre-testing question yielded positive results, the participant responded to the question asked and there was no need to rephrase it or further test it.

The interviews were conducted from March 2019 to July 2019 and lasted 30–45 min. The researcher conducted interviews until the data became redundant and repetitive, reflecting that saturation had been reached, in congruence with Fouché et al. [ 25 ] In addition, field notes were recorded in a notebook after each in-depth phenomenological interview. No repeat interviews were held. The researcher ensured bracketing by omitting any perceptions from her past experiences that were likely to influence her interpretation of the research findings.

Data analysis

Before data analysis commenced, data were organised in computer files after being transcribed and translated into narrative form. Data from each participant were coded and stored in the relevant file and kept in a safe place; only the researcher could access the information. Back-up copies were made of all the data, and the master copies were stored in a safe to which only the researcher had access.

Data collection and analysis occurred concurrently. The researcher was guided by Giorgi et al.’s [ 26 ] five-step method of data analysis. This entailed the researcher reading all the transcribed data and the entire ‘naïve description’ provided by the participants during the interviews. The demarcation of ‘meaning units’ within narratives followed. In addition, the researcher marked where meaning shifts occurred and transformed meaning units into descriptive expressions. The researcher laid out the general structure of midwives’ experiences. Moreover, an independent coder was provided with the raw data (after signing a confidentiality agreement) to analyse the findings. The researcher and independent coder analysed the data separately and met for a consensus discussion. Both agreed on all the units of analysis, with an inter-coder reliability of 100%.

Measures of trustworthiness

The research was informed by Guba and Lincoln’s [ 27 ] model in relation to credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. For credibility, the researcher ensured prolonged engagement in the field [ 28 ], peer debriefing, [ 29 ] member checking, and an external auditor was used [ 25 ]. The study was also presented at a national conference. Transferability refers to the ability to extend the findings of one’s study to comparable environments or participants, as stated by Pitney et al. [ 30 ] The researcher ensured the study’s transferability by providing a richly documented account and in-depth description of all aspects and processes of the study protocol. Data saturation also confirmed transferability [ 23 ]. Dependability is evident in a study when other researchers are able to follow the researcher’s decision trail [ 31 ]. The researcher ensured dependability by densely describing the research process in congruence with Fouché et al.’s [ 25 ] guidelines, so that other researchers can follow similar steps of the same research methodology. Confirmability occurs when the research is judged by the way in which the findings and conclusions achieve their aim and are not the result of the researcher’s prior assumptions and preconceptions [ 32 ]. The researcher ensured this by remaining true to the research process through reflexivity and not compromising the research process in any way [ 28 ]. In addition, the researcher engaged an independent coder and provided a chain of evidence of the entire research process to enable an audit. Therefore, all forms of collected data, including raw data, reflexive journals, [ 29 ] notes and transcriptions, were recorded.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Johannesburg Faculty of Health Sciences Higher Degrees Committee (ref. no. HDC-01-50-2018), University of Johannesburg Faculty of Health Research Ethics Committee (ref. no. REC-01-82-2018), and the Eswatini National Health Research Review Board (ref. no. NHRRB982/2018). The researcher applied and adhered to the four principles to be considered when conducting research: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice [ 33 ]. Autonomy was adhered to by affording the participants the right to choose to participate in the study and by signing a written informed consent form a week after it was given to them before the interviews commenced. Beneficence was ensured through doing good and doing no harm to participants by prioritising the participants’ interests above those of the researcher, and did not engage in any practice that jeopardised their rights. Non-maleficence was observed by eradicating any possible harmful risks in the study; the researcher ensured the safety of the participants by conducting interviews in a familiar, private environment where they felt free and safe from harm. Furthermore, justice was observed by treating all participants equally regardless of their biographical, social and economic status.

Three themes and categories emerged from the data analysis. Table  2 summarises the themes and categories of midwives’ lived experiences caring for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium in Eswatini.

Theme 1: physical and emotional efforts required from midwives to provide maternity care to women with mobility disabilities

Category 1.1: midwives experienced that woman with mobility disabilities needed assistance getting onto the bed during labour and delivery.

According to the participants, caring for women with mobility disabilities weighed heavily on them physically as they were required to assist the women onto delivery beds, which were too high for the women to climb up on their own:

“The beds are too high, they need to be adjustable…unless you change her to another room, we only have one in the other room…but to be honest she delivered on the same high bed with the help…It’s uncomfortable even with me who is normal, how about someone who has a disability? Getting the woman onto the bed is also uncomfortable for us we end up having pain on our backs.” (M3) . “The challenge is that I couldn’t help her to climb on to the bed, because I needed someone to assist when she came for postnatal care as she was even carrying 3 babies, I didn’t know what to do…I eventually went out and asked for assistance from my colleague…” (M10) . “I believe that the equipment should accommodate the women with disability, however, ours is not accommodative to the women…there are no special delivery beds, specifically designed for them because in my opinion the beds have to be shorter so they can be able to get on to them easily…yes so that they can be able to climb on the beds” (M1) .

Category 1.2: midwives experienced challenges in manoeuvring women with mobility disabilities during labour

Midwives reported it was difficult to perform some procedures while progressing these women during labour and delivery. This situation called for some adjustment and improvisation on their part, and they were unsure if it was the right thing to do.

“Even though she was a bit uncomfortable and anxious because the leg was just straight and could not bend, I reassured her…She had to remove the artificial leg and remain with the stump. I placed her on the lithotomy position. With the other hand she had to hold on to the ankle of the normal foot, even though it was awkward and difficult to manoeuvre, she managed to deliver the baby.” (M1) . “Luckily for us, she didn’t sustain a tear and we were saved from suturing her cause we foresaw difficulties as how we could have done it as she couldn’t open her thighs well due to the disability…yes I had to get a partner to assist, since she couldn’t even open her thighs. She also couldn’t cooperate possibly because of the pain that is also more reason I asked for my colleague to assist.” (M6) . “…yes…let me make an example, in my case she had a fracture, even if the pelvis was gynaecoid, there were problems of finding the right position for her during delivery, when she had to push the baby out…” (M8) . “The one that I saw did not have one leg. She had come for her postnatal care. We assisted and her on the couch, with my colleague. Since she couldn’t keep her legs open, I asked my colleague to keep one of her legs open whilst I examined her.” (M12) .

Category 1.3: midwives experienced anxiety and the need to exercise patience when caring for women with mobility disabilities

The participants experienced an emotional and psychological burden when caring for women with mobility disabilities. They felt unqualified and foresaw difficulties that triggered anxiety, which led to them not knowing what to do and how to handle these women.

“It was during labour…the woman was limping the woman she was on crutches. The moment she came into the ward I am a human being I just felt sorry for her kutsi (as to) how is she going to take care of the baby, and the hand was somehow deformed.” (M3) . “At first its emotionally draining as an individual you cause you start sympathising…(other midwife chips in)…yes you even find yourself saying things just because you pity her, and in the process they get hurt.” (M6) . “It came as a shock and it was my first experience, it came as a shock as to how I was going to help her as even my experience was limited in that area.” (M7) . “As I was taking care of her it became necessary for me to put myself into her shoes and to bear with her considering her situation….When you see her for the first time you would pity her yet she is now used to it.” (M1) .

Theme 2: lack of equipment to meet the needs of women with mobility disabilities

Category 2.1: midwives reported a lack of special beds and infrastructure to meet the needs of women with mobility disabilities.

Midwives reported their frustration at the lack of sufficient equipment like special beds and examination tables, tailored for women with mobility disabilities. It was a challenge to provide maternity care for women without this equipment.

“I believe that the infrastructure and equipment should accommodate the women with mobility disability, however, ours is not accommodative to the women…Usually we don’t have the prenatal ward in the maternity, most women who come in the latent phase have to ambulate, or go to the waiting huts and come back when the labour pains are stronger…There are no special delivery beds, specifically designed for them because in my opinion the beds have to be shorter so they can be able to get on to them easily. We do not even have toilets meant for them.” (M1) . “I was anxious as to how was she going to push how to push cause we do not have the right beds when it was time for pushing I asked for assistance…” (M2) . “The challenge is that I couldn’t help her to climb on to the bed, because I needed someone to assist when she came for postnatal care…the beds need to be adjustable so that they are able to be pushed lower for the mother to move from wheel chair to the bed and we pull the bed up again to examine her.” (M11) .

Theme 3: challenges in providing holistic care to women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour, and puerperium

Category 3.1: midwives reported a lack of guidelines and protocols in caring holistically for women with mobility disabilities.

Midwives emphasised a lack of guidelines, protocols and knowledge about caring holistically for women with mobility disabilities. This resulted in everyone making their own decisions and doing as they saw fit in caring for these women:

“I think during antenatal care they (the women with mobility disabilities) need to be prepared for labour cause for others the pain is extraordinary, apart from the pain threshold, they also face self-esteem issues, they are looked down upon…I only saw that she was disabled during assessment cause nothing was recorded on the antenatal care card.” (M2) . “I was not aware of the disability at first, I only discovered when she was pushing…she was admitted and progressed by another midwife, I only attended to her when she was pushing… there was nothing written on the nurse’s notes/ handover notes about her disability.” (M5) . “There is no normal practice for a woman with mobility disability when they come and they are in labour, I usually admit regardless of the stage of labour or dilatation…It is not a protocol, it’s a midwife’s prerogative.” (M1) . “We assess and come up with our own discretion even in terms of admitting them (women with mobility disability). Some midwives will admit them regardless of the stage of labour and disregard the protocol that women who come into labour have to ambulate if they are in the latent phase.” (M8) . “There is one that came the past 3 days she has 3 children now and we just scheduled her for c/section because we know that she has been having c/section since she started. Just from looking at the way she walked, we could tell that she couldn’t deliver normally.” (M9) .

Category 3.2: midwives experienced challenges in allowing significant others to support women with mobility disabilities during labour and delivery

Consequent to the challenges in providing holistic care to women with mobility disabilities, midwives experienced challenges in allowing significant others to support these women during labour and delivery.

“It can depend on the patients themselves, they should decide and we need to be flexible for it to happen…as you can see our labour room also has the issue of privacy…we would need to restructure cause we have beds for 5 or more women in labour room…and then bringing someone from outside could be tricky” (M6) . “Maybe…not sure though, that they can bring their relatives, but maybe, considering staffing limitation…also the issue of discrimination and privacy, they (the women with disabilities) might feel we discriminate against them because they are disabled we now treat them differently.” (M7) . “Maybe if she can (bring her relative) but that’s not necessary, because I can always ask my colleague to assist, unless there is no one…” (M12) .

Childbirth is a special experience that requires a personal connection between the midwife and the woman giving birth, characterised by successful communication and respect [ 34 ]. However, the themes identified in the study indicated that midwives experienced challenges caring for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium based on their limited capacity and preparedness, and lack of protocols to care for these women. They also reported a lack of supportive equipment for women with mobility disabilities. This posed a challenge for them in attending to these women’s specific needs, and they did not always know how to handle the situation appropriately.

One of the themes centred on midwives’ experiences of the physical and emotional efforts required of them to provide maternity care to women with mobility disabilities. They explained women with mobility disabilities required assistance getting onto the bed during labour and delivery, and more manoeuvring was expected of them (as midwives) as they had to adjust their performance and some procedures. The midwives also reported challenges in providing holistic care to women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium. Konig-Bachmann et al. [ 35 ] reiterate that caring for women with disabilities requires a level of flexibility, adaptation beyond routine procedures, and demands a high degree of improvisation from healthcare providers to ensure high-quality care. Morrison et al. [ 36 ] also found that healthcare providers reported difficulties with equipment when providing healthcare for women with physical disabilities; particularly the beds being too high for them to access. Smeltzer et al. [ 37 ] similarly allude to the importance of educating and training clinicians to equip them with knowledge and technical skills to provide more effective care to women with physical disabilities.

The midwives also shared that labour and deliveries were further complicated by some women with mobility disabilities not being able to cooperate due to the pain they experienced; others could not change position due to their disability. In a study by Sonalkar et al., [ 38 ] healthcare providers described the gynaecologic examination as challenging to complete as it required patience and the ability to be adaptable to different methods and positioning. Similarly, Konig-Bachmann et al. [ 35 ] indicate that in order to provide high-quality care for women with disabilities, healthcare providers need to exercise strong flexibility, adapt beyond routine procedures, and engage in a high degree of improvisation. Byrnes and Hickey [ 39 ] concur with this study’s findings and state that due to mobility restrictions, it may be difficult to assess the fundal height and foetal growth in women with physical disabilities.

Some midwives reported their caregiving role was emotionally draining as they felt sorry and pitied the women with mobility disabilities; thus, they needed to show compassion and reassure them. According to Mgwili et al., [ 40 ] psychoanalytic thinkers associate pity among staff members upon first contact with a physically disabled person as being instigated by personal feelings, stimulated by the disability. The midwives in this study stated they needed to be more patient and adjust their approach to caring for these women. Tarasoff [ 41 ] and Schildberger et al. [ 42 ] reiterated that healthcare providers seemed uncomfortable with women’s disability, consequently failing to offer needed support. According to Sonalkar et al., [ 38 ] healthcare providers reported there would be less fear and concern about hurting women with disabilities if midwives had increased training. Similarly, Mitra et al. [ 43 ] mentioned that healthcare providers had a general lack of confidence in their ability to provide adequate maternity care for women with physical disabilities.

Another theme was midwives’ challenges in providing competent and quality care for women with mobility disabilities due to a lack of equipment, including special beds and examination tables to meet these women’s needs. The examination, labour and delivery beds were too high and could not be adjusted for the women to get on by themselves, or even with the assistance of a midwife. In addition, the midwives reported there was no prenatal ward or waiting huts where they could place these women during the latent phase of labour. The midwives further emphasised there were no special toilets for women with mobility disabilities, which made it hazardous and difficult for them. Mitra et al. [ 43 ] concur on the barriers to providing maternity care to women with physical disabilities presented from health professionals’ perspectives. The authors indicated that participants from their study reported inaccessible equipment, including examination tables, as a barrier, making it more difficult and time-consuming to care for women with physical disabilities. In addition, Sonalkar et al. [ 38 ] said healthcare providers shared their concern about the lack of adjustable examination tables and transfer equipment, thus presenting a barrier to equitable care for women with disabilities.

Midwives further reported a lack of guidelines and protocols. This resulted in everyone making their own decisions and doing as they saw fit in caring for these women, and, in most instances, not recording the disability at all during antenatal care and admission into labour records. They often only discovered that the woman had a mobility disability at a later stage, when they were in labour. Sonalkar et al. [ 38 ] reported that healthcare providers felt frustrated and overwhelmed by the uncertainty of whether they made the correct decisions when caring for women with physical disabilities due to the lack of guidelines forcing them to use their own judgement. Mitra et al. [ 43 ] determined that most healthcare providers reported a lack of maternity practice guidelines for women with physical disabilities. Also, healthcare providers highlighted the importance of learning about disabilities and having a better understanding of a condition, particularly if it is likely to be exacerbated during pregnancy [ 44 ]. The need to make and read the notes on these women’s antenatal care cards or reports was emphasised.

Due to the lack of clear guidelines and protocols in caring for women with mobility disabilities, the midwives reported they sometimes admitted the woman into the labour ward regardless of the stage of labour, while other midwives did not and wanted them to walk around and come back for admission once they are in the active phase of labour. Furthermore, the midwives explained they often referred these women for caesarean sections right away, regardless of whether the woman could deliver normally due to mere panic from just seeing the disability or based on a previous record of surgery. Smeltzer et al. [ 45 ] researched obstetric clinicians’ experiences and educational preparation in caring for pregnant women with physical disabilities, and they agree on the lack of knowledge among health professionals caring for women with mobility disability.

Devkota et al. [ 46 ] also agree regarding midwives’ inefficiency in providing quality care for women with mobility disabilities. They claim healthcare providers often struggle to understand women with disabilities’ needs as they are not formally trained to provide services to this population. These healthcare providers were found to be undertrained in specific skills that would equip them to provide better and more targeted services for women with disabilities.

Consequent to the challenges in providing holistic care to women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium, midwives experienced challenges in allowing significant others to support these women. They reported that as much as they needed assistance caring for these women, and as much as the women would prefer to have their family members or significant others assisting them, this is not possible due to the lack of privacy, especially in public health facilities. Walsh-Gallager et al.’s [ 13 ] study on the ambiguity of disabled women’s experiences of pregnancy, childbirth and motherhood resonate with this study’s findings. The authors reported that women with disabilities’ partners were denied access or had their visits curtailed on several occasions due to inflexible hospital visiting policies. Redshaw et al. [ 47 ] reiterated the same in their study; disabled women were less likely to say their companion or partner was welcome to visit, let alone provide any form of assistance. In addition, a study by Bassoumah and Mohammad [ 48 ] reported that women with disabilities were denied their spouses’ support while receiving maternity care. Byrnes and Hickey [ 39 ] also concur that every effort should be made to allow women with disabilities who are in labour to receive support from significant others, and they should be active partners in the labour process.

Limitations

The study was limited to two of the four regions of Eswatini, namely Hhohho and Manzini; hence, the results could not be generalised for the whole country. The study also only focused on mobility disabilities due to time constraints and limited funds. Future research could be conducted to cover all other forms of disabilities.

This study focused on midwives’ lived experiences caring for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium in Eswatini. In-depth phenomenological interviews were conducted, the findings were analysed, and themes were established. The findings illustrate that midwives experienced challenges caring for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium in Eswatini. There is a need to develop and implement guidelines to empower midwives with knowledge and skill to provide support and holistic maternity care, and enact protocols. They should also have access to appropriate equipment and infrastructure specifically tailored towards promoting optimal health for women with mobility disabilities.

Data availability

The data analysed is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the midwives in the Hhohho and Manzini regions of Eswatini who participated in the study and provided their own experiences of providing maternity care to women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium.

The research received funding from the University of Johannesburg Postgraduate Supervisor-linked Bursary.

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F.N.M conducted the research and wrote the manuscript. A.M.T supervised, reviewed, and finalised the manuscript. A.G.W.N co-supervised the study and edited the manuscript for final submission.

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Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Johannesburg Faculty of Health Sciences Higher Degrees Committee (ref. no. HDC-01-50-2018), University of Johannesburg Faculty of Health Research Ethics Committee (ref. no. REC-01-82-2018) and the Eswatini National Health Research Review Board (ref. no. NHRRB982/2018). Participation in this study was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from participants before the interviews commenced.

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Temane, A.M., Magagula, F.N. & Nolte, A.G.W. Midwives’ lived experiences of caring for women with mobility disabilities during pregnancy, labour and puerperium in Eswatini: a qualitative study. BMC Women's Health 24 , 207 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-024-03032-z

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Qualitative Research: Getting Started

Introduction.

As scientifically trained clinicians, pharmacists may be more familiar and comfortable with the concept of quantitative rather than qualitative research. Quantitative research can be defined as “the means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables which in turn can be measured so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures”. 1 Pharmacists may have used such methods to carry out audits or surveys within their own practice settings; if so, they may have had a sense of “something missing” from their data. What is missing from quantitative research methods is the voice of the participant. In a quantitative study, large amounts of data can be collected about the number of people who hold certain attitudes toward their health and health care, but what qualitative study tells us is why people have thoughts and feelings that might affect the way they respond to that care and how it is given (in this way, qualitative and quantitative data are frequently complementary). Possibly the most important point about qualitative research is that its practitioners do not seek to generalize their findings to a wider population. Rather, they attempt to find examples of behaviour, to clarify the thoughts and feelings of study participants, and to interpret participants’ experiences of the phenomena of interest, in order to find explanations for human behaviour in a given context.

WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?

Much of the work of clinicians (including pharmacists) takes place within a social, clinical, or interpersonal context where statistical procedures and numeric data may be insufficient to capture how patients and health care professionals feel about patients’ care. Qualitative research involves asking participants about their experiences of things that happen in their lives. It enables researchers to obtain insights into what it feels like to be another person and to understand the world as another experiences it.

Qualitative research was historically employed in fields such as sociology, history, and anthropology. 2 Miles and Huberman 2 said that qualitative data “are a source of well-grounded, rich descriptions and explanations of processes in identifiable local contexts. With qualitative data one can preserve chronological flow, see precisely which events lead to which consequences, and derive fruitful explanations.” Qualitative methods are concerned with how human behaviour can be explained, within the framework of the social structures in which that behaviour takes place. 3 So, in the context of health care, and hospital pharmacy in particular, researchers can, for example, explore how patients feel about their care, about their medicines, or indeed about “being a patient”.

THE IMPORTANCE OF METHODOLOGY

Smith 4 has described methodology as the “explanation of the approach, methods and procedures with some justification for their selection.” It is essential that researchers have robust theories that underpin the way they conduct their research—this is called “methodology”. It is also important for researchers to have a thorough understanding of various methodologies, to ensure alignment between their own positionality (i.e., bias or stance), research questions, and objectives. Clinicians may express reservations about the value or impact of qualitative research, given their perceptions that it is inherently subjective or biased, that it does not seek to be reproducible across different contexts, and that it does not produce generalizable findings. Other clinicians may express nervousness or hesitation about using qualitative methods, claiming that their previous “scientific” training and experience have not prepared them for the ambiguity and interpretative nature of qualitative data analysis. In both cases, these clinicians are depriving themselves of opportunities to understand complex or ambiguous situations, phenomena, or processes in a different way.

Qualitative researchers generally begin their work by recognizing that the position (or world view) of the researcher exerts an enormous influence on the entire research enterprise. Whether explicitly understood and acknowledged or not, this world view shapes the way in which research questions are raised and framed, methods selected, data collected and analyzed, and results reported. 5 A broad range of different methods and methodologies are available within the qualitative tradition, and no single review paper can adequately capture the depth and nuance of these diverse options. Here, given space constraints, we highlight certain options for illustrative purposes only, emphasizing that they are only a sample of what may be available to you as a prospective qualitative researcher. We encourage you to continue your own study of this area to identify methods and methodologies suitable to your questions and needs, beyond those highlighted here.

The following are some of the methodologies commonly used in qualitative research:

• Ethnography generally involves researchers directly observing participants in their natural environments over time. A key feature of ethnography is the fact that natural settings, unadapted for the researchers’ interests, are used. In ethnography, the natural setting or environment is as important as the participants, and such methods have the advantage of explicitly acknowledging that, in the real world, environmental constraints and context influence behaviours and outcomes. 6 An example of ethnographic research in pharmacy might involve observations to determine how pharmacists integrate into family health teams. Such a study would also include collection of documents about participants’ lives from the participants themselves and field notes from the researcher. 7
• Grounded theory, first described by Glaser and Strauss in 1967, 8 is a framework for qualitative research that suggests that theory must derive from data, unlike other forms of research, which suggest that data should be used to test theory. Grounded theory may be particularly valuable when little or nothing is known or understood about a problem, situation, or context, and any attempt to start with a hypothesis or theory would be conjecture at best. 9 An example of the use of grounded theory in hospital pharmacy might be to determine potential roles for pharmacists in a new or underserviced clinical area. As with other qualitative methodologies, grounded theory provides researchers with a process that can be followed to facilitate the conduct of such research. As an example, Thurston and others 10 used constructivist grounded theory to explore the availability of arthritis care among indigenous people of Canada and were able to identify a number of influences on health care for this population.
• Phenomenology attempts to understand problems, ideas, and situations from the perspective of common understanding and experience rather than differences. 10 Phenomenology is about understanding how human beings experience their world. It gives researchers a powerful tool with which to understand subjective experience. In other words, 2 people may have the same diagnosis, with the same treatment prescribed, but the ways in which they experience that diagnosis and treatment will be different, even though they may have some experiences in common. Phenomenology helps researchers to explore those experiences, thoughts, and feelings and helps to elicit the meaning underlying how people behave. As an example, Hancock and others 11 used a phenomenological approach to explore health care professionals’ views of the diagnosis and management of heart failure since publication of an earlier study in 2003. Their findings revealed that barriers to effective treatment for heart failure had not changed in 10 years and provided a new understanding of why this was the case.

ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER

For any researcher, the starting point for research must be articulation of his or her research world view. This core feature of qualitative work is increasingly seen in quantitative research too: the explicit acknowledgement of one’s position, biases, and assumptions, so that readers can better understand the particular researcher. Reflexivity describes the processes whereby the act of engaging in research actually affects the process being studied, calling into question the notion of “detached objectivity”. Here, the researcher’s own subjectivity is as critical to the research process and output as any other variable. Applications of reflexivity may include participant-observer research, where the researcher is actually one of the participants in the process or situation being researched and must then examine it from these divergent perspectives. 12 Some researchers believe that objectivity is a myth and that attempts at impartiality will fail because human beings who happen to be researchers cannot isolate their own backgrounds and interests from the conduct of a study. 5 Rather than aspire to an unachievable goal of “objectivity”, it is better to simply be honest and transparent about one’s own subjectivities, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions about the interpretations that are presented through the research itself. For new (and experienced) qualitative researchers, an important first step is to step back and articulate your own underlying biases and assumptions. The following questions can help to begin this reflection process:

• Why am I interested in this topic? To answer this question, try to identify what is driving your enthusiasm, energy, and interest in researching this subject.
• What do I really think the answer is? Asking this question helps to identify any biases you may have through honest reflection on what you expect to find. You can then “bracket” those assumptions to enable the participants’ voices to be heard.
• What am I getting out of this? In many cases, pressures to publish or “do” research make research nothing more than an employment requirement. How does this affect your interest in the question or its outcomes, or the depth to which you are willing to go to find information?
• What do others in my professional community think of this work—and of me? As a researcher, you will not be operating in a vacuum; you will be part of a complex social and interpersonal world. These external influences will shape your views and expectations of yourself and your work. Acknowledging this influence and its potential effects on personal behaviour will facilitate greater self-scrutiny throughout the research process.

FROM FRAMEWORKS TO METHODS

Qualitative research methodology is not a single method, but instead offers a variety of different choices to researchers, according to specific parameters of topic, research question, participants, and settings. The method is the way you carry out your research within the paradigm of quantitative or qualitative research.

Qualitative research is concerned with participants’ own experiences of a life event, and the aim is to interpret what participants have said in order to explain why they have said it. Thus, methods should be chosen that enable participants to express themselves openly and without constraint. The framework selected by the researcher to conduct the research may direct the project toward specific methods. From among the numerous methods used by qualitative researchers, we outline below the three most frequently encountered.

DATA COLLECTION

Patton 12 has described an interview as “open-ended questions and probes yielding in-depth responses about people’s experiences, perceptions, opinions, feelings, and knowledge. Data consists of verbatim quotations and sufficient content/context to be interpretable”. Researchers may use a structured or unstructured interview approach. Structured interviews rely upon a predetermined list of questions framed algorithmically to guide the interviewer. This approach resists improvisation and following up on hunches, but has the advantage of facilitating consistency between participants. In contrast, unstructured or semistructured interviews may begin with some defined questions, but the interviewer has considerable latitude to adapt questions to the specific direction of responses, in an effort to allow for more intuitive and natural conversations between researchers and participants. Generally, you should continue to interview additional participants until you have saturated your field of interest, i.e., until you are not hearing anything new. The number of participants is therefore dependent on the richness of the data, though Miles and Huberman 2 suggested that more than 15 cases can make analysis complicated and “unwieldy”.

Focus Groups

Patton 12 has described the focus group as a primary means of collecting qualitative data. In essence, focus groups are unstructured interviews with multiple participants, which allow participants and a facilitator to interact freely with one another and to build on ideas and conversation. This method allows for the collection of group-generated data, which can be a challenging experience.

Observations

Patton 12 described observation as a useful tool in both quantitative and qualitative research: “[it involves] descriptions of activities, behaviours, actions, conversations, interpersonal interactions, organization or community processes or any other aspect of observable human experience”. Observation is critical in both interviews and focus groups, as nonalignment between verbal and nonverbal data frequently can be the result of sarcasm, irony, or other conversational techniques that may be confusing or open to interpretation. Observation can also be used as a stand-alone tool for exploring participants’ experiences, whether or not the researcher is a participant in the process.

Selecting the most appropriate and practical method is an important decision and must be taken carefully. Those unfamiliar with qualitative research may assume that “anyone” can interview, observe, or facilitate a focus group; however, it is important to recognize that the quality of data collected through qualitative methods is a direct reflection of the skills and competencies of the researcher. 13 The hardest thing to do during an interview is to sit back and listen to participants. They should be doing most of the talking—it is their perception of their own life-world that the researcher is trying to understand. Sophisticated interpersonal skills are required, in particular the ability to accurately interpret and respond to the nuanced behaviour of participants in various settings. More information about the collection of qualitative data may be found in the “Further Reading” section of this paper.

It is essential that data gathered during interviews, focus groups, and observation sessions are stored in a retrievable format. The most accurate way to do this is by audio-recording (with the participants’ permission). Video-recording may be a useful tool for focus groups, because the body language of group members and how they interact can be missed with audio-recording alone. Recordings should be transcribed verbatim and checked for accuracy against the audio- or video-recording, and all personally identifiable information should be removed from the transcript. You are then ready to start your analysis.

DATA ANALYSIS

Regardless of the research method used, the researcher must try to analyze or make sense of the participants’ narratives. This analysis can be done by coding sections of text, by writing down your thoughts in the margins of transcripts, or by making separate notes about the data collection. Coding is the process by which raw data (e.g., transcripts from interviews and focus groups or field notes from observations) are gradually converted into usable data through the identification of themes, concepts, or ideas that have some connection with each other. It may be that certain words or phrases are used by different participants, and these can be drawn together to allow the researcher an opportunity to focus findings in a more meaningful manner. The researcher will then give the words, phrases, or pieces of text meaningful names that exemplify what the participants are saying. This process is referred to as “theming”. Generating themes in an orderly fashion out of the chaos of transcripts or field notes can be a daunting task, particularly since it may involve many pages of raw data. Fortunately, sophisticated software programs such as NVivo (QSR International Pty Ltd) now exist to support researchers in converting data into themes; familiarization with such software supports is of considerable benefit to researchers and is strongly recommended. Manual coding is possible with small and straightforward data sets, but the management of qualitative data is a complexity unto itself, one that is best addressed through technological and software support.

There is both an art and a science to coding, and the second checking of themes from data is well advised (where feasible) to enhance the face validity of the work and to demonstrate reliability. Further reliability-enhancing mechanisms include “member checking”, where participants are given an opportunity to actually learn about and respond to the researchers’ preliminary analysis and coding of data. Careful documentation of various iterations of “coding trees” is important. These structures allow readers to understand how and why raw data were converted into a theme and what rules the researcher is using to govern inclusion or exclusion of specific data within or from a theme. Coding trees may be produced iteratively: after each interview, the researcher may immediately code and categorize data into themes to facilitate subsequent interviews and allow for probing with subsequent participants as necessary. At the end of the theming process, you will be in a position to tell the participants’ stories illustrated by quotations from your transcripts. For more information on different ways to manage qualitative data, see the “Further Reading” section at the end of this paper.

ETHICAL ISSUES

In most circumstances, qualitative research involves human beings or the things that human beings produce (documents, notes, etc.). As a result, it is essential that such research be undertaken in a manner that places the safety, security, and needs of participants at the forefront. Although interviews, focus groups, and questionnaires may seem innocuous and “less dangerous” than taking blood samples, it is important to recognize that the way participants are represented in research can be significantly damaging. Try to put yourself in the shoes of the potential participants when designing your research and ask yourself these questions:

• Are the requests you are making of potential participants reasonable?
• Are you putting them at unnecessary risk or inconvenience?
• Have you identified and addressed the specific needs of particular groups?

Where possible, attempting anonymization of data is strongly recommended, bearing in mind that true anonymization may be difficult, as participants can sometimes be recognized from their stories. Balancing the responsibility to report findings accurately and honestly with the potential harm to the participants involved can be challenging. Advice on the ethical considerations of research is generally available from research ethics boards and should be actively sought in these challenging situations.

GETTING STARTED

Pharmacists may be hesitant to embark on research involving qualitative methods because of a perceived lack of skills or confidence. Overcoming this barrier is the most important first step, as pharmacists can benefit from inclusion of qualitative methods in their research repertoire. Partnering with others who are more experienced and who can provide mentorship can be a valuable strategy. Reading reports of research studies that have utilized qualitative methods can provide insights and ideas for personal use; such papers are routinely included in traditional databases accessed by pharmacists. Engaging in dialogue with members of a research ethics board who have qualitative expertise can also provide useful assistance, as well as saving time during the ethics review process itself. The references at the end of this paper may provide some additional support to allow you to begin incorporating qualitative methods into your research.

CONCLUSIONS

Qualitative research offers unique opportunities for understanding complex, nuanced situations where interpersonal ambiguity and multiple interpretations exist. Qualitative research may not provide definitive answers to such complex questions, but it can yield a better understanding and a springboard for further focused work. There are multiple frameworks, methods, and considerations involved in shaping effective qualitative research. In most cases, these begin with self-reflection and articulation of positionality by the researcher. For some, qualitative research may appear commonsensical and easy; for others, it may appear daunting, given its high reliance on direct participant– researcher interactions. For yet others, qualitative research may appear subjective, unscientific, and consequently unreliable. All these perspectives reflect a lack of understanding of how effective qualitative research actually occurs. When undertaken in a rigorous manner, qualitative research provides unique opportunities for expanding our understanding of the social and clinical world that we inhabit.

Further Reading

• Breakwell GM, Hammond S, Fife-Schaw C, editors. Research methods in psychology. Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage Publications Ltd; 1995. [ Google Scholar ]
• Strauss A, Corbin J. Basics of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage Publications Ltd; 1998. [ Google Scholar ]
• Willig C. Introducing qualitative research in psychology. Buckingham (UK): Open University Press; 2001. [ Google Scholar ]
• Guest G, Namey EE, Mitchel ML. Collecting qualitative data: a field manual for applied research. Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage Publications Ltd; 2013. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ogden R. Bias. In: Given LM, editor. The Sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods. Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage Publications Inc; 2008. pp. 61–2. [ Google Scholar ]

This article is the seventh in the CJHP Research Primer Series, an initiative of the CJHP Editorial Board and the CSHP Research Committee. The planned 2-year series is intended to appeal to relatively inexperienced researchers, with the goal of building research capacity among practising pharmacists. The articles, presenting simple but rigorous guidance to encourage and support novice researchers, are being solicited from authors with appropriate expertise.

Previous article in this series:

Bond CM. The research jigsaw: how to get started. Can J Hosp Pharm . 2014;67(1):28–30.

Tully MP. Research: articulating questions, generating hypotheses, and choosing study designs. Can J Hosp Pharm . 2014;67(1):31–4.

Loewen P. Ethical issues in pharmacy practice research: an introductory guide. Can J Hosp Pharm. 2014;67(2):133–7.

Tsuyuki RT. Designing pharmacy practice research trials. Can J Hosp Pharm . 2014;67(3):226–9.

Bresee LC. An introduction to developing surveys for pharmacy practice research. Can J Hosp Pharm . 2014;67(4):286–91.

Gamble JM. An introduction to the fundamentals of cohort and case–control studies. Can J Hosp Pharm . 2014;67(5):366–72.

Competing interests: None declared.