essay on paralympic games

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Analyzing the Paralympic Games: The History, The Issues, The Change

Posted By: Dhruv Patel October 8, 2021

Just a few weeks ago, the Paralympic Games came to an end after a year-long hiatus. Held from August 24, 2021 to September 5, 2021, the Games broke numerous records, achieved new milestones, disproved ableist stigmas, and forged deeper connections with the disabled community. Featuring over four thousand athletes from nearly eighty countries in over twenty-five sports, the event transcended political and geographic barriers to unite disabled athletes from across the globe.

To fully understand the Paralympics, one must understand its history. Sports for those with disabilities have existed for over a century — specifically, games for deaf athletes have existed since 1888. Yet, these games were not popularized until after World War II, when Dr. Ludwig Guttman instituted recreational and competitive sports for injured veterans. Guttman brought the games to a new stage during the London Olympics (1948) when sixteen disabled athletes competed in an archery game through what was called the Stoke-Mandeville Games. These games eventually morphed into the Paralympic Games during the 1960 Rome Olympics, in which four hundred athletes participated.

To better manage the growing number of disabled athletes in the Paralympic Games, the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) was born. The IPC continues to manage and organize the Paralympic Games every four years, and the event has grown from mere hundreds to thousands of athletes.

Despite this rather fascinating history, issues persist with the Paralympic Games, such as frequently being overshadowed by their counterpart, the Olympic Games, and news outlets continuing to disseminate harmful stereotypes.

News coverage of the Paralympic Games has always been an area of concern. One study finds that coverage of the Paralympics has historically been less than 10 percent that of the Olympics, a figure supported by the mere 24 percent viewing attendance at the Paralympic Games. Moreover, while nearly five million tickets were sold for the Tokyo Olympics, less than a million were sold for the Paralympics. NBC, the official streamer of the Paralympics , had only seventy hours of total coverage of the Paralympic Games in 2016 while the Olympics had a total of 260.5 hours .

Tony Pauls, a Paralympic gold medalist, distinctly summarizes the lack of coverage of Paralympics, both this year and since the formation of the Paralympics:

“Why is it that NBC will treat these athletes like — and I hate to say it — second-rate athletes? Give them a chance. NBC spends so much time and effort covering Phelps, the NBA Olympic team, and other athletes because they are or can become household names. Networks find stories that make you cry. Well, follow these phenomenal athletes and learn what they had to endure to be where they are, and you would be surprised.”

Fortunately, change has begun to occur. For the first time, the Paralympic Games will hold a prime-time slot on NBC, which will now air “more than 1,200 hours of programming across its TV and digital channels.” Though a promising move, the multiple decades it took to implement this change continue to serve as a reminder of the systemic marginalization of disabled athletes and the disabled community at large. Moreover, resources for Paralympians, “from news media coverage to sponsorship deals, still hardly approach what is available to Olympians.”

The terminology utilized by media outlets is also quite concerning. Several outlets, in the last few days of the Olympics, joyfully expressed, “our athletes are all coming home!” Yet, our athletes were not ever coming home. As some flights came back home, thousands of Paralympians were leaving their homes to attend their own games. Media outlets overlooked Paralympic athletes, much like how only 50.1% of respondents in a survey (n=3000) were aware of the Rio Paralympics, 2020 .

Oftentimes, the Paralympic Games become a metric. The accolades and achievements of disabled athletes become a comparison factor for abled athletes, commonly taking shape through expressions such as,

“If the disabled athlete could do ____________, I could easily do ____________.”

All this does is devalue the accomplishments of disabled athletes and reorients the Paralympic Games around abled athletes, rather than athletes with disabilities.

During the Paralympics , news outlets frame the athletes to have to “overcome” their disabilities to participate in the Paralympics. Yet, disabled athletes do not “overcome” their disability; they equip their disability to meet their aspirations. Studies, additionally, show that coverage is significantly increased for athletes with visible disabilities — this simply reinforces entrench stigmas against those with invisible disabilities.

Paralympic athletes are entirely capable and talented. Jonnie Peacock, esteemed, award-winning runner, perfectly reflects these ideals, expressing,

“I lost my leg aged five … now I’m 1.9 seconds behind Usain Bolt.”

Issues exist within the Paralympic Games itself, rather than just depictions in news media. Just a few weeks ago, renowned swimmer, Becca Meyers, was forced to sit out from the Paralympics after the U.S. Olympic & Paralympic Committee (USOPC) prohibited her from bringing a personal care assistant to Japan due to “coronavirus restrictions on athletic delegations.”

Meyers, “angry, disappointed, sad to not represent her country ,” is diagnosed with Usher Syndrome, making hearing and sight challenging (an effect only amplified by the presence of masks). USOPC’s response to public backlash following the decision is only more concerning; Rick Adams, a member of USOPC’s Executive Team, expressed that he “empathized with [Meyers’s] concerns.” Yet, Adams’ response, from an able-bodied perspective, stems from pity and hardly from equity. Adams serves as an ideal example of the issues of the Paralympic Games. If the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) itself cannot accommodate the needs of disabled athletes, then how can it claim to advance disability rights or be permitted to hold an international event aimed to celebrate the experiences of the disabled community?

IPC’s defined categories of disabilities only worsen this issue; presenting merely ten categories of disabilities, thousands of disabled athletes fall through the cracks and have been barred from participating. George Bates, an internationally recognized disability rights advocate with complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS), expresses that they would “not be able to compete in the Paralympics because their disability does not fit into the IPC’s rigid categories.” The nearly 20,000 signers of Bates’ petition share this sentiment and also find concern with IPC’s criteria of someone having to be “disabled enough” to participate.

Reform must occur, and this begins with us. With the upcoming Paralympics just around the corner, let us reflect on the historic marginalization of disabled athletes and prepare ourselves to properly cover the Paralympics. Let us converse about the history of the Paralympics.

About the Author

Dhruv Patel

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The Paralympics are just as important as the Olympics

The Paralympic games follow up the Olympic games for people with a wide range of disabilities, including impaired muscle power or muscle movement, limb deficiency, leg length difference, short stature, hypertonia, ataxia, athetosis, vision or intellectual impairment disabilities. There are winter and summer Paralympics, and they happen every four years just like the Olympics. Summer Paralympics include archery, athletics, boccia, cycling, equestrian, football 5-a-Side, football 7-a-Side, goalball, judo, paracanoe, paratriathlon, powerlifting, rowing, sailing, shooting, swimming, table tennis, volleyball, wheelchair basketball, wheelchair fencing, wheelchair rugby and wheelchair tennis. The winter Paralympics include alpine skiing, para-snowboarding, ice sledge hockey, biathlon, cross-country skiing and wheelchair curling. The Paralympics are further broken down into several categories within the individual sports in order to make it fair for competitors physically, visually and mentally.

Unfortunately, the Paralympics don’t get the recognition or value they deserve. While the Rio Olympics’ opening ceremony attracted more than 30 million viewers, the Rio Paralympics peaked at just over two million viewers. Moreover, the Paralympic athletes don’t get as much funding as the Olympic athletes. United States Olympic Committee (USOC) provides less funding in Paralympic athletic endorsements. The Paralympic athletes also earn less in financial awards for medals and earn fewer stipends throughout their careers. Overall, less media exposure and national recognition is granted to these athletes.

Now here is why these athletes need to be recognized and celebrated more widely. Not only are these people highly skilled in their fields, but they also defeated their disabilities. They display great determination and courage to overcome mental and physical obstacles. They are truly inspirational because they prove that few things are impossible. The Paralympics also raise awareness of mental and physical disabilities in the hope of creating a better life for those with disabilities. It therefore serves to change public perception of disabilities in order to provide the Paralympics with better facilities that would drastically improve their quality of life.

“The UK would never think of sport the same way and we will never think of disability the same way. The Paralympians have lifted the cloud of limitation,” Lord Coe, the organizing committee chairman of the Paralympics, said.

In the 2016 Rio Paralympics, China won 239 medals total, while Great Britain, Ukraine, US, Australia earned 147, 117, 115 and 81 respectively. Most of these countries had more Paralympic medals than Olympic ones. We need to recognize these champions and applaud them as much as we recognize and applaud our Olympians.

2 thoughts on “ The Paralympics are just as important as the Olympics ”

I don’t even know the way I finished up right here, but I believed this put up was good. I don’t know who you’re but certainly you’re going to a famous blogger in case you are not already. Cheers!

I feel so sad that we do not support and celebrate the Paralympics with the same gusto and coverage that the Olympics get

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The Paralympics is changing the way people perceive disabilities

Professor, Occupational Therapy, University of the Sunshine Coast

Senior Lecturer, Occupational Therapy, University of the Sunshine Coast

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Marion Gray receives funding from the Queensland Academy of Sport.

Michele Verdonck receives funding from Queensland Academy of Sport

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The prevailing view of disability in times past was a medical one , where the individual was seen as ill and their condition was a problem with the individual. Perceptions of disability were also based on fear of difference and a perceived need to be “ normal ”.

These negative views influenced the way people interacted with individuals with disabilities and impacted the way people with disabilities viewed their own roles in society, including their involvement in sport.

In more recent times, there has been a push to promote a social rather than medical perspective on disability. The social view shows us that people with disabilities are less restricted by their own impairments than by the barriers put on them by the society .

This change in thinking has led to people having the right to access and participate in all levels of society, including sport .

But as more individuals with disabilities have engaged in sport, and have been showcased in events such as the Paralympics, has this changed perceptions of disability?

Role models

Media coverage of Paralympic games has helped change societal perspectives . There was some criticism of the coverage of the earlier games as being patronising, but “pitying” language is becoming less common in media coverage today.

Unfortunately, a notable exception is the recent statement by Brazilian journalist Joaquim Vieira, who called the games a “grotesque spectacle” and “a circus act … to fill the agenda of political correctness” . This comment shows that some individuals – including some journalists – are still lagging when it comes to encouraging a change in societal attitudes towards disability.

The portrayal of positive life stories is one way of changing negative views, as was the case with British wheelchair tennis player Lucy Shuker . This is where the Paralympics becomes an important vehicle for changing societal perceptions as there are many positive stories on show.

As Paralympians receive more medals, they are viewed by many people, including policy makers, as heroes who have overcome adversity .

As potential “heroes”, Paralympic athletes are not only role models for other aspiring athletes, especially for those with a disability, but are also admired by society as a whole for their achievements.

Some notable role models include those who have won medals as well as gaining other mainstream awards.

One example is the University of the Sunshine Coast’s student and swimmer Blake Cochrane , who has a world record and two gold medals from the London Paralympics, and a recent silver medal at Rio. He is the first person to win back-to-back university sportsperson of the year awards .

This feat shows that para-athletes are now increasingly being judged alongside other sporting peers with or without a disability. Another swimmer, Ellie Simmonds from Britain, received an OBE for her many achievements in Paralympic sport.

There are also those who have had success in both Paralympic arena the mainstream Olympic arena. One example is Natalie du Toit and Australia’s own Melissa Tapper. Melissa is currently competing in Rio and is the first Australian to have competed in both games .

Potentially even more influential are people like Abdellatif Baka of Algeria, who won the T13 1,500m in a new Paralympic and Olympic world record time .

The Paralympics have not only changed attitudes in the sporting arena. Another example of a role model changing perceptions is Australian comedian, writer and broadcaster Adam Hills , who also has a disability.

He has achieved mainstream success as presenter of the UK show The Last Leg , which stemmed from being involved in a panel show for the 2012 London Paralympics.

In addition to being sporting role models, another important role for that Paralympic athletes can undertake is to use their profile for political activism .

In doing so they can enhance societal change through continuing to highlight the ongoing inequalities faced by people with disabilities. The Paralympic Games showcases athletes at the pinnacle of sport, yet is it a reminder that sport at the highest level should be accessible to all people.

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Why are the paralympic games important.

The Paralympic Games are not only an integral part of the worldwide sporting calendar, but they also play an important role in inspiring others to think differently about disability as the largest event worldwide for driving social change.

Since 1968 New Zealand Paralympic Teams have stunned supporters and competing nations with their determination, heart, and courage and ultimately, their success. Over 200 Paralympians have contributed to New Zealand Paralympic Teams’ success so far by representing Kiwis with pride and dignity and bringing home a staggering 237 medals across 26 Paralympic Games.

Our Paralympians are inspiring future generations; however, they are also part of a wider movement that is helping to transform the lives of others, helping to change attitudes towards disabled people.

The London 2012 legacy

One of the most successful Olympic and Paralympic Games was held in London in 2012. The London organising committee set up some very clear goals from the start; they wanted the fact that Great Britain was hosting the Olympic and Paralympic Games to act as a catalyst to increase grassroots participation in sport, particularly by young people, exploit the opportunities for economic growth offered by hosting the Games, promote community engagement and achieve participation across all groups in society through the Games.

In a 2018 short film published by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and United Nations Human Rights Office, the legacy of the London 2012 Paralympic Games was showcased.

The short film featured eight-time Paralympic equestrian champion Sophie Christiansen OBE, broadcaster and TV producer Andy Stevenson, and former London 2012 Head of Diversity and Inclusion Stephen Frost.

Transforming Lives Makes Sense for Everyone

The film, part of the “Transforming Lives Makes Sense for Everyone“ campaign, focuses on some of the employment challenges faced by disabled people ahead of London 2012 and highlights what impact the Paralympic Games had on changing attitudes and creating employment opportunities.

After London 2012, research found that one in three people changed their attitudes towards disabled people with disabilities as a result of the Paralympic Games. More recently, figures from the Office of National Statistics show that 3.85 million disabled people are now in employment in Great Britain, nearly one million more than five years ago.

“For anyone with a disability in this country, the London 2012 Paralympics were mind-blowing,“ said Stevenson who worked as a BBC Radio 5 Live reporter during London 2012. “It did make a difference in how disability is perceived by people who probably had never encountered disability before those Games.“

Catalyst for change

At London 2012, Christiansen won three golds medals, bringing her career tally to eight Paralympic titles. She witnessed first-hand the impact the Paralympics had on transforming the attitudes of British society and employers.

“The Paralympics in London were the first time that the general public really saw what disabled athletes could do,“ said the four-time Paralympian who took up a role as an analyst in the technology division of investment bank Goldman Sachs soon after the Games.

“If people can see me excel in my work, they will be inspired to do the same. I always think my disability has enabled me to think in different ways and employers greatly value that,“ she added.

Sport for all in New Zealand

Whilst we may not have hosted an Olympic or Paralympic Games here in New Zealand, the impact of the Games can be felt throughout the country. Sport New Zealand’s Disability Plan guides their commitment to working in partnership, investing, and building a system-wide capability to deliver better outcomes for disabled people here in New Zealand.

Sport NZ knows from its Active NZ data that disabled young people are less likely to participate in a range of sports and activities, particularly play related activities such as using playgrounds and scootering. Disabled adults spend 16% less time participating in any given week than non-disabled adults.

Developed following a Disability review in 2018 and in consultation with key partners, disability advocate groups and individuals, the Disability Plan aims to improve the range and quality of physical activity on offer for disabled tamariki and rangatahi to ensure they have the opportunity to be active.

With the Paris 2024 Paralympic Games only four months away, more and more New Zealand Para athletes will have the opportunity to inspire people all over New Zealand with their performances at the Games.

The countdown has now begun for many Para athletes and team announcements will be coming in the next few weeks. You can follow the progress of these athletes as well as keep up to date with all future team announcements by bookmarking the Paris 2024 page or following Paralympics New Zealand across our social media platforms which you will find at the top of the page.

First published: 19 May 2021

Last updated: 29 March 2024

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The Paralympic Games and the Promotion of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

About the author, sir philip craven.

August 2016, No. 2  Vol. LIII, Sport Aims for the Goals

A re the Paralympic Games the world’s number one sporting event driving social inclusion?

What first took place in Rome in 1960, with 400 athletes from 23 countries, has grown into a global phenomenon that brings together the world’s best Para athletes every four years to compete before millions of spectators and billions of television viewers around the world.

In September 2016, the biggest Paralympic Games ever will take place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: 4,350 athletes from 170 countries will compete in 22 sports. Latin America’s first Paralympics will be broadcast to more than 125 countries, reaching an estimated audience of over four billion people, the largest-ever audience for the Games. In addition, 2,000 representatives of the world’s media will cover the events, sharing news of the outstanding achievements of the Para athletes via radio, print and social media.

As the Games grow in size and scale, their transformational impact on society is also increasing. Over the years, the Paralympics have developed a strong track record for challenging deep-rooted beliefs regarding disability and acting as a catalyst for changing the approach to social inclusion in the countries where the Games are held.

The 2008 Paralympic Games in Beijing are a prime example of how the Games can affect a society. The event changed China’s approach and attitude towards disability, making its society more inclusive for the country’s estimated 83 million people living with an impairment. Prior to the Games, the country was less accessible and, in many ways, less hospitable for anyone living with an impairment. Winning the right to host the 2008 Games triggered action by the Chinese Government to improve the lives of people with disabilities and protect their rights as equal members of society. New legislation on accessibility was passed and, in the seven years leading up to the Games, China spent more than $150 million—equivalent to the last 20 years’ investment in accessible infrastructure—on making 14,000 facilities accessible throughout the country. More than $17 million was spent making 60 popular tourist destinations accessible. Elevators and wheelchair ramps were installed along the most popular section of the Great Wall of China, and accessibility was improved at the 600-year-old Forbidden City (Imperial Palace).

China subsequently became one of the first signatories of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities , an international human rights treaty that entered into force on 3 May 2008. On 1 July of that year, the amended Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities came into force. It affirms that the State and society must take measures to improve accessible facilities and provide necessary information in order to enable equal participation in social life for people with an impairment.

Thanks to the Paralympic Games , people in China now have a greater awareness of persons with physical impairments. Chinese citizens with an impairment receive more respect and attention. They enjoy a better social status, improved social security, better educational opportunities, easier access to employment and much more.

Today, the Paralympics benefit from more extensive global media coverage than ever before, amplifying the transformational effect the Games can have. By broadcasting the performances of the world’s best Para athletes to billions across the globe, the media contribute to raising awareness about persons with an impairment. This was best exemplified at the London 2012 Paralympic Games , which, during the Closing Ceremony, I proclaimed as the best Paralympics ever.

Before the Games, the United Kingdom was already considered one of the world’s leading nations for promoting equality, and I think few people, including myself, foresaw the seismic impact that 12 days of Paralympic sport would have.

The British broadcaster, Channel 4, which rightly won multiple domestic and international awards for their outstanding coverage of the Games, helped our cause considerably. It recruited a new generation of presenters and reporters who had an impairment to play key roles in their broadcasts. The channel spent $1.2 million searching for, recruiting, training and developing the skills of media professionals to ensure that half of the on-screen talent during the Games consisted of persons living with an impairment. This helped set the tone for a number of matter-of-fact discussions about disability.

Channel 4 also produced a stunning, 90-second television commercial ahead of the Games that helped enormously in cutting through public indifference towards Paralympic sport. The commercial, entitled “Meet the Superhumans” , mixed bold and arresting close-up imagery of athletes in training and competition with scenes that helped tell some of the extraordinary back-stories of the athletes. Set to a soundtrack by the band Public Enemy, the advert had swagger and scale, making Paralympic athletes cool like never before. The video probably did more in 90 seconds to change attitudes towards Paralympic sport than the last 20 years of work put together.

Once the Games started, viewers were transfixed. More than 40 million people—two thirds of the British population—watched the Games on Channel 4. Each day, the sporting performances were front- and back-page news in print media, with coverage on multiple pages in between. According to the London 2012 post-Games report, the overwhelmingly positive coverage led to one in three people in the United Kingdom, or 20 million residents, changing their attitudes towards people with a disability. Globally, the London 2012 Paralympic Games were watched by a television audience of 3.8 billion people, providing a rock-solid foundation for the continued growth of the Paralympic Movement.

There can be no argument that the 2012 Paralympic Games produced incredibly positive results, not just during the Games but prior to them and afterwards. The legacy of the Games continues to deliver to this day and will continue to do so for many generations to come.

Following on that success, the 2014 Paralympic Winter Games were held in Sochi, Russian Federation. Whereas the Winter Games are usually smaller in size than the Summer Games, they still provide a wonderful showcase of sport. Notwithstanding concerns about sustainability and human rights ahead of the Games, the Sochi 2014 Winter Paralympics helped Russia become a more inclusive society.

It should be remembered that, prior to the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow, the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics turned down the opportunity to stage the Paralympic Games. The selection of Sochi in 2007 as host city of the 2014 Games prompted Russian authorities and the society as a whole to pay more attention to the issue of inclusion and create environments that were accessible to people living with an impairment. New legislation benefiting such people was passed, and the Sochi 2014 Organizing Committee oversaw the creation of a barrier-free infrastructure, ensuring that every facility built for the Games was accessible to all. Sochi now serves as a model for the rest of Russia, with 200 cities already using what was created for the Games as a guide for furthering accessibility. Today, the lives of millions of Russians are being improved and enriched as a result of the Sochi 2014 Paralympic Winter Games.

Ahead of the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games , close to $1 million is being spent on making many of the city’s major tourist attractions accessible. The entrances to 10 popular Rio locations, including Sugarloaf Mountain, Corcovado and Copacabana Beach, will be resurfaced with approximately 4,000m 2 of accessible pavements and 5,831m² of concrete. New transportation infrastructure built for the Games is also accessible for all, underlining how winning the right to stage the Paralympic Games can be a starting point for transforming a city.

In addition, one year ahead of the Rio 2016 Games , the Brazilian Government has passed new legislation that will improve the lives of the country’s almost 50 million people with an impairment. The Inclusion of People with Disabilities Act eliminates accessibility barriers in transport, housing, services, education, sport and the exercise of citizenship. The law increased the amount that will be spent on Para sport from the gross revenues of the federal lotteries, from around $26 million to $49 million per year.

My hope with Rio and every city that will stage the Games in the future—Pyeongchang, Republic of Korea in 2018; Tokyo, Japan, in 2020; and Beijing, China, in 2022—is that they follow the example of Barcelona, Spain. One of the biggest legacies of the Paralympic Games held there in 1992, nearly a quarter of a century ago, is that the city has continued making accessibility improvements. Today, Barcelona is one of the most accessible cities in Europe for people of all abilities; this may not have been the case had the city not hosted the Paralympics.

As we approach the fifteenth Paralympic Games in Rio , I am confident that they will be the best ever in terms of athletic achievement. Thanks to the ever-improving performances by the participating athletes, interest in Para sport continues to grow, and the social and cultural impact of the Games expands.

The majority of Para athletes are now full-time sport professionals who benefit from high-performance training programmes on a par with their Olympic counterparts. This has resulted in an improvement in standards across all sports. By showcasing the power of the human spirit and what can be achieved by testing the body to its absolute limits, Paralympic sport is rendering old stereotypes of disability obsolete.

Para athletes are ambassadors of change. Their performances inspire and excite the world and redefine for many people what is humanly possible. No other event can empower individuals through social inclusion and societal opportunity like the Paralympic Games. Likewise, no other event can change the views of so many millions of people or stimulate Governments to create investment programmes or pass new legislation that will benefit many generations of individuals with impairments.

This is why, in my view, the Paralympic Games are the world’s number one sporting event for social inclusion, helping to promote the rights of persons with disabilities.

Enjoy the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games .

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Lessons from Tokyo: the impact of the Paralympics in Japan

Prof Dennis J. Frost

Wen Chao Chen Professor of East Asian Social Sciences at Kalamazoo College in Kalamazoo, Michigan. His publications include Seeing Stars: Sports Celebrity, Identity, and Body Culture in Modern Japan and More Than Medals: A History of the Paralympics and Disability Sports in Postwar Japan .

Section 1: Tokyo & Mega-Events

• Public relations as the key in the 2020 Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games
• Tokyo 2020, East Asian geopolitics and Olympic diplomacy
• Anti-sex beds? Fake news! : why this video went massively viral?
• Power sharing: Olympic sponsorship and the athlete’s personal brand
• The Tokyo 2020 Organizing Committee’s veil of effective public relations to help save itself and the start of the Games
• Host city and mega-events: Olympic legacy in Japan
• The rise of critical consciousness in Japan: An intangible and unintended legacy of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games
• The soft power of the Olympics in the age of Covid 19
• Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, nationalism, identity and soft power
• The typhoon games
• Environmental leadership showcased in the Olympic Games
• Simone Biles and prioritizing athlete well-being
• How the female athletes of the Tokyo Olympics are reframing the way we think about motherhood
• Deliver a medal or apologize: A daunting task imposed on Japanese Olympians
• What happened to Rule 40 at Tokyo 2020?
• Cultural programming at Tokyo 2020: the impossible Olympic festival city?
• A green Olympic legacy for future generations?
• Let’s play! Inspiring an inclusive mindset with a hands-on Paralympic experience for children and teenagers in Japan.
• The Olympic & Paralympic sponsorship without category exclusivity: Background of sponsorship exclusivity in Olympic and Paralympic Games (OPG)
• Counting cases, counting medals: Containing the Olympic contagion during the Tokyo Games
• The Olympic Games and ambush marketing via social media
• Pride and burden of striving for perfection at the Olympics

From the beginning, the Tokyo 2020 Paralympics were meant to be something more. In Tokyo’s bid to become the first in the world to host the Paralympics twice, its candidature file declared that Tokyo would “deliver a Paralympic Games which will show how inclusion and non-discrimination, and full consideration of the needs and interests of people with a disability, can create a better world and provide a brighter future for the entire community.” As preparations for the Games proceeded, athletes, organizers, and politicians in Japan repeatedly expressed expectations that the Paralympics would raise awareness and improve the lives of those with disabilities. In 2017, Tokyo Governor Yuriko Koike cited the Games as a chance “to make the city fully accessible to people with disabilities or other special needs,” proclaiming that “putting weight on hosting a successful Paralympics is more important than a successful Olympics.” Even as the pandemic continued to rage, the delayed Tokyo Paralympics moved forward, opening with more athletes than ever before, but imposing tough restrictions, in largely spectator-less venues. Yet hopes remained high that the Games would foster changes in Japan and beyond.

The recent conclusion of these unprecedented Paralympics presents an apt moment to begin exploring the differences between the lofty rhetoric and the actual effects of these Games. Although long-term impacts remain to be seen, it is already clear that the Tokyo Paralympics sparked important changes in Japan. However, it is equally important to consider these developments in a broader context to counter misleading assumptions about the transformative power of the Paralympics.

The most important Paralympic Games ever

Mere days before they opened, International Paralympic Committee (IPC) President Andrew Parsons, characterized Tokyo’s Paralympics as “the most important Paralympic Games ever” since they were giving the world’s 1.2 billion people with disabilities “a voice in a time when they need their voice to be heard the most.” Whatever we make of Parson’s claim, Tokyo’s Games have indeed offered the IPC a model for the awareness-raising potential of the Paralympics. Japanese media outlets regularly complemented their growing coverage of disability sports with stories about the experiences of average citizens living in Japan with disabilities. Discussions about disability policies, language usage, discrimination, and accessibility occurred in newspaper editorials, online chats, television programming, and school classrooms. From Toyota’s conversion of its office lobby into a boccia court to the social media fascination with service animals at the Opening Ceremony, responses to disability-related issues associated with the Paralympics have been hard to miss in Japanese society for the past eight years.

Tokyo’s commitment to improving accessibility also provided the IPC with an exemplary case for demonstrating the positive impact that the Paralympics have on host countries. Organizers’ spelled out their progressive approaches to accessibility in bid materials and have generally lived up to their promises . Beyond the organizing committee, both the Tokyo metropolitan government and the national government instituted new “barrier-free” action plans aimed at eliminating social, physical, and communication barriers in Japan. Governmental changes like new barrier-free building bylaws and revised national lodging standards have been complemented by non-governmental initiatives such as accessibility upgrades to Japan’s famous train network or Toyota’s development of “universal design” JPN Taxis that can accommodate wheelchairs.

The real transformative power of the Games

Even this limited sampling of awareness-raising and accessibility efforts associated with Tokyo’s Paralympics makes it clear that the Games have contributed to changes in Japan. Yet it is imperative to look below the surface when assessing such impacts, because the situation in Tokyo is more complex than it initially might appear.

For one, changes in Japan have been driven by years of disability activism largely unrelated to sports. Fueled by its demographic dilemma of a rapidly aging and shrinking population, Japan has been actively discussing the need for “barrier-free” environments since the 1980s. Moreover, Japan’s achievements in accessibility and inclusivity in connection with the Paralympics stem from more than the efforts of Tokyo-based organizers or IPC officials active for the last eight years. They are the cumulative result of six decades of work on the part of many people throughout Japan. Japan’s rich, but overlooked, history of engagement with the Paralympic Movement is also a reminder that the country is no stranger to the idea of using sporting events to promote change. Before the Paralympics in 2021, Japan had already hosted two previous Paralympics (1964, 1998), two Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled (1975, 1989), an international wheelchair marathon every year since 1981, and countless other international, national, and local disability sports events. If these events are as transformative as they often claim to be, why has Japan not already become more inclusive and accessible than it is today? 

While the IPC President has dubbed the Paralympics “the most transformative sport event on earth,” such phrasing seems to obscure a key element necessary to understand the impact of the Games: the people. Whether or not the increased exposure to disability-related issues generated by the Paralympics leads to long-term changes ultimately hinges not on the Games themselves or their inherent transformative powers, but on how people in Japan (or anywhere else) chose to respond to them. Creating a better world through accessibility, inclusivity, and nondiscrimination takes years of commitment and hard work. The Paralympics can certainly help, but they do not deserve all the credit.

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Challenges and stresses experienced by athletes and coaches leading up to the Paralympic Games

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Project administration, Visualization, Writing – original draft

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, Toronto, Canada, Paralympic Innovation, Paralympics Australia, Adelaide, Australia

Roles Data curation, Validation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Paralympic Innovation, Paralympics Australia, Adelaide, Australia

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, Toronto, Canada

Roles Validation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia

• N. Dehghansai, 
• R. A. Pinder, 
• J. Baker, 

• Published: May 6, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251171
• Reader Comments

The demands of high-performance sport are exacerbated during the lead up to the Major Games (i.e., Paralympics). The purpose of this study was to better understand the challenges experienced and strategies utilized by Australian athletes (n = 7) and coaches (n = 5) preparing for the Tokyo Paralympic Games using semi-structured interviews. The thematic analysis highlighted challenges specific to participants’ sport (e.g., budgetary constraints, decentralized experiences, athletes with various impairments), personal life (e.g., moving cities to access coaching, postponing vocational/educational developments, isolation from social circles), and associated uncertainties (e.g., COVID-19, qualifications, accreditations). Participants managed these challenges by utilizing strategies to ‘anticipate and prepare’ (e.g., detailed planning, effective communication, contingency plans) and ‘manage expectations’ (e.g., understanding specific roles and boundaries, focusing on the process [i.e., effort over results]). Trust and communication between athletes and coaches was key in coaches’ better understanding of how athletes’ impairments interact with their training and competition environments and tailor support to each athlete’s unique needs. Last, participants reflected on the ‘pressure’ of the Games due to their performance having an impact on their career trajectory ‘post-Tokyo’ with some athletes contemplating retirement and others realizing the consequences of their performance on sport-related vocation and sponsorship. Coaches also accepted the success of their programs and job security will depend on outcomes at the Games. The findings from this study shed light on factors to consider to reduce challenges for teams preparing for major competitions but also highlight key practical implications to support athletes and coaches leading up, during, and post-major Games.

Citation: Dehghansai N, Pinder RA, Baker J, Renshaw I (2021) Challenges and stresses experienced by athletes and coaches leading up to the Paralympic Games. PLoS ONE 16(5): e0251171. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251171

Editor: Chris Connaboy, University of Pittsburgh, UNITED STATES

Received: November 4, 2020; Accepted: April 21, 2021; Published: May 6, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Dehghansai et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: Data cannot be shared publicly in order to protect the participant anonymity. There are sensitive information shared by the participants during interviews that reveal participants' identities. Per ethics documents that were approved by HPRC at York University, the participants were ensured that any sensitive information would be extracted from the manuscript and all responses would be anonymized and kept confidential prior to publication. Thus the current interview transcripts contain sensitive information that participants shared in trust that would be kept anonymous and confidential. Revealing the information contained in the interview transcripts has potential to jeopardize participant(s)' current circumstances and their affiliation (sport currently in). Interested researchers, who meet the criteria for access to confidential data, may be able to obtain access to the data by contacting the corresponding author, Dr. Nima Dehghansai ( [email protected] ) or Ms. Alison Collins-Mrakas ( [email protected] ) from HPRC at York University.

Funding: This project was supported by Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (grant# 435-2017-1398) and Canada Graduate Scholarships – Michael Smith Foreign Study Supplements (CGS-MSFSS). The funders had no role in the analysis or dissemination of this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

While the benefits of sport participation such as the development of motor skills and improved physical and psychosocial health are widely reported [ 1 – 3 ], the stresses and challenges associated with high-performance sport may buffer these positive effects [ 4 ]. Due to high-expectations, high-intensity training environments, increased media exposure, and more severe consequences for below-average performances, elite athletes are exposed to exhaustion and burn out, prone to physical injuries, and at the extreme cases, psychological and physical disorders [ 5 , 6 ]. These challenges are especially difficult for athletes emerging onto the national and international competition, from both athletic (keeping up with performance expectations) and social development (fitting in and relationship with others; [ 4 ]) perspectives.

In elite and/or professional contexts, athletes are not alone in dealing with a stressful environment. Similarly, coaches are often faced with lofty expectations to support athletes’ potential at international events [ 7 ]. While there is research examining the stress coaches feel and the strategies they use to cope with this stress [ 8 , 9 ], there has been little work focusing on coaches’ experiences and how they deal with the increasing challenges prevalent in high-performance settings [ 7 , 10 ]. The continuous demands to support athletes, balancing expectations of administrative stakeholders, parents, and the athletes along with the increased scrutiny by media and news outlets can result in coaches feeling exhausted and burned out [ 8 , 11 , 12 ] Meanwhile, coaches with high-workloads and low self-regulatory skills have reported experiencing higher levels of exhaustion throughout the season [ 8 , 11 , 12 ]. One of the ways coaches have reported dealing with these demands is by remaining adaptive and learning ‘on the job’, discussing opportunities with others, and relying on their prior experience as athletes [ 13 ]. Considering the complexity of the coaching process and the demands placed on coaches from various sources, it is vital to develop a better understanding of the challenges and coping mechanisms coaches utilize to ensure their own, and their athletes’ well-being [ 14 ].

Challenges for coaches and athletes in high-performance settings can be exacerbated leading up to major Games (e.g., World Championships, Olympics, or Paralympics). Understandably, as the intensity of training and the number of qualification tournaments and training camps increases, life outside of sport is usually put on hold while within sport demands increase (i.e., media engagements, travel, etc.; [ 15 – 17 ]). In addition, high-performance coaches typically receive Quadrennial contracts and coach/athlete performance expectations increase the implications and consequences of the team’s performance at the Games.

The Paralympic context

While there is some literature on these changes and their implications for athletes and coaches participating in able-bodied sport [ 15 – 18 ], there has been very little exploration of these issues in Paralympic contexts [ 19 , 20 ]. Arguably, there are similarities between the two sporting Games (i.e., Quadrennial format and peak event for most competing athletes and their coaches, intense environments, increased media exposure, and prestigious accolades [ 21 – 23 ]; however, it is important to consider that there may be challenges that are unique to Paralympic sport contexts. For example, there are similarities between able-bodied and Para sport coaching (i.e., the value of using autonomy-supportive strategies), but there are also aspects when coaching elite athletes with disabilities that require a more adaptive approach (i.e., tailoring training to athletes’ unique abilities or dealing with social stigmas in public settings; [ 20 , 24 – 30 ]. In addition, there is considerable literature noting how Paralympic coaches need to adapt and utilize different methods of learning (i.e., formal, nonformal, informal) to combat the lack of resources and support available to them [ 31 – 34 ]. However, we have limited understanding of the challenges Paralympic coaches face preparing athletes for the Paralympic Games and the strategies they utilize to combat these challenges.

Similarly, there is also limited knowledge of the challenges Paralympic athletes face in preparation for these types of Major Games. In studying motivational profiles of Paralympic and Olympic athletes, Pensgaard and colleagues [ 35 ] concluded both groups have similar motivation profiles. However, due to their impairment or injury-related trauma, Paralympic athletes use different coping strategies (i.e., more mastery-oriented climate) while reflecting different mood profiles and satisfactory responses (i.e., significantly more satisfied with effort and results), suggesting Paralympic athletes cope with stressors in their environment differently. Both Campbell and Jones [ 36 , 37 ] and Jefferies and colleagues [ 38 ] have explored the associated stress of Paralympic athletes before, during, and post-competition, with athletes worrying about their contribution to their team, the adequacy of their preparation for the games (e.g., whether training would result in match performance, not feeling fully fit, appropriate pre-match preparation), and how they will manage psychosocial pressures (preventing or treating nagging injuries, personal, and team performance potentials, consequences of results). Team culture (i.e., teammate personalities, conflicting goals, teammate behavior and interactions, roles and responsibilities, team disparity) was also identified as a key contributor to athlete stress and anger, leading to elevated stress levels in the build-up to competition [ 2 , 3 ]. Given our limited understanding in this area and (potentially) unique challenges (e.g., disability-related nuances, lack of resources or support, etc.) experienced by Paralympic athletes and coaches in the lead-up to a major Games, the purpose of this project was to explore the challenges, solutions, and strategies utilized by athletes and coaches in the lead up to the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games.

Participants

Recruitment..

Members of two Paralympic teams in Australia were contacted by Paralympics Australia (note: the sports remain anonymous to protect participant identity). After sport approval, six coaches and eight athletes were contacted via email with a letter explaining project details. Five coaches and seven athletes agreed to participate. Interviews were held in person with all but two athletes, which were recorded during a video call using Zoom (Zoom Video Communications, Inc.). Based on the responses, the authors felt data saturation was reached and no further recruitment was required. Interviews ranged between 25–60 minutes in duration. The interview structure was designed to allow participants to share their experiences and some expressed their opinions in more detail, thus, the discrepancy between interview durations. Interviews were held from January 05, 2020, to February 05, 2020. It is important to note that this period was before the COVID-19 (a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China and officially declared a worldwide pandemic by World Health Organization on March 11, 2020 [ 39 ]) outbreak was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization [ 40 ]. This study took place prior to the postponement of the 2020 Games as a result of the COVID-19 global pandemic. All data collection for this project was completed with the expectation of these Games going ahead in summer 2020.

Background.

All participants reported previous experience at international events. Three of five coaches had coached at a Paralympic Games previously, while five of seven athletes reported competing at the previous Paralympic Games in Rio de Janeiro in 2016. Table 1 provides basic details of all participants sporting careers; this information is intentionally limited to retain the anonymity of participants due to the small pool of Australian Paralympic athletes and coaches.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251171.t001

Ethical considerations.

Ethics was obtained from Human Participants—Research & Innovation (HPRC) at York University with permission to collect the data pertaining to Australian participants. Participants provided informed consent form before the start of each interview. The authors remained cognizant of the role of Paralympics Australia (PA) from a relational ethics lens (i.e., the relationship between PA and sports may influence the interview process and how the interviews are interpreted; [ 41 ]). However, the lead author, who conducted the interviews and facilitated the thematic analysis had a limited relationship with the athletes and coaches and was not directly affiliated with PA, thus, reducing concerns regarding relational ethics and bias towards existing relationships [ 42 – 44 ]. The final report was shared with the participants to allow for any clarification or retraction of statements. This process did not result in any changes. The authors also provided participants with the opportunity to review their transcripts but none of the participants requested a copy. Subsequently, the current manuscript in its original form was shared with participants prior to submission for publication.

Methodology

Semi-structured interviews are commonly used in research focusing on better understanding the experience of athletes and coaches [ 10 , 45 ]. While the researcher has a general set of guiding questions to lead the interview process, the semi-structured nature allows the participants to introduce new ideas and share experiences through their narrative. We chose this process to enable a deeper understanding of athletes’ and coaches’ experiences, challenges, and strategies in relation to preparing for a Paralympic Games.

Philosophical assumption.

This study was grounded ontologically in relativism (i.e., multiple realities exist which are subjective and mentally constructed) and epistemologically in constructivism (i.e., knowledge is constructed based on individual’s interactions and experiences in a specific context [ 46 , 47 ]). Each athlete and coach experienced the process of preparation for the Games differently, thus it is vital to better understand the relationship of the individual within their current system from the lens of each person’s narrative. Thus, the narrative constructivism allows us to address the objective of this research by capturing the meanings associated with each person’s story and how it coordinates with others’ experiences in their sporting system [ 45 , 48 ]. It is important to consider each participant’s narrative as more than merely a story-telling opportunity as their experiences are part of the larger Paralympic sporting system [ 49 , 50 ]. Thus, understanding these narratives help understand the larger system in which each participant resides.

Methodological rigor.

Consistent with an ontological relativism and epistemological constructivism approach, a guiding list of criteria was set out to establish the rigor of this study design [ 47 , 51 ]. The worthiness of topic was demonstrated from the limited literature that exists in this field that explores athlete and coach challenges leading up to the Paralympic Games. Authors aligned their methods with previous literature to ensure a rich rigor process for the interview procedure, data exploration and theme generation. In addition, the authors utilized the technique of ‘critical friend’ among the lead and co-authors to use each other as a ‘theoretical sounding board’ to evaluate, interpret, and develop themes throughout the project [ 52 ]. Throughout this process, the lead author was continuously probed to ensure his bias and personal perspectives did not dilute the exploration process and compromise the content.

Procedure and interview guide.

A series of general topics were approved via a discussion between the authors and probe questions were implemented to keep consistent with the topic and elicit open discussion [ 53 ]. The interview guide was then shared with an external committee within Paralympic Australia to review and provide feedback. This committee oversaw athlete wellness and had athlete representatives as members who reviewed and provided their approval on the content of the guide. The interview guideline was organized into four main sections: 1) challenges leading up to the Games, 2) expectations of themselves, their athletes or coaches, and their staff at the Games, 3) uncertainties on their preparation, the Games itself, and transition after the Games, and 4) closing questions.

Data analysis

Recordings of the interviews were transcribed verbatim and data exploration was guided through the six-phased inductive steps of thematic analysis [ 54 ]. These steps included a familiarity of the content by re-reading the transcripts, using NVivo (NVivo qualitative analysis software: Version 12), and noting significant thoughts and patterns. These codes were then refined and grouped into higher- and sub-themes. Across the five levels of coding, re-evaluation and critical discussions by other authors [ 47 ], overlapping themes were merged, some themes were dissolved and a final structure of three higher-themes and seven sub-themes remained (refer to Table 2 for details of the theme breakdown).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251171.t002

Results and discussion

Each of the overarching themes contained sub-themes that captured nuances regarding participants’ experiences, challenges, and strategies to deal with current or anticipated challenges. The three overarching themes were ‘challenges,’ ‘strategies,’ and ‘post-Tokyo.’ The theme ‘challenges’ captured some of the shortcomings athletes and coaches currently face or anticipate might come up in the near future. The sub-themes for challenges were ‘sport-specific,’ ‘personal,’ and ‘uncertainties.’ The strategies examined ways participants mitigated some of the challenges and methods used to either reduce or eliminate challenges. The sub-themes of this general theme were ‘anticipation and preparation’ and ‘managing expectations.’ Post-Tokyo consisted of athletes and coaches’ prediction of events based on the outcomes at the Games and consisted of the sub-themes ‘pressure’ and ‘personal.’

Both athletes and coaches highlighted challenges that were organized into sport-specific, personal, and uncertainties. Sport-specific challenges captured the experience of athletes and coaches directly within the sporting environment. These challenges were either specific to their sport (e.g., budgetary constraints), tied directly to individuals (e.g., moving cities to access coaches), or factors that occurred within the sporting environments (e.g., training and competition contexts). Challenges that were rooted within the sport were organized into the sport-specific category while sport-related challenges that were specific to the individual and their circumstances were organized into the personal theme. Due to the uniqueness and depth of issues associated with uncertainties, these experiences were captured under the uncertainties theme to demonstrate the vastness of the theme that emerged during the interviews.

Sport-specific.

While athletes and coaches expressed similar sport-specific challenges, participants’ experiences and their perspectives of how these challenges impacted them varied. For example, coaches highlighted working with budgetary constraints as a challenge because as the Paralympic Games near, there are qualifying tournaments that athletes need to attend, coupled with opportunities for pathway athletes (i.e., athletes currently in the sporting pathway that have not qualified for the upcoming games; however, have displayed potential to emerge as future Paralympic athletes) to gain experience. However, limited budgets from senior management coupled with high expectations for gold medal targets forced coaches and directors to make tough decisions regarding who could attend these tournaments. As alluded to by C1:

We have a limited budget … [and] to do what we wanted to, but also as [our sport] and para-sports evolving, we’ve had to make some pretty tough decisions on narrowing our focus on athletes. And so, athletes are missing out and so that’s been quite a big shift nearly last year’s [competition] in 2019, we took 15 athletes, this year we took eight.

These challenges can be exacerbated because of the need to travel for high-quality opposition given Australia’s geographical location relative to other countries. The constant travel was highlighted as a challenge by the athletes due to the physical and psychological demands; changing time zones and accommodation (i.e., sleeping away from home), as well as the stress of flying which contributed to lack of sleep, slower recovery, and reduced energy. As highlighted by A3, traveling on long-flights impacted her training, recovery, and performance in the past:

Just being able to accept it and know that we’ll have the right strategies for Tokyo, hopefully, it’ll be good. We went to Canada, with time zone, it was bad, so [with Tokyo] the time zone isn’t too bad.

Australia’s geography is a further challenge, especially for sports with limited budgets. Unfortunately, being decentralized (train locally and only meeting with national team [coaches and teammates] during tournaments and training camps) in a country like Australia requires frequent travel for athletes to maintain a connection with coaches who can live significant distances away even when they live in the same state (e.g., an athlete living in Cairns in Queensland whose coach lives in the capital city of Queensland, Brisbane are 1,700 km apart and would need to take an 18-hour car journey or a 2:20 flight to meet face-to-face), a point often alluded to by both athletes and coaches.

The incurred cost, along with preparation and planning for domestic and international travel, is a common challenge Paralympic coaches have to deal with [ 20 , 55 ]. Interestingly, the commonly reported challenges associated with athletes’ experience during travel, especially in dealings with airlines and freight carriers (i.e., boarding, bathroom access, luggage, and wheelchair accommodation [ 20 ]) was not reported as an issue by coaches or athletes in this study. Athletes only reflected on the impact of travel due to their impairment, which led to fatigue and negatively impacted their training/competition performance. As highlighted by A1:

I travel really poorly, which is why [last competition]… I felt so bad on the day. I think is what we did last year [that worked], we had like a training camp in [another country]. I went three weeks before everyone else left here. And that was awesome because it gave me like all of that time to be not under stress, trying to recover from travel.

From a psychological standpoint, being away from family, friends, and one’s daily routine adds to the physical stress, leaving little time for recovery. This could be reflected through subtle things such as sleeping in their own beds, as alluded to by A2, “And I sleep in my own bed and can still walk my dog. So those things in life.” The lack of challenges previously reported in the literature could be twofold: first, the group of athletes and coaches in this study were all competing at the elite level and perhaps more accustomed to the routines associated with traveling. Second, it has been suggested in the literature that Paralympic athletes represent the less severe impairments within the disability community [ 56 ]. and this cohort of athletes may have not been exposed to similar experiences reported previously in the literature.

From a coaching perspective, understanding athletes’ abilities, tendencies, and weaknesses are paramount to designing a training environment conducive to their athlete [ 24 ]. However, having finite resources and therefore limited time with athletes, makes this a challenge. Proximity helps develop a trust that underpins working together, and this trust is the basis for effective coaching. One of the coaches, C1 highlighted how building of trust evolves slowly and opportunities must be taken wherever possible, including camps and traveling for tournaments:

This last year their first trip away to Europe, it was pretty much a new coaching team, and it took a fair bit to get the athletes to have the bond and to trust us as the coaches. So, I think that was a big change for the athletes. It’s getting better and better from each trip away as a group. And yeah, and that’s coaching in general though. You’ve got to build that relationship with the athletes, so it does take time.

Athletes also expressed the importance of being comfortable with their coaches so that they can express their training preferences and tendencies as well as share personal information about their impairment, so the coaches have a better understanding of athletes’ function to adjust training and recovery accordingly. This was highlighted by A3:

Maybe just communicating of if I’m not feeling the greatest. I haven’t pulled up as great from the session before. Because it’s been really good, but for me, being able to be honest even though I want to try and complete the full training session. Yeah, just communicating really and making sure I know limits.

And it was further expanded on by A1:

So I think that’s been a challenge for my coaches and me to sort of know when I have to speak up and be really certain about it, like, "I don’t think I can do that," or, "I don’t think I should do that." I don’t do that enough because it’s really… I find it really difficult to talk about, and I don’t want to acknowledge when things aren’t going well.

The decentralized environment also restricts bonding opportunities for squad members largely to camps and tournaments. Coaches expressed the importance of utilizing opportunities during camps to develop group chemistry, as they were aware that the Paralympics environment will be stressful and tense. Therefore, ensuring athletes understand each other’s tendencies and how each prefers to prepare for competition, or responds in different situations (e.g. following a loss) would be paramount to reducing issues on competition day. As alluded to by Banack and colleagues [ 24 ], the psychological needs of Paralympic athletes can vary by context and coaches need to consider athlete’s attributes (gender, impairment, most recent competition performance, living conditions) in relating and bonding with athletes.

Some of the participants also noted the pressure of performing at the Games and its impact on current training. Both athletes and coaches highlighted the importance of strategic training (i.e., planning ahead and training smart), but also the need to focus on appropriate recovery. The elevated stress of upcoming competition is a commonly reported experience by Paralympic athletes and similar to prior reports, athletes best cope with the pressure by utilizing problem-focused coping mechanisms including smart training and recovery planning [ 3 ]. Experienced athletes (which included a wide range of impairment types) highlighted the need to train and recover strategically to reduce the chances of overload on their bodies. The long-term impact of impairment and the need to identify triggers and minimize overloading in training was highlighted by A3:

It was good to get back into [training], but it was a little bit hard just because I seem to not be able to control it a bit. I’m on medication but it doesn’t seem to always be effective … It’s kind of an ongoing challenge just being able to like, "How can we overload but not overload too much that would just push me to that point?"

The need for coaches to effectively understand athletes’ impairments was a challenge intertwined with effective training strategies. As A1 highlighted: “I feel like there needs to be greater education around neurological disease, not for my sort of specific situation.” But also, how this impairment is impacting the individual, specifically, thus focusing on the interaction of the individual, their impairment, and their tendencies, with A1 expanding on this point: “If I’m not feeling right. I’m not soft. I actually hate taking any shortcuts in training because I have got that about wanting to make sure everything is to the second, perfect.” Cregan and colleagues [ 57 ] emphasized the importance of understanding athletes’ impairment in parallel to their knowledge of training and competition to create a suitable environment for athletes to perform at their best.

There are numerous sport-specific challenges athletes and coaches deal with including the need to travel for tournaments and training camps which comes at a cost financially, physically, and socially. There is also a clear emphasis on the athlete and coach dynamic to better understand athletes’ impairment, their abilities, and tendencies and how these factors interact, in order to better structure effective training and maximize athletes’ potential in the lead up into the Games.

The constant traveling for camps and tournaments, as well as daily training, has impacted participants’ personal lives as well, while they deal with challenges outside the sporting context. Some athletes relocated cities or countries for the opportunity to train with a coach, as A1 shared her experience moving in the recent years as they prepare for the lead up to Tokyo: “I’ve had to move recently. I’ve moved twice in … the last 14 months.” And they further expand on the impact of this in their personal life:

So, I’m not a natural-born full-time athlete. I’m too curious and I need to be stimulated intellectually as well as physically, and I need an outlet outside of this. I need to make a community outside of it as well. I think that’s really important. Having moved here, it’s hard to make a community anyway in [this city], I find, when you’re not working. And within the [sporting] community, I’m old, like within aggregate here, I’m one of the oldest. That’s difficult. I love [my teammates] and they’re my favorite people. But to have a peer would be nice.

The extensive commitment to their sport leaves athletes with limited opportunities to garner income outside of sport, leaving athletes with limited income during their competitive years. This point was highlighted by A2 who described how strategic he/she needed to be in order to save to survive until the Games:

Strategic in terms of work. So, this year, because it is so crazy leading up to Tokyo, I’ll end up not working for a good four months in total. So, to actually survive, I need to… obviously, that side of things I need to be quite smart about, which can be hard.

There is a need to focus on athletes’ health and the consequences of the increased time devoted to preparation for training, competition, and extensive traveling which takes away from other aspects of athletes’ lives [ 58 ]. Coaches also deal with extensive time away from family, due to travel for tournaments and training camps. However, having a family that is prepared for these challenges and can anticipate the changes leading up to the Games can be of great help, as alluded to by C4:

My wife knew [demands] would ramp up. And yes, it is ramping up with more camps, more travel, more commitment, more time I guess, or mental energy invested. So yes, there is still challenges, especially from my position where my family is based in [one State] and [I’m] spending sort of 50/50 between [two States].

Coaches also highlighted the importance of keeping themselves healthy mentally and physically in order to be able to be at their best during the Games to support their athletes. Being the year of the lead up to the Games, the pressure of performing at the Games has increased and with it, the psychological pressure for coaches has also increased, as highlighted by C2:

It’s a little bit of the pressure now, of performance. Previously, it’s great that you know that your athletes are there, et cetera. So, for me personally, I guess now, it’s starting to think a little bit about results, and how that affects me psychologically, and how that affects me psychologically in working with the athletes, as well.

Therefore, the lead up to the Games increased the demands for athletes and coaches’ time as there are increases in training camps and qualification tournaments. The increased time means sacrifices in other areas of participants’ lives. For coaches, it is mainly time away from family, while for athletes, they perceive this as time away from their social circles and potential education or vocation developments.

Uncertainties.

The uncertainties mainly revolved around the sport, however; were different from challenges because they were unexpected events in the future that were decisive for athletes’ performances. One of the main concerns for all the participants was the outbreak of COVID-19 and its implications on sport-specific preparations for the Games, including upcoming qualifying tournaments and training camps. An athlete (A4) highlighted how they are approaching the uncertainty of whether the upcoming tournament will proceed:

Now that Northern Italy’s shut down because of this bloody coronavirus, that’s another challenge there. Who knows, who knows? You just keep going as if everything is going to be fine and just hope that it is, yeah.

In addition, there is equipment that had been ordered for the Tokyo2020 Games that is being manufactured in China, with factories shut down and back-order with shipments, there are concerns regarding whether the equipment will arrive in time for athletes to get accustomed to new equipment prior to the Games. One of the coaches, C3 explained how this could pan out for their athletes:

We’re getting our Tokyo 2020 [equipment]. We’re supposed to get them in April, but because of the virus, the factory in China is [currently shutdown] and shipment might be delayed. They’re the same brand of [equipment], but the geometry… some of the parts a little bit longer, other parts a little bit different. So, they have subtle differences that our athletes and coaches worry about.

There are also uncertainties regarding whether qualifying tournaments will occur and whether athletes will be able to qualify for the Games. Irrespective of COVID-19, some felt that the qualification tournaments and selection decisions for the Paralympic Games are made too close to the Games. This proves difficult for athletes on the cusp of qualification, as their family and loved ones will not be able to book travel until the selection is confirmed, and by that time, many places would be booked out and unavailable. This is additional stress added to athletes’ preparation as the Games approaches. Interestingly, none of the participants anticipated COVID-19 to become a pandemic and at the time of the data collection, the uncertainty was more geared towards whether the flu would impact their preparation for the Games. This demonstrates how these uncertainties could influence or shape athletes’ and coaches’ experiences and the inability to anticipate all outcomes. While participants reiterated the importance of just continuing day-to-day training until given a reason not to, follow-up studies exploring the impact of circumstances such as COVID-19 and how a pandemic impacts or creates new challenges for athletes and coaches is vital.

Other uncertainties regarding the Games pertained to competition days. Currently, there are uncertainties regarding how many staff will receive accreditation, resulting in challenges for coaches on how to prepare athletes’ competition strategies. C3 explains how this could be an anxiety-induced situation for coaches as they prepare their strategy for the Games:

There’s probably signs of some anxiety around some of the things and I think from a coaching perspective, I think our main source of anxiety is the day where we have the most chances to win gold. We have a lot of our athletes on one day and we only get a certain number of coaching accreditations. Can we service everybody to the level that the athletes deserve at the Paralympic Games?

Similarly, athletes’ concerns revolve around competition performance [ 35 , 36 , 38 ]. More specifically, how the environment (e.g., the reaction of the crowd) and the athlete (e.g., stress levels and more importantly, how their impairment may be on the day of) would feel, as alluded to by A3: “Hopefully we can do what we can. But, there’s always that uncertainty, or what if something happens, or one night of not as much sleep and then pushing yourself at competition.”

Collectively, the results highlight the depth and breadth of uncertainties athletes and coaches face in the lead up to a Paralympic Games. The main uncertainty is pertaining to the development of the novel coronavirus, COVID-19, which has impacted training camps, qualification tournaments, and delivery of equipment for Tokyo 2020. In addition, there are uncertainties regarding accreditation which has created a complex situation for coaches to navigate and prepare for as they attempt to develop a training environment similar to the Games. Last, there are concerns regarding athletes’ physical and mental state on event day, with some athletes concerned regarding how their body responds and whether there will be any impairment-related complications to deal with on the day of the competition. Generally, there are a wide range of factors that impact athletes’ ability to control outcomes within their environments and elite athletes have been known to appraise challenges and strategize solutions to cope with uncertainties to optimize their performance [ 59 ]. Here too, similar to Olympians, the Paralympic athletes were able to implement strategies to address some of the uncertainties.

Strategies highlighted a range of tools or systems participants have either implemented or plan to implement to reduce or remove some of the challenges. For both athletes and coaches, anticipation and preparation helped mitigate some of the uncertainties and remove miscommunication within the group. It also helped better prepare for Game strategies and they perceived that this, in turn, impacted their mental and physical health. Coaches also mentioned the need to manage both their personal and others’ expectations. While strategies differed, the objective was to ensure everyone was on the same page to further eliminate any miscommunication or misunderstanding.

Anticipation and preparation.

Participants were cognizant of the variability that remains within training and competition (i.e., limited structure and continuous evolvement of the environment). Thus, to control some of the uncertainty, detailed planning regarding training, and competition has been designed to remove some of the current challenges regarding uncertainties leading up to the Games. Working in tandem, athletes and coaches co-create (see [ 60 ]) programs focusing on preparation both leading into, and at the Games. This mental preparation allows participants to be prepared for the unexpected by incorporating (and simulating) contingency plans that continue to evolve. As C1 highlighted, there are strategies in place to provide athletes independence in their decision making:

Wait and see, but I think communication with the athletes and then developing a plan where they can be self-sufficient as well. Or running scenarios, and having the athlete troubleshoot their way out of the situation, so they are independent.

Another coach, C2, explained the importance of preparation and planning as the difference between a successful and unsuccessful program as he/she highlighted a busy competition day scheduled for the Games and the consequences that hinge on it:

In these few hours is going to really be the difference between a successful program or not successful program, these matches. So, just then honing in on, "Okay, so what do we need? How do we need to be feeling at that time, on that day?"

Burns and colleagues [ 61 ] highlighted the importance of athletes’ meticulous planning and preparation, and reliance on routine to face uncertainties associated with Games day performance and environment. Athletes have also utilized visualization and imagery strategies to mentally prepare for upcoming events [ 61 ] and the athletes and coaches in this study mentioned using previous Games experience to develop strategies for the upcoming Games. This allows participants to better contextualize and create realistic expectations that will allow them to better prepare. A2 expanded how they use their experience from previous Games to remain confident and prepare for upcoming Games:

Yeah, definitely, because sometimes you just don’t expect some things that can happen. Yeah. So, I think just having gone through it before and played even just other tournaments, it didn’t have to be such a major one, but you sort of learn little things along the way.

The participants also noted preparation and planning helped reduce the physical and psychological stress and the importance of finding better ways to document and share information to avoid assumptions [ 61 , 62 ]. Coaches also mentioned incorporating squad bonding opportunities during camps to increase chemistry between the team. Coaches used various Games during training to increase the chemistry between the squad including both sport- and non-sport-related activities (trivia, benchmark challenges, etc.). In addition, they simulated competition environment in training and presented various constraints (potential or expected delays, interruptions, missing equipment/gear) to allow athletes to get accustomed to the competition challenges and prepare to deal with uncertainties working together with their teammates. Therefore, while some challenges may differ between Olympic and Paralympic athletes (e.g., impairment-related nuances), the approach and strategies utilize are similar between the groups (i.e., anticipate and prepare).

Managing expectations.

Coaches highlighted the importance of managing expectations. These included expectations of themselves, as many coaches are too hard on themselves and at times unrealistic. C3 explained their expectations for themselves which was echoed across the interviews with other coaches: “I’ve probably set higher expectations on myself than what I set on the athletes.” It is important coaches realize that not everything is within their control and there is a need to welcome a degree of uncertainty and variability so they can manage unexpected events or outcomes. Further, coaches stressed the importance of managing others’ expectations. This included their support staff and ensuring that the support staff understands their roles, and expectations of one another, removing any miscommunication that may occur during a highly intense and fast environment. As C1 explained:

But I think when you’re on the road it’s my expectation that everyone should be 24/7 job but not everyone treats it that way I don’t think. Yes, you do need downtime and stuff but there’s a job to be done and it’s got to be done. And that probably comes back from me being an athlete and also my old job that was a 24/7 sort of workshop that had deadlines to be made.

Confidence and understanding of each other’s roles and abilities is also vital so that the process is smooth. Athletes echoed a similar sentiment, in expecting their support staff and coaches to be at their best while having confidence that this will occur, as explained by A3:

So right now, they’re really, really good. And it’s been good with being able to work on a few things with the support staff around competition or on the day. So just that we’re all on the same page of what I need and what I need after my event and how to execute all those. All the water and the protein and the nutrition and wanting to get on with the race and just all be on the same page about what time I have my race at the start line and that. Which is already really good.

Considering they were more than six months away from the Games, this became a strategy to simulate and tweak athletes’ perceptions and preparations, and ultimately align their experience with their expectations. In addition, coaches also highlighted the importance of managing athletes’ expectations and what the athlete should expect of their coaches and support staff. This strategy helps reduce miscommunication and sets realistic expectations on how much support the athlete receives. The athlete can prepare their training and approach according to the boundaries established and this was echoed by coaches, including C3:

I think some systems need to go in place just to manage expectations. I think we need to be firm enough to set them, especially in the competition environment. So, that’s maybe as a coach or a group we need to [establish]. This is what you’re going to expect from us.

For athletes, on the other hand, it is important to ensure that they avoid grand expectations without accepting potential shortcomings (i.e., falling short of their medal goal). Thus, coaches have chosen to focus on the process over outcome, reiterating the importance of commitment to training and the strategies, a positive outcome would only be a bonus. Given the pressure of medal targets from senior management, consistent messaging becomes critical to ensure coaches focus on the right word selections and emphasizing the process over outcome, as highlighted by C4:

Certain things happen. People get sick, people get injured. But I think it’s about being real, or realistic. And I think whether that’s the humbling and not focusing on the outcome but focusing on the processes.

Another coach, C2, highlighted that while the expectation is gold medals, how athletes approach the Games will be important and the focus should be on the process and not the outcome:

I think the expectations are a bit narrower. I mean, now, there’s expectations of medals. And so, I think how we manage it, is just putting the processes of what we need to do, week to week now, day to day, hour to hour, once we get to the Games.

In addition, coaches were cognizant of having extra support ready for any athlete that did not achieve their expected goals, as the disappointing result could be a challenge for athletes to overcome. Coaches are counting on the wider Australian Paralympic Team to support in case of crises like this, but are aware that they have to be looking for the initial first signs of distress before seeking help from other staff, as alluded to by C5:

If there are athletes who may not [have] perform[ed] as well as what they hoped, PA, they had got so much support over there, we’ll tap in. If I feel like there’s some issues around that, then I’ll call on the PA specialists to come in and because they’ll have psych [support] and I’ll have one there just to help with that sort of thing.

Thus, athletes and coaches appear to put too much expectation on themselves, while coaches work to shift athletes’ expectations to the process and not the outcome. It is clear that all the participants expect the entire staff to work diligently during the Games, with everyone having a clear understanding of their roles and athletes’ needs. Sports also have strategies in place to manage athletes’ expectations during disappointing results at the Games.

All the participants were focused on their current goal of achieving the best they can at the Tokyo 2020 Games, thus, conversations regarding post-Tokyo were a mere reflection of what the athletes and coaches miss and what things they would be looking to incorporate into their lives with the reduced workload post-Games. For athletes and coaches, inevitably, the performance at the Games dictates certain outcomes post-Games. Thus, there was the theme of ‘Pressure.’ Personally, athletes and coaches were looking for time off after the Games to enjoy their social life, spend time with family and friends, and resume their hobbies or occupation/education that had been put on hold. However, coaches were also aware of the advance planning that goes into the program from now, as they would need to prepare, plan, and book travels for tournaments post-Games, thus, planning never stops in a cycle.

Both athletes and coaches understand the importance of performance at the Games. Most importantly is that given all the time they have invested, they would like to capitalize on this with a positive performance outcome. However, coaches highlight any unsatisfactory outcome at the Games could cost them their jobs but were fine with this and accepted it to be the nature of their position in sport. Thus, even though having a guaranteed contract post-Games would help relieve some pressure, lack of it did not increase their stress levels, nor does it stop them from wanting their athletes to perform at their best.

From the athletes’ point of view, some saw the performance at the Games as opportunities for additional income revenue as medals and world stage accolades may help garner sponsorships and public speaking, as explained by A2:

After such [a] major Games and, if there’s a good result, some fun things do come out of it. But again, I’m just sort of focusing on Tokyo and then those additional things are all bonuses and really that come out of a good performance. So then financially, I guess, that opens up more doors for me. So then if I do put aside several months to train and not work, that’s where a big benefit comes in for me, post-Games.

Others are in a grey area in their careers and thus, a poor performance may put retirement at the front of their thinking. Some athletes, however, look at the Games as an opportunity to (re)establish themselves and look forward to 2024 as either a revenge season or protecting their crown. As highlighted by A1: “My plan has always been to win and then defend, and if I lose then it’s like, "let’s go and reclaim”. Therefore, while athletes and coaches understand the repercussions of their performance at the Games, they are solely focused on a good performance, rather than the consequences that may occur because of it. Recent literature suggests this to be an effective and positive approach to dealing with the pressure of the Games, as this type of approach by the coaches offsets the social pressure of the performance. In turn, this increases athlete motivation and engagement which have been previously associated with higher medal counts in the Paralympic Games [ 63 ].

Participants highlighted that the preparation for the Games has been exhausting, leaving them disconnected from their families and social circles. In addition, extensive training has had a toll on their bodies. Thus, they are looking forward to a mental and physical break while incorporating their social life back into their lives. A5 highlighted, there is a desire to travel and put their sport on pause, briefly, as they have devoted two full cycles to prepare for the Games:

I haven’t really [thought about it]. After such a big training block. Years of [my sport]. I probably deserve a little bit of a break. I like to play tennis. So, I’d probably go play tennis in the summer and have a break. I love traveling. It would be good to have a break.

Some athletes also have put their education/vocation on the side as the build-up to the Games has neared, thus, are looking forward to continuing their career path once the cycle has ended. This is a common practice as high-performance athletes focus on maximizing their current potential by reducing or removing all distractors that can consume time away from the sport [ 64 ]. Coaches are very much looking for the time off to reload their energy, but also are cognizant that the planning for the next cycle has already commenced. However, they also realize their health will be focal to the success of the program and a systematic break would be necessary because their personality would not allow them to stop working voluntarily. The laser focus on the performance at Games comes at a cost of limited plans post-Games. As C4 highlights, there is a wide range of emotions that participants can experience at and post-Games which comes with the consequence of withdrawal, but the time off is necessary both physically and psychologically for the athletes and coaches:

So, you probably go through a whole ball of emotions post [Games]. And then you sort of come to a realization, "Okay, I’m all right now I can keep going." And so, it’s just being mindful of that, but we all need that time off.

Thus, it is important to prepare athletes and coaches to expect the rollercoaster of emotions that are experienced both during and post-Games. The inevitable ‘high’ of the Games will wane and be met with a ‘low’ which can be extremely difficult to deal with if the results at the Games do not meet their personal expectation [ 65 ]. A specific initiative (i.e., educational component) to inform and prepare athletes of the potential experiences and readily accessible resources (e.g., alternative career options, careers within sport, volunteering/mentoring opportunities, etc.) to deal with such circumstances will be vital for athlete and coach well-being.

Practical implication

The findings of this case study have several practical implications. First, results highlight the unique challenges athletes and coaches face and this understanding could help stakeholders (i.e., directors, coaches, athletes) better prepare to face these issues in the future. A platform to facilitate a more effective planning and communication across the organization can alleviate some of these challenges, as noted by the participants in this study and it would also create a space to communicate expectations for one another and establish clear boundaries for coaching staff and athletes. The lack of communication, mis- or lack of understanding was at the forefront of some of the challenges both athletes and coaches faced. Sport organizations can incorporate strategies within the system to mitigate some of the challenges by providing resources (e.g., creating a communication platform, impairment-specific resources) where additional support is most needed and allocating an appropriate budget to support interventions (e.g., additional support staff, post-Games support). For instance, our qualitative data suggest a need to support coaches by providing additional resources during the last year of the Quadrennial (i.e., additional staff and extended budget). The platform can be utilized to create resources for coaches and staff on key impairment-related factors specific to each athlete with details pertaining to athletes’ needs within their daily training environments, traveling long distances, the physical and mental state leading up to and on the day of the competition. This would further facilitate effective communication and trust between the coaching staff and athletes and reduce the chances of miscommunication. The additional resources can also allow coaches to select appropriate tournaments and camps, find suitable accommodations, and identify and invest in equipment and technology to enhance athlete experience and team communication. However, it is important to consider the implications of this for the pathway to ensure the increase of resources (i.e., budget, staff) at the high-performance level is not an (in)direct hindrance to the rest of the pathway (i.e., reduced resources elsewhere which could have long-term implications for the sport). Furthermore, the addition of support staff could reduce coaches’ workload by mediating coach-athlete interactions to increase the quality of communication and opportunities for engagement. In turn, this could provide athletes with a specific person to address the subtle and nuanced topics associated with their day to day training and/or impairment related factors. Although, considering one of the main challenges was the impact of planning and communication, introducing a new staff member towards the end of the Quadrennial should be done with great caution and consideration. Recognizing and acknowledging the unique challenges Paralympic athletes face as they prepare for a major Games is important to improving access to relevant resources and support.

It is also important for sporting organizations to support coaches during the lead up to the Games and ensure their self-imposed high expectations are manageable and negative results do not impact the coaches’ psychological and physical well-being. In addition, as alluded to in previous literature [ 64 , 65 ], having a system in place to support athletes and coaches post-Games is vital. First, participants have spent extensive amounts of time in their current environments preparing for the Games with many sacrifices in their personal lives. Second, undoubtedly, they will be experience intense feelings of either euphoria (e.g., meeting/exceeding expectations) or sadness (e.g., not meeting medal targets) pending on the Games’ outcome. Last, while they return home, they are less likely to be spending as much time in environments they are accustomed to pre-Games (e.g., training facilities, rehabilitation and recovery centers, interaction with coaches and teammates, etc.). Therefore, it is beneficial to develop a support mechanism to oversee athletes and coaches’ adjustments post-Games.

The authors’ understanding of the challenges and strategies of Paralympic athletes and coaches in lead up to the major Games is limited. The findings of this study captured the experience of Australian Paralympic athletes and coaches in preparation leading up to the Paralympic Tokyo Games. There was a wide range of challenges noted with participants using a range of strategies to mitigate or anticipate any upcoming obstacles. More specifically, there are key challenges pertaining specifically to the sporting environment (i.e., budgetary constraints, communication, personnel management) and individuals’ lives (i.e., social, vocation/education, residency) along with uncertainties (i.e., accreditation, qualification, COVID-19) that are intertwined withing the sporting context and society in general. Participants mitigate some of these challenges by focusing on effective communication and preparation of contingency plans. An obvious shortcoming of this study was that data collection occurred pre-pandemic, when the Tokyo Games were still scheduled to occur in the summer of 2020. While the findings shed light on customary things that occur in lead up to any major Games, a tailored study examining athletes’ experiences post-pandemic (e.g., if the Games are rescheduled from 2020 to 2021, or canceled in its entirety) could be vital to inform of how policymakers and sport organizations can better prepare for future unpredicted events. Interestingly, some of the previously reported challenges for athletes and coaches in the Paralympic setting were not evident in this study (e.g., challenges to travelling with an impairment, access to facilities, etc.). This could be because these athletes and coaches are performing at the highest level, and focused on overcoming sport-related challenges, and less so on impairment-related barriers [ 57 ]. Both Dieffenbach and Statler [ 66 ] and Macdougall and colleagues [ 1 ] suggest Paralympic athletes’ needs at the high-level are different than those at lower levels, suggesting athletes may become accustomed to high-performance needs, accept existing challenges as part of their daily routine, and identify ways to mitigate barriers while exploring ways to optimize their environment to perform at their best. The findings of this study highlight some of the systematic challenges Paralympic athletes and coaches likely face leading up to any major event and can help us better understand the capacity and resources necessary to provide targeted support leading up to the Games.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the role of members of the sports involved in supporting this project.

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Going for gold: Research Topics on the Olympic and Paralympic games

Did you tune into the Olympics or Paralympics this month? Were you left in awe by the athletes? Curious about the science behind the games? We have curated a list of our best Research Topics on everything Olympic and Paralympic. Enjoy research spanning from the latest insights on new addition sports climbing and athlete hydration strategies to para-athlete mental health and sustainability in sports mega-events.

Research Topics:

Towards Tokyo 2020: What will contribute to Optimal Olympic Athlete Performance?

Media and the Olympic Games

Advances in Rowing Physiology

The Effects of the Covid-19 Pandemic on Sport: Mental Health Implications on Athletes, Coaches and Support Staff

Endurance and Ultra-Endurance Sports in Extreme Conditions: Physiological and Pathophysiological Issues

Sport Management and Natural Resources: Benefits and Sacrifices in Exchange

Rio, Tokyo paralympic games and beyond: how to prepare athletes with motor disabilities for peaking

Training and Testing in Climbing

Understanding & Improving Performance in Strength Sports

Sport Mega-Events and The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

Personalized Sport and Exercise Nutrition

Elevating Sport Performance to New Heights with Innovative ‘Live Low – Train High’ Altitude Training

Traditional Sporting Games and Play: Enhancing Cultural Diversity, Emotional Well-being, Interpersonal Relationships and Intelligent Decisions

Case Reports in Sports Science: Sharing Experiences to Help Coaches Better Approach Professional Athletes

Hydration Strategies and Monitoring in Recreational and Competitive Athletes

The Reciprocal Relationship Between Sleep and Stress in Elite Athletes

Exploring Para-Athlete Mental Health and Wellbeing

Research in Sport Climbing

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Essay about Paralympic Games

In our society, disabled individuals are seen as abnormal, dysfunctional, less than, and unable to participate in normal daily activities. These are common stereotypes surrounding individuals with disabilities across the globe that can be proven inaccurate due to the participation of para-athletes. In the Paralympic Games, there are numerous disabled athletes who take part in sports such as cycling, badminton, and tennis. Para-athletes can promote a positive change on how society views disabilities, especially if there is additional media representation. In the article, media campaigns and logos were deeply examined which portrayed para-athletes as superhuman, extraordinary, and supercrip which can result in a mangling effect on Paralympic athlete’s physical performance and cognitive abilities (Silva & Howe, 2012). If an individual who has a disability is living a normal life, they are seen as successful because society’s expectations of them are minimal. This same scenario is how society views para-athletes as victorious because they have not only conquered their disability but are continuing to participate in elite sports. 

A high need for creating inclusion in our society is necessary for disabled individuals because they merely do not want to be considered an outlier or distinct from others. For example, if a young disabled teen desires to be a participant on the high school soccer team this individual may be discouraged by coaches or team players who look down upon disabilities. The coaches and team players have an assumption that disabled athletes are not real players or that they could never attain a position in the professional sports industry such as the Paralympic Games. This type of assumption can be harmful for young disabled individuals due to the common negative stereotypes that are within the disabled community. The primary goal is that disabled individuals aspire to be considered a productive member of society, which is why it is essential to encourage disabled individuals that they can obtain respectable jobs, have families, and participate in sports. Ultimately, the Paralympic Games can encourage disabled individuals to continue to fight for their passions for sports. 

In terms of media representation and the quantity of audience viewers the Olympic Games is the primary entertainment source viewed by society in comparison to the Paralympic Games. Society views that the Paralympic Games as not an elite or real sport due to para-athletes having advanced technology. Due to this reason, there have been numerous media campaigns for Paralympic athletes throughout the past twenty years. These media campaigns represent disabled athletes as incredible athletes, heroes, and super-athletes (Silva & Howe, 2012). Although, these strong words are not ideal to para-athletes views, Paralympic athletes are constantly fighting for equality and raising awareness for the disabled community. Numerous Paralympic athletes often argue to society that they are equivalent to Olympic athletes. For example, both Olympic Games and Paralympic Games are represented through television, compete in the same sports, and even a small percentage of para-athletes can compete against able-bodied athletes in the Olympic Games. 

The significance of this article is that it is essential to understand how media images and campaigns can affect societies perceptions of disabled athletes along with influencing para-athletes themselves (Silva & Howe, 2012). Paralympics athletes have an influence and promote how society perceives disabilities. One way to promote the Paralympic Games is through television campaigns, images of athlete’s prosthetics, and showing that these athletes never give up on their goals. In addition, representing disabled athletes as superhumans or supercharge provides society more acceptance towards the Paralympic Games.  Expressing that para-athletes are superhumans can prove to society ideas that these athletes are special and not the same as an able-bodied athlete because of their highly advanced prosthesis or current injuries. Ultimately, the primary goal is that Paralympic athletes attempt to prove they are the equal to an Olympic athlete and are not any more diverse than an average human being. 

Some of the prominent aspects of this article is that it deeply discusses that these campaigns and project designs have been happening over the past twenty years promoting the Paralympic Games (Silva & Howe, 2012). Every year there are numerous innovative designs of logos and media campaigns all promoting that Paralympic athletes can participate in the sports industry due to their athletic abilities. These plans primary goals are to assist society build support toward para-athletes and provide a greater audience for the Paralympic Games. Ultimately, these campaign logos can be successful by allowing more recognition and more inspiration for the disabled community and Paralympic athletes (Silva & Howe, 2012). Another high point of this article examines how para-athletes view these campaigns of being referred to as “special” due to their disability. This can affect a para-athletes ability to perform well by negativity impacting physical and social development (Silva & Howe, 2012). This may be due to Paralympic athletes requiring adjustment to society’s views on how performance should be viewed in the sport’s industry and how the impaired are seen as triumphant.

Numerous topics were omitted from this article such as not deeply discussing the issues of masculinity in para-athletes. In society, disabled individuals are often seen as not being able to perform daily tasks and unable to exceed societal expectations. Well, if Paralympic athletes are being referred to as extraordinary athletes due to their injuries, it can affect maintaining masculinity in para-athletes. Society perceives para-athletes as weak and uncapable of being considered a real man. For example, an Olympic male sprinter will be perceived as a strong and masculine athlete. On the other hand, para-athletes are constantly attempting to prove that they are capable to compete against Olympic athletes. 

This article should be recommended to anyone who wants to obtain knowledge on how Paralympic athletes are represented across the country. The promotion of para-athletes can provide recognition and encourage inspiration across the globe. In addition, it can cause harm in para-athletes. Para-athletes may become frustrated in proving that there needs to be inclusion for all regardless of the type of disability an athletic man or woman is facing. Being labeled as superhuman in campaign logos may not be the exact route to promote equality for all, although, it does provide further promotion of viewers each year for the Paralympic Games, which can endorse youths to participate and encourage inclusion in sports.

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Paris 2024: Four-time Paralympic medallist Duran leads team in quest for glory

Sitting volleyball star Mirzet Duran has won four Paralymic medals with Bosnia and Herzegovina. But he had to settle for a third place for the first time at Tokyo 2020.

Now the team captain is treating “every training session as the final of the Paralympic Games” as he is looking to get back to the top of the podium at Paris 2024. 

As we count down to the Paralympic Games, we caught up with Duran, who reflected on his sport career to date and shared his goals for Paris 2024 and beyond. 

How did you get into sitting volleyball?

I was wounded when I was six years old and wore a brace, so I was limited in some ways, but it didn't stop me from playing and enjoying sports like other kids. I didn't at all know about sitting volleyball until I met people from my current club.

I started playing sitting volleyball when I was 16 years old. My parents gave me the greatest support during that period, because they were aware that it might be the only sport, given my disability, in which I could succeed, and that's how everything started.

What has sitting volleyball meant for you? 

Volleyball, as well as sports in general, is something that has been an integral part of my life since my early school days. Especially volleyball stood out among those many sports. Although I became a disabled person very early on, it did not prevent me from being equal among my friends. Especially when I learned about sitting volleyball, a new love was born.

What do you think has made you a four-time Paralympic medallist?

First of all, dedication to the work I do. I see every training session as the final of the Paralympic Games and I always want to win. That's what I ask of my teammates, and I think we are a successful unit because we complement each other. 

How do you look back at your Paralympic debut at Beijing 2008? 

It was my first official competition for the national team and it will remain etched in my memory forever.

In the semifinal game against Russia, I remember that I played a very solid game, which led me to get more minutes in the final game against the Islamic Republic of Iran. It was a very nice memory, especially since the Paralympics were my first big competition.

What was different at London 2012?

Since Beijing I had played four domestic championships, two European championships and one World Championship, so by then my experience was significantly greater and this time it prevailed on our side.

In Beijing I occasionally entered the game and gained some experience. In London, I was declared the best spiker of the Paralympic Games. 

You won a gold medal in London, after beating the Islamic Republic of Iran 3-1 in the final. What did that mean for you? 

At the time, I really wasn't aware of how big it was. Now, when I look back and see how much I train and how much others invest in sports, I can only see that I am one of the few who have succeeded, especially taking into account the fact that so far only three national teams (Netherlands and Iran too) have won the Paralympic Games in men's sitting volleyball.

What were your thoughts when receiving the medal? And how did the gold medal change your life?

I traveled to the Paralympic Games the day before my son's first birthday, so I dedicated that medal to him.

Winning the gold medal certainly changed my life. After those Games, many things changed, we got many other sponsors, we got a new sports law that gave us certain benefits for winning medals.

In Rio 2016, Bosnia and Herzegovina finished with a silver medal, losing to Iran in the final. How do you compare that silver medal to the first one you earned in Beijing?

It was two completely different pictures. At the Beijing Games I was a beginner, and at the Rio Games I was an experienced player. During that period, certain problems arose within the national team, there was mention of the change of coach and other things, so it affected us a lot, psychologically. 

There were many direct and indirect reasons for losing (in the final) but coming up and facing Mehrzad (Iran's two-time Paralympic gold medallist Morteza Mehrzadselakjani ), is definitely one of the bigger reasons for our defeat.

How do you look back at Tokyo 2020, where you took bronze?

The Tokyo Games were special, especially since they had been postponed for a year. The story about the change of coach was still going on, and it culminated in us achieving the worst result at the Paralympic Games.

What are you aiming for at the Paris Games?

Considering that most of the players are still in the team since we won our first gold medal (at the European championships) in 1999, I think that entering the final would be a really big result for us. Of course, we will not give up our strive towards that.

Do you train any differently to be able to improve on your results from Tokyo? 

Since the games in Tokyo, there was a change of coach. After that, we got a completely new approach to training, recovery after matches, analysis of opponents and other things. After making those changes, we managed to win two European championships.

What is your biggest obstacle on the way to success in Paris? 

As for training conditions, travel, and everything else that goes along with this, our biggest opponent is age. The same players have been in the line up from 2008 to 2024. There is a lot of experience, but fresh players are also needed.

Do you have goals with your sport beyond Paris 2024?

Paris is definitely not the end. Once it gets under the skin, it is difficult to get rid of the addiction to volleyball. 

What does it mean to you to showcase the power of sport to others? 

It makes me happy that my children come to my training, to see that there are no limitations, regardless of whether it is a sport for people with disabilities or not. The children of almost all the players come and I hope we will be a good example if they one day decide to be successful in what they do, even if it is not sports. 

What other dreams do you have? 

After I stop playing volleyball, I will devote myself to landscaping the garden behind my house because that is what relaxes me. Of course, family comes first. Spending more time with them is invaluable because they were somehow neglected during the period when there are a large number of competitions during the year. 

Book your tickets for the Paralympic Games by visiting the Paris 2024 ticketing website .

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100 Days Until NBCUniversal Begins Its Record Coverage Of The Paralympic Games Paris 2024

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Today marks 100 days out until the start of the Paralympic Games Paris 2024, with NBCUniversal set to present the most comprehensive coverage of the Paralympics in U.S. media history.

The 17th edition of this prestigious international event is set to include a record-breaking amount of coverage along with a groundbreaking broadcast that will create an unparalleled viewing experience for the American audience.

Several unique features will make next year’s Paralympic Games one for the ages, including a breathtaking Opening Ceremony set to take place on the Champs-Élysées at the Place de la Concorde. Located in the heart of Paris, an estimated 4,400 athletes representing over 180 delegations from around the world are expected to take part in the opening festivities. Additional events taking place amidst the iconic Parisian landmarks include the Eiffel Tower, Roland Garros, Versailles, and more. This will be the first time the French capital will host the Paralympic Games.

“As support for the Paralympics continues to soar, we are growing our coverage to match the American viewer’s interest and passion,” said Molly Solomon, Executive Producer and President, NBC Olympics Production. “We’ll have more commentators on the ground, more cameras at the venues, and more hours to watch than ever before, including everything on Peacock.”

Our expansive coverage is dedicated to giving the Paralympics its much-deserved spotlight in Paris particularly as they get ready to come to the United States to Los Angeles in 2028.

“We are thrilled to continue to expand NBC’s Paralympics broadcasts each Games. For Paris, we are especially proud to have the first-ever Disabled hosts and to add more resources in-country so we have an even greater ability to feature the athletic achievements and stories of these incredible competitors,” said Alexa Pritting, senior producer, NBC Paralympics.

“Paris 2024 is poised to host one of the most spectacular Paralympic Games in history,” said Sarah Hirshland, USOPC CEO. “As part of our continued commitment with our partners at NBC to drive awareness of the Paralympic Movement, the record amount of broadcast coverage for the 2024 U.S. Paralympic Team Trials and Paralympic Games ensures that more and more Americans are able to witness and cheer on the incredible achievements of Team USA.”

“It is fantastic that NBCU will be providing more coverage of the Paralympic Games than ever before and showcasing the talents of several disabled presenters,” said John Lisko, Managing Director of IPC Global Media Rights. “The appetite for Paralympic sport is rapidly growing globally due to ever improving quality of the sport. The combination of world class sport and the French capital’s iconic venues will make Paris 2024 the most spectacular and most watched Paralympic Games in history, the perfect foundations as we build towards LA28.”

Here is a closer look at NBCU’s coverage for the 2024 Paris Paralympics, which will again be presented by Toyota:

COMMENTATORS

Sports Broadcasting Hall of Famer Andrea Joyce, 2016 U.S. Paralympic track & field athlete Lacey Henderson, Making Space & Making Space Media co-founder and disability advocate Sophie Morgan, longtime NBC Olympics and Paralympics host Carolyn Manno, and five-time Paralympic gold medalist and Paralympic Hall of Famer Chris Waddell will serve as hosts of NBCUniversal’s coverage of the Paris Paralympics.

Joyce and Henderson will often host live from the USOPC’s Team USA House in Paris and other locations around the city, becoming the first NBCU commentators ever to host in-person at a Paralympic Games, while Morgan, Manno, and Waddell will report live from NBC Sports headquarters in Stamford, Conn. Additionally, Morgan, Henderson, and Waddell also make up the first-ever Disabled hosts of NBCU’s Paralympics coverage.

More details about NBC Sports’ Paris Paralympics broadcast team will be announced soon.

In October 2023, NBC Sports and Making Space , the talent acquisition and learning platform, announced a partnership that has seen them work together to identify and develop on- and off-camera employment opportunities for Disabled talent. Since then, Making Space has provided NBC Sports with a talent pipeline from the Disabled community, including Henderson and Waddell, who will both be heavily featured in NBC Sports’ groundbreaking coverage of the Paris Paralympics.

To learn more, click here to watch a video featuring Pritting, Henderson, Waddell, and more, as they discuss NBC Sports and Making Space’s innovative partnership.

ACCESS AND TECHNOLOGY

This year’s Paralympics will be the first in which the USOPC is hosting a Team USA House and, subsequently, will be the first Paralympic broadcast to feature an inside look at the house, which functions as an exclusive home base for Team USA athletes.

Viewers will get an inside look at star athletes who are expected to compete in Paris such as 18-year-old track & field phenom Ezra Frech, four-time Paralympic swimming gold medalist McKenzie Coan, and 17-time Paralympic medalist Oksana Masters, one of the most decorated Paralympians in U.S. history, providing viewers with never-before-seen access to Para athletes competing on the biggest stage. Joyce and Henderson, covering the Games live from Paris, will frequently host from there.

NBCUniversal is also set to debut additional cameras devoted to capturing footage of the athletes plus their family and friends, deepening the level of storytelling that will be told throughout the Games.

PROGRAMMING

As announced last year, more than 140 hours of Paris Paralympic television coverage across NBC, USA Network, and CNBC will be presented, including daily live coverage of every competition day on USA Network and CNBC and nine hours of coverage on NBC, with six of those hours in primetime.

NBCU’s Paralympic coverage will also include the most live Peacock streaming hours ever for a Paralympic event, with approximately 1,500 hours of live coverage across all 22 Paralympic sports set to be presented throughout the duration of the 12-day event. Peacock will be the most comprehensive Paralympic destination in U.S. media history.

Additionally, there will be closed captioning of every Paralympic event, regardless of platform. There will also be audio description on all linear programming.

In what has been the biggest Paralympics marketing push in NBCU history, NBCU captured content from a dozen Paralympians to be used in campaigns across the company’s myriad of platforms at the Universal Shoot in Los Angeles in November 2023. Athletes such as 16-time Paralympic swimming gold medalist Jessica Long and three-time Paralympic wheelchair rugby medalist and leading scorer Chuck Aoki posed in front of cutting-edge virtual background screens displaying Parisian backdrops, showcasing their world-class athleticism, while also participating in an additional photo shoot wearing casual, non-competition clothes, displaying a sense of emotionality and relatability connecting them further with U.S. audiences.

Many of these athletes are also involved with NBC Sports’ Fortius campaign, which aims to help Paralympic athletes expand their personal brands via social media and, ultimately, help the growth of the sport by spotlighting its most valuable resource: the athletes themselves.

Like the U.S. Olympic team, the U.S. Paralympic team is historically one of the hardest to qualify for. From three-time Paralympic track & field medalist Brittni Mason to two-time defending wheelchair basketball team gold medalist Steve Serio and Sarah Adam, the first-ever woman to be named to the U.S. Paralympic wheelchair rugby team, there is no shortage of talent on this elite lineup of athletes. With the beautiful backdrop of Paris, this year’s Paralympics are shaping up to be, arguably, the most competitive and compelling in history, with Team USA primed to be at the center of it all.

NBCU’s coverage of the road to Paris for Team USA’s Paralympians begins on June 27 at 10 a.m. ET on Peacock with the U.S. Paralympic Team Trials – Swimming from the University of Minnesota’s Jean K. Freeman Aquatic Center. Later this summer, NBCU will also provide live coverage of the U.S. Paralympic Team Trials – Track & Field from Ansin Sports Complex in Miramar, Fla., starting July 18 at 4 p.m. ET on Peacock. In total, NBCU will present over 25 hours of live Paralympic Team Trials coverage across Peacock and CNBC in swimming and track & field.

More details about NBC Sports’ Paris Paralympics Trials broadcast will be announced soon.

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Paris 2024 unveil Eiffel Tower-inspired podiums for the Olympic and Paralympic Games

Two months ahead of Paris 2024 , the official podiums for the Olympic and Paralympic Games have been revealed.

The eco-friendly podiums, made by Le Pavé, Global Concept and Giffard, will be the same used at both the Olympic Games, from 26 July - 11 August, and the Paralympic Games that follow, from 28 August until 8 September 2024.

The podiums, coloured grey in homage to the rooftops of Paris and inspired by the design of the Eiffel Tower, will be used for all 329 medal ceremonies at the Olympic Games and each of the 549 ceremonies at the Paralympic Games.

"For an athlete, reaching the podium is a moment of pride, emotion and ultimate success: you put the medal around your neck and, in an instant, the dream becomes reality. You enter the history of the Games," said Paris 2024 President Tony Estanguet.

"We are pleased to reveal the podiums for the Paris 2024 Games, whose design follows the path of our medals with a piece of the Eiffel Tower within them, inspired by the lines and curves inspired by the work of the great French architect Gustave Eiffel.

"When you win a medal at the Games, you’ll feel a bit like you're climbing on top of the world, so at least the athletes will be on the top of Paris with this grey, which recalls the strong colour of the roofs of Paris.

"With these podiums made in France from French wood and 100% recycled plastic, we offer athletes a real stage where they will be proud to stand and wear the colours of their country, watched by the whole world," he added.

Paris 2024 head of design Joachim Roncin explained the challenge of incorporating the world-famous tower in the final plan.

“We reviewed lots of pictures of the Eiffel Tower and its location," he explained. "We had to find something subtle because the Eiffel Tower is vertical, and a podium is horizontal. I saw something interesting in the arch of the bridge.”

Roncin's attention to detail will not go unnoticed. Former French para swimmer and three-time gold medallist Ludivine Loiseau-Munos told reporters: “I could tell you all the podiums I’ve been on, I could even draw a sketch from memory.

"We stand back, we wait for our name, and then we look straight ahead with pride."

• Discover the Olympic and Paralympic medals

This podium is really beautiful. The essence of the Eiffel Tower is still there - it's really the backdrop of these Games, the Eiffel Tower. It makes you want to climb it, it makes you crave it!

Alexis Hanquinquant

An eco-friendly podium made in France

All the elements that make up the Paris 2024 podiums are French, as are the companies that created them. Start-up company Le Pavé was responsible for recycling the materials, Global Concept took charge of their construction and Giffard produced their wooden structure.

Le Pavé manager Lucas Philipponneau said: “40 tonnes of plastic were recycled at our company site in Aubervilliers, to construct the podiums.”

The wooden modules produced by Giffard, based near the city's Orly airport, are made from plywood. Alain Morales said his company worked jointly with Global Concept to manufacture prototypes and carry out trials to optimise the construction of 685 modules that make up each of the 68 podiums.

A suitable and adaptable podium

Practicality is at the heart of the design of the Paris 2024 podiums, and each one is assembled using a modular system; modules can be added or removed to lengthen or shorten the surface as required, with team sports needing longer podiums.

The shortest podium measures 4m in length while the longest, for Olympic football , is 33m.

The Paralympic podiums feature a similar design but are distinguished by their configuration on a single level, with a raised facade in their centre and side to facilitate accessibility. A ramp will also be added to the side for wheelchair access.

Key facts and figures of the Paris 2024 podiums

• 68 Olympic and Paralympic podiums
• 23 module types to cover all configurations
• 3 modules used to create shorter podiums (individual sports), 4m in length
• 43 modules used to create longer podiums (team sports, including football), 33m in length
• 685 modules (640 + 45 replacement modules) produced for the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games
• 45kg: the average weight of one module
• 100 per cent made in France
• 40 tonnes of recycled plastic in France

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Paralympic storylines 100 days out from the 2024 Paris Games

Paris 2024 Paralympic storylines with 100 days to go until the Aug. 28 Opening Ceremony ...

Picturesque Paris: Iconic venues, Opening Ceremony

The Games begin with the first Paralympic Opening Ceremony to be held outside of a stadium. The Place de la Concorde will host the event with an athlete parade along part of the Champs-Élysées.

The following 11 days will include competition at famous sites including the Grand Palais (wheelchair fencing and taekwondo), the Champ de Mars Arena (judo and wheelchair rugby), the Esplanade des Invalides (archery), a stadium next to the Eiffel Tower (blind soccer), the Château de Versailles (equestrian) and Roland Garros (wheelchair tennis).

Swimming: Jessica Long's bid to move up all-time medals list

Long, who made her Paralympic debut in 2004 at age 12, ran her career medal total to 29 at the Tokyo Games, including 16 golds. The all-time Paralympic medals leaders list varies depending on the source, but it's clear that few athletes have won 30 or more and only one American has more medals than Long: all-time medal leader Trischa Zorn, who won 55 in swimming from 1980 through 2004.

In 2023, Long returned after a post-Tokyo Paralympic break to win her 36th and 37th career titles at the world championships. Then she published a children’s book , "The Mermaid with No Tail," which is based on her personal story.

The Paralympic Swimming Trials are June 27-29 in Minneapolis.

Track and Field: Paralympic champion vs. World champion in 100m

Nick Mayhugh won the Tokyo Paralympic 100m and 200m in the T37 division, both in world record times. Since, he was reclassified into the T38 division, moved to train with Olympic sprint star Noah Lyles' group in Florida and witnessed the rise of a new challenger in countryman Jaydin Blackwell.

Blackwell, 20, swept the 100m and 400m at last July's world championships with Mayhugh finishing third and fourth in the events. Mayhugh was returning from a back injury sustained in a car accident in July 2022.

Mayhugh and Blackwell are going head-to-head again at the ongoing world championships in Kobe, Japan. Blackwell won the 100m on Saturday. The 400m is Tuesday.

The Paralympic Track and Field Trials July 18-20 in Miramar, Florida.

Team Sports: U.S. seeks gold-medal streaks

The U.S. men's wheelchair basketball team and women's sitting volleyball team each eye a third consecutive Paralympic title in Paris.

The wheelchair basketball roster was announced on March 30, including Steve Serio, who plans to make Paris his fifth and final Games. Paul Schulte is going to his fourth Paralympics, and first in 12 years , at age 45.

The women's sitting volleyball roster has yet to be announced, but it could have up to four moms, including Lora Webster, a five-time Paralympian with four children.

The wheelchair rugby team seeks its first gold since the 2008 Beijing Games after taking bronze in London and silver in Rio and Tokyo.

The roster, announced April 30 , includes Chuck Aoki, who will become the first four-time U.S. Paralympian in the sport, and Sarah Adam, who will be the first woman to play on a U.S. Paralympic wheelchair rugby team .

Medal Count: China continues to own the podium

At the Tokyo Paralympics, the U.S. won the fourth-most total medals (104) and third-most gold medals (37), while China topped both standings (207, 96) for a fifth consecutive Summer Games.

China continued to perform well in world championships in 2023, winning the second-most medals in track and field, third-most in swimming and third-most in cycling. Those three sports account for 356 of the 549 medal events at the Paris Games.

• Nick Zaccardi ,

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Rinaldi, Bryan, Rydberg and Devorss will coach U.S. tennis teams at the Olympics and Paralympics

FILE - Captain Kathy Rinaldi, left, speaks with USA’s Danielle Collins during Collins’ match against Poland’s Magdalena Frech on the second day of the Billie Jean King Cup finals at Emirates Arena in Glasgow, Scotland, Wednesday, Nov. 9, 2022. Former Billie Jean King Cup captain Rinaldi and current Davis Cup captain Bob Bryan will coach the U.S. tennis players at the Paris Olympics, the U.S. Tennis Association announced Monday, May 27, 2024. (AP Photo/Kin Cheung, File)

FILE - Bob Bryan, right, makes remarks while his brother Mike Bryan looks on during a news conference following their victory over Nikolay Davydenko and Igor Andreev, of Russia, in a doubles match at the Davis Cup tennis final Saturday, Dec. 1, 2007, in Portland, Ore. Former Billie Jean King Cup captain Kathy Rinaldi and current Davis Cup captain Bob Bryan will coach the U.S. tennis players at the Paris Olympics, the U.S. Tennis Association announced Monday, May 27, 2024. (AP Photo/Rick Bowmer, File)

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NEW YORK (AP) — Former Billie Jean King Cup captain Kathy Rinaldi and current Davis Cup captain Bob Bryan will coach the U.S. tennis players at the Paris Olympics.

Jon Rydberg and John Devorss will coach the country’s teams for the sport at the Paralympics.

The U.S. Tennis Association announced the appointments on Monday. The American athletes for tennis will be named at a later date. For the Olympics, the choices will be based on the WTA and ATP rankings on June 10, the day after the French Open ends.

Tennis for the Olympics and Paralympics will be played at Roland Garros, the site of the French Open, which is being played now. The Olympics are July 26 to Aug. 11; the Paralympics are Aug. 28 to Sept. 8.

Rinaldi also worked for Team USA at the Tokyo Games three years ago. She was the U.S. Billie Jean King Cup captain for seven years, winning the title in 2017. She was replaced by Lindsay Davenport after the 2023 Cup.

This will be Bryan’s first Olympics as a coach. He and his twin brother, Mike, won a gold medal in doubles at the London Games in 2012 and a bronze in Beijing four years earlier.

Rydberg is a four-time Paralympian. Devorrs has been the U.S. World Team Cup coach.

AP tennis: https://apnews.com/hub/tennis