case study information systems introduction

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1.1S: Section #1 Summary

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• Page ID 11460

• David T. Bourgeois
• Biola University via Saylor Foundation

In this chapter, you have been introduced to the concept of information systems. We have reviewed several definitions, with a focus on the components of information systems: technology, people, and process. We have reviewed how the business use of information systems has evolved over the years, from the use of large mainframe computers for number crunching, through the introduction of the PC and networks, all the way to the era of mobile computing. During each of these phases, new innovations in software and technology allowed businesses to integrate technology more deeply.

We are now to a point where every company is using information systems and asking the question: Does it bring a competitive advantage? In the end, that is really what this book is about. Every businessperson should understand what an information system is and how it can be used to bring a competitive advantage. And that is the task we have before us.

Study Questions

• What are the five components that make up an information system?
• What are three examples of information system hardware?
• Microsoft Windows is an example of which component of information systems?
• What is application software?
• What roles do people play in information systems?
• What is the definition of a process?
• What was invented first, the personal computer or the Internet (ARPANET)?
• In what year were restrictions on commercial use of the Internet first lifted? When were eBay and Amazon founded?
• What does it mean to say we are in a “post-PC world”?
• What is Carr’s main argument about information technology?
• Suppose that you had to explain to a member of your family or one of your closest friends the concept of an information system. How would you define it? Write a one-paragraph description  in your own words  that you feel would best describe an information system to your friends or family.
• Of the five primary components of an information system (hardware, software, data, people, process), which do you think is the most important to the success of a business organization? Write a one-paragraph answer to this question that includes an example from your personal experience to support your answer.
• We all interact with various information systems every day: at the grocery store, at work, at school, even in our cars (at least some of us). Make a list of the different information systems you interact with every day. See if you can identify the technologies, people, and processes involved in making these systems work.
• Do you agree that we are in a post-PC stage in the evolution of information systems? Some people argue that we will always need the personal computer, but that it will not be the primary device used for manipulating information. Others think that a whole new era of mobile and biological computing is coming. Do some original research and make your prediction about what business computing will look like in the next generation.
• The Walmart case study introduced you to how that company used information systems to become the world’s leading retailer. Walmart has continued to innovate and is still looked to as a leader in the use of technology. Do some original research and write a one-page report detailing a new technology that Walmart has recently implemented or is pioneering.
• Wikipedia entry on "Information Systems ," as displayed on August 19, 2012.  Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia . San Francisco: Wikimedia Foundation.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informa...s_(discipline) . ↵
• Excerpted from Information Systems Today - Managing in the Digital World , fourth edition. Prentice-Hall, 2010. ↵
• Excerpted from Management Information Systems , twelfth edition, Prentice-Hall, 2012. ↵
• CERN's "The Birth of the Web."  http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/about/web-en.html ↵
• Walmart 2012 Annual Report. ↵

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Part I: What is an information system?

Chapter 1: What Is an Information System?

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

• define what an information system is by identifying its major components;
• describe the basic history of information systems; and
• describe the basic argument behind the article “Does IT Matter?” by Nicholas Carr.

Introduction

Welcome to the world of information systems, a world that seems to change almost daily. Over the past few decades information systems have progressed to being virtually everywhere, even to the point where you may not realize its existence in many of your daily activities. Stop and consider how you interface with various components in information systems every day through different electronic devices. Smartphones, laptop, and personal computers connect us constantly to a variety of systems including messaging, banking, online retailing, and academic resources, just to name a few examples. Information systems are at the center of virtually every organization, providing users with almost unlimited resources.

Have you ever considered why businesses invest in technology? Some purchase computer hardware and software because everyone else has computers. Some even invest in the same hardware and software as their business friends even though different technology might be more appropriate for them. Finally, some businesses do sufficient research before deciding what best fits their needs. As you read through this book be sure to evaluate the contents of each chapter based on how you might someday apply what you have learned to strengthen the position of the business you work for, or maybe even your own business. Wise decisions can result in stability and growth for your future enterprise.

Information systems surround you almost every day. Wi-fi networks on your university campus, database search services in the learning resource center, and printers in computer labs are good examples. Every time you go shopping you are interacting with an information system that manages inventory and sales. Even driving to school or work results in an interaction with the transportation information system, impacting traffic lights, cameras, etc. Vending machines connect and communicate using the Internet of Things (IoT). Your car’s computer system does more than just control the engine – acceleration, shifting, and braking data is always recorded. And, of course, everyone’s smartphone is constantly connecting to available networks via Wi-fi, recording your location and other data.

Can you think of some words to describe an information system? Words such as “computers,” “networks,” or “databases” might pop into your mind. The study of information systems encompasses a broad array of devices, software, and data systems. Defining an information system provides you with a solid start to this course and the content you are about to encounter.

Defining Information Systems

Many programs in business require students to take a course in information systems . Various authors have attempted to define the term in different ways. Read the following definitions, then see if you can detect some variances.

• “An information system (IS) can be defined technically as a set of interrelated components that collect, process, store, and distribute information to support decision making and control in an organization.” [1]
• “Information systems are combinations of hardware, software, and telecommunications networks that people build and use to collect, create, and distribute useful data, typically in organizational settings.” [2]
• “Information systems are interrelated components working together to collect, process, store, and disseminate information to support decision making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in an organization.” [3]

The Components of Information Systems

Information systems can be viewed as having five major components: hardware, software, data, people, and processes. The first three are technology . These are probably what you thought of when defining information systems. The last two components, people and processes, separate the idea of information systems from more technical fields, such as computer science. In order to fully understand information systems, you will need to understand how all of these components work together to bring value to an organization.

Technology can be thought of as the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. From the invention of the wheel to the harnessing of electricity for artificial lighting, technology has become ubiquitous in daily life, to the degree that it is assumed to always be available for use regardless of location. As discussed before, the first three components of information systems – hardware, software, and data – all fall under the category of technology. Each of these will be addressed in an individual chapter. At this point a simple introduction should help you in your understanding.

Hardware is the tangible, physical portion of an information system – the part you can touch. Computers, keyboards, disk drives, and flash drives are all examples of information systems hardware. How these hardware components function and work together will be covered in Chapter 2.

Software comprises the set of instructions that tell the hardware what to do. Software is not tangible – it cannot be touched.  Programmers create software by typing a series of instructions telling the hardware what to do. Two main categories of software are: Operating Systems and Application software. Operating Systems software provides the interface between the hardware and the Application software. Examples of operating systems for a personal computer include Microsoft Windows and Ubuntu Linux. The mobile phone operating system market is dominated by Google Android and Apple iOS. Application software allows the user to perform tasks such as creating documents, recording data in a spreadsheet, or messaging a friend. Software will be explored more thoroughly in Chapter 3.

The third technology component is data. You can think of data as a collection of facts. For example, your address (street, city state, postal code), your phone number, and your social networking account are all pieces of data. Like software, data is also intangible, unable to be seen in its native state. Pieces of unrelated data are not very useful. But aggregated, indexed, and organized together into a database, data can become a powerful tool for businesses. Organizations collect all kinds of data and use it to make decisions which can then be analyzed as to their effectiveness. The analysis of data is then used to improve the organization’s performance. Chapter 4 will focus on data and databases, and how it is used in organizations.

Networking Communication

Besides the technology components (hardware, software, and data) which have long been considered the core technology of information systems, it has been suggested that one other component should be added: communication. An information system can exist without the ability to communicate – the first personal computers were stand-alone machines that did not access the Internet. However, in today’s hyper-connected world, it is an extremely rare computer that does not connect to another device or to a enetwork. Technically, the networking communication component is made up of hardware and software, but it is such a core feature of today’s information systems that it has become its own category. Networking will be covered in Chapter 5.

When thinking about information systems, it is easy to focus on the technology components and forget to look beyond these tools to fully understand their integration into an organization. A focus on the people involved in information systems is the next step. From the front-line user support staff, to systems analysts, to developers, all the way up to the chief information officer (CIO), the people involved with information systems are an essential element. The people component will be covered in Chapter 9.

The last component of information systems is process. A process is a series of steps undertaken to achieve a desired outcome or goal. Information systems are becoming more integrated with organizational processes, bringing greater productivity and better control to those processes. But simply automating activities using technology is not enough – businesses looking to utilize information systems must do more. The ultimate goal is to improve processes both internally and externally, enhancing interfaces with suppliers and customers. Technology buzzwords such as “business process re-engineering,” “business process management,” and “enterprise resource planning” all have to do with the continued improvement of these business procedures and the integration of technology with them. Businesses hoping to gain a competitive advantage over their competitors are highly focused on this component of information systems. The process element in information systems will be discussed in Chapter 8.

The Role of Information Systems

You should now understand that information systems have a number of vital components, some tangible, others intangible, and still others of a personnel nature. These components collect, store, organize, and distribute data throughout the organization. You may have even realized that one of the roles of information systems is to take data and turn it into information, and then transform that information into organizational knowledge. As technology has developed, this role has evolved into the backbone of the organization, making information systems integral to virtually every business. The integration of information systems into organizations has progressed over the decades. 

The Mainframe Era

From the late 1950s through the 1960s, computers were seen as a way to more efficiently do calculations. These first business computers were room-sized monsters, with several machines linked together. The primary work was to organize and store large volumes of information that were tedious to manage by hand. Only large businesses, universities, and government agencies could afford them, and they took a crew of specialized personnel and dedicated facilities to provide information to organizations.

Time-sharing allowed dozens or even hundreds of users to simultaneously access mainframe computers from locations in the same building or miles away. Typical functions included scientific calculations and accounting, all under the broader umbrella of “data processing.”

In the late 1960s, Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP) systems were introduced. This software, running on a mainframe computer, gave companies the ability to manage the manufacturing process, making it more efficient. From tracking inventory to creating bills of materials to scheduling production, the MRP systems gave more businesses a reason to integrate computing into their processes. IBM became the dominant mainframe company.  Continued improvement in software and the availability of cheaper hardware eventually brought mainframe computers (and their little sibling, the minicomputer) into most large businesses.

Today you probably think of Silicon Valley in northern California as the center of computing and technology. But in the days of the mainframe’s dominance corporations in the cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul produced most computers. The advent of the personal computer resulted in the “center of technology” eventually moving to Silicon Valley.

The PC Revolution

In 1975, the first microcomputer was announced on the cover of Popular Mechanics : the Altair 8800. Its immediate popularity sparked the imagination of entrepreneurs everywhere, and there were soon dozens of companies manufacturing these “personal computers.” Though at first just a niche product for computer hobbyists, improvements in usability and the availability of practical software led to growing sales. The most prominent of these early personal computer makers was a little company known as Apple Computer, headed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, with the hugely successful “Apple II.” Not wanting to be left out of the revolution, in 1981 IBM teamed with Microsoft, then just a startup company, for their operating system software and hurriedly released their own version of the personal computer simply called the “PC.” Small businesses finally had affordable computing that could provide them with needed information systems. Popularity of the IBM PC gave legitimacy to the microcomputer and it was named Time  magazine’s “Man of the Year” for 1982.

Because of the IBM PC’s open architecture, it was easy for other companies to copy, or “clone” it. During the 1980s, many new computer companies sprang up, offering less expensive versions of the PC. This drove prices down and spurred innovation. Microsoft developed the Windows operating system, with version 3.1 in 1992 becoming the first commercially successful release. Typical uses for the PC during this period included word processing, spreadsheets, and databases. These early PCs were standalone machines, not connected to a network.

Client-Server

In the mid-1980s, businesses began to see the need to connect their computers as a way to collaborate and share resources. Known as “client-server,” this networking architecture allowed users to log in to the Local Area Network (LAN) from their PC (the “client”) by connecting to a central computer called a “server.” The server would lookup permissions for each user to determine who had access to various resources such as printers and files. Software companies began developing applications that allowed multiple users to access the same data at the same time. This evolved into software applications for communicating, with the first popular use of electronic mail appearing at this time.

This networking and data sharing all stayed mainly within the confines of each business. Sharing of electronic data between companies was a very specialized function. Computers were now seen as tools to collaborate internally within an organization. These networks of computers were becoming so powerful that they were replacing many of the functions previously performed by the larger mainframe computers at a fraction of the cost. It was during this era that the first Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems were developed and run on the client-server architecture. An ERP system is an application with a centralized database that can be used to run a company’s entire business. With separate modules for accounting, finance, inventory, human resources, and many more, ERP systems, with Germany’s SAP leading the way, represented the state of the art in information systems integration. ERP systems will be discussed in Chapter 9.

The Internet, World Wide Web and E-Commerce

The first long distance transmission between two computers occurred on October 29, 1969 when developers under the direction of Dr. Leonard Kleinrock sent the word “login” from the campus of UCLA to Stanford Research Institute in Menlo Park, California, a distance of over 350 miles. The United States Department of Defense created and funded ARPA Net (Advanced Research Projects Administration), an experimental network which eventually became known as the Internet. ARPA Net began with just four nodes or sites, a very humble start for today’s Internet. Initially, the Internet was confined to use by universities, government agencies, and researchers. Users were required to type commands (today we refer to this as “command line”) in order to communicate and transfer files. The first e-mail messages on the Internet were sent in the early 1970s as a few very large companies expanded from local networks to the Internet. The computer was now evolving from a purely computational device into the world of digital communications.

In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee developed a simpler way for researchers to share information over the Internet, a concept he called the World Wide Web . [4] This invention became the catalyst for the growth of the Internet as a way for businesses to share information about themselves. As web browsers and Internet connections became the norm, companies rushed to grab domain names and create websites.

The digital world also became a more dangerous place as virtually all companies connected to the Internet. Computer viruses and worms, once slowly propagated through the sharing of computer disks, could now grow with tremendous speed via the Internet. Software and operating systems written for a standalone world found it very difficult to defend against these sorts of threats. A whole new industry of computer and Internet security arose. Information security will be discussed in Chapter 6.

As the world recovered from the dot-com bust, the use of technology in business continued to evolve at a frantic pace. Websites became interactive. Instead of just visiting a site to find out about a business and then purchase its products, customers wanted to be able to customize their experience and interact online with the business. This new type of interactive website, where you did not have to know how to create a web page or do any programming in order to put information online, became known as Web 2.0. This new stage of the Web was exemplified by blogging, social networking, and interactive comments being available on many websites. The new Web 2.0 world, in which online interaction became expected, had a major impact on many businesses and even whole industries. Many bookstores found themselves relegated to a niche status. Video rental chains and travel agencies simply began going out of business as they were replaced by online technologies. The newspaper industry saw a huge drop in circulation with some cities such as New Orleans no longer able to support a daily newspaper. Disintermediation is the process of technology replacing a middleman in a transaction. Web 2.0 allowed users to get information and news online, reducing dependence of physical books and newspapers.

As the world became more connected, new questions arose. Should access to the Internet be considered a right? Is it legal to copy a song that had been downloaded from the Internet? Can information entered into a website be kept private? What information is acceptable to collect from children? Technology moved so fast that policymakers did not have enough time to enact appropriate laws. Ethical issues surrounding information systems will be covered in Chapter 12.

The Post-PC World, Sort of

Ray Ozzie, a technology visionary at Microsoft, stated in 2012 that computing was moving into a phase he called the post-PC world. [5] Now six years later that prediction has not stood up very well to reality. As you will read in Chapter 13, PC sales have dropped slightly in recent years while there has been a precipitous decline in tablet sales. Smartphone sales have accelerated, due largely to their mobility and ease of operation. Just as the mainframe before it, the PC will continue to play a key role in business, but its role will be somewhat diminished as people emphasize mobility as a central feature of technology. Cloud computing provides users with mobile access to data and applications, making the PC more of a part of the communications channel rather than a repository of programs and information. Innovation in the development of technology and communications will continue to move businesses forward.

Can Information Systems Bring Competitive Advantage?

It has always been the assumption that the implementation of information systems will bring a business competitive advantage. If installing one computer to manage inventory can make a company more efficient, then it can be expected that installing several computers can improve business processes and efficiency.

In 2003, Nicholas Carr wrote an article in the Harvard Business Review  that questioned this assumption. Entitled “I.T. Doesn’t Matter.” Carr was concerned that information technology had become just a commodity. Instead of viewing technology as an investment that will make a company stand out, Carr said technology would become as common as electricity – something to be managed to reduce costs, ensure that it is always running, and be as risk-free as possible.

The article was both hailed and scorned. Can I.T. bring a competitive advantage to an organization? It sure did for Walmart (see sidebar). Technology and competitive advantage will be discussed in Chapter 7.

Sidebar: Walmart Uses Information Systems to Become the World’s Leading Retailer

Walmart is the world’s largest retailer, earn  8.1 billion for the fiscal year that ended on January 31, 2018. Walmart currently serves over 260 million customers every week worldwide through its 11,700 stores in 28 countries. [6] In 2018 Fortune magazine for the sixth straight year ranked Walmart the number one company for annual revenue as they again exceeded $500 billion in annual sales. The next closest company, Exxon, had less than half of Walmart’s total revenue. [7] Walmart’s rise to prominence is due in large part to making information systems a high priority, especially in their Supply Chain Management (SCM) system known as Retail Link. ing $14.3 billion on sales of $30

This system, unique when initially implemented in the mid-1980s, allowed Walmart’s suppliers to directly access the inventory levels and sales information of their products at any of Walmart’s more than eleven thousand stores. Using Retail Link, suppliers can analyze how well their products are selling at one or more Walmart stores with a range of reporting options. Further, Walmart requires the suppliers to use Retail Link to manage their own inventory levels. If a supplier feels that their products are selling out too quickly, they can use Retail Link to petition Walmart to raise the inventory levels for their products. This has essentially allowed Walmart to “hire” thousands of product managers, all of whom have a vested interest in the products they are managing. This revolutionary approach to managing inventory has allowed Walmart to continue to drive prices down and respond to market forces quickly.

Today Walmart continues to innovate with information technology. Using its tremendous market presence, any technology that Walmart requires its suppliers to implement immediately becomes a business standard. For example, in 1983 Walmart became the first large retailer to require suppliers to the use Uniform Product Code (UPC) labels on all products. Clearly, Walmart has learned how to use I.T. to gain a competitive advantage.

In this chapter you have been introduced to the concept of information systems. Several definitions focused on the main components: technology, people, and process. You saw how the business use of information systems has evolved over the years, from the use of large mainframe computers for number crunching, through the introduction of the PC and networks, all the way to the era of mobile computing. During each of these phases, new innovations in software and technology allowed businesses to integrate technology more deeply into their organizations.

Virtually every company uses information systems which leads to the question: Does information systems bring a competitive advantage? In the final analysis the goal of this book is to help you understand the importance of information systems in making an organization more competitive. Your challenge is to understand the key components of an information system and how it can be used to bring a competitive advantage to every organization you will serve in your career.

Study Questions

• What are the five major components that make up an information system?
• List the three examples of information system hardware?
• Microsoft Windows is an example of which component of information systems?
• What is application software?
• What roles do people play in information systems?
• What is the definition of a process?
• What was invented first, the personal computer or the Internet?
• In what year were restrictions on commercial use of the Internet first lifted?
• What is Carr’s main argument about information technology?
• Suppose that you had to explain to a friend the concept of an information system. How would you define it? Write a one-paragraph description  in your own words  that you feel would best describe an information system to your friends or family.
• Of the five primary components of an information system (hardware, software, data, people, process), which do you think is the most important to the success of a business organization? Write a one-paragraph answer to this question that includes an example from your personal experience to support your answer.
• Everyone interacts with various information systems every day: at the grocery store, at work, at school, even in our cars. Make a list of the different information systems you interact with daily. Can you identify the technologies, people, and processes involved in making these systems work.
• Do you agree that we are in a post-PC stage in the evolution of information systems? Do some original research and cite it as you make your prediction about what business computing will look like in the next generation.
• The Walmart sidebar introduced you to how information systems was used to make them the world’s leading retailer. Walmart has continued to innovate and is still looked to as a leader in the use of technology. Do some original research and write a one-page report detailing a new technology that Walmart has recently implemented or is pioneering.
• Examine your PC. Using a four column table format identify and record the following information: 1st column: Program name, 2nd column: software manufacturer, 3rd column: software version, 4th column: software type (editor/word processor, spreadsheet, database, etc.).
• Examine your mobile phone. Create another four column table similar to the one in Lab #1. This time identify the apps, then record the requested information.
• In this chapter you read about the evolution of computing from mainframe computers to PCs and on to smartphones. Create a four column table and record the following information about your own electronic devices: 1st column – Type: PC or smartphone, 2nd column – Operating system including version, 3rd column – Storage capacity, 4th column – Storage available.
• Laudon, K.C. and Laudon, J. P. (2014) Management Information Systems , thirteenth edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson.
• Valacich, J. and Schneider, C. (2010). Information Systems Today – Managing in the Digital World , fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
• Laudon, K.C. and Laudon, J. P. (2012). Management Information Systems , twelfth edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
• CERN . (n.d.) The Birth of the Web. Retrieved from http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/about/web-en.html
• Marquis, J. (2012, July 16) What is the Post-PC World? Online Universities.com. Retrieved from https://www.onlineuniversities.com/blog/2012/07/what-post-pc-world/
• Walmart . (n.d.) 2017 Annual Report. Retrieved from http://s2.q4cdn.com/056532643/files/doc_financials/2017/Annual/WMT_2017_AR-(1).pdf
• McCoy, K. (2018, May 21). Big Winners in Fortune 500 List. USA Today . Retrieved from http://https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2018/05/21/big-winners-fortune-500-list-walmart-exxon-mobil-amazon/628003002/

Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019) by David Bourgeois is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Design and Implementation of an IIoT Driven Information System: A Case Study

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Information systems are critical for companies since they offer quick and easy access to complex and significant data in a structured manner to make informed and effective business decisions. Hence, the objective of this study is to conceptualize and implement an innovative information system in the case study organization. The study identified the requirements for Organizing Vision Theory (OVT) and developed architecture based on Organizational Information Processing Theory (OIPT). This architecture is designed and developed using the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) to support a self-organizing vision and enhanced information processing. The study’s contribution lies in developing and executing an integrative architecture of IIoT-driven information systems from the lenses of OVT and OIPT. Further, this study contributes by mapping OVT elements (such as transparency, continuity, and coherence) and OIPT elements (information processing needs and capabilities) to drive value and knowledge through a robust architecture of IIoT-driven information systems. The study also highlights the contribution of IIoT-based information systems to a new knowledge system, facilitating better decision-making by professionals.

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1 Introduction

In the era of information and technology, organisations need to streamline their operations towards more responsiveness as compared to solely relying on reactive approaches. This shift in crafting business operations from manufacturing to service delivery necessitates continuously collecting real-time data from different sources such as manual operations, machines, devices and sensors (Kan et al., 2018 ; Peffers et al., 2007 ). Therefore, digital transformation can help organisations develop their strength in actionable intelligence (Baskerville & Myers, 2004 ; Svahn et al., 2017 ). For digital transformation in any business, it is necessary to identify the gaps and opportunities to conceptualise, design, develop, and implement the information systems (IS) architecture (Corbett, 2013 ; Kannisto et al., 2022 ). Well-conceptualised and designed information systems allow organisations to impact the effectiveness of data collection on a real-time basis and its processing for quick and adequate decision-making (Huang et al., 2014 ; Miranda et al., 2015 ).

An IS architecture employs evolving technologies at different nodes to transform the diverse activities of a business (Li et al., 2022 ; Oberländer et al., 2018 ). The application of these evolving technologies strengthens information processing capabilities, enabling organisations to adapt to market changes and meet internal operational requirements, reflecting the vision of an organisation (Huang et al., 2014 ; Margherita & Braccini, 2020 ; March & Scudder, 2019 ). Vision describes the purpose of an organisation’s existence recognised at the lowest level in designing and executing IS architecture. Therefore, Organizing Vision Theory (OVT) supports IS structure and processes in achieving transformation and innovation. From conceptualisation and designing to implementing IS architecture, numerous stakeholders with varied interests contribute to the organising vision central to the decisions and actions in an organisational set-up (Baskerville & Myers, 2004 ). With the rising uncertainty of the business environment, companies’ information processing capabilities, driven by organisational information processing theory (Gattiker & Goodhue, 2004 ), are critical for precise and quick decision-making. Corbett ( 2013 , p.5) mentions, “managing the task environment, creating slack resources and buffers, or redefining tasks to be simpler and less inter-dependent is possible through information systems”. To address complexity and information processing requirements, organisations can either set up buffers to reduce the impact of uncertainty or structural mechanisms to enhance information flow (Seidel et al., 2013 ). Some organisations use information technology (IT) to advance their information flow for strategic advantage over others (Henderson & Venkatraman, 1999 ; Ngai et al., 2011 ; Peppard et al., 2000 ), and this further helps companies to adapt to changing market conditions.

Technology implementation case studies are rife with reports of failure due to the lack of a systems approach across sectors, which need to consider the role of technology adequately (Dahlbom & Mathiassen, 1993 ). Jaskó et al. ( 2020 ) advocated the influence of industry 4.0 technologies in IS to ensure seamless, secure, and trustworthy operations (Huber et al., 2022 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ; Margherita & Braccini, 2020 ). Henderson and Venkatraman ( 1999 ) advocated the role of IT as a strategic element. Another study underlined the role of information technology in transforming organisations, such as reducing costs through data analytics, leading to improved efficiency of business operations (Ngai et al., 2011 ). Most of the studies discussed the role of IT systems (Miranda et al., 2015 ; Ramiller & Swanson, 2003 ) while considering the vision and information processing requirements while ignoring the integration of IT into operational technology (OT) systems. Furthermore, the literature highlights that companies use either software or technologies to extract information in a business (Naedele et al., 2015 ; Wollschlaeger et al., 2017 ) but lack a structured and grounded theory approach in the development of architecture (structure) and implementation (process). Currently, organisations encounter challenges in capturing, processing, analysing data and offering decision support, often lacking a coherent and structured predictive system. With these gaps in structure and process in mind, this study developed architecture and employed an IIoT-driven information system to enable quick and accurate decision-making. Therefore, this study aims to:

Provide a one-stop solution for all plant data capturing, cleansing, storage, analysis, and decision support.

Develop an IIoT-driven information system to ensure the flow of information across departments. The contribution of this study is that it creates knowledge by embedding OVT- and OIPT-based IS architecture with AI and ML orientation for accurate and quick decision-making, including maintenance activities. The study’s contribution lies in developing (i) a self-organising information system, (ii) a transparent and visible information system, (iii) mapping the OVT and OIPT elements to advance phases of conceptualisation, development and execution, (iv) highlighting the new knowledge development through IIoT based IS to facilitate better decision making in aspects like data collection, data integration, reporting, analytics and accessibility for better decision making. The remainder of this paper is organised as follows: In the next section, the motivation for conducting the study is presented. Section 3 indicates the underpinning elements. Section 4 highlights the organisation and place of the case study. Section 5 presents the research design, and Sect. 6 presents the results. In Sect. 7, findings are discussed, followed by lessons learned at Tata Metaliks Limited (TML) in Sect. 8. To this end, the scope for future research is presented in Sect. 9.

2 Motivation to Conduct the Study

Presently, the information processing capabilities of an organization significantly shape its business landscape. Nonetheless, numerous processes lack a self-organizing mechanism, which is pivotal in the realm of the digital world and digital processes in business operations (Berger et al., 2021 ; Chiasson & Davidson, 2005 ). The vision of TML is “ Reaching Tomorrow First ”, emphasizing the importance of preparing today to address the challenges of tomorrow. With this in mind, architecture-driven Organizing Vision Theory (OVT) and Organizational Information Processing Theory (OIPT), which enhance the competitiveness of an organization, are suitable for digitally transforming an organizational system (Chou & Shao, 2022 ; Han et al., 2021 ; Gattiker & Goodhue, 2004 ; Ramiller & Swanson, 2003 ). A vision centred on digital architecture exerts a profound influence on vital domains, from procurement to production optimization to advanced analytics in maintenance activities. This, in turn, enables enhanced data governance and the formulation of innovative strategic approaches (Berger et al., 2021 ; Sicari et al., 2016 ).

It is observed that TML’s infrastructure helps balance cost and flexibility (Zhong et al., 2013 ) in a limited way, which impacts value for critical stakeholders. Further, it is noted that a significant gap exists between data demand and supply due to a traditional IS with a poorly designed data supply network. This deficiency results in a non-systematic approach to creating value. Network data flows continuously between customers, suppliers, enterprise IT systems, connected devices, and equipment (Zhang et al., 2017 ). TML’s network comprises programmable logic controllers (PLCs)/supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, IIoT-based sensors, data generated from labs, enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, and logbooks. These assets generate different data types used in decision-making at different stages of business operations. The problem of factual, data-driven decision-making capable of handling large and different data types is observed at TML. On the one hand, TML is committed to adopting Industry 4.0-oriented technologies from the shop floor to the corporate office. However, on the other hand, initially, TML struggled to conceptualize how to transform every aspect of connectivity, processing, real-time analytics, and decision-making assistance with the appropriate structures and processes.

With the open market of available Industry 4.0 technologies, it is difficult for TML to balance the various dimensions of the business to achieve the desired value creation for better decision-making aligned with the organizational business goals and vision. Balancing robustness and resilience in the architecture and implementation process can enable digital transformation, such as tracking the stages of the ductile and pig iron pipe production process and specific fail-safe measures. Therefore, to meet internal and external customer demands accurately, make quick decisions, and drive business results more effectively, TML started this architectural transformation in their business units in 2019, with phased implementation in other departments and business units.

3 Underpinning Elements

This section outlines existing knowledge and gaps in IS architecture, IIoT, OVT, and OIP-grounded theories.

3.1 IS Architecture

Across sectors, digital transformation is underway through cyber-physical systems that facilitate a decentralized vision and self-optimization and ensure better control of processes and products (Oks et al., 2022 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ). At TML, information processing becomes even more critical due to the volume, velocity, and variety of extensive data flowing through different stakeholders (Huang et al., 2014 ; Premkumar et al., 2005 ). The IS architecture integrates processes, physical resources, IT systems, and information from the network to present a value-oriented framework (Berger et al., 2021 ; Kannisto et al., 2020 ); however, the role of each needs to be clarified. The IS architecture mobilizes fundamentals to enable mediation and functionality but needs to integrate demand and supply data (Wiederhold, 1992 ). The adoption of IIoT as a part of an operations technology (OT) system in supporting system servers where the data structure is unclear (ur Rehman et al., 2019 ; Mohammadi et al., 2018 ). Predictive analytics offers the simulation and statistical parameters of the process to facilitate the status of each machine and workstation, along with the units to be produced (March & Scudder, 2019 ). The integrated IS architecture adds value to the workforce and the machines at the operational level.

Furthermore, integrated IS architecture can present a dashboard of activities to facilitate quick decision-making (Fang et al., 2015 ), requiring immediate customization up to mobile applications. Existing literature on IS architecture considers data facilitation in the form of ERP systems (Gattiker & Goodhue, 2004 ) and focus either on traditional IS (Wollschlaeger et al., 2017 ) or leveraging IT for new product development (Pavlou & El Sawy, 2006 ; Sicari et al., 2016 ); these have limited space for transformation and value creation. What needs to be added is the harmonization of machines, devices, gateways, human-machine coordination and cloud networks to employ AI and ML for predictive analytics and quick decision-making.

3.2 Industrial Internet of Things

Technology is an integral part of enabling operations in most companies. IIoT harnesses the capabilities of machine learning and artificial intelligence technologies to enable faster automation and machine-to-machine communication (Mahdavinejad et al., 2018 ). A typical business environment needs to influence and integrate existing architecture and infrastructure, and IIoT offers a space for doing so (Sun et al., 2017 ; Fang et al., 2015 ). IIoT facilitates not only automation but also robust design of ISs that can enable analytics and connectivity with smart devices. In existing studies, IIoT is considered for parallel computing for quick machine-related information processing (Kan et al., 2018 ), not including File Transfer Protocol (FTP) or Open Platform Communications (OPC) elements rooted in the PLCs/SCADA of an OT system. IIoT platforms, along with others such as Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) servers and system servers, enable data integration and are considered in the existing studies (Puschmann & Alt, 2005 ), where a knowledge gap exists. Adopting IIoT into business processes can shift a traditional shop floor system to a distributed platform. Hence, IIoT offers an integrative perspective for the shop floor, reinforcing sound business and operational decisions.

3.3 Organizing Vision and Organizational Information Processing Theory

The flow of information, materials and funds is vital in organisations. Out of these three types of flow, information is critical as it facilitates the effective execution of tasks (Chou & Shao, 2022 ; Galbraith, 1973 ; Huang et al., 2014 ). Organising vision theory offers a structured framework for understanding how organisations operate, evolve and adapt in a dynamic and complex environment. The theory supports decision-making aligning with company goals, values, and structure. This study considered OVT for developing an architecture that can understand, analyse and improve organisational processes in a complex, dynamic and continuously evolving world.

On the other hand, organisational information processing theory offers a framework to design the structure and processes by aligning strategic goals. The theory also highlights that there is no one-size-fits-all approach, and hence, organisations should design their systems keeping their requirement in mind. Hence, these two theories were found suitable for the study. Firms can choose between two survival options: either reduce their use of information or enhance their information processing capabilities (Huber et al., 2022 ). The former seems impossible in the age of data, uncertainty and information, and the trend over the last two decades favours the latter. Multidirectional, multichannel and multidimensional flow of data into the business from functional teams and external stakeholders challenge firms to hone their information processing capabilities (Premkumar et al., 2005 ). Information systems must acquire valuable information from both upstream and downstream in a supply chain to enhance information visibility and facilitate quick decision-making (Ngai et al., 2011 ). Existing literature indicates that information processing through digital architecture involves a structure for organised knowledge exemplified in different elements (Han et al., 2021 ; Leng et al., 2020 ). Some of the studies consider IS architecture merely as a means for structuring dispersed information without considering the business’s objectives and vision (Jaskó et al., 2020 ); others fail to consider the adequate degree of information processing capabilities (Gattiker & Goodhue, 2004 ; Huber et al., 2022 ). This study addresses this gap, mobilising organisational vision theory to design and develop adequate information processing capabilities through an IIoT-driven IS based on a robust architecture to develop a new knowledge system for an organisation.

4 About the Organization

TML (a subsidiary of Tata Steel) produces ductile iron (DI) and pig iron (PI) pipes in India (Kharagpur, West Bengal) and was incorporated in 1990. TML has 300,000 tonnes installed capacity for PI and 250,000 tonnes for DI pipes. The company turnover for the year 2019–2020 is USD$277 million. The company is committed to serving its customers worldwide with tailored solutions and products. TML is highly customer-centric, and therefore, technological efficiency at the plant remains one of the priority and competitive constituents that further facilitate accurate and quick decision-making. In 2019, the organisation planned its digitalisation strategy aligned with its vision of “Reaching tomorrow first”, staying ahead of the competition and capitalising on trends of the future to fuel the growth of the organisation. This also indicates that TML is focused on innovation and adaptability and anticipating customer needs. The organisation’s mission is to contribute to water and sanitary sectors with the optimal utilisation of resources, materials and energy. The vision and mission are guided by integrity, responsibility, excellence, pioneering and unity. To facilitate better and quick decision-making, TML has identified the DI pipes department to start with and develop an information system that collects, processes, analyses, and disseminates the data to different stakeholders to make informed decisions. Through this system, the stakeholders can offer reliable, timely and actionable information to facilitate quick and accurate decision-making in day-to-day operations. Hence, the organisation has undertaken the clinical research project to develop an IIoT-driven information system which is self-organising and facilitates better decision-making.

5 Research Design

The study employs a systematic methodology to conduct this clinical research. It comprises four stages, representing the alignment of business objectives, data governance, and data strategy to achieve a self-organizing vision in the form of quick and reliable decision support, as highlighted in Fig.  1 .

Conceptual framework for a self-organizing vision and IIoT driven information system

5.1 Case I (DI Pipes)

To develop an IIoT-driven IS for the DI pipes plant, the conceptual framework presented in Fig.  1 , a four-layer mechanism, is developed (see Fig.  2 ), representing the self-organizing vision of an IIoT-driven information system. Finally, the system architecture is developed, integrating an operational technology system into the IT system presented in Fig.  3 to achieve digital transformation in the first phase in the DI pipe plant. Further study identified and developed a pioneering knowledge system based on TML’s customer centricity, an integral part of the company. This information system is based on the OVT theory coined by Swanson and Ramiller ( 1997 ), along with enhancing information-processing capabilities (Huber et al., 2022 ) through the application of the OIPT theory (Galbraith, 1973 ). This way, organizations can use digital technologies to design their infrastructure and architecture to drive value and maximize impact to address the competitive landscape. This research design is presented in three critical phases – conceptualization, development, and execution of an IIoT-driven information system further mapped to OVT and OIPT theory elements that facilitate self-organizing vision as a knowledge contribution, indicated in Fig.  4 .

Solution for self-organizing and IIoT driven information system

Implementation of the OT and IT system architecture among IIoT based information system

Mapping of TML information system architecture to OVT and OIPT

A four-step mechanism is conceptualized to integrate the OT and IT systems for unique decision support through IIoT-driven information systems. At first, the existing PLCs/SCADA system is upgraded, which acts as an input to the existing system for storing historical data. This creates an information layer further, collecting data from diverse sources, including extracting data from OT, to develop an IT data integration network. This network facilitates an overview of the plant, dashboards, and reports originating from the different departments, in addition to the information circulating throughout the departments and stored in the cloud network. A cloud network leads to knowledge layer development in the form of AI/ML-based decision support, including predictive analytics of maintenance operations that are self-organizing and automatically developed based on machine and equipment conditions (Lee et al., 2020 ).

Our solution involves integrating the operations of the OT and IT, wherein the OT systems and Open Platform Communication (OPC) servers capture the data from the Centrifugal Casting Machine (CCM), Finishing Lines (1,2, and 3), and Annealing Furnace SCADA system. Additionally, the FTP server extracts the data from laboratory computers and the IIoT ignition server from the IIoT sensors. Collectively, the OPC, FTP, and IIoT ignition servers integrate, transfer and store data to system platform servers and that further transfer it to the system application and database server. This data further flows through a firewall to the IT system, where it simultaneously interacts with the ERP and departmental dashboards and facilitates the mobile applications, bulk messages to the workforce, and the AI/ML-based decision support system (Lee et al., 2020 ; Liu et al., 2017 ; Sun et al., 2017 ). In this way, AI/ML-based information systems are flexible enough to capture the information that helps the architecture further self-organize.

Data flows through four stages, from data sourcing to its storage and management to data consumption and how it leads to value creation and facilitates quick, reliable and actionable decision-making. Hence, the data demand and supply work on a pull system that defines the data governance and data strategy for inclusive information flow that reaches AI and ML engines for further analysis on condition-based monitoring (Kan et al., 2018 ). Sensor-generated data is collected and analysed on heat level, number of units produced, operational qualification and warning signs for maintenance. With an IIOT-driven information system, it is possible to track the real-time condition of a machine as compared to its average lifespan, identify the performance and schedule maintenance to ensure uninterrupted operations. IIoT-driven IS also enable the organisation’s growth by reducing maintenance cost and helping in optimising the capital investment among machines and equipment.

Figure  3 indicates the integration of IT and OT systems, where ERP systems such as SAP in IT and manufacturing execution system (MES) are integrated with OPC, FTP and IIoT ignition server, which results in RESTful application program interface (API) to exchange the information securely over the internet and the seeded mobile phone also receive the SMS alert for a particular machine as well as on the PC of the department.

5.2 Case II (Pig Iron)

After developing the IIoT-based information system in the DI pipe plant, TML is implementing the same in the Pig Iron plant to improve the bottom line of business operations, where IIoT-based information systems can help contribute to enhancing reliable, actionable and accurate information to facilitate decision-making. In this department, the IIoT-driven information system is successfully tested by TML for the blast furnace in the PI plant. In 2022-23, after implementing it for DI pipes, TML tested the IIoT-driven information system integrating OT and IT systems, where the system is tested for its ability to cluster different operating modes of the blast furnace. The architecture and system are tested for adaptability to identify and predict near future failures and track the health status of equipment in the Pig Iron department. This initial testing of IIoT-driven IS in the Pig Iron department offers automation, reliable and quick decision-making harnessing AI and ML technologies, contributing further to aligning operations and enhancing the profitability and growth of TML. Figure  5 designates critical IT and OT systems that enable the smooth operations of a blast furnace. The process of maintaining the blast temperature, volume, pressure, top gas pressure, steam injection rate, etc., is maintained by the process control system.

IIoT based information system integrating OT and IT systems for blast furnace

In contrast, the lab system is connected to the server through LAN (Local Area Network). OPC workstation works with OT systems and operates on PLC to produce the Pig Iron through a structured process. The OPC workstation, through PLCs, helps monitor, communicate, control, and optimize the operations of a blast furnace. OPC workstation gathers data from multiple sensors and equipment, along with other devices of the blast furnace system. OPC workstations enable the graphical representation, including charts and dashboards, facilitating better decision-making through real-time monitoring. The IIoT-based information system in the blast furnace department of the PI plant helps monitor irregular conditions and variations from the operating specification and triggers an alarm when required. This way, operators are alerted to any potential issue to avoid disruption and hazards while working in the blast furnace plant. Further, the OPC workstation is integrated with the SCADA system, which provides a detailed view of the entire process. The IIoT-based system in the PI plant allows operators to make adjustments to process air parameters, fuel supply feed rate, Etc. PLC stock house is designed to offer high operating flexibility for batch composition and charging sequence and minimize the transfer points; the PLS cast house helps to maintain the different equipment used to handle the metal when producing pig iron. These OT systems help receive and send the data to IT systems and monitor the information through IoT sensors for data being stored in a central system.

The main objective of this study is to develop a new knowledge system at TML to facilitate better decision-making in its DI and PI pipe plants, increase productivity, and share competitiveness with other business units. This study contains key themes of TML’s digital transformation journey, i.e., real-time data flow, analytics, and mobility for quick and accurate decision-making employing emerging technologies. A study designed and developed IIoT-driven IS, which is core to Industry 4.0 at TML (Huber et al., 2022 ; Li et al., 2022 ; Oberländer et al., 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ).

One of the significant challenges in creating value from the data is the availability of data and its structure (both real-time and historical). Further, whether data is in a central location or can be extracted to develop descriptive, predictive, prescriptive, and cognitive models at different stages of business activities is the critical concern. This is even more challenging in a legacy business like a manufacturing plant, where multiple data collection engines work separately and on different platforms and reports are generated manually (see Fig.  1 : Data Sourcing). For example, at TML, all machine-related data are primarily available at the PLC level. These data are scattered and collected locally, whereas plant operations-related data is collected in a physical logbook or, at maximum, in Excel sheets on computers. Earlier, dispatch-related data was collected through an ERP system (SAP S4 Hana). The architecture and implementation of IIoT-driven IS offered a platform where different data sources connected seamlessly through an OPC, FTP, and IIoT ignition system. The OT and IT system integration presented a robust information system architecture (Huang et al., 2014 ; Puschmann & Alt, 2005 ) with the latest, upgraded hardware, software, and cyber security measures (Oks et al., 2022 ). The data generated through OT systems facilitates a decision-support system through AI and ML for ultimate value creation (Liu et al., 2017 ).

Comparing Case I and Case II, the DI Pipes production unit has processes that are scattered in different departments as compared to Pig Iron (Blast Furnace). Further, DI pipes have a separate IIoT ignition server, whereas, in the case of the blast furnace of the PI plant, there is an IIoT central server, which is coupled to the OPC workstation, offering quick, reliable and actionable decision support. However, both the ISs are developed on the same principle of how IIoT-based IS can best integrate IT and OT systems. For example, an OPC server is required in both cases, where the server translates the hardware communication through PLC into OPC protocol, and it acts as a standard interface among different types of data sources ranging from lab testing equipment to databases, facilitating superior decision-making.

7 Discussion

A robust IS architecture and its stage-wise implementation define the success of the digital transformation, improving information processing capabilities, indicating how the vision of organizing processes changes according to the dynamic requirements of departments, customers and the market at large (Huang et al., 2014 ; Pavlou & El Sawy, 2006 ). This study employs a structured methodology for executing the IIoT-driven IS, where integrated OT and IT systems are integrated, confirming the organizational vision (in consistency and endurance) of the processes. It further demonstrates the features of efficient information processing capabilities (quality of information/data, ability to address the uncertainty of the environment, i.e., the resilience of IS) (Huang et al., 2014 ; Liu et al., 2017 ; Urquhart et al., 2010 ). A vital contribution of the study, therefore, is the mobilizing of OVT and OIPT to develop and implement an integrative IIoT-driven IS architecture in a dynamic customer-centric environment with rapidly changing customization requirements to support quick decision-making. The implications of this work for professionals, researchers, and policymakers are presented as follows.

7.1 Managerial Implications

Existing studies advocate the importance of IT in developing ISs and their architecture. The findings of this study broaden the existing view of integrating OT and IT as a means of enhancing an information-processing infrastructure for internal customers and enabling the integration of external stakeholder requirements. Professionals from ISs can simplify the designing of IS architecture, focusing on transforming existing dispersed systems to become self-organising and able to influence precise decision-making based on AI and ML. Other organisations can use the concept of pulling OT-generated data through IT systems. Thus, system platform servers and historians support a self-organising vision and innovative IS employing AI and ML along with IIoT, which can facilitate not only data capture and storage but also fetch accurate data according to the problem at hand and predict near-to-precise maintenance activities for machines and equipment. While dealing with ground-breaking technologies such as AI and ML, the executives should also consider the cyber security of the system. Executives also need to understand the requirements of each department, whether the same technologies, both from IT and OT perspectives, can work, whether the same type of IS architecture can work, or whether we need something else. It can be noted that in this study, Case I (DI Pipes) required more systems due to the complexity of the process and the number of stakeholders involved. In contrast, comparatively, in Case II (Pig Iron), the process is more straightforward, working on the same principle.

For business partners, the study’s findings indicate that different business nodes and mapping can be identified for each element of the vision and information processing capability to enhance the overall organisational performance by developing a new knowledge system. IS developed in this case study can act as a guide for planning systematic implementation while harnessing the features of IIoT, AI, and ML technologies (Oberländer et al., 2018 ). In short, this study offers experts, developers, executives, and top management a systematic approach to achieving digital transformation based on OVT and OIPT (Miranda et al., 2015 ; Swanson & Ramiller, 1997 ; Galbraith, 1973 ).

The study tried to answer the central questions, such as how to design and develop an IS architecture to capture, cleanse, store, analyse and make a quick and data-driven decision. Further, the study develops an AI and ML-based decision support system to predict accurate and timely maintenance of machines and equipment in case I and new knowledge systems. In contrast, case II focuses on integrating IT and OT systems. These questions are critical for professionals involved in integrating typical manufacturing systems, which are usually labour-intensive, and where information technologies can help achieve enhanced performance of business operations. This can further help organisations improve productivity not only in terms of production but also in terms of effective asset and resource utilisation by integrating operational and information technology.

Additionally, the study unveils the execution of a framework for self-organising vision and IIoT-driven IS that can help managers have an integrative view of business goals, vision and key performance indicators. Further, Table  1 explains how IIoT-based IS helps develop new knowledge and actionable insights to facilitate better decision-making compared to the old knowledge system at TML. Table  1 also indicate the measurement system and impact observed under new system. The comparison between old and new knowledge systems highlights the data collection, data integration, reporting, analytics, and accessibility features facilitating better decision-making at TML.

7.2 Theoretical Contributions

Collectively, the findings of this research validate the organizing vision theory argument, holding that “through the actions of customers and society, there are changes in the organization’s vision, and this can reciprocally influence needs and attract new customers to the business” (Swanson & Ramiller, 1997 ). This study enriches and extends OVT and OIPT (Miranda et al., 2015 ; Swanson & Ramiller, 1997 ; Galbraith, 1973 ) in three ways. First, it addresses the research objective of self-organizing that aligns the vision of enabling the storage and cleaning of data for decision-making through different servers to an IIoT-driven IS. This self-organizing IIoT-based IS enable monitoring, controlling and optimizing different business processes. The information and data generated by a self-organizing vision-based approach further enhance professionals’ understanding of interconnected elements that can pave the way for continuous improvement (Lenz et al., 2020 ). The proposed IIoT-driven IS improves the information-processing capabilities regarding visibility and transparency across layers (from top management to operator level) (Jaskó et al., 2020 ). Second, by addressing the research objective of tracking the exact location of concern, production count, defect rate, and process parameters both in Case I and II at a particular stage so that they match societal and customer expectations through information-processing and technological innovations (Svahn et al., 2017 ).

Capable and self-organizing IS can further contribute to new product development and designing the supply chain and logistics activities for an enterprise (Jaskó et al., 2020 ). The employment of industry 4.0-oriented technologies influences the functionalities of an IS. Third, it addresses the research objective of developing an AI/ML-based system that can accurately predict the maintenance of machines and allocation of machines to ensure desired productivity and efficiency (Huang et al., 2014 ). This study contributes to interconnecting cyber-physical systems of an IIoT-based IS to offer unified, secure, accurate and quick information sharing in shop-floor operations (Oks et al., 2022 ). The developed IS also offers inter-operability that captures data from diverse sources that further feed to IT systems to facilitate quick and accurate decision support. The IT system processes the information into meaningful charts, graphs and signs that facilitate day-to-day operations from bottom to top management and vice-versa. In this matter, technology is employed to augment the system’s information processing capabilities.

Consequently, integrating OT and IT is essential in creating digital tools, including a dashboard to monitor the processes regularly. These tools, in turn, enable remote management and data-driven decision-making in both Case I and Case II. In summary, this study presents a case of the conceptualization, design, development, and implementation of self-organizing and efficient IS at TML’s DI Pipes and Pig Iron (Blast Furnace) department that needs to be benchmarked by other organizations while considering their supporting OT infrastructure.

7.3 Policy Implications

This study at TML offers policy-level implications for other organizations considering conceptualization and implementation or are currently implementing or have already implemented any IS architecture seeking seamless information flow and effective and factual decision-making. However, this does not imply that the same approach may work for other organizations. Successful adoption of societal expectations in the vision and alignment of information processing capabilities to fulfil customer preferences through quick decision-making will encourage other firms to invest in soft infrastructure and build future organizations, creating data-driven value that can act as new knowledge. The timely conceptualization and implementation of robust system architecture based on organizational vision can pave the way for a long-term plan in a complex and continuously changing business environment (Kannisto et al., 2020 ; Seidel et al., 2013 ; Scheepers & Scheepers, 2008 ). This will support further positive changes for new knowledge systems that can address other concerns of superior decision-making in business operations (Mathiassen, 2002 ). To present the study’s contribution precisely and objectively, it mapped the elements of OVT and OIPT to the conceptualization, development, and execution, as presented in Fig.  4 .

The mapping of architecture to organisational theories facilitates quick decision support through a self-organising vision of IIoT-driven IS (Kannisto et al., 2022). The self-organising vision supports quick and accurate decision-making through transparency, continuity, coherence, addressing information needs, and enhancing the system’s capabilities. The mapping of IIoT-driven IS to the theoretical lens is critical to the clarity of these elements and underscores their crucial role in the stages of conceptualisation, development, and implementation that are self-organising and continuous. The mapping helps monitor new knowledge, or new decision support and information flow mechanisms, that can refine elements of organisational vision that were achieved previously at a relatively lower degree.

IIoT-driven IS at TML’s DI Pipes and Pig Iron (Blast Furnace) department extracts and sources the data from different sources to create value for quick and accurate decision-making, where different types of OT servers feed into IT. The study further expands OVT and OIPT literature by mapping the stages of conceptualisation, development and execution corresponding to different characteristics of the self-organising vision of TML IIoT-driven IS architecture. The existing constraints and infrastructure, along with information flow, are considered. The existing plant structure and information technology platforms aid in integrating the data and validating the reports to develop a predictive and secure platform. In the last phase, the operational and information technology elements integrate through dashboards, alarms and applications. This ends in developing and executing a File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Open Platform Communications (OPC) and IIoT-enabled architecture to drive value in quick, accurate and factual decision-making.

8 Key Lessons Learned

TML is committed to designing, developing and producing excellent products; this study focuses not only on the operations and resources but also on involving upstream and downstream partners to organize the vision and enhance the information processing capabilities for quick, accurate and factual decision-making. With the conceptualization, development, and execution of IIoT-driven IS, this study addresses three elements of OVT and two elements of OIPT.

8.1 Transparency of Vision

Transparency in sharing and organizing with essential stakeholders, such as employees, towards a shared vision builds trust, along with their involvement in refining processes. The processes, with their constraints, lead to identifying various platforms of data sourcing that ultimately end in integrating OT and IT systems while executing a flexible system architecture based on IIoT. Therefore, organizations conceptualizing and changing their data generation points must also align their existing constraints within the IS before integrating their OT and IT systems for more transparency.

8.2 Continuity of Organizational Vision

With the increasing complexity of the business environment and pressure to warrant business continuity, even uncertainty demands continuous data and information support. Hence, TML conceptualized the appropriate data storage to facilitate quick and more accurate day-to-day business decisions. While executing the system architecture, TML witnessed the usage of dashboards and reports along with data-driven alarms to facilitate the continuity of complex and intricate decisions. Other organizations can develop and implement IIoT-based IS elements to facilitate innovative and continuous changes in quick and factual decision-making that are data-driven and integrated.

8.3 Vision Coherence

The business processes must be coherent for effective alignment with the company’s mission, vision, and values before any system-oriented innovation. The degree of coherence will define how the organization achieves its vision, and that starts with how stakeholders of a business consume data for different decision-making scenarios that facilitate the idea of developing an innovative and integrative IS platform. Therefore, the online tracking and availability of the same applications across the organization create quantifiable measures reinforcing coherence. The organizations and professionals involved in developing and using this IS need to be in synchronization to understand the information flow in their company, i.e., how many nodes are present and how these can align with existing infrastructure, aligning vision and degree of information processing.

8.4 Information Processing Needs

TML’s key focus is on the design, development and production of DI pipes. To conceptualize and implement an IoT-driven IS at TML, the communication required from the laboratory, IIoT sensors, PLCs/SCADA, and logbooks of the manufacturing and logistics processes are identified. TML identified the role that integrative information can play in validating the types of data and reports generated at different locations and departments in the plant. On this basis, TML developed and executed an analysis and decision support system, keeping the information processing required in mind. The practising managers in the IS domain must view the fit from a strategic perspective. Information processing needs can utilize mobility applications, where the status of business activity at different stages can be tracked, including remotely, for better decision-making.

8.5 Information Processing Capabilities

Information processing capabilities define the level of system architecture required to address the information needs. Initially, we conceptualized upgrading the regular ERP with the help of SAP (ERP vendor). However, regarding inter-organizational and inter-functional interactions, TML decided to include a range of technologies, such as IIoT, OPC, FTP, AI/ML, along with multiple types of servers. Each organization have different information-processing requirements according to its functional areas and needs integration towards seamless information flow to facilitate decision-making. At TML, this difference in information-processing requirements is evident from Case I and Case II. The information-processing capabilities are to be developed based on the frequency of necessary communication, arrangement of the OT and IT systems, and integration of needs with other functions such as procurement and design. In addition, other organizations seeking to advance IS need to look at the fit of information processing needs and capabilities to influence the decision-making style of an organization.

9 Future Scope of Work at TML

Two units in the TML plant produce DI pipes and pig iron. Until now, TML used the DI pipe plant for this IIoT-driven information system. However, TML has tested the IIoT-driven information system in pig iron operations in the initial stage and is tested for the blast furnace department, where the principle of IIoT architecture remains the same except for some minor changes. Regarding industry 4.0 technologies, so far, TML has successfully employed an IIoT-based system that includes AI/ML and other servers integrating OT and IT systems to organize the vision of TML, along with our information processing capabilities for quick and accurate decision-making. TML is developing and refining the framework that can integrate the production of DI and pig iron pipes through a refined system architecture planned for implementation at other plants of the TATA group. Future studies may examine this process from a different theoretical lens while developing an information system architecture that supports the emergence of knowledge processes.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Answers to Study Questions

1. What are the five components that make up an information system?

a. h ardware, software, data, people, process

2. What are three examples of information system hardware?

a. There are a number of possible answers: a PC, a printer, a mouse, tablets, mobile phones , etc .

3. Microsoft Windows is an example of which component of information systems?

a. It is an operating system, which is a part of the software component.

4. What is application software?

a. Software that does something useful.

5. What roles do people play in information systems?

a. The text includes examples such as helpdesk support, systems analyst, programmer, and CIO.

6. What is the definition of a process?

a. A process is a series of steps undertaken to achieve a desired outcome or goal.

7. What was invented first, the personal computer or the Internet (ARPANET)?

a. The Internet was activated in 1969; the personal computer was introduced in 1975.

8. In what year were restrictions on commercial use of the Internet first lifted? When were eBay and Amazon founded?

a. Restrictions were lifted in 1991, Amazon was founded in 1994, and eBay was founded in 1995 .

9. What does it mean to say we are in a “post-PC world”?

a. The personal computer will no longer be the primary way that people interact and do business.

10. What is Carr’s main argument about information technology?

a. That information technology is just a commodity and cannot be used to gain a competitive advantage.

1. Write your own description of what the term information systems hardware means.

a. Answers will vary , but should say something about information systems hardware consisting of the physical parts of computing devices that can actually be touched.

2. What is the impact of Moore’s Law on the various hardware components described in this chapter?

a. The student should pick one of the components and discuss the impact of the fact that computing doubles in speed every two years. Most devices are getting smaller, faster, cheaper, and this should be indicated in the answer.

3. Write a summary of one of the items linked to in the “Integrated Computing” section.

a. The student should write a summary of one of the linked articles.

4. Explain why the personal computer is now considered a commodity.

a. The PC has become a commodity in the sense that there is very little differentiation between computers, and the primary factor that controls their sale is their price.

5. The CPU can also be thought of as the _____________ of the computer.

6. List the following in increasing order (slowest to fastest): megahertz, kilohertz, gigahertz.

a. kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz

7. What is the bus of a computer?

a. The bus is the electrical connection between different computer components.

8. Name two differences between RAM and a hard disk.

a. RAM is volatile; the hard disk is non-volatile. Data access in RAM is faster than on the hard disk.

9. What are the advantages of solid-state drives over hard disks?

a. The main advantage is spe ed: an SSD has much faster data- access speeds than a traditional hard disk.

10. How heavy was the first commercially successful portable computer?

a. The Compaq PC was 28 pounds.

1. Come up with your own definition of software. Explain the key terms in your definition.

a. A variety of answers are possible, but should be similar to the definition in the text: Software is the set of instructions that tell the hardware what to do. Software is created through the process of programming.

2. What are the functions of the operating system?

a. The operating system manages the hardware resources of the computer, provides the user-interface components, and provides a platform for software developers to write applications.

3. Which of the following are operating systems and which are applications: Microsoft Excel, Google Chrome, iTunes, Windows, Android, Angry Birds.

a. Microsoft Excel (application), Google Chrome (application), iTunes (application), WIndows (operating system), Android (operating sys tem), Angry Birds (application)

4. What is your favorite software application? What tasks does it help you accomplish?

a. Students will have various answers to this question. They should pick an application, not an operating system. They should be able to list at least one thing that it helps them accomplish.

5. What is a “killer” app? What was the killer app for the PC?

a. A killer app is application software that is so useful that people will purchase the hardware just so they can run it. The killer app for the PC was the spreadsheet ( Visicalc ).

6. How would you categorize the software that runs on mobile devices? Break down these apps into at least three basic categories and give an example of each.

a. There are various ways to answer this question. Students should identify that there are mobile operating systems and mobile apps. Most likely, students will break down mobile apps into multiple categories: games, GPS, reading, communication, etc.

7. Explain what an ERP system does.

a. An ERP (enterprise resource p lanning) system is a software application with a centralized database that is implemented across the entire organization.

8. What is open-source software? How does it differ from closed-source software? Give an example of each.

a. Open-source software is software that makes the source code available for anyone to copy and use. It is free to download, copy, and distribute. Closed-source software does not make the source code available and generally is not free to download, copy, and distribute. There are many examples of both, such as: Firefox (open source), Linux (open source), iTunes (closed source), Microsoft Office (closed source).

9. What does a software license grant?

a. Software licenses are not all the same, but generally the y grant the user the right to use the software on a limited basis. The terms of the license dictate users’ rights in detail .

10. How did the Y2K (year 2000) problem affect the sales of ERP systems?

a. Organizations purchased ERP software to replace their older systems in order to avoid any problems with the year 2000 in their software.

1. What is the difference between data, information, and knowledge?

a. Data are the raw bits and pieces of facts and statistics with no context. Data can be quantitative or qualitative. Information is data that has been given context. Knowledge is information that has been aggregated and analyzed and can be used for making decisions.

2. Explain in your own words how the data component relates to the hardware and software components of information systems.

a. There are numerous answers to this question, but all should be variations on the following : Data is processed by the hardware via software. A database is software that runs on the hardware. Hardware stores the data, software processes the data.

3. What is the difference between quantitative data and qualitative data? In what situations could the number 42 be considered qualitative data?

a. Quantitative data is numeric, the result of a measurement, count, or some other mathematical calculation. Qualitative data is descriptive. The number 42 could be qualitative if it is a designation instead of a measurement, count, or calculation. For example: that player ’ s jersey has number 42 on it.

4. What are the characteristics of a relational database?

a. A relational database is one in which data is organized into one or more tables. Each table has a set of fields, which define the nature of the data stored in the table. A record is one instance of a set of fields in a table. All the tables are related by one or more fields in common.

5. When would using a personal DBMS make sense?

a. When working on a smaller database for personal use, or when disconnected from the network.

6. What is the difference between a spreadsheet and a database? List three differences between them.

a. A database is generally more powerful and complex than a spreadsheet, with the ability to handle multiple types of data and link them together. Some differences: A database has defined field types, a spreadsheet does not. A database uses a standardized query language (such as SQL), a spreadsheet does not. A database can hold much larger amounts of data than a spreadsheet.

7. Describe what the term normalization means.

a. To normalize a database means to design it in a way that: 1) reduces duplication of data between tables and 2) gives the table as much flexibility as possible.

8. Why is it important to define the data type of a field when designing a relational database?

a. A data type tells the database what functions can be performed with the data. The second important reason to define the data type is so that the proper amount of storage space is allocated for the data.

9. Name a database you interact with frequently. What would some of the field names be?

a. The student can choose any sort of system that they interact with, such as Amazon or their school ’ s online systems. The fields would be the names of data being collected, such as “ first name ” , or “ address ” .

10. What is metadata?

a. Metadata is data about data . It refers to the data used to describe other data, such as the length of a song in iTunes, which describes the music file.

11. Name three advantages of using a data warehouse.

a. The text lists the following ( the student should pick at least three of these ) :

i. The process of developing a data warehouse forces an organization to better understand the data that it is currently collecting and, equally important, what data is not being collected.

ii. A data warehouse provides a centralized view of all data being collected across the enterprise and provides a means of determining data that is inconsistent.

iii. Once all data is identified as consistent, an organization can generate one version of the truth. This is important when the company wants to report consistent statistics about itself, such as revenue or number of employees.

iv. By having a data warehouse, snapshots of data can be taken over time. This creates a historical record of data, which allows for an analysis of trends.

v. A data warehouse provides tools to combine data, which can provide new information and analysis.

12. What is data mining?

a. Data mining is the process of analyzing data to find previously unknown trends, patterns, and associations in order to make decisions.

1. What were the first four locations hooked up to the Internet (ARPANET)?

a. UCLA, Stanford, MIT, and the University of Utah

2. What does the term packet mean?

a. The fundamental unit of data transmitted over the Internet. Each packet has the sender ’ s address, the destination address, a sequence number, and a piece of the overall message to be sent.

3. Which came first, the Internet or the World Wide Web?

a. t he Internet

4. What was revolutionary about Web 2.0?

a. Anyone could post content to the web, without the need for understanding HTML or web-server technology.

5. What was the so-called killer app for the Internet?

a. e lectronic mail (e- mail)

6. What makes a connection a broadband connection?

a. A broadband connection is defined as one that has speeds of at least 256,000 bps.

7. What does the term VoIP mean?

a. Voice over Internet protocol – a way to have voice conversations over the Internet.

8. What is an LAN?

a. A n LAN is a local network, usually operating in the same building or on the same campus.

9. What is the difference between an intranet and an extranet?

a. An intranet consists of t he set of web pages and resources availab le on a company’s internal network. These items are not available to those outside of the company. An extranet is  a part of the company’s network that is made available securely to those outside of the company. Extranets can be used to allow customers to log in and check the status of their orders, or for suppliers to check their customers’ inventory levels.

10. What is Metcalfe’s Law?

a. Metcalfe’s Law states that the value of a telecommunications network is proportional to the square of the number of connected users of the system.

1. Briefly define each of the three members of the information security triad.

a. T he three members are as follows:

i. Confidentiality: we want to be able to restrict access to those who are allowed to see given information.

ii. Integrity: the assurance that the information being accessed has not been altered and tr uly represents what is intended.

iii. Availability: information can be accessed and modified by anyone authorized to do so in an appropriate timeframe.

2. What does the term authentication  mean?

a. The process of ensuring that a person is who he or she claim s to be.

3. What is multi-factor authentication?

a. The use of more than one method of authentication. The methods are: something you know, something you have, and something you are.

4. What is role-based access control?

a. With role-based access control (RBAC), instead of giving specific users access rights to an information resource, users are assigned to roles and then those roles are assigned the access.

5. What is the purpose of encryption?

a. To keep transmitted data secret so that only those with the proper key can read it.

6. What are two good examples of a complex password?

a. There are many examples of this. Students need to provide examples of passwords that are a minimum of eight characters, with at least one upper-case letter, one special character, and one number.

7. What is pretexting?

a. Pretexting occurs when an attacker calls a helpdesk or security administrator and pretends to be a particular authorized user having trouble logging in . Then, by providing some personal information about the authorized user , the attacker convince s the security person to reset the password and tell him what it is .

8. What are the components of a good backup plan?

a. Knowing what needs to be backed up, regular backups of all data , offsite storage of all backed- up data, and a test of the restoration process.

9. What is a firewall?

a. A firewall can be either a hardware firewall or a software firewall. A hardware firewall is a device that is connected to the network and filters the packets based on a set of rules. A software firewall runs on the operating system and intercepts packets as they arrive to a computer.

10. What does the term physical security mean?

a. Physical security is the protection of the actual hardware and networking components that store and transmit information resources.

1. What is the productivity paradox?

a. The productivity paradox is based on Erik Brynjolfsson’s finding , based on research he conducted in the early 1990s, that the addition of information technology to business had not improved productivity at all.

2. Summarize Carr’s argument in “Does IT Matter.”

a. Information technology is now a commodity and cannot be used to provide an organization with competitive advantage.

3. How is the 2008 study by Brynjolfsson and McAfee different from previous studies? How is it the same?

a. It is different because it shows that IT can bring a competitive advantage, given the right conditions. It is the same in the sense that it shows that IT, by itself, does not bring competitive advantage.

4. What does it mean for a business to have a competitive advantage?

a. A company is said to have a competitive advantage over its rivals when it is able to sustain profits that exceed average for the industry.

5. What are the primary activities and support activities of the value chain?

a. The primary activities are those that directly impact the creation of a product or service. The support activities are those that support the primary activities. Primary: inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, sales/marketing, and service. Support: firm infrastructure, human resources, technology development, and procurement .

6. What has been the overall impact of the Internet on industry profitability? Who has been the true winner?

a. The overall impact has been a reduction in average industry profitability. The consumer has been the true winner.

7. How does EDI work?

a. EDI is the computer-to-computer exchange of business documents in a standard electronic format between business partners.

8. Give an example of a semi-structured decision and explain what inputs would be necessary to provide assistance in making the decision.

a. A semi-structured decision is one in which most of the factors needed for making the decision are known but human experience and other outside factors may still play a role. The student should provide an example of a decision that uses an information system to provide information but is not made by the system. Examples would include: budgeting decisions, diagnosing a medical condition, and investment decisions.

9. What does a collaborative information system do?

a. A collaborative system is software that allows multiple users to interact on a document or topic in order to complete a task or make a decision.

10. How can IT play a role in competitive advantage, according to the 2008 article by Brynjolfsson and McAfee?

a. The article suggests that IT can influence competitive advantage when good management develops and delivers IT-supported process innovation .

1. What does the term business process mean?

a. A process is a series of tasks that are completed in order to accomplish a goal. A business process, therefore, is a process that is focused on achieving a goal for a business.

2. What are three examples of business process from a job you have had or an organization you have observed?

a. Students can answer this in almost any way. The examples should consist of more than a single step.

3. What is the value in documenting a business process?

a. There are many answers to this. From the text: it allows for better control of the process , and for standardization.

4. What is an ERP system? How does an ERP system enforce best practices for an organization?

a. An ERP (enterprise resource p lanning) system is a software application with a centralized database that is implemented across the entire organization. It enforces best practices through the business processes embedded in the software.

5. What is one of the criticisms of ERP systems?

a. ERP system s can lead to the commoditization of business processes, meaning that every company that uses an ERP system will perform business processes the same way.

6. What is business process reengineering? How is it different from incrementally improving a process?

a. Business process r eengineering (BPR) occurs when a business process is redesigned from the ground up. It is different from incrementally improving a process in that it does not simply take the existing process and modify it.

7. Why did BPR get a bad name?

a. BPR became an excuse to lay off employees and try to complete the same amount of work using fewer employees.

8. List the guidelines for redesigning a business process.

a. The guidelin es are as follows:

i. Organize around outcomes, not tasks.

ii. Have those who use the outcomes of the process perform the process.

iii. Subsume information-processing work into the real work that produces the information. Treat geographically dispersed resources as though they were centralized.

iv. Link parallel activities instead of integrating their results.

v. Put the decision points where the work is performed, and build controls into the process.

vi. Capture information once, at the source.

9. What is business process management? What role does it play in allowing a company to differentiate itself?

a. Business process management (BPM) can be thought of as an intentional effort to plan, document, implement, and distribute an organization ’ s business processes with the support of information technology. It can play a role in differentiation through built-in reporting, and by empowering employees, enforcing best practices, and enforcing consistency.

10. What does ISO certification signify?

a. ISO certification shows that you know what you do, do what you say, and have documented your processes.

1. Describe the role of a systems analyst.

a. To understand business requirements and translate them into the requirements of an information system.

2. What are some of the different roles for a computer engineer?

a. hardware engineer, software engineer, net work engineer, systems engineer

3. What are the duties of a computer operator?

a. D uties include keeping the operating systems up to date, ensuring available memory and disk storage, and overseeing the physical environment of the computer.

4. What does the CIO do?

a. The CI O aligns the plans and operations of the information systems with the strategic goals of the organization. This includes tasks such as budgeting, strategic planning, and personnel decisions relevant to the information-systems function.

5. Describe the job of a project manager.

a. A project manager is responsible for keeping projects on time and on budget. This person works with the stakeholders of the project to keep the team organized and communicates the status of the project to management.

6. Explain the point of having two different career paths in information systems.

a. To allow for career growth for those who do not want to manage other employees but instead want to focus on technical skills.

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of centralizing the IT function?

a. There are several possible answers here. Advantages of centralizing include more control over the company’s systems and data. Disadvantages include a more limited availability of IT resources.

8. What impact has information technology had on the way companies are organized?

a. The organizational structure has been flattened, with fewer layers of management.

9. What are the five types of information-systems users?

a. i nnovators, early adopters, early majo rity, late majority, laggards

10. Why would an organization outsource?

a. Because it needs a specific ski ll for a limited amount of time, and/ or because it can cut costs by outsourcing.

1. What are the steps in the SDLC methodology?

a. The steps are Preliminary Analysis, System Analysis, System Design, Programming, Testing, Implementation, and Maintenance.

2. What is RAD software development?

a. Rapid application development (RAD) is a software-development (or systems-development) methodology that focuses on quickly building a working model of the software, getting feedback from users, and then using that feedback to update the working model.

3. What makes the lean methodology unique?

a. The biggest difference between the lean methodology and the other methodologies is that the full set of requirements for the system is not known when the project is launched.

4. What are three differences between second-generation and third-generation languages?

a. Three k ey differences are as follows:

i. The words used in the language: third generation languages use more English -like words than second-generation languages.

ii. Hardware specificity: third generation languages are not specific to hardware, second-generation languages are.

iii. Learning curve: third generation languages are easier to learn and use.

5. Why would an organization consider building its own software application if it is cheaper to buy one?

a. They may wish to build their own in order t o have something that is unique ( d ifferent from their competitors), and/or something that more closely matches their business processes. They also may choose to do this if they have more time and/ or more money available to do it.

6. What is responsive design?

a. Responsive design is a method of developing websites that allows them to be viewed on many different types of devices without losing capability or effectiveness. With a responsive website, images resize themselves based on the size of the device ’ s screen, and text flows and sizes itself properly for optimal viewing.

7. What is the relationship between HTML and CSS in website design?

a. While HTML is used to define the components of a web page, cascading style sheets (CSS) are used to define the styles of the components on a page.

8. What is the difference between the pilot implementation methodology and the parallel implementation methodology?

a. The pilot methodology implement s new software for just one group of people while the rest of the users use the previous version of the software. The parallel implementation methodology use s both the old and the new applications at the same time.

9. What is change management?

a. The oversight of the changes brought about in an organization.

10. What are the four different implementation methodologies?

a. d irect c utover, pilot, parallel, phased

1. What does the term globalization mean?

a. Globalization refer s to the integration of goods, services, and culture s among the nations of the world.

2. How does Friedman define the three eras of globalization?

a. The three eras are as follows:

i. “ Globalization 1.0 ” occurred from 1492 until about 1800. In this era, globalization was centered around countries. It was about how much horsepower, wind power, and steam power a country had and how creatively it was deployed. The world shrank from size “ large ” to size “ medium. ”

ii. “ Globalization 2.0 ” occurred from about 1800 until 2000, interrupted only by the two World Wars. In this era, the dynamic force driving change was comprised of multinational companies. The world shrank from size “ medium ” to size “ small. ”

iii. “ Globalization 3.0 ” is our current era, beginning in the year 2000. The convergence of the personal computer, fiber-optic Internet connections, and software has created a “ flat-world platform ” that allows small groups and even individuals to go global. The world has shrunk from size “ small ” to size “ tiny. ”

3. Which technologies have had the biggest effect on globalization?

a. There are several answers to this. Probably the most obvious are the Internet, the graphical interface of Windows and the World Wide Web, and workflow software.

4. What are some of the advantages brought about by globalization?

a. Advantages include the ability to locate expertise and labor around the world, the ability to operate 24 hours a day, and a larger market for products.

5. What are the challenges of globalization?

a. Challenges include infrastructure differences, labor laws and regulations, legal restrictions, and differe nt languages, customs, and preferences.

6. What does the term digital divide mean?

a. The separation betwe en those who have access to the global network and those who do not. The digital divide can occur between countries, regions, or even neighborhoods.

7. What are Jakob Nielsen’s three stages of the digital divide?

a. e cono mic, usability, and empowerment

8. What was one of the key points of The Rise of the Network Society ?

a. There are two key points to choose from. One is that economic activity was, when the book was published in 1996, being organized around the networks that the new tel ecommunication technologies had provided. The other is that this new, global economic activity was different from the past, because “ it is an economy with the capacity to work as a unit in real time on a planetary scale. ”

9. Which country has the highest average Internet speed? How does your country compare?

a. According to the chart in the chapter, South Korea has the highest Internet speeds. S tudent s will need to look up their own to compare.

10. What is the OLPC project? Has it been successful?

a. One Laptop Per Child. By most measures, it has not been a successful program.

1. What does the term information systems ethics mean?

a. There are various ways of answering this question , but the answer should include s omething about the application of ethics to the new capabilities and cultural norms brought about by information technology.

2. What is a code of ethics? What is one advantage and one disadvantage of a code of ethics?

a. A code of ethics is a document that outlines a set of acceptable behaviors for a professional or social group. A nswers may differ for the second part, but from the text: o ne advantage of a code of ethics is that it clarifies the acceptable standards of behavior for a professional group. One disadvantage is that it does not necessarily have legal authority.

3. What does the term intellectual property mean? Give an example.

a. Intellectual property is defined as “ property (as an idea, invention, or process) that derives from the work of the mind or intellect. ”

4. What protections are provided by a copyright? How do you obtain one?

a. Copyright protections address the following : who can make copies of the work, who can make derivative works from the original work, who can perform the work publicly, who can display the work publicly, and who can distribute the work. You obtain a copyright as soon as the work is put into tangible form.

5. What is fair use?

a. Fair use is a limitation on copyright law that allows for the use of protected works without prior authorization in specific cases.

6. What protections are provided by a patent? How do you obtain one?

a. Once a patent is granted, it provides the inventor with protection from others infringing on the patent. In the US, a patent holder has the right to “ exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling the invention throughout the United States or importing the invention into the United States for a limited time in exchange for public disclosure of the invention when the patent is granted. ” You obtain a patent by filing an application with the patent office. A patent will be granted if the work is deemed to be original, useful, and non-obvious.

7. What does a trademark protect? How do you obtain one?

a. A trademark protects a word, phrase, logo, shape , or sound that identifies a source of goods or services. You can obtain one by registering with the Patent and Trademark Office (US). There is also a common- law trademark.

8. What does the term per sonally identifiable information mean?

a. Information about a person that can be used to uniquely establish that person ’ s identit y is called personally identifiable information, or PII.

9. What protections are provided by HIPAA, COPPA, and FERPA?

a. The a nswers are as follows :

i. HIPAA: protects records related to health care as a special class of personally identifiable information.

ii. COPPA: protects information collected from children under the age of thirteen.

iii. FERPA: protects student educational records.

10. How would you explain the concept of NORA?

a. There are various ways to answer this. The basic answer is that NORA (non-obvious relationship a wareness) is the process of collecting large quantities of a variety of information and then combining it to create profiles of individuals.

1. Which countries are the biggest users of the Internet? Social media? Mobile?

a. S tudents will need to look outside the text for this, as it changes all the time. There are also different ways of measurement: number of users, % of population , most active users, etc. Some good sites to use are Internet World Stats , Kissmetrics , and the World Bank .

2. Which country had the largest Internet growth (in %) between 2008 and 2012?

a. Iran, at 205%

3. How will most people connect to the Internet in the future?

a. via mobile devices

4. What are two different applications of wearable technologies?

a. There are many answers to this question; two examples are Google Glass and Jawbone UP.

5. What are two different applications of collaborative technologies?

a. There are many answers to this; two examples are software that routes us to our destination in the shortest amount of time and websites that review different companies.

6. What capabilities do printable technologies have?

a. Using 3-D printers, designers can quickly test prototypes or build something as a proof of concept. Printable technologies also make it possible to bring manufacturing to the desktop computer.

7. How will advances in wireless technologies and sensors make objects “findable”?

a. Advances in wireless technologies and sensors will allow physical objects to send and receive data about themselves.

8. What is enhanced situational awareness?

a. Data from large numbers of sensors can give decision makers a heightened awareness of real-time events, particularly when the sensors are used with advanced display or visualization technologies.

9. What is a nanobot?

a. A nanobot is a robot whose components are on the scale of about a nanometer.

10. What is a UAV?

a. An unmanned aerial vehicle – a small airplane or helicopter that can fly without a pilot. UAVs are run by computer or remote control .

Information Systems for Business and Beyond Copyright © 2014 by CC BY: David T. Bourgeois, Ph.D. is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Constructing a digital system of historical geographic information from the perspective of digital humanities: a case study of the historical geographic information database of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries

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Danying Chen, Yaolong Zhao, Zihao Chao, Yuchen Li, Subin Fang, Constructing a digital system of historical geographic information from the perspective of digital humanities: a case study of the historical geographic information database of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, Digital Scholarship in the Humanities , Volume 39, Issue 1, April 2024, Pages 43–60, https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqad103

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Digital techniques are critical in the digital age. Research in various disciplines requires the use of digital technology. Extracting and digitizing information from text, particularly historical geographical information, is the most fundamental operation of digital humanities. However, digitizing historical geographical information is a challenging work. This article proposes a framework for constructing a digital system of historical geographic information. The feasibility of the digital system was verified in a case study of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries in Tibetan inhabited areas of China. The results demonstrate that the digital system proposed in this study can be used as a guide for digitizing historical geographic information of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries from the perspective of digital humanities. This study provides a useful reference for the digitalization of historical geographic information in the digital humanities discipline.

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