basic steps of research report writing

How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

Need a helping hand?

Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications. If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

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Research Methodology

Student resources, step 8: writing a research report, writing a research report.

• Checkpoint: Academic writing conventions
• Checkpoint: Research report content
• Checkpoint: Drawing conclusions and maintaining arguments
• Checkpoint: References and citations

Exercise: Writing a Research Proposal

Download the exercise that also appears in your textbook to help you step-by-step in writing a research proposal. You can also use this exercise to contribute to a final research portfoilio or help guide discussions with your supervisor.

Report Writing

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

• Identify reasons to research writing projects.
• Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

• Medical laboratory technician
• Small business owner
• Information technology professional
• Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

• Choose a topic.
• Plan and schedule time to research and write.
• Conduct research.
• Organize research and ideas.
• Draft your paper.
• Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

• In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
• In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
• What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

• People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
• The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Basic Steps in the Research Process

The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper. Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these steps.

Step 1: Identify and develop your topic

Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research assignment. Since this is the very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be done correctly. Here are some tips for selecting a topic:

• Select a topic within the parameters set by the assignment. Many times your instructor will give you clear guidelines as to what you can and cannot write about. Failure to work within these guidelines may result in your proposed paper being deemed unacceptable by your instructor.
• Select a topic of personal interest to you and learn more about it. The research for and writing of a paper will be more enjoyable if you are writing about something that you find interesting.
• Select a topic for which you can find a manageable amount of information. Do a preliminary search of information sources to determine whether existing sources will meet your needs. If you find too much information, you may need to narrow your topic; if you find too little, you may need to broaden your topic.
• Be original. Your instructor reads hundreds of research papers every year, and many of them are on the same topics (topics in the news at the time, controversial issues, subjects for which there is ample and easily accessed information). Stand out from your classmates by selecting an interesting and off-the-beaten-path topic.
• Still can't come up with a topic to write about? See your instructor for advice.

Once you have identified your topic, it may help to state it as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about the epidemic of obesity in the American population, you might pose the question "What are the causes of obesity in America ?" By posing your subject as a question you can more easily identify the main concepts or keywords to be used in your research.

Step 2 : Do a preliminary search for information

Before beginning your research in earnest, do a preliminary search to determine whether there is enough information out there for your needs and to set the context of your research. Look up your keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's Reference collection (such as encyclopedias and dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalog of books, periodical databases, and Internet search engines. Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings. You may find it necessary to adjust the focus of your topic in light of the resources available to you.

Step 3: Locate materials

With the direction of your research now clear to you, you can begin locating material on your topic. There are a number of places you can look for information:

If you are looking for books, do a subject search in One Search . A Keyword search can be performed if the subject search doesn't yield enough information. Print or write down the citation information (author, title,etc.) and the location (call number and collection) of the item(s). Note the circulation status. When you locate the book on the shelf, look at the books located nearby; similar items are always shelved in the same area. The Aleph catalog also indexes the library's audio-visual holdings.

Use the library's  electronic periodical databases  to find magazine and newspaper articles. Choose the databases and formats best suited to your particular topic; ask at the librarian at the Reference Desk if you need help figuring out which database best meets your needs. Many of the articles in the databases are available in full-text format.

Use search engines ( Google ,  Yahoo , etc.) and subject directories to locate materials on the Internet. Check the  Internet Resources  section of the NHCC Library web site for helpful subject links.

Step 4: Evaluate your sources

See the  CARS Checklist for Information Quality   for tips on evaluating the authority and quality of the information you have located. Your instructor expects that you will provide credible, truthful, and reliable information and you have every right to expect that the sources you use are providing the same. This step is especially important when using Internet resources, many of which are regarded as less than reliable.

Step 5: Make notes

Consult the resources you have chosen and note the information that will be useful in your paper. Be sure to document all the sources you consult, even if you there is a chance you may not use that particular source. The author, title, publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later when creating a bibliography.

Step 6: Write your paper

Begin by organizing the information you have collected. The next step is the rough draft, wherein you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will help you organize your ideas and determine the form your final paper will take. After this, you will revise the draft as many times as you think necessary to create a final product to turn in to your instructor.

Step 7: Cite your sources properly

Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.

Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references. The  MLA  and the  APA  Styles are two popular citation formats.

Failure to cite your sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable!

Step 8: Proofread

The final step in the process is to proofread the paper you have created. Read through the text and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Make sure the sources you used are cited properly. Make sure the message that you want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly stated.

Additional research tips:

• Work from the general to the specific -- find background information first, then use more specific sources.
• Don't forget print sources -- many times print materials are more easily accessed and every bit as helpful as online resources.
• The library has books on the topic of writing research papers at call number area LB 2369.
• If you have questions about the assignment, ask your instructor.
• If you have any questions about finding information in the library, ask the librarian.

Contact Information

Craig larson.

Librarian 763-424-0733 [email protected] Zoom:  myzoom   Available by appointment

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• Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]

One of the reasons for carrying out research is to add to the existing body of knowledge. Therefore, when conducting research, you need to document your processes and findings in a research report. 

With a research report, it is easy to outline the findings of your systematic investigation and any gaps needing further inquiry. Knowing how to create a detailed research report will prove useful when you need to conduct research.  

What is a Research Report?

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process.

Features of a Research Report 

So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a research report. 

• It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and graphs. 
• It is written in a formal language.
• A research report is usually written in the third person.
• It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
• It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
• It always includes recommendations for future actions. 

Types of Research Report 

The research report is classified based on two things; nature of research and target audience.

Nature of Research

• Qualitative Research Report

This is the type of report written for qualitative research . It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of systematic investigation. In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an opportunity for one to apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative research projects.

A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting details of the research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the information.

• Quantitative Research Report

A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative research. Quantitative research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical values in a bid to find answers to research questions. 

In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the research process and findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive, a quantitative research report works with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature. 

Target Audience

Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If you’re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and if you’re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report. 

• Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study. 

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly specialized and filled with jargon. 

Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports. 

• Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible to everyone. 

It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and magazines. 

Importance of a Research Report 

• Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report. A research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic investigation to all and sundry.  
• Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you’d be able to identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas needing systematic investigation. 
• In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and peculiarities at a glance. 
• A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner. 
• It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via email and have stakeholders look at it. 

Guide to Writing a Research Report

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure and Example of a Research Report

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report. 

• Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner. 

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How. 

• Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.

In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.  

• Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation. 

It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study. 

• An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the data collection and analysis procedures. 

In a quantitative research report, you’d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews and focus groups. 

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation. 

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.

• Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study. 

• References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources. 

Tips for Writing a Research Report

• Define the Context for the Report

As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research report would help you create a detailed yet concise document. This is why you need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss out on anything. 

• Define your Audience

Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the report. If you’re writing for a general audience, you would want to present the information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized audience, you would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms. 

• Include Significant Findings

The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your systematic investigation. In your report, you should exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only important data and findings. 

• Include Illustrations

Your research report should include illustrations and other visual representations of your data. Graphs, pie charts, and relevant images lend additional credibility to your systematic investigation.

• Choose the Right Title

A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your research. It should provide a clear idea of your systematic investigation so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title. 

• Proofread the Report

Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to authenticate the information. If you can, get someone else to go through the report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing software. 

How to Gather Research Data for Your Report  

• Understand the Problem

Every research aims at solving a specific problem or set of problems, and this should be at the back of your mind when writing your research report. Understanding the problem would help you to filter the information you have and include only important data in your report. 

• Know what your report seeks to achieve

This is somewhat similar to the point above because, in some way, the aim of your research report is intertwined with the objectives of your systematic investigation. Identifying the primary purpose of writing a research report would help you to identify and present the required information accordingly. 

• Identify your audience

Knowing your target audience plays a crucial role in data collection for a research report. If your research report is specifically for an organization, you would want to present industry-specific information or show how the research findings are relevant to the work that the company does. 

• Create Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to gather data from a specific group of people through a set of questions. It can be either quantitative or qualitative. 

A survey is usually made up of structured questions, and it can be administered online or offline. However, an online survey is a more effective method of research data collection because it helps you save time and gather data with ease. 

You can seamlessly create an online questionnaire for your research on Formplus . With the multiple sharing options available in the builder, you would be able to administer your survey to respondents in little or no time. 

Formplus also has a report summary too l that you can use to create custom visual reports for your research.

Step-by-step guide on how to create an online questionnaire using Formplus  

• Sign into Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different online questionnaires for your research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on Create new form to begin. 

• Edit Form Title : Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Research Questionnaire.”
• Edit Form : Click on the edit icon to edit the form.
• Add Fields : Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 
• Edit fields
• Click on “Save”
• Form Customization: With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the outlook of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images, and even change the font according to your needs. 
• Multiple Sharing Options: Formplus offers various form-sharing options, which enables you to share your questionnaire with respondents easily. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages.  You can also send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access. 

Conclusion  

Always remember that a research report is just as important as the actual systematic investigation because it plays a vital role in communicating research findings to everyone else. This is why you must take care to create a concise document summarizing the process of conducting any research. 

In this article, we’ve outlined essential tips to help you create a research report. When writing your report, you should always have the audience at the back of your mind, as this would set the tone for the document. 

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Research writing.

• What is Research?

The Seven Steps of Highly Effective Research Papers

• Choosing a Topic
• Finding Sources
• Presenting your Sources
• Organizing your Material
• Discipline-Specific Research
• Citing Sources This link opens in a new window

The Journey

The research process is not necessarily linear. It winds in and around your topic, folds back on itself, leads to tangents (that sometimes turn out to be more important than the issue at hand), and occasionally becomes frustratingly inconclusive. Still, there are some parts of the research puzzle that serve as standard guideposts. If we pay attention to these guideposts, we might keep from pulling all of our hair out. The seven basic steps of research in college are --

1. Choosing a topic

2. Finding sources and acquiring information

3. Determining your main idea (thesis statement or hypothesis)

4. Presenting your sources

5. Organizing your material

6. Writing the finished assignment

7. Citing your sources

Material adapted from  Writing from Sources , 8th edition, by Brenda Spatt

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• Knowledge Base
• Research paper

Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

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This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

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The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Research Report Writing Steps with Format

Research report writing in effect regardless of the nature of your research study not only organizes your thoughts and research work but also serves as the template for the entire research process. Actually, the research report writing steps & format acts as a visual reminder so that you can include every detail of your research work. If you are a beginner in research report writing, then it is essential in order to write rightly your invaluable research paper.

Research Report Writing

The purpose of the research report writing is to deliver the results of the research to the interested person as far as possible and publish it in a coherent way so that the reader understands the information. Thus, the reader can determine the rationale of the  research study itself. So, while you write down your own research report keep in mind the following factors well. Though, there is no fixed structure or rule for writing a research report.

(A) The report will agree realistically. Its report would be real based on the data obtained in the study.

(B) It will be complete. The researcher should be aware that all the things are included as per the purpose of the research study.

(C) It will be as short as possible. This does not mean that it is necessary to summarize without discussing the necessary issues. In fact, it is big enough to discuss essential issues in detail but short for unnecessary subject matters.

(D) The language of the report would be so clear and understandable. The report should use words that take into account the reader’s interest in reading the report.

(E) The researcher would be intellectually honest.

(F) The report will be readable so that the reader feels interested in reading it.

Research Report Writing Steps

The researcher would write the research report is a step-by-step process. The essential steps in research report writing might be as follows:

Step-1: Organizing the Research Report

Thinking about how the data collected for the study will be structured. Research problems can have different sides. Information can be of different types. All this information should be arranged in a systematic and consistent manner in the light of research questions and assumptions.

Develop an outline for organizing your ideas using the information collected. on note cards. An outline shows your core ideas and what you are about to write about them. Write down all the key concepts. List the subordinate ideas below the core concepts. Avoid repeating any concepts

Step-2: Preparing an Outline

The other important thing about writing a report is to create an outline that gives you an overall outlook on the topic of the study. Adjust the order of the items to be included in the report. Then, understand the title, the most important issues, and its overview. Basically, your outline will form in three main categories: introduction, body, and conclusion. But to make sure your paper is complete, consult with your instructor for the specific outline you want to include in your research. A sample outline for the research paper you might follow. But first, let’s point out the main sections of your paper and what information each should cover.

Step-3: Writing a Draft Report

After creating the report outline, the researcher will start writing the report based on the information received according to that outline. But first, make a draft report. Then, examine the draft report, find out mistakes, edit and make changes. This not only clears things up from the get-go but also regulates the process of writing a research paper. This helps to establish the basic structure of your paper. Prepare a first draft where you examine your outline and expand on ideas to support your thesis.

Step-4: Report Writing as per Objectives

The researcher needs to be very aware of the purpose of the study from the beginning of the report preparation. Writing reports according to the purpose of research reduces the opportunity for discussion of irrelevant issues of course. The goal of the research is your purpose, which is why you are doing research and the signals where you expect the end to come. Objectives are precise steps that you will take to get there. So when you write a report, your purpose should be kept in mind.

Research Report Writing Format

A research report has three basic parts.

Firstly, primary things, for example-research title, introduction, acknowledgments, & table of contents, etc.

Secondly, the main part, the research discussion, or research findings. The main part will necessarily be divided into some chapters.

Then, relevant issues, for example-annexure, bibliography, etc.

An Ideal Research Report Sample

You might also like, 7 skills of a good researcher must have, basic concept of research methodology and method, 5 basic steps in formulation of hypothesis in research, leave a reply cancel reply.

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World Leaders in Research-Based User Experience

Planning research with generative ai.

April 5, 2024 2024-04-05

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AI chatbots (like ChatGPT, Google’s Gemini, and Microsoft Copilot) can support UX researchers of all experience levels in planning their research.

In This Article:

What is a research plan, using ai chatbots to write a research plan.

Good research always starts with a plan.

A research plan is a document that outlines the research objectives and how the research will be executed.

Research plans should include:

• The research goals or questions that the research is hoping to achieve or answer
• The method to be used and a description of how it will be carried out
• The tasks or questions that will be given to study participants
• The profile of the target participants
• The screener questionnaire used to recruit participants

Creating a research plan can be time-consuming. Even with a good template, a researcher must generate research questions, select the appropriate method(s), decide how to run sessions, and often create study collateral (like screeners and tasks) from scratch. The good news is that AI can help with many, if not all, of these tasks!

It can be tempting to just ask an AI tool to give you a research plan for a project. Don’t do that.

❌ Bad Prompt : Generate a research plan for a usability test of a food-delivery app.

This kind of request results in a generic, template-like response, partly because AI lacks the context to propose a complete research plan and partly because of how the model has been trained.

To construct a useful research plan, deconstruct the plan into parts and have the AI chatbot tackle each part individually. You can assemble responses in a final research plan.

Don’t expect the AI to ask you the right questions in order to get a comprehensive outcome. View the AI tool as a UX assistant , not as a UX mentor. You need to feed into the AI all the steps and details you want it to consider.

Follow the steps below for the best results.

Step 1: Provide Context

Imagine asking an experienced colleague for recommendations on what research study to run without giving them any context on what project you’re working on and what you’re trying to achieve. They would probably say, "It depends on what you’re trying to learn.” Conversing with AI presents no exception.

Start your conversation with enough context , especially if the AI tool does not already have this information stored about you or your current project. ( ChatGPT 4 allows users to store context for each new conversation.)

The contextual information you share should include who you work for, the scope of your project, and what you’re looking to achieve. Remember that some AI tools may use your conversations to train their models, so share only information you would be comfortable with being in the open domain.

 Prompt Template: I work for [type or organization] . My company provides [what kind of product, service, or experience] . I need to run a user-research study to learn [something about users or a problem] .

Step 2: Generate Research Questions

After providing the AI tool with context, ask it to suggest specific research questions for the study. Here’s an example from a recent study on research repositories that I conducted for NN/g.

Prompt Example: I will run a research study and report on how UX practitioners across different organizations set up and use research repositories. Please generate 10 research questions that would be suitable for this sort of study.

It’s a good idea to ask generative AI tools for more options or ideas than you think you’ll need, because some will not be a good fit.

Microsoft Copilot responded to the prompt above with the 10 research questions below.

10 Research questions generated by Microsoft Copilot

Who are the primary users of the research repository within different organizations? What motivates users to engage with the research repository? How do different teams (design, product, sales, marketing) access and benefit from the research repository? What challenges do practitioners face when contributing to or retrieving information from the repository? What types of research artifacts (reports, raw data, templates) are most commonly stored in the repository? How do organizations structure their research repositories? What tools and templates are commonly used to facilitate research repository management? How do practitioners ensure the quality and accuracy of information in the repository? What impact does the research repository have on decision-making and project outcomes? What strategies can organizations implement to encourage widespread adoption and active participation in the research repository?

To broaden your pool of research questions, ask for further research questions or provide the same prompt in a new session. Repeat this process as many times as you need to generate a list that feels exhaustive of what you’d like to learn.

Some of the research questions Copilot generated for me were appropriate, and others were not. As a result, I had AI generate more research questions to choose from.

Unfortunately, most AI chatbots don’t offer an easy way to dismiss suggestions or combine specific responses and work from only these (a behavior called apple-picking ).

Pulling in generated research questions into an offline document (like a FigJam or Google Doc) allows you to easily group items, remove duplicates, or reword suggested research questions.

Begin a new chat session with your selected and refined set of research questions, so that the unwanted research questions are removed from the chat history.

Step 3: Request Methods

After sharing the context and your chosen research questions, ask the AI tool to identify suitable research methods.

Example Prompt : What study would you suggest to answer these research questions? Please be specific; cite which research questions would be answered by which research method if you suggest multiple methods.

Generative-AI advice is not always good advice. Often, these tools will suggest various methods and suggest you triangulate data from multiple sources. This approach is not always needed. Also, not all methods will be practical or the best fit for your study. Additionally, AI may suggest interviews and focus groups even for research questions better suited to a behavioral research method .

Ask AI chatbots to tell you which research methods would be suited to which research question and why. We also recommend doing some further reading on your own about any methods that are unfamiliar to you.

In response to the prompt above (and given my chosen research questions), ChatGPT recommended a survey, interviews with select UX practitioners, and case studies. These were all my chosen methods, so AI had done well here!

Step 4: Request Inclusion Criteria

AI can create inclusion criteria — a necessary component of your research plan. Do this step only after generating research questions and methods since these will inform who should participate in the research study.

Inclusion criteria (or recruitment criteria) are specific characteristics of the target population that need to be represented in your sample.

Start with inclusion criteria before asking the AI to help you write a screening questionnaire ; AI can only craft an appropriate screener after it “knows” who you’re looking to recruit.

Example Prompt: So that I recruit the right people for my interviews, help me create some inclusion criteria. What characteristics or behaviors should I recruit for?

Step 5: Request Help with Screeners, Interview Questions, and Tasks

Finally, ask the AI to put together:

• Interview questions or an interview guide (if conducting interviews)
• Tasks for a usability test
• Diary-study prompts (if relevant)
• Recruitment confirmation emails or other communication messages.

Unfortunately, there are a lot of bad examples of the above on the web. Conversational AI has been trained on all this data. Therefore, don’t be surprised if it produces poor study collateral on its first attempt! This is a major risk area for new researchers.

One way to mitigate this danger is to give the AI tool advice when crafting any of these outputs . Think of AI as a new research assistant who can learn extremely quickly.

Common mistakes that AI tools make include:

• Using words that appear in the interface in task instructions (priming)
• Creating task instructions that ask users to imagine they are someone that they are not
• Not including a goal or a call to action in the task instruction
• Not including distractor options in screening questionnaires
• Using overenthusiastic marketing language in recruitment materials

It’s not surprising that AI makes these mistakes since UX practitioners also make them!

To improve outputs, feed the AI essential tips, such as:

• When crafting tasks: Do not use the name of words or link labels in the task instruction. Find a natural-language equivalent to explain what the participant should do . (You can ask AI to “read” a website or an image.)
• When crafting recruitment materials: Use neutral and concise language in the recruitment email. Avoid using overly enthusiastic marketing language.
• When crafting a screener: Include multiple-choice questions and answer options that might disguise what the study is about and who I am looking to recruit.

Additionally, when possible, feed the AI with good examples of screener questionnaires, tasks, or interview questions, so it can follow their format or style.

Even with this advice, AI can still make mistakes. If you’re doubting its answers, check primary sources or speak with an experienced researcher for old-fashioned human guidance.

If you have ChatGPT’s Plus Plan, you can use our GPT for planning your research.

With the proper context, examples, and advice, AI tools, like ChatGPT and Microsoft Copilot, can craft helpful research questions, tasks, interview questions, and other study collateral far more quickly than you could if you started from scratch.

Research leads and ResearchOps personnel can support junior researchers and PWDRs (People Who Do Research) by providing examples and advice that can be fed to AI agents. Experienced researchers can benefit from using AI to speed up their research-planning process and obtain further inspiration.

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• Open access
• Published: 10 April 2024

Welfare of invertebrates: a pilot study on a new land snail stunning technique

• Paola Fossati 1 ,
• Federico M. Stefanini 1 ,
• Giuliano Ravasio 2 &
• Umberto Coerezza 3  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  8378 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Animal behaviour
• Animal physiology
• Psychophysics

The almost complete absence of regulations to protect invertebrates is a common condition in legal systems, including the European one, especially when it comes to invertebrates intended for human consumption. Thus, in the vast majority of cases, edible invertebrates do not receive even the most basic protection at slaughter. Despite recent research indicating that invertebrates are capable of feeling pain and stress, the humane step of stunning is not used on them. This is also the case for land snails, which are gastropod invertebrates whose consumption has now reached significant levels, already involving tonnes and that is expected to increase significantly as edible snail farming becomes more popular as a relatively low-cost, easy-to-perform, and sustainable alternative animal husbandry, thereby making land snails an increasingly economically important species. This paper presents and investigates a proposed stunning method based on the immersion of mollusks in CO 2 -supplemented and refrigerated water that could be used in the snail meat production chain to reduce the slaughter suffering of millions of these invertebrates. To this end, body condition descriptors (hemolymph parameters) in snails were determined before and after CO 2 treatment in cold water, while generating useful data for defining a preliminary set of reference intervals for basal values.

Introduction

Invertebrates are a group of animal species that, in addition to accounting for the vast majority of those on the planet, are gaining attention for their potential use as food. Land snails, in particular, are proving to be an increasingly appealing breeding species for human food production. Farmers benefit from farming these gastropod mollusks in terms of economics and resource utilization, and it is also liked and valued for the production of meat, which is thought to have good nutritional and organoleptic properties. According to recent research, land snail consumption peaked at 43,000 tonnes in 2016, and this figure is expected to rise by at least 50,000 by 2025 (World: Snails (Except Sea Snails)—Market Report, 2016).

For centuries, the use of land snails in gastronomy has been a part of the culinary tradition in many Mediterranean countries 1 . Land snails, for example, have been present in Italian cuisine since the time of the ancient Romans. Based on the discovery of shells at several archaeological sites 2 , the earliest known breeding of these animals can be traced back to 50 B.C., and even Gaius Pliny the Elder (23–79 A.D.) mentions the edible species of snail in his "Naturalis historia," suggesting a recipe for serving them 3 . Furthermore, it is well known that snail meat is widely consumed in France, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Morocco 4 . The demand is increasing. It is estimated that production in Italy alone has increased by 325% over the last 20 years, reaching 44 thousand tonnes, including live and preserved product 5 , while FAO data confirm the gradual and steady increase in production worldwide (Parameters: FAO data) 6 . Farmed snails are members of the phylum Mollusca and the class of Terrestrial Gastropods (aquatic species also exist). Cornu aspersum (Müller, 1774) and Helix pomatia Linnaeus, 1758 are the most prevalent in the Mediterranean and Atlantic areas of Europe. The most common and profitable eliciculture involves the use of snails of the species Cornu aspersum , which are very productive animals and easy to raise, even in spaces that are not necessarily large and with little investment other than initial costs 7 , 8 , 9 . Land snails, like other invertebrates, have pain system elements, avoidance reactions to pain stimuli, and opioid-mediated stress responses similar to mammals 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 . However, unlike other invertebrates, land snails are almost completely unprotected by animal welfare laws. The lack of legislation is total with regard to edible land snails. In consequence, no industry regulation exists to define the requirements and treatment methods for farmed snails that enter the food chain (Exceptions are cephalopods, which are protected when used in animal research in the European Union, and species listed in the annexes of the Habitats Directive. The Swiss Confederation regulation OPA n 455.1 New Text in accordance with No. I of the O. of January 10, 2018, in force since March 1, 2018 (AS 2018 573) prohibits certain transport and storage practices for decapod crustaceans and forbids immersing them alive and not stunned in boiling water for cooking, requiring them to be stunned before killing; this practise can only be done by qualified personnel. In Italy, some regional laws establish provisions for the protection and conservation of so-called 'small fauna', which includes invertebrates, but only those living in the wild in their natural habitat). This is also true for the slaughter phase, which occurs in both family or small catering consumption as well as industrial realities using the traditional system of boiling live snails without a prior stunning phase inducing unconsciousness with minimal distress and pain. As a result, there is currently no humane way to stun these animals and kill them while they are unconscious. The ideal method should be painless and cause a rapid loss of consciousness. Furthermore, it should be human-safe, not impressive to the eye, inexpensive, easy to perform on both small and large scales, and protect both animal welfare and organoleptic quality and food safety.

This paper proposes a technique for stunning land snails for slaughter that can be easily applied to any number of snails and could improve protection guarantees for the vast majority of these animals used for food production. The study was conducted on Cornu aspersum (Müller, 1774), the most widely bred and marketed species, while collecting data on the species’ main hemolymph parameters, which were biochemically studied using a hemogasanalysis instrument. A series of basal values, useful for defining a preliminary set of reference intervals, were identified through Bayesian analysis of the collected data. In addition, an atraumatic method of extracting hemolymph from ground snails was performed.

Cornu aspersum's biological and anatomical characteristics

Cornu aspersum (former Helix aspersa ) is a common snail naturally found throughout the Italian peninsula, particularly in the Mediterranean basin (Fig.  1 ). It is a terrestrial gastropod mollusk of the Helicidae family. Its shell is cone-shaped, with 3–4 coils developed around a central axis (columella) and can hold the animal’s cephalo-podal mass. In fact, the snail has a ventral muscular foot that allows it to move. The internal organs are contained within the body in a single cavity, which is protected by a mantle that lines the inside of the shell.

Cornu aspersum.

Snails are pulmonated animals. Their nervous system is ganglionic, with ganglia of nerve cells interconnected by bundles of nerve fibers. Although they lack a true brain, snails have been observed to have associative thinking skills, implying that this learning ability, while primitive, allows them to experience pleasure and pain (as sentient beings) 14 , 15 . The evolution of terrestrial gastropods has revealed that they evolved from aquatic forms 16 . The importance of water in terrestrial gastropod survival has been extensively studied 17 , 18 , 19 . Even today, land snails contain a large amount of water and maintain a constant, complete aqueous body cover due to the production of a hygroscopic slime. This condition allows them to withstand more water immersion before drowning than other pulmonated organisms 20 . There are also terrestrial snails’ species that can survive underwater 21 .

Terrestrial gastropods’ respiratory system

Snails breathe through a valved opening called a pneumostome that connects to a rudimentary lung made up of an evolved lung sac in the mantle cavity. The pneumostome opening regulates both internal CO 2 pressure and the need to inhale oxygen-rich fresh air. It has been demonstrated that oxygen is introduced into the respiratory surfaces of lung gastropods via water. In fact, an aqueous layer coats both the walls of the lung cavity and the outer surface of the body, allowing skin respiration 22 . Furthermore, the snail lung can adapt to aquatic respiration, albeit with less advantageous gas exchanges than air respiration. The exchange of gases within the organism is based on the phenomenon of diffusion, which is influenced by the difference in partial pressures of each of them between the environment outside and inside the organism itself and, as previously stated, occurs primarily through the pneumostome, the opening of which is stimulated by the lowering of oxygen pressure inside the mollusk as well as by hypercapnia, with a response mediated by CO 2 -sensitive cells present in the central nervous system of the snail 23 . Some research suggests that hypoxia with hypercapnia, as well as subsequent acidification of intracellular and tissue pH, may govern a reversible transition phase between the active and quiescent condition in lung mollusks 24 , 25 . These findings lend support to the hypothesis that hypercapnia slows metabolism in such animals, allowing them to enter a dormant state. It is a reversible state of quiescence that, in snails, is comparable to stunning. In fact, according to Regulation (EC) No. 1099/2009 on the protection of animals at the time of killing, ‘stunning’ means any intentionally induced process which causes loss of consciousness and sensibility without pain, including any process resulting in instantaneous death (Art. 2, letter f). Contrary to what generally happens in vertebrate species when using the stunning methods listed in Regulation (EC) No. 1099/2009, snails are able to recover after the treatment described 26 .

The legislation governing the slaughter of invertebrates

Existing general requirements for their killing and related operations require that animals be spared avoidable pain, distress, or suffering (Regulation No. 1099/2009/EC, Art. 3). To that end, stunning before killing has been made mandatory. This practice, however, does not apply to the slaughter of invertebrates, which are exempt from the application of Regulation No. 1099/2009/EC, establishing criteria for the protection of animals used for food production that are limited to vertebrate animals.

In the absence of current regulations requiring prior stunning, land snails produced by heliciculture and intended for gastronomic consumption are slaughtered directly with the traditional boiling of live and conscious mollusks.

Summary statistics

In Table 1 , summary statistics are shown for each variable given the selected treatment after removing extreme observations (outliers). In Table 1S of the Supplementary Material, summary statistics are also calculated but using raw data, that is without removing extreme observations (outliers). Box plots based on the quantiles shown in Table 1 are also included in the Supplementary Material.

Inferring intervals of commonly observable values for pretreatment variables

The procedure to estimate endpoints of intervals describing common observable values is summarized below for the pH variable.

Using the LOO criterion, the skew-normal distribution was selected for variable pH (pretreatment). In Fig.  2 , 200 draws from the posterior predictive distribution have been performed and the correspondent estimates of the pdf are shown in light grey, where the thick black line is the estimate based on the collected sample.

Kernel density estimation of the marginal probability density function of variable pH (dark thick black) is compared with 200 estimates of the same density function based on samples from the predictive posterior distribution (light grey).

Using 5000 draws from the posterior predictive distribution, the first and last percentile were calculated, together with realized min and max values. Table 2 below contains the inferred endpoints of intervals to recommend inspection of extreme points. The complete data can be found in Table 2S (Supplementary material).

Variable pH: the hypothesis of null treatment effect

In Fig.  3 , the quantile–quantile plot of post–pre treatment differences are shown to appreciate possible departures from normality.

Quantile–quantile plot of variable pH.

After removing an observation (top right), the above mentioned three models (Normal, Student t, Skew Normal) were fitted and the posterior distribution of \({\mu }_{D,1}\) (the mean value of the difference due to treatment) for the best model was estimated by MCMC simulation: the Student-t model was selected by the LOO criterion and in particular no sampled value was greater than zero, i.e. the estimated probability is \(\widehat{P}\left[{\mu }_{D,1}>0\right]<0.002\) . Tail probabilities for \({\mu }_{D,i}\) are shown in Table 3 .

Stun induction

In terms of stun induction, all snails immersed in CO 2 -enriched water were shown to achieve an acceptable level of unconsciousness, resulting in the stunning outcome described above.

In this pilot study, we proposed and investigated an original stunning method based on water supplemented with CO2 that could be used safely and humanely in the snail meat production chain. A Bayesian statistical analysis revealed substantial changes in many hemolymph components, like pH, Na, and Cl, in snails after immersion in gaseous water for a time sufficient to get them stunned. This finding is consistent with the literature-supported hypothesis that hypercapnia allows these animals to enter a dormant state. Furthermore, plausible physiological ranges, outside of which observed values should be investigated for the potential presence of large measurement errors and/or atypical responses of snails to treatment, were identified through analysis of the measured basal values of hemolymph parameters.

From a physiological perspective, the exposure of snails to cold and gaseous water facilitates the induction of torpor in snails, as well as a physiological response, as evidenced by changes in hemolymph components, confirming that CO 2 has an effect on mollusks’ metabolism, depressing it and driving them to unconsciousness in a relatively short period of time. A remarkable feature of this procedure is its reversibility: even when applied several times to snails, they are able to recover without side effects. For that reason, too, this method of stunning can be considered humane for animals. Another major advantage is that it is possible to perform group stunning, which is a significant asset in favor of the future adoption of this method in industrial practice.

From the statistical viewpoint, this is an initial study that should be followed by extensive experimentation to verify if a better family of distributions could be used, for example one in which the sample space is bounded, i.e., it does not reach infinity.

As to the methodology to measure the components of hemolymph, hemogasanalysis appeared to be a useful and quick tool, as well as suitable, since hemolymph is an equivalent of mammalian blood tissue. Nevertheless, a future, comparative study of alternative measurement methods could be planned, to determine the best procedure for measuring hemolymph components.

In conclusion, it can be stated that the availability of a simple, low-cost, soft stunning method that can be applied on a small to large scale could benefit the welfare of millions of snails that enter the food chain each year. Indeed, these animals that are classifiable as sentient beings would be saved from death by boiling while still alive and conscious. The results of the present study confirm that immersion in CO 2 -enriched cold water can render them insensible in a short period of time without causing distress, as the snail lung can adapt to aquatic respiration and hypercapnia slows their metabolism, inducing a state of unconsciousness.

This study also identified basal values for several measurable parameters in snail hemolymph, which are useful for determining a physiological range for these parameters and can be refined with future research.

Although this is a preliminary research, the statistical analysis performed allowed for the collection of results that encourage the study to be continued and expanded in order to confirm its suitability and possibly promote the creation of specific guidelines for the humane slaughter of land snails, as even the AVMA Guidelines for the Humane Slaughter of Animals (2016 Edition) 27 still do not include such species, although the same association lists some “acceptable with conditions methods” to anesthetize them before euthanasia, confirming the importance of stunning these sentient invertebrates (AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals, 2020 Edition) 28 .

Animals and methods

The research was carried out on a sample of 75 Cornu aspersum (weight: 10–12 g) alive and vital, purchased from a local retail market where the vendor was directly a local snail farmer. The animals were placed in clean plastic containers (Fig.  4 ), exposed to a natural light–dark cycle, and kept under environmental temperature and humidity conditions similar to those present in the source area, as the farm of origin was located not far from the research facility. No nutrition was provided to maintain the same conditions in which the snails are kept ready to be prepared as food. Each snail was identified by drawing an indelible ID number on each shell (Figs.  5 and 6 ).

Snails placed in a clean, plastic container.

Snails with ID number.

Snail with ID number.

In the first phase of the study, snails were subjected to hemolymph sampling (Figs.  7 , 8 and 9 ), using the method described by J.E. Cooper 29 . Hemolymph sampling was carried out through the sinus region with a sterile butterfly needle (G23 X ¾) and 300mm length tubing. The method does not require the sacrifice of the mollusk and does not determine death or long-term negative impacts on the health of the animal, so as to allow the periodic extraction of hemolymph on the same source animal, if needed. The volume of hemolymph collected from each snail ranged between 0.3 and 0.6 ml. The freshly drawn hemolymph was immediately transferred into a sterile insulin syringe (Fig.  10 ) and analyzed, using the IDEXX VetStat® Electrolyte Blood Gas Analyzer for veterinary use, which measured the following sixteen parameters: acidity (pH), carbon dioxide partial pressure (pCO 2 ), oxygen partial pressure (pO 2 ), sodium concentration (Na + ), potassium concentration (K + ), chlorine concentration (Cl − ), ionized calcium concentration (Ca ++ ), carbon dioxide concentration (TCO 2 ), (ionized calcium normalized to PH 7.4) nCa, transcutaneous acidity (pH(TC)), transcutaneous carbon dioxide partial pressure (pCO 2 (TC)), transcutaneous oxygen partial pressure (pO 2 (TC)), standard bicarbonate concentration (SBC), bicarbonate ion concentration (HCO 3 − ), Alkalosis (A), osmolarity (Osm). These values were statistically processed in order to determine the plausible physiological range of each variable.

Sampling of hemolymph from snails.

Transfer of hemolymph into a sterile insulin syringe.

In the second phase of the study, a quota of the specimens was tested for stunning by immersion in mineral drinking water enriched with a high concentration (10 g/l) of food-grade CO 2 (E290) and maintained at 6–8 °C. This step of the procedure was aimed at assessing their sensitivity to CO 2 -supplemented and refrigerated water and to observe their reaction to the point of verifying the induction of their stunning. The temperature of the water was chosen to match the temperature at which the snails are typically kept in order to preserve them before industrial slaughter. The low temperature also helps to maintain the level of dissolved CO 2 in the water, as CO 2 solubility is temperature dependent and is better maintained in cold water. Furthermore, it has been found that temperatures below 10°C induce and maintain torpor in snails, as is the case during their winter dormancy 30 .

The surface of the water was covered with a plastic contact film to limit the dispersion of CO 2 into the air during the test. The snails were immersed completely in water and observed while the immersion time was recorded. The expected outcome of stunning was identified as follows: an animal that was completely out of its shell and relaxed, with no reactivity to even the stimulus of the eye tentacles. The time required to stun each snail was recorded by a trained researcher. It ranged from 4 to 5 min. After the stunned condition was met, hemolymph sampling was repeated (Fig.  11 ), and gas measurements were taken immediately. The snails used to test the effect of carbonated water immersion were chosen at random from those used for the first hemolymph sampling. The ID number drawn on each shell made it possible to compare the outcomes of the same snail before and after treatment with CO 2 -supplemented water.

Sampling of hemolymph from a stunned snail.

No deaths were observed in any of the groups of animals (before and after stunning) during the study.

When kept out of water, after they were stunned, all the snails recovered a vital condition in 9 to 15 min.

Statistical analysis

Sixteen variables describing body state of snails have been considered among those made available by a common measurement equipment. Summary statistics conditional on treatment level were calculated before and after removing outliers for each variable: number of observations, minimum, mean, standard deviation, median, maximum and the first and third quartiles. Outliers were identified by calculating an interval \(\left({l}_{1},{l}_{2}\right)\) outside which the values were declared extreme outliers 31 , that is

With \({Q}_{1}\) the first and \({Q}_{3}\) the third quartiles.

Three Bayesian models were fitted to each variable \({Y}_{i},i=\mathrm{1,2},\dots ,16\) measured before treatment using samples \(\left({y}_{i,1},\dots ,{y}_{i,j},\dots ,{y}_{i,{n}_{i}}\right)\) . The considered families of probability density functions were:

the Student-t

and the Skew Normal family

Model selection was performed after model comparison based on the LOO criterion (Leave-One-Out 32 ). A sample from the posterior distribution.

\(p\left({\theta }_{i}| {y}_{i,1},\dots ,{y}_{i,{n}_{i}}\right)\) of model parameters was obtained for each pre-treatment variable by Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulation using STAN software 33 , 34 in R 35 and the brms R package 36 . A sample from the predictive distribution of each variable, say \(p\left({y}_{f,i}| {y}_{i,1},\dots ,{y}_{i,{n}_{i}}\right)\) was also obtained by Monte Carlo simulation, then 1% and 99% percentiles were calculated to define reasonable threshold values outside which future measurements should be checked for being atypical or potentially affected by strong measurement errors.

A similar modeling exercise was performed for the difference after—before treatment. Let \({D}_{i,j}={Y}_{a,i,j}-{Y}_{b,i,j}\) be the difference of variables referring to body feature \(i\) after ( \(a\) ) vs before ( \(b\) ) treatment with CO 2 , with \(i=,1,\dots ,16\) the index denoting variables and \(j=\mathrm{1,2},\dots ,{n}_{i}\) the index for observations. The statistical null hypothesis that treatment has no effect follows from

thus \({H}_{0}:{\mu }_{D,i}=0\) vs \({H}_{1}:{\mu }_{D,i}\ne 0\) for the expected value of variable \({D}_{i}\) . The null hypothesis was rejected when the marginal posterior distribution of \({\mu }_{D,i}\) was located far away from zero, that is \(P\left[{\mu }_{D,i}>0\vee {d}_{i,1},\dots ,{d}_{i,{n}_{i}}\right]\) was close to zero or close to one, say greater than \(0.99\) or smaller than \(0.01\) .

Ethics declarations

Although the study involved invertebrates and was not harmful to the animals, it received ethical oversight by the Animal Welfare Body (OPBA) of the Università degli Studi di Milano, which approved it.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are reported in the article.

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This work was funded by the Research Support Plan—Linea 2, Università degli Studi di Milano. The first Author of this paper was the Coordinator of the funded project.

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P.F. and U.C. conceived, designed, and analyzed the study, contributed to sample preparation, and wrote the original manuscript; F.S. performed the statistical analysis; G.R. contributed to sample preparation and analysis; P.F. provided funding acquisition. All co-authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

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Fossati, P., Stefanini, F.M., Ravasio, G. et al. Welfare of invertebrates: a pilot study on a new land snail stunning technique. Sci Rep 14 , 8378 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58133-4

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Received : 06 November 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58133-4

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