ap world essay columbian exchange

AP® World History

The columbian exchange: ap® world history crash course review.

• The Albert Team
• Last Updated On: March 1, 2022

Can you imagine a world that has Italian pasta without tomato sauce to smother the noodles? How about having a hamburger without any fries? Or maybe an alternate reality where the Irish potato famine of the 19 th century never happened? Well, without the Columbian Exchange all of these scenarios could have played out in very real ways.

The Columbian Exchange is one of those AP® World History concepts that you simply must know for your upcoming AP® World History exam. It has helped to shape the world that we have come to know and love today, but it is also a perfect example of how historical events have shaped cultures, societies, environments, and even what we eat across the world. But not all of it has been great. Some have suffered and others have benefited from its affects.

We will cover these things and more in this AP® World History crash course on the Columbian Exchange and let you in on how it has shaped historical events from across the globe. Plus, at this end of this AP® World History Review, we will explain how the concept itself might pop up on the AP® World History exam you are planning on taking. So, let’s take this trip around the world with Christopher Columbus and discover how he and his resulting Columbian Exchange changed global history!

What is the Columbian Exchange?

You might think that the Columbian Exchange might have only to do with Christopher Columbus’ voyage across the Atlantic and the exchanges he made there. Well, that would only be sort of correct. This AP® World History concept is Columbus’ namesake, but it’s also so much more. Columbus’ expeditions have sent massive ripples throughout history that we are still feeling the effects of today.

So, before we get too bogged down in the details, let’s get this AP® World History crash course started by asking, what is the Columbian Exchange?

Simply put, the Columbian Exchange was the extensive movements of plants, animals, diseases, and peoples between the Old and New Worlds after Columbus made his famous voyage in 1492. But this is also one of those AP® World History concepts that pertain to more than just physical items like the potato. The exchanges that took place included ideas, cultures, and technology that were transmitted across the world at that time.

Columbian Exchanges

You may not have known this, but before Europe’s intrusion upon the Americas, Europeans had never eaten a tomato before. There was no such thing as pasta marinara. Travesty.

But seriously, there were massive amounts of foods and animals that were transferred between the Americas and the rest of the world at this time. Europeans brought over things like olives, onions, rice, turnips, and apples. While they took avocados, corn (maize), squash, pumpkins, and rubber.

On top of that, goose, pigs, horses, and chickens were taken to the Americas while llamas, turkeys, alpacas, and guinea pigs were taken back to Europe.

And this is just a tiny snippet of the kinds of things that were exchanged between the two parts of the world. Massive, and we mean massive, amounts of stuff was brought between these parts of the world that used to be isolated from each other in the 15 th and 16 th centuries.

The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of the Columbian Exchange

Now, all of this seems great, right? What’s wrong with a little bit of exchange now and again? I mean, without European apples there would be no phrase, “American as apple pie.” But therein lays the historical problem. And as an AP® World History review, we love historical problems.

Although there were definitely some great things that came about from the Columbian Exchange, it most definitely was not even-handed. The Europeans got the good deal, while indigenous Americans suffered.

One of the main reasons for this was the rampant spreading of disease. As we are sure you aware (but in case, you aren’t, that’s why we are reminding you in this AP® World History crash course review), one of the reasons that Europeans sought land elsewhere was that the continent was overcrowded and undernourished, which is prime territory of pathogens.

In other words, Europeans were dirty and diseased. Native Americans, on the other hand, were not packed together and considered hygiene an important part of social and cultural life. And disease like measles, smallpox, and yellow fever came along with European bodies and goods.

The native populations of the Americas had no natural immunities to any of these. All of this meant a decimation of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. It is believed that about 90% of the people in the Americas died from these diseases. Europeans, on the other hand, found easy to grow and nutrient rich foods like the potato to feed their starving populations. One side definitely benefited more than the other.

The Whys and Hows of the Columbian Exchange

We are all about questions in these AP® World History reviews, so why not ask: “what explains the events of the Columbian Exchange?” Or maybe, “Why does this matter?” And remember, these are the types of questions that AP® World History examiners want students to comprehend when they are studying AP® World History concepts like the Columbian Exchange.

So, what you need to remember is that European were not just exchanging out of the kindness of their hearts. They were colonizing. They were colonizing not only the land, but the people, the animals, the plants, and the environment. When European explorers like Columbus took plants and animals from their natural habitats, they were looking for ways to reproduce them back in the Old World to help to expand their populations and strengthen their nations.

They also wanted to control the land and its vegetation while in the Americas as well. This meant exploitation for profit. And what became one of the most profitable ways to plant? Slavery. The Columbian exchange resulted in the massive movement of African men and women in to the New World, but while enslaved. This also meant that cash crops like sugar cane and eventually cotton would overtake otherwise diverse vegetable life.

But they were also there to take over the land. And when it came time for the native peoples to attempt to defend the places that they had called home for all those years, their populations were so depleted from disease, that they simply could not keep up. This had led to a takeover of the Americas by the Europeans.

And finally, the Columbian Exchange resulted in the introduction of invasive species. This is a tricky term that’s fraught with meaning, but for the purposes of the AP® World History Exam and this AP® World History crash course in general, just remember that plants and animals were introduced in the New World that totally thrived and took over the indigenous flora and fauna.

The Columbian Exchange and the AP® World History Exam

Whew! You got all that? Good. Even if you don’t have it all down yet, that’s ok. But when it comes time to studying for your AP® World History Exam, reread this AP® World History review on the Columbian Exchange a few times, so you know you’ve got the important points. This is one of those AP® World History concepts that you simply must know.

Big picture is probably more important than little picture here. Sure you should know that pumpkins were from the Old World. But you really need to think about the cause and effect stuff. Remember the role of colonialism, remember the inequalities, and remember the exploitations. These are the central concepts of this AP® World History review.

Now, let’s take a look at a previous AP® World History exam question. In fact, here’s a perfect one from the year 2012 :

Compare demographic and environmental effects of the Columbian Exchange on the Americas with the Columbian Exchange’s demographic and environmental effects on ONE of the following regions between 1492 and 1750. 

Africa 

After reading this AP® World History crash course on the Columbian Exchange, you should have this question down pat. I bet you can even do it with your eyes closed. Well, maybe not.

But again, as we have shown you in this AP® World History review, the Columbian Exchange resulted in a massively unequal relationship between the Old and New Worlds. Both demographically and environmentally, the affects have been widespread, including the destruction of populations, the spreading of diseases, and the increased nutrition of certain societies. Either way, we’ve given you what you’ll need in this AP® World History crash course to score that 5 on your exam, so good luck!

Let’s put everything into practice. Try this AP® World History practice question:

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AP World History DBQ Example

Once you have answered our  AP World History Document-Based Question , scroll down to read a sample high-scoring response. Our AP World History DBQ example will guide you through the step to a perfect answer.

Evaluate the effects of the Columbian Exchange on the peoples and cultures of the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa) and the New World (Americas) from the late 15th century to the 17th century.

Guided Response:

Introduction Thesis/Claim (A):  The Columbian Exchange, initiated by Christopher Columbus’s voyages in the late 15th century, fundamentally altered the lives and cultures of people in both the Old World and the New World. In the Americas, it led to significant cultural and demographic shifts due to the introduction of new crops and livestock, as well as devastating impacts from Old World diseases. Conversely, the Old World experienced a transformation in diet, agriculture, and economic structures, largely due to the influx of New World crops like maize, potatoes, and tobacco.  (1 point for a clear thesis that responds to the prompt) Contextualization (B):  Prior to the Columbian Exchange, the Old and New Worlds had evolved separately, leading to distinct agricultural practices, societal structures, and disease immunities. The exchange bridged these worlds, introducing a period of profound biological and cultural exchanges.  (1 point for providing broader historical context relevant to the prompt) Body Paragraph 1 Evidence from Documents (C):  The introduction of tobacco in the Ming Dynasty, as described in Document 1 by Charles C. Mann, showcases the rapid adoption and integration of New World crops into Old World societies. Similarly, the spread of maize in Ormuz, as noted in Document 5 by Afonso de Albuquerque, indicates the eagerness of different cultures to incorporate New World crops.  (1 point for using content from at least three documents) Analysis and Reasoning (D):  The point of view in Document 1 reflects the perspective of a Chinese physician, highlighting the medicinal value attributed to tobacco, a New World plant, in the Old World. This demonstrates the integration of American crops into Asian medicinal practices.  (1 point for explaining the document’s point of view) Body Paragraph 2 Evidence from Documents (C):  The observations of Hernán Cortés in Document 4 about the marketplaces and infrastructure of Tenochtitlan reveal the sophistication of the Aztec civilization before European contact. This contrasts with the devastation described by Bartolomé de las Casas in Document 6, which underscores the catastrophic impact of the Columbian Exchange on indigenous populations.  (1 additional point for using content from at least four documents to support an argument) Analysis and Reasoning (D):  Document 4 provides insight into Cortés’s perspective as a conqueror, marveling at the complexity of the Aztec civilization, which underscores the depth of cultural loss following the Columbian Exchange.  (1 additional point for explaining the document’s point of view) Body Paragraph 3 Evidence Beyond the Documents (C):  Beyond the documents, the introduction of Old World diseases like smallpox had a devastating effect on Native American populations, who lacked immunity to these diseases. This led to a drastic decline in their population and a weakening of their societies.  (1 point for using additional historical evidence) Conclusion Complex Understanding (D):  The Columbian Exchange was not merely a transfer of goods but a profound reshaping of cultures and societies. It brought about not only the exchange of crops and diseases but also a reconfiguration of global power dynamics, with long-lasting effects on both the Old and New Worlds.  (1 point for demonstrating a complex understanding of the historical development)

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The Productive Teacher

The Columbian Exchange for AP World History

January 7, 2024 1 Comment

We call the process of trading crops, animals, and diseases between the New World (North America and South America) and the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa). Read the Google Slides to learn about the Columbian Exchange.

Illustrative Examples

Horses, pigs, and cattle, introduction to the columbian exchange.

The Columbian Exchange, initiated by Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the Americas in 1492, was a transformative and complex process that reshaped global ecosystems, economies, and cultures. Named after Columbus, this exchange facilitated the transfer of plants, animals, technologies, and cultures between the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) and the New World (the Americas). This bi-directional flow of goods and ideas had profound and lasting impacts on both sides of the Atlantic.

From the Old World to the New, crops like wheat, barley, rice, and domesticated animals such as horses, cows, and pigs were introduced. These additions significantly altered the diets and agricultural practices of indigenous peoples in the Americas. On the other hand, the New World contributed crops like maize, potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco, along with precious metals like gold and silver, to the Old World. The introduction of American crops in Europe led to population growth, while the adoption of potatoes in the Old World became a crucial food source.

The Columbian Exchange also facilitated the exchange of diseases, with devastating consequences for indigenous populations in the Americas. Diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, previously unknown in the New World, decimated local communities, leading to demographic collapse.

Beyond biological exchanges, the Columbian Exchange had cultural and economic implications. It connected diverse cultures, fostering the exchange of ideas, technologies, and languages. The global trade networks that emerged as a result laid the foundation for the modern interconnected world. While the Columbian Exchange had significant and often detrimental consequences, it also marked a turning point in world history, creating a new global reality shaped by the intermingling of peoples and the exchange of goods and ideas across continents.

Spanish Colonies  in the New World

Spanish colonies in the New World played a pivotal role in the expansion of the Spanish Empire and the shaping of the Americas during the Age of Exploration. Following Christopher Columbus’s voyages in the late 15th century, Spain rapidly established an extensive colonial presence across the Caribbean, Central America, South America, and parts of North America.

In the early 16th century, Spanish conquistadors, driven by the desire for wealth, power, and the spread of Christianity, embarked on expeditions to the New World. Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire in Mexico in 1521, while Francisco Pizarro overcame the Inca Empire in Peru in 1533. These conquests brought immense riches to Spain, including gold, silver, and other valuable resources.

The Spanish implemented a system of colonial governance known as the encomienda, where Spanish colonizers were granted land and the labor of indigenous peoples in exchange for converting them to Christianity and providing protection. This system, however, often led to the exploitation and mistreatment of indigenous populations.

The Spanish crown established the Viceroyalties of New Spain (Mexico) and Peru to administer their vast American territories. Spanish missionaries, including figures like Bartolomé de las Casas, sought to convert the indigenous peoples to Christianity, but the process was fraught with cultural clashes and often resulted in the suppression of native traditions.

Spanish colonies became centers of economic activity, with mining and agriculture driving their prosperity. The transatlantic trade route, known as the “Triangular Trade,” facilitated the exchange of goods, including precious metals, crops, and slaves.

The legacy of Spanish colonization in the Americas is deeply embedded in the region’s cultural, linguistic, and socioeconomic fabric. Spanish influence is evident in the languages spoken, the prevalence of Catholicism, and the architectural and artistic heritage seen in cities across Latin America. While the impact of Spanish colonization brought immense change to the New World, it also resulted in complex legacies, including the blending of diverse cultures and the challenges faced by indigenous populations.

Portuguese Colonies in the New World

Unlike their Spanish counterparts, Portuguese exploration and colonization efforts in the New World were relatively limited. Portugal focused primarily on establishing trade routes to Asia and Africa during the Age of Exploration. However, there were some instances of Portuguese involvement in the New World.

One notable example is Brazil, which became a Portuguese colony after the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. The treaty aimed to divide newly discovered lands between Portugal and Spain. Although the bulk of South America fell under Spanish influence, Portugal gained control of the eastern part of the continent, leading to the establishment of Brazil as a Portuguese colony. Brazil became a significant producer of sugar and other commodities, driving economic growth and attracting European settlers.

Portugal’s presence in the New World was also marked by exploratory efforts. In the early 16th century, explorers like Pedro Álvares Cabral and Amerigo Vespucci, sailing under the Portuguese flag, ventured along the coasts of South America. However, these expeditions did not result in widespread colonization, and Portugal’s major colonial focus remained on Africa, Asia, and, to a lesser extent, Brazil.

The limited Portuguese influence in the New World contrasts with their extensive global empire, which spanned Africa, Asia, and parts of South America. Portugal’s legacy in the New World is most prominently seen in Brazil, where Portuguese language and culture continue to shape the nation’s identity.

English Colonies  in the New World

English colonization in the New World began in the early 17th century and played a crucial role in shaping the history and development of North America. The first permanent English colony was Jamestown, established in 1607 in present-day Virginia. Initially focused on finding wealth through activities like tobacco cultivation, the English settlers faced numerous challenges, including conflicts with indigenous peoples and issues of survival.

Plymouth Colony, founded by the Pilgrims in 1620, was another significant early English settlement. Seeking religious freedom, the Pilgrims established a communal society, and their arrival is commemorated in the American holiday of Thanksgiving.

Over time, the English established a series of colonies along the eastern seaboard, including Massachusetts Bay Colony, Maryland, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and the Carolinas. These colonies were characterized by diverse motivations, ranging from religious freedom to economic pursuits.

By the mid-17th century, the New England colonies developed a distinct character, marked by a focus on trade, industry, and education. The Southern colonies, such as Virginia and the Carolinas, thrived economically through agriculture, particularly the cultivation of cash crops like tobacco and rice. The Middle Colonies, including Pennsylvania and New York, became known for their economic diversity and cultural tolerance.

The English colonies were deeply influenced by notions of representative government and individual rights, which laid the groundwork for the development of democratic principles in the region. The establishment of the Mayflower Compact in 1620 and the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1619 are early examples of self-governance in the English colonies.

Over time, tensions between the American colonies and the British crown escalated, leading to events such as the American Revolution in the late 18th century. The thirteen English colonies eventually declared their independence, forming the United States of America in 1776. The legacy of English colonization is evident in the cultural, political, and legal foundations of the United States.

French Colonies in the New World

French colonization in the New World was characterized by a focus on fur trading, missionary efforts, and the establishment of a vast territorial empire in North America. The French initially explored and claimed areas along the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, leading to the creation of New France in the early 17th century. Quebec, founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, became the capital of New France.

French exploration extended down the Mississippi River, and they claimed a vast territory, including the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes region. René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, explored the Mississippi River and claimed the entire watershed for France, naming it Louisiana in honor of King Louis XIV.

The French were actively involved in the fur trade, forming alliances with indigenous peoples to facilitate the exchange of fur pelts for European goods. This economic activity, centered around beaver pelts, became a significant driver of French colonial expansion.

French missionaries, such as Jesuits and Récollets, played a crucial role in the colonization efforts, seeking to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity. The interaction between French colonists and Native American cultures led to a unique blend of traditions and practices.

The strategic importance of the Caribbean islands, especially Haiti (Saint-Domingue), cannot be overlooked in the French colonial portfolio. Saint-Domingue became a lucrative center for sugar production, driven by the labor of enslaved Africans.

Despite the expansive territorial claims, French colonization in North America faced challenges, including conflicts with indigenous nations and rivalries with other European powers, particularly the British. The struggle for control over North American territories was a significant factor in conflicts like the French and Indian War (1754-1763).

The Treaty of Paris in 1763 marked the end of most of France’s North American possessions, with the British gaining control of Canada and the eastern part of the Mississippi River, while Spain acquired the territory west of the Mississippi.

Dutch Colonies in the New World

Dutch colonization in the New World was marked by a focus on trade, commerce, and the establishment of a network of colonies in the Americas. The Dutch West India Company, founded in 1621, played a pivotal role in shaping Dutch colonial endeavors in the Western Hemisphere. The primary objective was to capitalize on profitable trade routes and establish a presence in regions with economic potential.

One of the notable Dutch colonies was New Netherland, which encompassed parts of present-day New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Connecticut. New Amsterdam, located on the southern tip of Manhattan Island, served as the capital and a bustling trading post. The Dutch engaged in fur trading with Native American populations and established a diverse and cosmopolitan society in New Amsterdam.

The Dutch Caribbean colonies were also significant, with Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire, and Sint Maarten becoming vital centers for trade, shipping, and agriculture. Suriname in South America was another Dutch colony known for its lucrative sugar plantations.

Dutch colonial ventures were characterized by a degree of religious tolerance and a focus on trade rather than large-scale agricultural endeavors. This approach attracted settlers from various European backgrounds, contributing to the cultural diversity of Dutch colonies.

However, Dutch colonial ambitions faced challenges, including conflicts with neighboring European powers. The English seized control of New Netherland in 1664, renaming it New York after King Charles II granted the territory to his brother, the Duke of York.

Despite their relatively short-lived direct control in North America, the Dutch left lasting legacies in the regions they once occupied. Dutch influence is evident in place names, architectural styles, and cultural elements that persist in areas once under Dutch control, contributing to the historical tapestry of the Americas.

Americas in 1492, facilitated the transfer of goods, cultures, and unfortunately, diseases between the Old World and the New World. The introduction of diseases from Europe to the New World had profound and devastating consequences for indigenous populations that lacked immunity to these pathogens. Smallpox, measles, and malaria were among the most devastating diseases introduced to the Americas.

Smallpox, a highly contagious and often fatal viral disease, had a particularly devastating impact. As European explorers and settlers came into contact with indigenous peoples, the spread of smallpox became an unintended but catastrophic consequence. Native American populations, having no previous exposure to the virus, lacked immunity, leading to widespread outbreaks with staggering mortality rates.

Measles, another highly contagious viral infection, also took a heavy toll on indigenous communities. Like smallpox, measles spread rapidly, causing widespread epidemics that further decimated populations already vulnerable to the effects of introduced diseases.

Malaria, a mosquito-borne parasitic infection, was prevalent in certain parts of Europe and was inadvertently brought to the Americas by European settlers. The Anopheles mosquito, responsible for transmitting the malaria parasite, found suitable environments in the New World, leading to the establishment of the disease in previously unaffected regions.

These introduced diseases, often unintentionally transmitted during the Columbian Exchange, resulted in demographic collapse and cultural upheaval among Native American populations. The devastating impact of these diseases was a tragic chapter in the complex history of interactions between the Old World and the New World, shaping the course of history in ways that are still felt today.

Foods that Came to Europe from the New World

The Columbian Exchange, initiated by Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the Americas, had a profound impact on global trade and the exchange of cultural elements, including the introduction of new foods to Europe. The New World contributed a variety of crops that would go on to become staples in European diets. Perhaps one of the most transformative was the potato, native to the Andes region. Potatoes were rich in nutrients, easy to cultivate, and could thrive in various climates, making them a reliable food source. The potato became a crucial part of European agriculture, helping to alleviate food shortages and contributing to population growth.

Another significant contribution was maize, or corn, originating from Mesoamerica. While maize was initially met with skepticism in Europe, it gradually gained acceptance and became a staple in many European diets. Corn not only provided a new and versatile source of sustenance but also served as fodder for livestock, contributing to improvements in European agriculture.

Tomatoes, indigenous to the Americas, were initially met with suspicion in Europe due to their association with nightshade plants. However, they eventually became integral to Mediterranean cuisines, especially in the form of sauces and salads.

Chocolate, derived from cacao beans native to Central and South America, was introduced to Europe and underwent transformations in taste and preparation. Initially consumed as a bitter beverage, the addition of sugar in Europe transformed chocolate into the sweet confection we know today.

These exchanges of crops, commonly referred to as the Columbian Exchange, reshaped European diets, agricultural practices, and culinary traditions. The infusion of New World foods into European cuisine not only enriched the variety of available foods but also played a crucial role in addressing nutritional needs and contributing to the development of distinct regional dishes.

The Impact of New Foods in Europe

The Columbian Exchange, initiated by Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the Americas, had a profound impact on European cuisine, agriculture, and overall food culture. The introduction of new foods from the New World significantly enriched the European diet, contributing to a culinary revolution. One of the most transformative additions was the potato, which originated in the Andes but became a staple crop in Europe, particularly in Ireland. Potatoes were easy to cultivate, provided essential nutrients, and played a crucial role in mitigating famines. Maize, or corn, also became a staple food in certain European regions, offering a versatile ingredient for various dishes.

The exchange also brought tomatoes, bell peppers, and chili peppers to Europe, transforming Mediterranean cuisines and adding vibrant flavors to traditional dishes. Tomatoes, for example, became a fundamental ingredient in Italian cuisine, influencing the creation of iconic dishes such as pasta and pizza.

Additionally, the introduction of chocolate, derived from cacao beans native to the Americas, revolutionized European sweet indulgences. Initially consumed as a bitter beverage, the addition of sugar and other ingredients turned chocolate into the beloved treat that European societies embraced.

These new foods not only broadened the culinary palate but also had significant economic and agricultural implications. The diversification of crops contributed to population growth as more nutritious and varied foods became available. The integration of New World foods into European diets reflects a pivotal moment in the history of global food exchange, marking the beginning of a culinary fusion that continues to influence European cuisines today.

Foods that Came to the New World from Europe

The Columbian Exchange, initiated by Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the Americas, facilitated the transfer of crops between the Old World and the New World. European explorers and settlers brought a variety of plants and crops that would go on to play a significant role in shaping the agricultural landscapes of the Americas. Among the most impactful introductions were grains like wheat, barley, and oats, which became vital staples in the New World’s agriculture.

European fruits, such as apples, grapes, and citrus fruits, were also introduced, contributing to the diversification of fruit orchards in the Americas. The cultivation of these fruits often resulted in hybrid varieties adapted to the local climates.

In addition to grains and fruits, European vegetables like carrots, onions, and lettuce were brought to the New World. These vegetables not only enriched the diets of indigenous populations but also became integral components of the agricultural practices and culinary traditions in the Americas.

European methods of cultivation, including plowing, planting in rows, and crop rotation, were also introduced. These techniques significantly influenced indigenous agricultural practices, leading to the adoption of new methods that enhanced crop yields and sustainability.

While the exchange of crops had profound effects on the ecosystems and societies of the Americas, it also contributed to the development of diverse and thriving agricultural systems. The Columbian Exchange marks a pivotal moment in the history of global agriculture, as it brought together a rich array of plants and cultivation practices from different parts of the world, shaping the food landscapes we know today.

Foods Brought to the New World by Enslaved Africana

Enslaved Africans played a critical role in shaping the culinary landscape of the New World through the transatlantic slave trade. Forced to bring their diverse culinary traditions with them, Africans made significant contributions to the development of food cultures in the Americas. One notable impact was the introduction of a variety of ingredients and cooking techniques that enriched the culinary tapestry of the region. West African crops such as okra, yams, and black-eyed peas became staples in the diets of the Americas, influencing traditional dishes like gumbo in the southern United States. African culinary techniques, including smoking, drying, and seasoning with spices, also left an indelible mark on the cuisine of the New World. The fusion of African, European, and indigenous culinary traditions resulted in the creation of unique and flavorful dishes that continue to be integral to the diverse food cultures of the Americas. Despite the painful circumstances of their forced migration, enslaved Africans played a vital role in shaping the gastronomic heritage of the New World.

Cash Crops in the New World

The New World, following the arrival of European colonizers, became a hub for the cultivation of lucrative cash crops that were primarily grown for export and profit. One of the most significant cash crops was tobacco, cultivated extensively in regions like Virginia and Maryland. Tobacco became a major source of revenue for the American colonies, driving economic growth and shaping the labor systems, such as indentured servitude and later, slavery.

Another critical cash crop was sugar, particularly in the Caribbean islands such as Barbados, Jamaica, and Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti). The cultivation of sugar cane required extensive labor, leading to the establishment of large-scale plantation systems reliant on enslaved African labor. The profitability of sugar production contributed significantly to the economic success of European colonial powers.

Indigo was yet another cash crop that gained prominence, particularly in the Southern colonies of North America. Indigo plants were harvested for their blue dye, which was in

high demand in European textile industries. The cultivation of indigo, like other cash crops, shaped the agrarian economies and influenced labor practices in the New World.

In addition to these, rice emerged as a profitable cash crop in the Southern colonies, particularly in the lowlands of South Carolina and Georgia. Rice cultivation, often managed through the expertise of enslaved Africans who brought knowledge of rice cultivation from West Africa, played a crucial role in the economic development of the region.

The cultivation of these cash crops not only transformed the landscapes of the New World but also fueled the transatlantic slave trade as the demand for labor to work on these plantations increased. The legacy of cash crops in the Americas is evident in the economic structures, cultural landscapes, and historical narratives that continue to shape the region today.

Mining in the New World

Mining played a pivotal role in the economic development of the New World following the arrival of European colonizers. Rich deposits of precious metals, particularly gold and silver, lured explorers and settlers to various regions in the Americas. The Spanish, in particular, were drawn to the legendary wealth of civilizations like the Aztecs and the Incas, leading to extensive mining activities in areas that would later become Mexico, Peru, and other parts of South America.

The discovery of massive silver deposits in Potosí, Bolivia, and Zacatecas, Mexico, fueled a silver boom that had profound global economic consequences. Silver from the New World became a primary source of wealth for European powers, funding imperial ambitions, trade, and the growth of global commerce.

In addition to precious metals, other minerals and resources were extracted through mining operations. The extraction of copper, lead, and mercury contributed to the development of diverse industries, while gemstones and semi-precious stones were also sought after.

Animals in the Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange, initiated by Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the Americas, had a profound impact on the global distribution of animals. The exchange involved the movement of domesticated animals, livestock, and pets between the Old World and the New World, leading to transformative ecological and cultural consequences. In the Old World, horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, and chickens were among the animals introduced to the Americas. Horses, in particular, had a revolutionary impact on the indigenous societies of the Americas, transforming transportation, hunting, and warfare.

Conversely, the New World contributed animals such as llamas, alpacas, turkeys, and guinea pigs to the Old World. Llamas and alpacas, domesticated in the Andes, served as valuable pack animals and sources of wool for the indigenous peoples. Turkeys became a popular poultry option, while guinea pigs were raised for food.

The exchange also introduced European domesticated animals to the Americas, leading to the establishment of herding traditions in regions like the American West. The exchange of

animals had profound ecological effects, as some species, like horses and cattle, became integral components of the American landscapes.

However, the exchange was not limited to domesticated animals. Rats, mosquitoes, and other pests inadvertently accompanied human migrations and had substantial impacts on local ecosystems. The Columbian Exchange, through the movement of animals, marked a transformative chapter in global ecology, shaping the environments and societies of both the Old World and the New World.

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The Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange—the transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas set in motion by European voyages across the Atlantic—marked a dramatic change in global history. Exploring this critical turning point will help students understand both the immediate and gradual consequences of the first truly global network.

In this three-day Columbian Exchange lesson plan, students will learn how new routes of exchange and the interconnection of previously isolated continents changed the world forever.

Columbian Exchange Three-Day Lesson Plan

Teaching this lesson will take approximately 50-150 minutes (one to three 50-min class periods) and will address the following objectives:

• Use the historical thinking practice of sourcing to evaluate differing perspectives of European and Indigenous American interactions.
• Assess the impact of the Columbian Exchange on communities, networks, and the environment in Afro-Eurasia and the Americas.

Lesson Length: 100-150 minutes (three 50-min class periods)

Lesson Objectives

• Asses the impact of the Columbian Exchange on communities, networks, and the environment in Afro-Eurasia and the Americas.

Lesson Description: Of course, there were complex networks of exchange in the Americas long before Columbus arrived. Yet, after the connection between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia began in the late fifteenth century, the first global network emerged. Students will learn how the exchange of goods, ideas, diseases, and people forever altered the complexity of life on Earth. The Columbian Exchange had a massive impact on the demography of the world, and students will analyze the complexity of this exchange through primary and secondary source analysis and informal writing.

Note to teachers: This lesson plan offers a suggested pathway to support the lesson objectives listed above. Based on the needs and objectives of your classroom, you may choose to substitute with the resources listed in “Additional Materials.”

The Columbian Exchange created a global network that would forever alter the world’s people, plants, and animals.

Students are introduced to the Columbian Exchange by exploring how the transfer of goods, people, disease, and ideas marked the beginning of a period of rapid cultural change. This was a network of exchange that covered almost the entire world and moved new plants and animals to new places, transforming societies and environments around the world.

• Note: If you’re tight on time, you could skip right to the Quick Opener, which should only take a couple minutes. But if you’re going to use both, use the Interactive Opener first, as the video will reveal the answers otherwise!
• Quick Opener: Columbian Exchange Intro Video : Kick off this topic by playing this one-minute video for your class. You may want to pause at points to encourage students to examine the maps, or to discuss their initial thoughts on the positives and negatives of this exchange. Finally, give your students time at the end of the video to consider how the Columbian Exchange has impacted their lives.
• Read: “ The Columbian Exchange ”: For better or for worse, Christopher Columbus’s arrival in North America led to a system of exchange that fundamentally altered the environment, economic systems, and culture across the world. For additional teaching support, including key idea reading questions, click here (log-in required).
• Activity: World Zone Café : How did the Columbian Exchange impact the food we eat? In this activity, students will create a menu that features both pre- and post-Columbian Exchange items.
• Assessment: Three-Sentence Essay Exit Ticket: To review key concepts from the materials, students will write a three-sentence summary of what they learned. Then, they’ll pair with a partner to share their summary and have an opportunity to revise before turning it in.

Additional Materials:

• Watch: “ The Columbian Exchange: Crash Course World History #23 ”
• Read “ Crops that Grew the World ”
• Read: “ Investigating the Consequences of the Columbian Exchange ”
• Activity: Columbian Exchange Timeline
• Activity: Our Interconnected World  

The Columbian Exchange transformed communities across the world. Not only foods, but also people moved as a result of this exchange—and not always willingly. Millions of Africans and Europeans ended up in the Americas, a large proportion of them enslaved or otherwise unfree. In the Americas, European conquest permanently altered life for Indigenous communities.

• Opener: What Do I Know? What Do I Want to Find Out?: In this quick warm-up activity, students have five minutes to preview the materials for the day and write one sentence describing what they think they already know about the material and one question they have. You may also choose to have a quick class discussion based on student responses.
• Read: “ Transatlantic Migration Patterns ”: Starting in the late fifteenth century, the population of the Americas changed rapidly. People moved across the Atlantic for multiple reasons, both voluntarily and involuntarily. For additional teaching support, including key idea reading questions, click here (log-in required).
• Read: Amonute – Graphic Biography : Though the facts of her life are disputed, Amonute was an important figure in the relationship between the Powhatan people and English settlers in Virginia. For additional teaching support, including key idea reading questions, click here (log-in required).
• Assessment: Quick Quiz: In this quick assessment activity, students will write two to three quiz questions they feel capture the most important information from the day. They’ll pair with a partner and take their quiz, then discuss with the class what made a good question, and why.
• Read: “ The Disastrous Effects of Increased Global Interaction ”
• Read: “When Humans Become Inhumane”
• Read: “The Transatlantic Slave Trade”
• Activity: Quick Sourcing – Accounts of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
• Read: “ Primary Sources: Accounts of the Transatlantic Slave Trade”
• Read: “Religious Syncretism in Colonial Mexico City”
• Activity: Causation – Migration

These additional materials support extended learning objectives, including:

• Assess the impact of the Columbian Exchange and transatlantic migrations on communities in Afro-Eurasia and the Americas.
• Evaluate the connection between the Columbian Exchange, the transatlantic slave trade, and the plantation system.

In 1491, no one living in Europe, Asia, or Africa knew that there were humans in the Americas, and no one in the Americas knew there were humans in Afro-Eurasia. Today, students will use primary source documents to examine different perspectives of the same historical event to create deeper insight into the effects of interconnection. Then, they’ll synthesize their learning from the lesson and respond to a writing prompt.

• Opener: A Different View : Whether in poetry, or history, it’s pretty amazing how a change in perspective can give you an entirely different view.
• Skills Activity: Sourcing - Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire : These sixteenth-century primary source documents describe the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. Why did they do it? How did Indigenous peoples respond?
• Assessment: Writing Assessment: Students will use all the information they’ve learned over the past three days to write a paragraph response to the prompt: How did the Columbian Exchange create lasting change to communities, exchange networks, and the environment in Afro-Eurasia and the Americas?
• Activity: Columbian Exchange Infographic
• Read: “European Colonies in the Americas”
• Read: “Survey of Transoceanic Empires, 1450 to 1750”
• Watch: Colonization and Resistance
• Read: “Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz – Graphic Biography”

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Supporting materials or full lesson we’ve got you covered..

Take a deep dive into our free, middle- and high school-level Columbian Exchange materials. Check out the articles, videos, and activities to support an existing lesson, or use our three-day Columbian Exchange lesson plan to explore the global consequences of this momentous event.

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Continuity and Change Over Time in the AP Histories

24 min read • may 15, 2022

William Dramby

Exam simulation mode

Prep for the AP exam with questions that mimic the test!

The one thing you need to know about this historical reasoning skill:

📘College Board Description

Reasoning processes describe the cognitive operations that students will be required to apply when engaging with the historical thinking skills on the AP Exam. The reasoning processes ultimately represent the way practitioners think in the discipline. Specific aspects of the cognitive process are defined under each reasoning process.

Identify patterns of continuity and/or change over time.

Describe patterns of continuity and/or change over time.

Explain the relative historical significance of specific historical developments in relation to a larger pattern of continuity and/or change.

🔎Organizing Question

How have individuals and societies changed over time and how have they stayed the same? Why?

Continuities and Change Over Time

How have you changed since you were younger? This is a pretty easy question. You have physically grown, you matured both academically and socially, and you found new hobbies, interests and activities that are age-appropriate.  Historians look for change over time. We look for how societies became wealthier, how empires fell, and the roles of different social groups changed.  

However, how have you stayed the same since you were younger?  Asking about continuities in your personality and your life is harder.  Continuities are not as obvious. Some still have a love for Star Wars movies while others will always want to play a pick-up game of basketball. Historians look for continuities over time. We look for how religion continued to play a role in peoples’ lives, how societies continued to be patriarchal, and how ideas like liberty and freedom persist.

When students study world history, they study the changes and continuities over time (CCOT). AP World History has had a rich history of asking students to write CCOT essays and use the skills in attacking stimulus-based multiple-choice questions.  

Period 1 (1200 to 1450)

1200-1450 changes.

⚡ Increase of trade along the Silk Road because of Mongol conquests and because of new stable powers

The Mongols were a nomadic tribe originating from modern day Mongolia who quickly spanned across nearly all of Eurasia, stretching from the Middle East to the eastern coast of China. In fact, the only places that were successful in fighting off the Mongols were Japan (who were aided by frequent typhoons) and India. Though short lived, an important effect of the Mongol Empire was the reunification of the Silk Roads. Prior to 1200, the Silk Roads were generally dangerous and not as prosperous as growing sea trade like in the Indian Ocean. However, the Mongols unified the Silk Roads and made it safer and easier for them to navigate.

The Mongols created Pax Mongolica or Peace of the Mongols. Trade was protected from the Mediterranean to the South China Sea. Cities like Samarkand emerged built upon trade and routes like the Trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean Trade Networks were all linked.

⚡New technologies spread like astrolabe and magnetic compass increasing exploration and trade

As empires like the Abbasid Caliphate grew across the Middle East and China grew in East Asia, new technologies were created explicitly for the functions of trade and navigation. The astrolabe , created in the Islamic World, aided travelers in using the stars to navigate (Fun fact, you can still buy astrolabes today! Though they are a bit pricey).

The Baghdad House of Wisdom is a famous example of academics and intellectualism in Dar-al-Islam, such as new innovations in algebra and trigonometry. Similarly, Song China saw a boom in innovation and new products. New forms of paper grew, leading to flying money , which we’ll discuss later, and most importantly the magnetic compass became a commonly used navigational tool.

Maritime trade growth during the period 1200 - 1450 fueled most of the technological innovation. New boats became widespread along sea trade routes. Arab dhows were ships with triangular lateen sails that were widespread in the Islamic world. Similarly, Chinese junks were small ships that traveled west from China.

⚡Buddhism spread and morphed from Northern India to Tibet, China, Southeast Asia, and Japan

Though it started in Northern India around 600 BCE, Buddhism eventually spread over the Himalayan Mountains traveling along trade routes and by various missionaries to other Asian lands. However, each region will impact the eventual form of Buddhism thus Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana Buddhism emerge. 

Many comparisons can be drawn between Buddhism and Christianity, which are both religions that spread throughout this period. For example, Christianity is a proselytizing religion, which means it seeks out converts, whereas Buddhism is not. Buddhism and Christianity also both saw significant cultural diffusion and cultural blending during this time period.

⚡The Aztecs and Inca emerged as large empires in Mesoamerica and South America, respectfully

Before their eventual conquest by the Spanish Conquistadors, the Aztecs and Inca were large, thriving empires that united the peoples of Mesoamerica and South America politically, economically, and socially. While the Aztecs and Inca empires were large, complex political structures that we cannot do justice in just a few short paragraphs, there are some must-know things about the Aztecs and Incas.

The Aztecs are known especially for their architecture, such as pyramids and sacrificial/monumental architecture. They also had chinampas , large island-like farmlands that floated on water. Politically, the empire used the tribute system , where smaller conquered areas paid tribute for protection.

The Incas used the mita system , a system established by the Inca Empire in order to construct buildings or create roads throughout the empire. It was later transformed into a coercive labor system when the Spanish conquered the Inca Empire. They’re also well known for their terrace agriculture such as the stunning Machu Picchu .

⚡ Economic powers emerged like Mali Kingdom and Delhi Sultanate

Regions that lay outside Christiandom and Dar al-Islam are uniting politically, economically, and socially. The Mali Kingdom and Delhi Sultanate were both wealthy and powerful empires that saw Islam as a uniting factor.

In fact, Mali was one of the most wealthy nations in all of history, with Mansa Musa , a Mali king, being the most wealthy person in all of human history. Mali and it’s capital city Timbuktu unified the Sahara and created the Trans-Saharan Trade Route.

⚡ Trade saw new economic and financial developments

As a result of the growth of interregional trade, new financial tools were created to aid in the transfer of goods across borders. Paper money , nicknamed “flying money” was a new innovation that came from China. Further, credit became a new tool of borrowing money that aided in financial asset growth.

1200-1450 Continuities

🔗China continued to be largely a Confucian society

Confucianism has had a large influence on the culture of China since before the Qin Dynasty. Between its influence on social structure such as filial piety and political structure such as the Five Relationships, no other philosophy has so impacted China. Confucianism emphasized education and a strong bureaucracy for the Chinese government, leading to a unique political structure.

The Civil Service Exam system from the Qin Dynasty was strengthened in Tang / Song China enabling a bureaucracy built on merit and not necessary hereditary lines to develop. However, while meritocratic in theory , wealth allowed people to get tutors and special classes to learn the tests, leading to social stratification still.

🔗Patriarchy remained a strong social force across the globe

Throughout history, one of the most consistent social forces has been patriarchy . In this time period, despite there being some advances in women’s rights, specifically in the Islamic world, patriarchy continued to place men above women in the social pyramid. 

Patriarchy is one of the most important continuities throughout history, and will follow social structures not just in the post-classical era, but in essentially every part of history that you learn.

🔗Trade continued to be the primary form of economic interaction 

Trade saw many changes during this time period, as we’ve outlined above, but nevertheless, comparing the post-classical era to the classical era, trade continued to form the basis.

Period 2 (1450-1750)

1450-1750 changes.

⚡ Western Europe faced the Protestant Reformation seeing the rise of regional Christian churches and the power of the Roman Catholic Church decrease

Martin Luther challenged the role of the Roman Catholic Church in Christianity. He promoted a more personal relationship with God and the word . From his 95 Theses , will come a radical shift in European Christianity. Luther found the Catholic policy of indulgences to be the primary signal of corruption within the church, along with a host of other issues.  

New Protestant Churches emerger like the Lutheran and the Church of England while religious wars also inflame France and Germany. Other churches and sects of Christianity, like the Calvinists, will see expansions into the Americas in the 1600s. Religious wars like the Thirty Years’ War sprung up across Europe as well.

⚡ Weakening of the Roman Catholic Church occurs throughout this era with the Reformation, Scientific Revolution, and Enlightenment increasing the popularity of humanism and empiricism

The Protestant Reformation was aided by the Scientific Revolution , a movement that helped spawn higher intellectualism in Europe (though it must be noted that many of the discoveries of the Sci. Rev. either had been discovered or were aided by discoveries that had been made in the Islamic World in previous years). Important developments were advancements in physics, biology, and the development of the formal scientific method . Scientists like Copernicus and Galileo were important astronomers who helped prove astronomical facts regarding orbits. 

The Enlightenment came a bit after the Scientific Revolution, with the Enlightenment being more of a philosophical movement rather than strictly a scientific one (though science was still part!). The Enlightenment brought with it many philosophies that we still reference today such as capitalism , formally coined by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations , and new political theories like the separation of powers (Montesquieu), the social contract (Rousseau), and natural rights of life, liberty, and property (John Locke). The Enlightenment marked a shift in philosophy from religiosity to more of a secular form of thinking such as rationalism and empiricism .

⚡ Islamic world of Dar al-Islam expanded into large land-based empires that stretched from Europe through South Asia converting people, increasing trade connections, and forming new syncretic beliefs

The Ottoman Empire, Safavid Dynasty, and Mughal Empire all developed strong land-based empires that brought people of different languages and faiths together while also strengthening their unity under Islam. The spread of these empires was very much so due to guns , which were a new invention created after the creation of gunpowder in Song China. For example, the Ottoman Empire was able to blast through the walls of Constantinople to easily take over in 1453.

These empires developed complex political and social structures such as the Devshirme system that created janissaries . This system took Christian boys, converted them, and turned them into a large fighting force for the Ottoman Empire. An important comparison to make is religious. The Ottoman Empire was mostly Sunni Islam, the Safavids were Shia Islam, and the Mughals were Sikhism, a syncretic religion that blended Hinduism and Islam. These empires commonly fought and competed for power, such as in the Battle of Chaldiran . Chaldiran cemented Ottoman rule over eastern Turkey and Mesopotamia and limited Safavid expansion mostly to Persia. 

⚡ Major powers in the Americas, like the Iroquois, Aztec and Inca, are conquered by Europeans and led to new labor and economic systems

Beginning with Columbus in 1492 and eventually with Cortez and Pizarro, the American indigenous people were conquered by the French, English and the Spanish. Jared Diamond points out in Guns, Germs, and Steel that the Natives lacked the technology and ability to defend from disease to effectively fight back. New labor systems began to be used, some coerced, such as the encomienda and mit’a systems and eventually the use of chattel slavery , with the first slaves landing on the mainland Americas in 1619. African slaves and Native Americans were used primarily for the cultivation of cash crops , which were able to be made the most profitable crops on Earth. These crops, such as sugar led to new emphasis on coerced labor.

⚡ The Atlantic System will see trade increase between the Americas, Europe and Africa and will cause increase in slave trade, especially African corvee slavery

With the introduction of sugar cane to Brazil and the Caribbean, a new trade system emerges. Africans were ruthlessly brought from Africa to be slaves in the Americas where they were used to harvest sugar cane. The sugar, molasses, and rum made from the sugar cane in North America is then sold to Europe for manufacturing. These finished goods, like guns, were traded for slaves with the coastal slave kingdoms in Africa. This system is known as the triangular trade and forms the primary economic systems in this time period.

⚡ The Columbian Exchange will see the movement of food, animals, people, and disease.

The Columbian Exchange was arguably one of the most important events of not just this time period, but in all of world history, and is a term you MUST be familiar with. The Columbian Exchange describes the diffusion of people, food, animals, and notably disease across the Atlantic Ocean both from Europe to the Americas and from the Americas to Europe. Some important things that transferred were smallpox , which killed off some 90% of the Native population, horses , which became a staple in the Americas, cash crops like sugar and tobacco , and then from the Americas, potatoes, which increased the nutrition and lifespan of the average European.

The Columbian Exchange connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres and created a formally globalized world. The Columbian exchange single handedly caused many of the changes we’ve discussed. 

⚡ Maritime empires emerged as the Portuguese and Dutch created port city empires and the French and British developed large colonies around the world Mercantilism and capitalism emerged as states, businesses, and individuals sought wealth by conquest and new forms of business ventures like joint-stock companies

Unlike the mostly land based empires of the post-classical era, the early modern era was marked by maritime empires, that is, empires that were spread overseas. These typically had imperial metropoles in Europe, such as the British Empire, which had colonies in the Americas and India, the Dutch Empire, that had territory in India and the Philippines, and Portugal and Spain, which had had territories in what is today Latin America.

These empires consolidated power and developed strong economic and financial tools such as joint-stock companies to grow. Companies like the British East India Company and Dutch East India Company became some of the largest companies on earth. Mercantilism became the name of the game economically speaking

⚡ New social structures emerged in Latin America as Spanish, Native Americans, and Africans of pure and mix-blood formed new social castes

The casta system saw Peninsulares (European-born Europeans), Creoles (American-born European descent), Mestizos (Mix European-Native), Mulatoes (Mix European-African), Natives , and Africans hold a strict socio-economic order based on the level of mix-blood. This was the first time in history that a social order was created strictly based off of race. This created a paradigm that continued through nearly all of world history from this point on.

1450-1750 Continuities

🔗Western Europe continued to be largely Christian with powerful monarchies

Though the Roman Catholic Church’s power diminished, Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Christians continued to be active members of society. In general, Europe will see Christianity rule as the reigning religion, and Catholicism will see power ebb and flow throughout this time. Of course, there were some challenges to religion, especially in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, but overall religion will still play a HUGE role in the lives of Europeans. 

🔗Land-based empires dominated much of this era from Qing China, Mughal India, Safavid Persia, Ottoman Middle East, and Russia

The new technologies like gunpowder and the unifying force of religion allowed these societies to create empires over vast-areas and for hundreds of years. Though there was conflict, this era can also be measured by the stability of the states. Land empires, despite the growth of maritime empires, continued to have power. The Russian Tsarist Empire grew into the largest land empire in this time period, even going through westernization through Peter the Great . These empires will play a large role in expansion and imperialism in the next time period.

🔗Most societies continue the tradition of patriarchy politically, economically, socially, and culturally.

The Ottoman Janissaries were men, the Qing scholar-gentry were men, and the House of Lords in the English Parliament were men. Though some opportunities existed for women to earn economic and political power, it lacked any sort of consistency.

Period 3 (1750-1900)

1750-1900 changes.

⚡ The Industrial Revolution begins in Western Europe and spreads around the world by 1900

England, with its navigable rivers and wealth of coal deposits, was first to experience the Industrial Revolution. Naturally, Western Europe and the United States also began to thrive because of their connection to the Atlantic trade network. However, empires like Russia, Japan, Ottoman, and Qing were forced to industrialize in order to continue to be politically and economically relevant.

Between the 1700s and mid to late 1800s, the first Industrial Revolution focused on steam power (see Watt’s steam engine from the 1770s) and the transition in economics based around the cottage industry to a new use in factories and mills based off of rivers. Industrialization led to new economic theories such as laissez-faire capitalism and Marxism . Through the first Industrial Revolution, new social classes such as the middle class and industrial working class developed. Governments took specific roles in industrialization as well, such as the Meiji Era changes in Japan and Westernization efforts to avoid imperialism such as the Tanzimat Reforms and Self-Strengthening Movement .

The second Industrial Revolution focused on steel, chemicals, electricity, and precision machinery. Processes like the Bessemer process led to the growth of technology like railroads, mass manufacturing, automobiles, and the assembly line. Social stratification became a significant issue during this time as well.

⚡ The Industrial Revolution causes increased urbanization and diverse economic classes stratification

Cities like Birmingham, England were very attractive to those looking for non-skilled work. As wealth increased its impact on stratification , religion decreased its role. Working class and middle class families living in a city had opportunities for economic advancement, though slow, compared to the rural peasant / farmers. Socioeconomic movements such as Marxism grew, noting social inequities as a result of capitalism and industrialization.

Cities, while growing, were often dangerous and dirty for the lower classes. For example, London was a smog filled, dirty city that was riddled with political corruption and social stratification between the rich and the poor. 

Unionization also became a key staple of urban areas as skilled workers formed unions to protect themselves from unfair policies. For example, the Industrial Workers of the World and American Federation of Labor became large groups that promoted better conditions for workers. They helped to lead to higher wages, better working conditions, and better hours for workers.

⚡ Corvee slavery and serfdom will decrease their role in the Americas and Russia, respectfully

Paid labor was cheaper than maintaining room and board for slaves and serfs and the urban impact of industrialization meant that a constant flow of cheap labor can easily be tapped. As the world transitioned from an economy surrounded by cash crops and mercantilism to a capitalistic industrial world, paid skilled workers became a more effective form of labor as opposed to slaves and serfs who mostly worked in agriculture.

Furthermore, as the Enlightenment spread, slavery and serfdom became seen as immoral in general, with slavery being abolished across most of the world by 1900 and serfdom being abolished from Russia

⚡ Enlightenment thought and fragile social orders will lead to independence movements throughout the Americas and nationalist movements in Europe

Through European colonial powers and merchants, the Enlightenment found their way to the Americas as most of these people became independent by the early 1820s. Revolutions inspired by the Enlightenment became a key sequence of events during the period 1750 - 1900. Specifically, the American Revolution marked the first major revolution that occurred through Enlightenment principles. This quickly led to revolutions in France starting in 1789 and Haiti between 1800 - 1803. Revolutions in Latin America led by Simón Bolívar led to many new independent states in Latin America. Documents such as the Declaration of Independence , Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen , and the Jamaica Letter  

⚡ Nations began expanding more than ever through the process of imperialism

While nations had been expanding from Europe since the Columbian Exchange, industrialization led to a stronger form of territorial imperialism , especially in Africa and Asia. The Berlin Conference of 1884 had Europeans split up Africa into pieces to use for raw materials and access to more markets (M&Ms). Africans were mostly abused for labor, such as in the Belgian Congo , where Africans who did not collect enough rubber had their hands amputated. 

To justify imperialism, nations used philosophies such as social Darwinism and the idea of the White Man’s Burden (see Rudyard Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden”). These racist ideas put down imperial subjects and justified mistreatment as helping them. Political comics from this era, such as the soap advertisement below, portrayed this.

Reactions to imperialism were many, such as the Tanzimat Reforms and Self-Strengthening Movement in the Ottoman Empire and Qing China. Revolts such as the Sepoy Revolt and the Ghost Dance occurred as well, though many times they were violent and unsuccessful. Wars such as the Anglo-Zulu War and the Boer War also occurred.  

1750-1900 Continuities

🔗Monarchies continue to play a role around the world

Though the British and French monarchies saw their power decrease and the Americas tended to stay away from hereditary claims, Russia and Japan continued to solidify their power with strong monarchies. Power structures in the modern era typically were marked by either monarchies or emperors, with constitutional monarchs coming in through revolutions. Monarchies in Europe such as that under Queen Victoria in England and King Leopold II in Belgium played roles in expansion under imperialism. Imperial powers such as the Ottoman Empire and Qing China still had emperors as well. Democracy, however, saw spreads throughout this time period. 

🔗Even with challenges to the norm, most societies continued the tradition of patriarchy politically, economically, socially, and culturally

Women were gaining economic opportunities in many western nations however traditional lacked the ability to vote or hold a high office in the church. Voting rights are still limited to land-owning males in nations that have not seen an increase in the middle-class while women’s suffrage comes in the 20th Century. Feminist movements led by people like Mary Wollstonecraft in the early part of this period and Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Olympe de Gouge by the end leading into the 20th century did occur, though they did not see much significant success until the 20th century.

🔗Raw materials such as spices, cotton, and coal continue to play a large role in domestic, regional, and global trade

As imperialism and industrialization took hold during this time period, raw materials continued to be a significant area of trade and production.

Period 4 (1900-Today)

1900-today changes.

⚡ Rapid advances in science lead to new medicines spreading (polio vaccine), new communications (Internet), new sources of power (nuclear), and new transportation (planes)

Science, now with government and religion, was a driving force of change in human society. The birth control pill allowed family planning, the Internet changed the purchasing process, and the world is more globalized than it has ever been. Medical advancements such as vaccines and by the 1970s the eradication of smallpox led to overall higher global life expectancies. Technology also brought with it new forms of communications like the aforementioned internet, along with telephones , radios , and televisions . Disease played a large role in this time period. Diseases associated with poverty such as malaria and TB persisted, but diseases associated with lifestyles such as Alzheimer’s, diabetes, and heart disease grew.

⚡ Green Revolution and commercial agriculture will allow a population explosion and largely eradicate extreme hunger

The Green Revolution was a process by which new technology was implemented to boost food production. It is marked by a use of biological and organic methods to boost food production such as genetically modified organisms ( GMOs ). GMOs plants, animals or microorganisms whose genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally. They were used to boost production and help food production rise during this time period. The Green Revolution brought up concerns about global climate change and the relationship between humans and the environment.

⚡ Environmental concerns increase as the developing world industrializes, agri-business use more land, and the global population increases

As scientific technology, especially technology related to farming and agri-business, humans began breaking down the environment around them, leading to things like global climate change and desertification . Deforestation also became a significant concern as humans continued to cut down forests, especially in the Amazon Rainforest, to attain more land for development. Rainforests being removed for grazing, pesticides poisoning crops and bee populations shows the challenges humanity has with the science it created. 

⚡ Globalization seen in various forms like trade (multinational corporations like Coca Cola), epidemics (1918 flu, ebola, AIDS), and immigration of people and ideas

Globalization refers to the technological, political, economic, financial, and cultural exchanges between peoples and nations that have made and continue to make the world a more interconnected and interdependent place. Globalization is an important development that changed essentially everything about the world during this time period. Prior to the 20th century and the global conflict that came with it in the first half, the world, while certainly connected, was still mostly split into individual nations that did not work together on a large scale. As communication increased in the 20th century, globalization became the name of the game. 

Economically, multinational corporations became commonplace, such as Coca Cola, or Nike. Economic and political organizations such as the United Nations , World Bank , IMF , and many others popped up as global entities that helped run the entire world. Free trade deals and international trade agreements such as NAFTA , ASEAN , and the European Union . However, there have been negative effects of globalization, such as a separation of the First World , such as the USA and Western Europe, and the developing Third World , sometimes also described as the Global South , in which there is a larger economic disparity between rich and poor countries. Globalization has also brought with it dissemination of epidemic and pandemic diseases such as the 1918 Influenza Pandemic , the Ebola Epidemic , AIDS Crisis , and most recently, the COVID-19 Pandemic . 

Culturally, new global pop culture grew, such as reggae , bollywood , the olympics , and the World Cup . People conceptualized society and culture in new ways; rights-based discourses challenged old assumptions about race, class, gender, and religion such as global feminist movements and negritude .

Transnational movements also grew, such as the Quebecois movement in Canada, and Pan-Arabism and Pan-Africanism in Africa and the Middle East.

⚡ Older land-based empires like the Ottomans and Qing Dynasty collapsed.

The Ottomans, the once powerful trading center and Islamic hub, fell as it failed to progress successfully. Following World War I, it quickly fell and under Mustafa Kamal Ataturk, it became Turkey . For years prior, the Ottoman Empire had been named the “sick man of Europe” and despite the Tanzimat Reforms helping somewhat, by taking the side of Germany in the first World War, they quickly dissolved into Turkey.

After thousands of years of imperial rule and dynastic succession, the last Chinese dynasty, the Qing fell in 1911 in the Xinhai Revolution to a nationalist uprising led by Sun Yat-Sen and Chiang Kai-shek. Quickly thereafter, the Kuomintang, or Chinese Nationalist Party rose to power and ran the country until 1949, when Mao Zedong helped form the Chinese Communist Party and take over China. 

⚡ Decolonization will see freedom and conflict emerge in nations. 

One of the most important aspects of the 20th century was the process of decolonization , in which countries across the globe broke free of their imperial owners and became independent nations. Most notably, decolonization in the 20th century took place in Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.

In Africa, decolonization was widespread. In North Africa, such as in Algeria , decolonization was met with violence and the death of 140,000 Algerian soldiers. Elsewhere, decolonization was negotiated, such as protests against apartheid until South Africa’s independence in 1994 under Nelson Mandela . Similarly, after World War II, French West Africa split into many nations such as Guinea, Senegal, Côte D’Ivoire, and Niger.

India is an important example of decolonization that you must know. Led by Mohandas Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah , India gained its independence through civil disobedience such as the Salt March. However, after succeeding in their goal, Jinnah and the Muslim League , split off into the state of Pakistan , in which heavy border disputes ensued.

In Southeast Asia, the most significant decolonized states were Vietnam and Cambodia . In Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh led a violent revolution to overthrow the French, with the French finally losing at Dien Bien Phu. Vietnam quickly became communist and split into South Vietnam and North Vietnam, and the Vietnam War soon followed as part of the Cold War. Cambodia similarly formed a Marxist state and under Pol Pot , the Cambodian Genocide took out any signs of intellectualism.

⚡ Global conflicts over land and political ideologies increase in the first half of the 20th Century

The first major global conflict to occur in this time period was the First World War . After the killing of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente quickly caused the war to escalate from a regional crisis to a world wide war. WWI had MANIA causes: (List Mania Causes). The First World War ended in November of 1918 after the Third Battle of Picardy and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles , which blamed Germany and charged them massive war reparations. World War I also saw new forms of war such as trench warfare and the use of chlorine gas by the Germans.

Following World War I, the interwar years saw massive debt and inflation on the German side caused complete economic collapse. This, compounded by the Great Depression in 1929, contributed to the rise of Adolf Hitler in 1933 and the German invasion of Poland in 1939 and the start of World War II. World War II was another major global conflict that involved the Allied Powers and Axis Powers and ended with another German defeat in 1941 after the Battle of the Bulge.

World War II similarly saw the beginning of genocides , the systematic murder of a race of people. Global genocides were relatively common during the 20th century, beginning with the Armenian Genocide during World War I 

1900-Today Continuities

🔗The process of Westernization continues outside Europe and the United States to Japan, South Korea, Russia, India and beyond

Bollywood emerges as a center for movie making while pop-stars from South Korea thrive in the global market, and cities like Tokyo, Japan look just like New York City with their lights and sounds.

🔗Economic globalization that started with the Silk Road continues on land, sea, and air

Cotton from Georgia is shipped to Bangladesh to be made into a shirt which is then shipped to Hondars to be printed on and then back to the US for retail sail. Hands from three continents played a role in a simple shirt finding it cheaper to move the materials around than find one location to produce the whole item.

Patriarchy and racist beliefs, despite seeing vast improvements, still exist

Full Course Review for AP World History

Watch the AP World History 5-Hour Cram Finale for a comprehensive last minute cram session covering the entire WHAP curriculum including every unit, every time period, and every type of question you will come against during the exam.

Here is a breakdown of the review schedule and timeline:

• 30 min - Overview (Sorting by theme, region, and time periods)
• 1 hour - 1200-1450 CE
• 1 hour - 1450-1750 CE
• 1 hour - 1750-1900 CE
• 1 hour - 1900-Present
• 30 min - Final thoughts (Time management, strategies, and pep talk)

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