agriculture in philippines essay

PHILIPPINES: Vibrant Agriculture is Key to Faster Recovery and Poverty Reduction

MANILA, September 9, 2020 — Transforming Philippine agriculture into a dynamic, high-growth sector is essential for the country to speed up recovery, poverty reduction and inclusive growth, according to the latest report released by the World Bank.

Titled “ Transforming Philippine Agriculture During Covid-19 and Beyond ,” the report says that transforming the country’s farming and food systems is even more important during the Covid-19 pandemic to ensure strong food value chains, affordable and nutritious food, and a vibrant rural economy.

"Modernizing the country’s agricultural sector is a very important agenda for the Philippines,” said Ndiame Diop, World Bank Country Director Brunei, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. “With the exception of a few small natural resource-rich countries, no country has successfully transitioned from middle- to high-income status without having achieved an effective transformation of their agri-food systems. Transforming agriculture and food systems is always challenging. But the country’s new vision for agriculture, it’s current thrust for diversification and use of modern technologies, and its effective management of food supply during this pandemic clearly indicate that the country is well-equipped to overcome the challenge.”

“Our vision is a food-secure and resilient Philippines with prosperous farmers and fisherfolk,” Agriculture Secretary William Dar said. “Realizing this vision will require dedicated efforts among major agri-fishery industry stakeholders, led by the Department of Agriculture, to continuously empower farmers, fisherfolk, agricultural entrepreneurs, and the private sector to increase agricultural productivity and profitability, taking into account sustainability and resilience.”

The report, which was prepared as part of World Bank support to the Department of Agriculture’s “new thinking” in agricultural development, suggests shifting away from a heavy focus on specific crops towards improving the overall resilience, competitiveness, and sustainability of the rural sector.

In the past, spending has gone mostly toward price supports for selected crops and goods, as well as subsidies on inputs such as fertilizer, planting materials, and machines. Global experience shows that while ensuring the availability of key inputs remain important, reorienting significant public spending toward investments in public goods—including research and development (R&D), infrastructure, innovation systems, market information systems, and biosecurity systems—results in faster poverty reduction and greater productivity gains through an overall modernization of agriculture.

The report says that small farmers have difficulty accessing inputs and markets for their produce, while buyers such as agribusiness enterprises and wholesalers find it difficult to get the quantity and quality of produce that they need for processing on a timely basis. Government support can help overcome this market failure by bringing together buyers and producer organizations and providing support for the preparation and implementation of profitable business plans that benefit both parties.

In situations where farmers need support to help them access markets and improve their livelihood, or when compensation measures are needed for farmers affected by trade policies such as the rice liberalization in the Philippines, direct cash payments or cash transfers can be a better option, as practiced in many countries like Turkey, European Union, and the US, says the report. These direct payments have many advantages, such as giving farmers more choices and encouraging private sector development in upstream (inputs and agricultural services) and downstream (processing, marketing) markets, thereby helping farmers connect to these markets and opportunities.

The report says that interventions like farm consolidation (including cooperative farming schemes for instance), better extension services, e-commerce, and investments in agribusiness start-ups can further advance modernization of Philippine agriculture.

“These paradigm shifts will be crucial to meet the emerging domestic and global market opportunities, while creating jobs, raising farmer incomes and ensuring the food security needs of the country and meeting the new challenges of climate change,” said Dina Umali-Deininger, World Bank Practice Manager for Agriculture and Food for East Asia and the Pacific.

World Bank's support to the Philippines includes long-running programs aiming to raise agricultural productivity and reduce poverty in rural communities. A current example of this is the Philippine Rural Development Project (PRDP) which aims to help increase rural incomes and enhance farm and fishery productivity.

Several projects are in the pipeline to help raise agricultural productivity, resiliency and access to markets of farmers and fisherfolk in selected ancestral domains in Mindanao and improve management of coastal fishery resources in selected coastal communities.

FULL REPORT: Transforming Philippine Agriculture during COVID-19
Opening Remarks by Country Director Nidame Diop

Essay on Agriculture Importance In Philippines

Students are often asked to write an essay on Agriculture Importance In Philippines in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Agriculture Importance In Philippines

The role of agriculture.

Agriculture is a key part of the Philippines’ economy. It provides jobs to many people, especially in rural areas where most of the farming happens. This sector produces food for the nation and also earns money from exporting crops to other countries.

Food Security

Agriculture is essential for the Philippines’ food security. It means that everyone has enough food to eat. Without farming, the country would have to rely on imported food, which can be costly and uncertain.

Providing Jobs

Agriculture employs a large number of people in the Philippines. Many families earn their living from farming, fishing, and related activities. It helps to reduce poverty and improve the quality of life in rural areas.

Economic Contribution

Agriculture also contributes to the Philippines’ economy. It earns foreign money when the country exports crops like rice, bananas, and pineapples. This money can be used to improve infrastructure, health care, and education.

Preserving Culture

Lastly, agriculture is part of the Philippines’ culture. Traditional farming methods are still used today. These methods are part of the country’s heritage and identity. They also help to protect the environment and biodiversity.

250 Words Essay on Agriculture Importance In Philippines

Agriculture’s role in the philippines.

Agriculture is very important in the Philippines. It is the source of food for the people and provides jobs to many. It is also a big part of the country’s economy.

Food Source

Agriculture is the main source of food in the Philippines. Farmers grow rice, corn, sugarcane, and many other fruits and vegetables. These foods feed the people of the Philippines and also get sold to other countries. Without agriculture, there would be less food for everyone.

Job Provider

Agriculture also provides jobs to a lot of people in the Philippines. Many people work on farms, growing and harvesting crops. Others work in businesses that sell the food, like markets and restaurants. These jobs help people earn money to take care of their families.

Economic Contributor

Agriculture is a big part of the economy in the Philippines. It brings in money from selling crops both inside and outside the country. This money helps the country grow and develop. Without agriculture, the economy would not be as strong.

Environmental Protector

Lastly, agriculture helps protect the environment. Farmers use methods that take care of the soil and water. This helps keep the environment healthy. Without agriculture, the environment might not be as well cared for.

In conclusion, agriculture is very important in the Philippines. It provides food, jobs, money for the economy, and helps protect the environment. It is a key part of life in the Philippines.

500 Words Essay on Agriculture Importance In Philippines

The role of agriculture in the philippines.

Agriculture plays a vital role in the Philippines. It is the source of food and livelihood for many Filipinos. The country has rich and fertile soil, which makes it ideal for farming. This sector contributes significantly to the nation’s economy and is one of the main sources of employment.

Food Supply

Agriculture is crucial for the country’s food supply. The Philippines is known for its vast rice fields, coconut groves, and fishing waters. These resources provide food for the citizens. Without agriculture, the country would have to rely on imports, which could be expensive and less fresh. Thus, agriculture ensures that the people of the Philippines have access to affordable and nutritious food.

Agriculture provides jobs to many Filipinos. A large portion of the population lives in rural areas where farming is the main source of income. These people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Not just farming, but also related activities like fishing, livestock rearing, and forestry provide jobs to many people. Thus, agriculture plays a big role in reducing poverty and improving the living standards of the people.

Agriculture has a significant impact on the economy of the Philippines. It contributes to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which is a measure of the nation’s economic health. The export of agricultural products like bananas, pineapples, and coconuts brings in foreign money. This helps to strengthen the country’s economy.

Environmental Benefits

Agriculture also has environmental benefits. Farming practices like crop rotation and terracing help to preserve the soil and prevent erosion. Forests, which are part of the agricultural sector, help to purify the air by absorbing carbon dioxide. They also provide a home for many species of plants and animals, contributing to the country’s biodiversity.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite its importance, agriculture in the Philippines faces several challenges. These include climate change, natural disasters, and outdated farming methods. To address these issues, the government and various organizations are promoting modern farming techniques and sustainable practices. They are also providing support and training to farmers.

In conclusion, agriculture is a vital part of the Philippines. It provides food, jobs, and economic stability. It also helps to protect the environment. Despite the challenges, with the right strategies and support, the agricultural sector in the Philippines can continue to thrive and support the country’s growth and development. This is why we must recognize and value the importance of agriculture in the Philippines.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Essay on African Philosophical Thought
Essay on African Literature
Essay on African Culture

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Content Search

Philippines + 3 more

Transforming Philippine Agriculture: During Covid-19 and Beyond (June 2020)

Attachments.

Preview of Transforming-Philippine-Agriculture-During-COVID-19-and-Beyond.pdf

MANILA, September 9, 2020--- Transforming Philippine agriculture into a dynamic, high-growth sector is essential for the country to speed up recovery, poverty reduction and inclusive growth, according to the latest report released by the World Bank.

Titled " Transforming Philippine Agriculture During Covid-19 and Beyond ," the report says that transforming the country's farming and food systems is even more important during the Covid-19 pandemic to ensure strong food value chains, affordable and nutritious food, and a vibrant rural economy.

"Modernizing the country's agricultural sector is a very important agenda for the Philippines," said Ndiame Diop, World Bank Country Director Brunei, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. "With the exception of a few small natural resource-rich countries, no country has successfully transitioned from middle- to high-income status without having achieved an effective transformation of their agri-food systems. Transforming agriculture and food systems is always challenging. But the country's new vision for agriculture, it's current thrust for diversification and use of modern technologies, and its effective management of food supply during this pandemic clearly indicate that the country is well-equipped to overcome the challenge."

"Our vision is a food-secure and resilient Philippines with prosperous farmers and fisherfolk," Agriculture Secretary William Dar said. "Realizing this vision will require dedicated efforts among major agri-fishery industry stakeholders, led by the Department of Agriculture, to continuously empower farmers, fisherfolk, agricultural entrepreneurs, and the private sector to increase agricultural productivity and profitability, taking into account sustainability and resilience."

The report, which was prepared as part of World Bank support to the Department of Agriculture's "new thinking" in agricultural development, suggests shifting away from a heavy focus on specific crops towards improving the overall resilience, competitiveness, and sustainability of the rural sector.

In the past, spending has gone mostly toward price supports for selected crops and goods, as well as subsidies on inputs such as fertilizer, planting materials, and machines. Global experience shows that while ensuring the availability of key inputs remain important, reorienting significant public spending toward investments in public goods---including research and development (R&D), infrastructure, innovation systems, market information systems, and biosecurity systems---results in faster poverty reduction and greater productivity gains through an overall modernization of agriculture.

"These paradigm shifts will be crucial to meet the emerging domestic and global market opportunities, while creating jobs, raising farmer incomes and ensuring the food security needs of the country and meeting the new challenges of climate change," said Dina Umali-Deininger, World Bank Practice Manager for Agriculture and Food for East Asia and the Pacific.

PRESS RELEASE NO: 2020/04/PH

David Llorito

[email protected]

DSWD Bicol Field Office extends relief aid to El Niño-hit farmers in Cam Sur

Dswd dromic report #54 on the effects of el niño as of 07 may 2024, 6am, dswd dromic report #53 on the effects of el niño as of 06 may 2024, 6pm, dswd dromic report #52 on the effects of el niño as of 06 may 2024, 6am.

Publication: Transforming Philippine Agriculture: During COVID-19 and Beyond

Files in English

Link to data set, report series, other publications in this report series, journal volume, journal issue, collections, associated urls, associated content.

The Rise of Organic Agriculture in the Philippines and its Development

First Online: 18 May 2018

Cite this chapter

Bao Maohong 8

Part of the book series: Asia in Transition ((AT,volume 7))

512 Accesses

3 Citations

1 Altmetric

This chapter examines organic agriculture as a definite alternative to industrial forms of agriculture in the Philippines . It argues that its mainstreaming depends on the complex and difficult reconstruction of socioeconomic relations and the political system of the country. In recent years, organic agriculture in the Philippines has become an emergent market integrating into the national economy. In 1980s, the green revolution was proclaimed a failure due to its economic unsustainability and negative impact on the environment. From this and through a combination of the rise of the international organic agriculture movement and the reinvention of traditional Philippine agriculture , organic agriculture has come to play a role as an alternative form of agricultural development . This chapter argues that the conscious development of organic agriculture is a response to the failures of the present agricultural structure and offers a potentially economically viable alternative to rehabilitate degraded arable land.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Available as PDF
Read on any device
Instant download
Own it forever
Available as EPUB and PDF
Compact, lightweight edition
Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
Free shipping worldwide - see info
Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

See: National Organic Agriculture Board (NOAB) ( 2012 , p. 10).

For the definition of organic agriculture , please see: http://www.ifoam.bio/en/organic-landmarks/definition-organic-agriculture (Accessed February 2, 2015). This definition is formulated in the IFOAM general assembly in Italy, in 2008.

See: Republic Act No. 10068, known as Organic Agriculture Act of 2010. http://www.da.gov.ph/index.php/laws-issuances (Accessed February 2, 2015).

From 1948 to 1990, the population grew from 19.254 million to 62 million, with an average yearly growth rate of 2.58%. See Mercedes B. Concepcion, The Philippine population problem: Myth and reality, Philippine Studies , Vol.42, No.2, 1994 , P.139.

See: World Bank , Philippines : toward sustaining the economic recovery , Report No. 7438-PH, January 30, 1989 , p.viii.

See: “Organic farming: the future of Philippine agriculture ,” http://www.fareasternagriculture.com/crops/agriculture/organic-farming-the-future-of-philippine-agriculture (Accessed August 25, 2015).

Some estimates have suggested the local organic product market was worth $US 6.2 million in 2000 and between $US 20 ~ 30 million in 2011 (National Organic Agriculture Program (NOAP) 2012 –2016, p. 14.)

IFOAM, established in 1972, has over 800 member organizations from 120 countries. IFOAM, sponsored initially by the developed countries, has evolved as an international organization for promoting the global organic agriculture through absorbing the developing countries.

The “teikei” system is a producer–consumer copartnership within Japan Organic Agriculture Association. The ten principles of TEIKEI include: mutual assistance, intended production, accepting the produce, mutual concession in the price decision, deepening friendly relationships, self-distribution, democratic management, learning among each group, maintaining the appropriate group scale, and steady development . See “teikei” system, the producer–consumer copartnership and the Movement of the Japan Organic Agriculture Association: Country Report for the first IFOAM Asian Conference 19–22. Aug. 1993 in Hanno, Saitama, Japan. http://www.joaa.net/english/teikei.htm (Accessed August 25, 2015).

Philippine Agenda 21, a national blueprint for sustainable development for the twenty-first century, was written in response to the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. It envisions a better life for all Filipinos through the development of a just and economically vibrant, diverse yet cohesive society characterized by living in harmony and within the limits of the carrying capacity of nature. See: “Philippine Agenda 21,” http://pcsd.neda.gov.ph/publications/pa-21/ (Accessed August 25, 2015).

Carating and Tejada ( 2012 ) provide a detailed overview of the organic products that are produced and to where they are exported.

See: National Organic Agriculture Board, The National Organic Agriculture Program 2012 – 2016 (Diliman, Quezon City, 2012), p. 11.

Cf. Sajise and Briones ( 2002 , pp. 53–55).

See National Organic Agriculture Board, The National Organic Agriculture Program 2012 – 2016 (Diliman, Quezon City, 2012), p. 11.

The Negros Occidental Provincial Board passed Organic Agriculture Ordinance of the Province of Negros Occidental, Provincial Ordinance No. 007 Series declaring a ban on living GMOs from entering the province, and Organic Agriculture program of the Province of Negros Occidental.

See Danny B. Dangcalan, “P20-M fund eyed in proposed Organic Agriculture ordinance”. http://www.philstar.com/region/658558/p20-m-fund-eyed-proposed-organic-agriculture-ordinance (Accessed August 25, 2015).

See: Rita T. dela Cruz, “Strenthening organic agriculture RDE: BAR’s initiatives on food sufficiency and sustainable agriculture ”. http://www.bar.gov.ph/organic-agriculture-rde (Accessed August 24, 2015).

See Rita T. dela Cruz, “To be or not to be organic”, http://www.bar.gov.ph/organic-farming (Accessed August 25, 2015).

In terms of responsibilities, all stakeholders have a duty to guarantee the quality of organic products, meanwhile, each of them should bear blame and accept losses if the quality of organic products is not guaranteed.

See Germelina Lacorte, “Organic food growers seek an easier way of certification .” http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/632090/organic-food-growers-seek-easier-way-of-certification (Accessed August 25, 2015).

See Carmencita A. Carillo, “Davao farmers push gov’t institutionalization of guarantee system for organic products”. http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Agribusiness&title=davao-farmers-push-gov&rsquot-institutionalization-of-guarantee-system-for-organic-products&id=93162 (Accessed August 25, 2015).

Some data were on the organic farms certified by the third party. Some data were from the statistics of IFOAM. All of these data did represent the organic farming that was not certified by the third party.

Anti-slavery Society. (1983). The Philippines: Authoritarian government, multinationals and ancestral lands . London: Anti-Slavery Society.

Google Scholar

Bosito, E. F., & Buena, Rowena. (2014). PGS continues to gain ground in the Philippines. Global PGS Newsletter, 05:02 (November/ December), 2–3.

Boyce, J. K. (1993). The Philippines: The political economy of growth and impoverishment in the Marcos era . Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press.

Book Google Scholar

Briones, N. D. (2005). Environmental sustainability issues in Philippine agriculture. Asian Journal Agriculture and Development, 2 (1–2), 67–78.

Carating, R. B., & Tejada, S. Q. 2012. Sustainable organic farming in the Philippines: History and success stories. Paper presented at the workshop on ANSOFT-AFACI Pan-Asia project at Gwangju, Republic of Korea, 18–20 October.

Concepcion, M. B. (1994). The Philippine population problem: Myth and reality. Philippine Studies, 42 (2), 139–154.

Corpuz, O. D. (1997). An economic history of the Philippines . Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.

National Organic Agriculture Board (NOAB). (2012). The national organic agriculture program 2012-2016 . National Organic Agriculture Board (NOAB), Department of Agriculture: Quezon City.

Oray, R., Edano, M. L. S., & Zamora, O. B. (2002). Sustainable agriculture in a small-scale resource-limited farm: Case documentation of a MASIPAG farmer in Hinobaan, Negros Occidental . Los Banos: SEAMEO SEARCA.

Sajise, P. E., & Briones, N. D. (2002). Environmentally sustainable rural and agricultural development strategies in the Philippines: Lessons from six case studies . Los Banos: SEAMEO SEARCA.

Serrano, R. C. (1990). Environmental and socio-economic impact analysis of an indigenous and an introduced agroforestry system in Luzon . Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of the Philippines, Los Banos.

Sycip, M. L., Javier, C. F., Salayog, F. A., & Vilar, N. C. (2002). Sustainable agriculture in a large-scale commercial farm: Case documentation of the Sycip plantation farm workers multipurpose cooperative in Manjuyod, Negros Oriental . Los Banos: SEAMEO SEARCA.

Veneracion, J. B. (2000). Philippine agriculture during the Spanish regime . Quezon City: College of Social Sciences and Philosophy.

Willer, H., & Lernoud, J. (Eds.). (2015). The world of organic agriculture: statistics and emerging trends 2015 . Frick and Bonn: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and IFOAM-Organics International.

World Bank. (1989). Philippines: Toward sustaining the economic recovery , Report No. 7438-PH (January 30).

Online sources

Carillo, C. A. (2015). Davao farmers push government institutionalization of guarantee system for organic products. http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Agribusiness&title=davao-farmers-push-gov&rsquot-institutionalization-of-guarantee-system-for-organic-products&id=93162 . Accessed: 25. Aug. 2015.

Cruz, R. T. D. (2015). Strenthening organic agriculture RDE: BAR’s initiatives on food sufficiency and sustainable agriculture. http://www.bar.gov.ph/organic-agriculture-rde . Accessed: 24. Aug. 2015.

Cruz, R. T. D. (2015). To be or not to be organic. http://www.bar.gov.ph/organic-farming . Accessed: 25. Aug. 2015.

Dangcalan, D. B. (2015). P 20-M fund eyed in proposed Organic Agriculture ordinance. http://www.philstar.com/region/658558/p20-m-fund-eyed-proposed-organic-agriculture-ordinance . Accessed: 25. Aug. 2015.

IFOAM-Organics International. (2015). Definition of organic agriculture. http://www.ifoam.bio/en/organic-landmarks/definition-organic-agriculture . Accessed: 2. Feb. 2015.

Juan, C. (2015). Is Negros Island the organic bowl of Asia? http://www.manilatimes.net/is-negros-island-the-organic-bowl-of-asia/199984/ . Accessed: 26. July. 2016.

Lacorte, G. (2015). Organic food growers seek easier way of certification. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/632090/organic-food-growers-seek-easier-way-of-certification . Accessed: 25. Aug. 2015.

N.A. Organic farming: the future of Philippine agriculture. (2012). Far Eastern Agriculture (FEA). http://www.fareasternagriculture.com/crops/agriculture/organic-farming-the-future-of-philippine-agriculture . Accessed: 25. Aug. 2015.

Republic of the Philippines. (2015). Act No. 10068 (known as Organic Agriculture Act of 2010). http://www.da.gov.ph/index.php/laws-issuances . Accessed: 2. Feb. 2015.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

History Department, Peking University, Yiheyuan Road 5, Beijing, 100871, China

Bao Maohong

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bao Maohong .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan

Mario Ivan Lopez

National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, Tokyo, Japan

Jafar Suryomenggolo

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this chapter

Maohong, B. (2018). The Rise of Organic Agriculture in the Philippines and its Development. In: Lopez, M., Suryomenggolo, J. (eds) Environmental Resources Use and Challenges in Contemporary Southeast Asia. Asia in Transition, vol 7. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8881-0_9

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8881-0_9

Published : 18 May 2018

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-10-8880-3

Online ISBN : 978-981-10-8881-0

eBook Packages : Social Sciences Social Sciences (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Find a journal
Track your research

Organizational Chart
Directory of Officials
Staff Offices
Citizen’s Charter
Region IV-A
Region IV-B
Region VIII
Region XIII
Agricultural Training Institute
Bureau of Agricultural and Fisheries Engineering
Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards
Bureau of Animal Industry
Bureau of Agricultural Research
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
Bureau of Plant Industry
Bureau of Soils and Water Management
Philippine Rubber Research Institute
Agricultural Credit Policy Council
Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority
National Fisheries Research and Development Institute
National Meat Inspection Service
Philippine Carabao Center
Philippine Center for Postharvest Development and Mechanization
Philippine Council for Agriculture and Fisheries
Philippine Fiber Industry Development Authority
National Dairy Authority
National Food Authority
National Irrigation Administration
National Tobacco Administration
Philippine Coconut Authority
Philippine Fisheries Development Authority
Philippine Rice Research Institute
Sugar Regulatory Administration
Bangkok, Thailand
Beijing, People’s Republic of China
Brussels, Belgium
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Geneva, Switzerland
Rome, Italy
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Tokyo, Japan
Washington DC, USA
Implementing Guidelines and Issuances
List of Accredited Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
Accreditation, Licensing, Registration & Other Related Services
Agribusiness and Marketing Assistance
Agricultural Credit and Financing Programs
Agriculture and Fisheries Information Services
Soils and Water Services
Special Projects Coordination & Management Assistance
Training and Extension Services
Aggie Trends
Ani at Kita Magazine
DA Annual Reports
Downloadables
News Monitoring
Photo Gallery Archives
Press Releases
Publications
8888 Citizen’s Complaint Hotline
Invitation to Bid
Notice of Award
Procurement Monitoring Report
Job Opportunities
DA Freedom of Information (FOI) Manual
Administrative Circulars
Administrative Orders
Department Circulars
Department Orders
Executive Orders
General Memorandum Orders
Inter-Agency Circulars
Joint Administrative Orders
Joint Memorandum Circulars
Joint Memorandum Order
Joint Special Orders
Memorandum Circulars
Memorandum Orders
Other Memorandums
Special Orders
Special Orders Archives

Facing the big challenges in Philippine Agriculture

As the Philippines dealt with the ‘perfect storm’ – the COVID-19 pandemic, African Swine Fever (ASF), and the ongoing Ukraine-Russia war – agriculture is among the sectors to receive the hardest blow, feeling every inch of strain, horrifying the entire food system altogether. The Department of Agriculture (DA), under the leadership of outgoing President Rodrigo Roa Duterte, left no stone unturned to lessen, if not totally eradicate, the devastating impacts that are rippling out beyond borders and across societies, further increasing indignant instability.

While the country is slowly going back to its normalcy after battling the COVID-19 pandemic for more than two years now, the current health crisis continues to dampen global goods trade, amplifying job and income losses of most middle- and low income Filipinos. At the onset of the crisis, food supply chains were shackled, imposing restrictions on the movement of goods as well as people. These protection measures resulted to food price inflation, further increasing hunger and poverty incidences.

The DA acted upon this with urgency, employing measures to cushion the impact of the pandemic to the already ailing Filipinos. The Department wasted no time in restructuring its public funds and programs, allowing movement of agricultural goods, access to affordable food, providing protection and intervention to local farmers and fisherfolk, all for the assurance of food security.

Among the DA’s interventions include the farmers’ and fisherfolk’s access to credit and other financing programs and technical support, establishment of the Kadiwa ni Ani at Kita, provision and distribution of farm inputs, equipment, and machineries, promotion of urban farming/gardening, among others, to keep the food production chain going.

The persistence of the ASF is still holding the country hostage, where the speed and severity of its damage has collapsed the hog industry. The DA took strides to stop the spread of the ASF virus through precautionary culls while compensating local hog raisers. The DA distributed more than P2 billion as indemnification to affected swine farmers.

To prepare the country in transboundary animal diseases and its proliferation within Philippine borders, the DA has put in place stricter biosecurity control measures in tandem with the Philippine Ports Authority, Bureau of Customs, and the local government units (LGUs). According to the Secretary, this will be a common practice to prevent or at least minimize the future risks of transboundary animal diseases. The Department has also collaborated with public and private partners in the development of a vaccine against ASF – a first of its kind in the Philippines.

Secretary Dar said that the ASF vaccine’s initial trial from February 10 to May 6 in San Miguel, Bulacan, showed promising results. “In the trial, no clinical signs associated with ASF disease were observed and minimal non-ASF related mortality was posted,” the agri chief said.

Rice Tariffication Law (RTL)

The enactment of the RTL since 2019 is considered the crescendo of the Duterte administration. It has raised so many controversies, even accusing the DA to be anti-farmers.

Since the 80’s, restrictive trade and regulatory policies have stunted the growth of the country’s rice industry. For more than 30 years, the National Food Authority (NFA), whose monopoly power rests over imports and prices, dominated the rice market. As a result, Filipino consumers pay high prices of rice in the market, the government keeps on subsidizing NFA losses, while rice farmers remain poorest of the poor. It was in 2018 when a severe rice shortage became a major driver of inflation, rising by a factor of 10. With the Philippines being a rice-eating country, the effects were disheartening as rice is a basic household expenditure of every Filipino family, rich or poor.

The political will of President Duterte gave a massive turn to the rice sector, when he signed the RTL into law. Basically, this replaced rice import quantitative restrictions with tariffs.

This resulted to two major things: (1) rice is no longer a main contributor to inflation, benefitting millions of Filipino rice consumers as rice prices were made cheaper by an average of almost P7/kg., and (2) P10 B-fund to make rice farmers more competitive.

“The RTL has increased the purchasing power among the bottom 40 percent of the income groups due to the savings they gained from lower rice prices,” the agriculture chief said.

Moreover, with the inflow of tariffs, the government created a P10-billion Rice Competitiveness Enhancement Fund (RCEF). Under the RTL, all import duties collected from rice imports will be used for RCEF that will ultimately benefit Filipino rice farmers: provision of quality, certified seeds, farm machinery and equipment, financial support, and trainings.

Three years since the implementation of the RTL, the DA continues to see major accomplishments, making RTL truly a game changer in the agriculture sector. In fact, the record palay harvests for two consecutive years is proof of the success of the RTL.

“RTL has been instrumental in the increased productivity from 3.69 metric tons (MT) per hectare (ha) in 2019 to 4.03 MT/ha in 2021 wet season. This is about P5,100 per hectare increase at P15 per kilo gram of dry palay,” Secretary Dar said.

Ukraine-Russia War

While the country has only been slowly recovering from these crises, it took another disaster for the Philippines to plunge into another devastation – probably the greatest of them all – the Ukraine and Russia conflict.

This ongoing war has fueled food insecurity to the highest power.

Food insecurity is now inclined to be an even more threatening trend, with the two power countries at war being among the breadbaskets of the world. This means that export activities are challenged, putting other dependent countries vulnerable, including the Philippines.

The rising prices on energy, oil, fertilizer, wheat and wheat products, and add to that the export bans being imposed by other countries to “protect their own people” continue to put many countries at risk, especially the Philippines, who is reliant on these key producing countries to fill local production gap.

Needless to say, the Ukraine crisis accentuated the discrepancies and inequalities in food production, thus the humane necessity to fill the gap through importation.

In the most basic sense, importation is allowed for an economy to thrive – to supply nonexistence and scarcity of products and goods, reduce domestic food prices, and provide wider choice in consumer goods, to name a few. Agricultural trade does not only happen in the Philippines, rather it is a global phenomenon that helps stimulate economies.

“We continue to put premium on protecting our farmers and fishers. Our goal has always been geared toward food security, eventually leading to food sovereignty. We only allow imports to fill in the deficit or what we cannot produce locally,” the DA chief said.

“Even President-elect Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos Jr., who included food sovereignty as one of his priority agenda, mentioned how importation is being forced on us simply because local production is not sufficient,” Secretary Dar added.

The woes of local production

Food production cannot keep up with the immense population growth.

The Philippines’ population expansion rate was estimated at 1.4 percent in 2019 by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), while the agriculture sector grew by a measly 0.5 percent in late 2020. These figures clearly show the food-population imbalance, where the rapid rate growth of the population outpace the capacity to produce food.

While the measures to control population growth are implausible as of the moment, the government must focus on boosting local food production instead.

Secretary Dar continues to call upon the national government to increase the agriculture’s budget, proposing a P250 B allocation as the first, and most crucial step.

“If next year’s budget is not doubled or tripled, and it will be at the same level as the budget we have today, we will always have the same problem that we have had before,” the agri chief stressed.

To substantiate this campaign, the DA created the National Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization and Industrialization Plan (NAFMIP), a 10-year strategic plan focusing on a long-term vision of commodity industry and agricultural infrastructure development which will usher the sector towards food sovereignty.

The implementation of the agrarian reform has also induced a significant downfall in the local food production of the country. This reform caused fragmentation of farm lands, with farmers individually tending small parcels of land. On average, a farmer’s land ownership is at 1-3 hectares, which is not a sizable land area for big-shot commercial and industry development.

“Farmers’ land ownership ceiling must be significantly raised to 25 hectares, if we want an industrialized sector. If not, then we can act on it by consolidating these small farm plots, so that we can breed technology and innovation, including infrastructure and mechanization development which in turn will open doors for bigger markets, thus bigger incomes for our farmers,” Secretary Dar said.

Keeping the balance

Until the agriculture sector gets its fair share of public funding to make the dream of a food sovereign country happen, the DA will keep on working – despite its limitations – for the greater good of the Filipino farmers and fisherfolk.

While lands cannot be increased for farm use, and food production remains a challenge, the DA will continue to employ other efficient methods to provide food for every Filipino.

The OneDA Reform Agenda, Secretary Dar’s brainchild, has kept the agriculture sector afloat and resilient, amid the challenges for the past three years. Built on four pillars: Consolidation, Modernization, Industrialization, and Professionalization, the OneDA Reform Agenda’s ultimate goal is to modernize and industrialize Philippine agriculture, and in the long run make it a major contributor to the country’s gross domestic product.

“It is a transformative strategy, capitalizing on technology, innovation, and the drive to make our farmers and fishers prosperous at the end of the day,” said Secretary Dar.

Once fully adopted and implemented, the OneDA Reform Agenda promises to make the Philippines a powerhouse in agriculture, at par with other ASEAN countries.

In its short years of execution, the OneDA Reform Agenda has birthed gains and breakthroughs, leaving a dent in the agricultural landscape of the Philippines. These include trade and export development, agri-industrial business corridors, youth engagement in agriculture, easy and affordable access of farmers and fishers to agri financing, private sector participation in agriculture as ‘big brothers,’ mechanization and infrastructure investments, and agriculture digitalization, among others.

“What works for now is our conscious unity to work towards the goal despite these myriad of challenges. We were able to showcase it through this perfect storm: the COVID-19 pandemic, the ASF, the birth pains of RTL, and now the Ukraine crisis. I assure you that the DA has been working to serve our farmers and fishers, and the rest of our fellow Filipinos. We take the lessons, we act on them, and hopefully, we realize a prosperous agriculture and fisheries,” Secretary Dar concluded. ### ( Daryl Lou Battad, DA-StratComms )

ATTACHED AGENCIES

Attached corporations, regional field offices, quick links.

Privacy Policy
Official Directory
Open Data Portal

Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment in the Humid Tropics (1993)

Chapter: the philippines, the philippines.

Dennis P. Garrity, David M. Kummer, and Ernesto S. Guiang

This profile focuses on the most pressing issues of sustainable natural resource management in the sloping upland areas of the Philippines. It begins with an analysis of the historical and current dimensions of land use in the upland ecosystem, reviews and critiques proposed actions, and recommends solutions within an overarching strategy that builds on the linkages that exist between farming and forestry systems.

The upland ecosystem must be addressed as a distinct entity. The uplands are rolling to steep areas where both agriculture and forestry are practiced on slopes ranging upward from 18 percent. The sloping uplands occupy about 55 percent of the land surface of the country (Cruz et al., 1986) and have an estimated population of 17.8 million. The upland population is projected to be 24 million to 26 million in the year 2000, with a density of 160 to 175 persons per km 2 . Upland inhabitants are primarily poor farming families with insecure land tenure. Subsistence food production rather than forestry is their over-

Dennis P. Garrity is an agronomist/crop ecologist with the International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines; David M. Kummer is a visiting assistant professor with the Graduate School of Geography, and a research associate with the George Perkins Marsh Institute, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts; Ernesto S. Guiang is a community forest management specialist with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Quezon City, Philippines.

riding priority. The paramount objective for public intervention in upland management is that of obtaining the greatest good for the greatest number of people in ways that are consistent with the long-term sustainability of the productive capacity of the ecosystem.

Forest denudation is at an advanced stage in the Philippines. Total forest cover shrank from 10.5 million ha in 1968 to 6.1 million ha in 1991. The remaining old-growth forest covered less than 1 million ha in 1991 and possibly as little as 700,000 ha. At current rates of logging, nearly all vestiges of the country's primary dipterocarp forest biota may be depleted in the next 10 to 15 years. The will of the people and government to effectively address the Philippine deforestation problem is growing, but it is still weak.

There have been several recent reviews concerning natural resource management in the Philippines. These reviews examined government policy, the political climate, and the institutional framework and made numerous specific recommendations for a major reorientation. In addition, the Master Plan for Forestry Development (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990) has recently been issued by the Philippine government. It lays out a framework for forestland management over the next 25 years. It sets a detailed, optimistic agenda that adopts a strategy of reduced public management in favor of increased private management of forest resources through people-oriented forestry.

Although this profile focuses on the dynamics of upland agricultural technology in relation to deforestation, many factors other than agricultural technology have a stronger direct influence on the rate and extent of forest depletion or conversion. These factors include inappropriate forest policy, poor policy implementation, and the insecurity of land tenure among upland farm populations. Commercial logging (legal and illegal) directly caused the majority of old-growth forest depletion during the past half century, and it continues to do so today. The accessibility to remote forestlands brought about by the opening of logging roads stimulated the settlement of small-scale farmers and resulted in the subsequent conversion of depleted forests to farms.

The initial sections of this profile examine the present state of the natural resource base of the uplands and past trends in resource degradation. The profile then reviews the importance of land and forest resources to the political economy of the Philippines and the failure of development in the Philippines in the post-World War II period. This is followed by an analysis of potential solutions to the problems identified. The solutions to the upland resource management and subsistence crises fall into a general strategy with three essential com-

ponents: land tenure, resource management technology, and infrastructure delivery. The final section outlines a proposed action strategy in terms of these three components.

THE STATE OF THE PHILIPPINE UPLAND ECOSYSTEM

This section analyzes the important factors that have determined the development of land use systems in the Philippines uplands. The major forces and constraints that directly affect upland agriculture and forestry are emphasized.

Physical Environment

The Philippines is an archipelago with a total land area of 30 million ha. Although it encompasses more than 7,000 islands, the majority of these are insignificant in terms of size and population. The 15 largest islands make up 94 percent of the total land area. Luzon and Mindanao occupy about 35 and 32 percent of total land area, respectively. The Philippines is a physically fragmented state, and separateness is a major feature of its geography and culture. The island nature of the country gives it a very long coastline relative to its size. No inland area is far from the ocean.

The country has a complex geology and physiography. Although Luzon and Mindanao have major lowland areas, most of the islands have relatively narrow coastal plains. The Philippines as a whole is characterized by high relief. Steep upland areas with greater than 18 percent slope make up about 55 percent of the total area (Cruz et al., 1986). The climate is humid tropical. However, because of the mountainous terrain, the occurrence of typhoons in the northern half of the country, and the effects of two separate monsoon seasons, there is striking micro-and macrovariation in the seasonal distribution and amount of precipitation. Within-season droughts and the limited length of the growing season are common constraints, but the total quantity of precipitation is abundant: 90 percent of the country receives at least 1,780 mm per year (Wernstedt and Spencer, 1967).

The high relief, the relatively high levels of precipitation, and the frequent extreme concentration of rainfall in short periods because of typhoons contribute to serious soil erosion problems. Given the complex geology and geologic history, the soils of the Philippines are varied but are generally not as weathered as most humid tropical soils because of their relatively younger age. The inherent soil properties are limiting in many sloping upland areas (particularly where extensive

erosion and land degradation have occurred), but the Philippines has a comparatively favorable soil base for a country in the humid tropics.

In the Philippines today, about half the land is classified as alienable and disposable. This land may be privately owned. The other half, which mostly has slopes of greater than 18 percent, is classified as public forestland. Only 6 million ha has significant tree cover and less than 1 million ha of old-growth or primary forest remains ( Table 1 ). In comparison, there was 10 million ha of old-growth forest in the 1950s. The extent of this forest conversion has reduced to critically

TABLE 1 Forest Cover in the Philippines as Determined by Various Inventories (in Thousands of Hectares)

TABLE 2 Land Use in the Philippines (in Thousands of Hectares)

low levels the habitat of the many species of flora and fauna endemic to the Philippines.

Recently, the Swedish Space Corporation (1988) completed a study—the first and only one to cover all types of land uses—of the natural vegetation in the Philippines ( Table 2 ). On the basis of that survey, the World Bank (1989a) calculated that cultivated land covers 11.3 million ha, or 38 percent of the total land area. Cultivated area in the uplands is about 3.9 million ha.

The 1980 Census of Agriculture (National Census and Statistics Office, 1985) estimated the area of cultivated land to be 9.7 million ha in 1980. If these data and World Bank estimates are correct, then the

area of cultivated land increased by more than 1.6 million ha between 1980 and 1987, an annual increment of 229,000 ha/year. The average annual rate of deforestation between 1980 and 1987 was 157,000 ha/year. Although direct conversion from forestlands to croplands cannot be inferred, it appears that large areas of grasslands are now being converted to agricultural uses, increasing the pressure on the limited land resources.

Population Growth

Rapid population growth in the past half century is widely acknowledged as a major force in the accelerated deterioration in the country 's natural resources (Porter and Ganapin, 1988). The 1990 population of the Philippines was estimated to be 66.1 million and was increasing at an annual rate of 2.6 percent (Population Reference Bureau, 1990).

Table 3 presents Philippine population data since 1948. Although the rate of growth of the Philippine population declined slowly from the 1948 –1960 period to the 1975–1980 period, the population growth rate remains the highest of any country in Southeast Asia. The current population density is second only to that of Singapore (Population Reference Bureau, 1990). The rural population, as a percentage of the total population, has been declining, but at a slow rate (from 73 percent in 1948 to 63 percent in 1980). Urban growth is predominantly in the city of Manila (Pernia, 1988).

The Philippines has a serious population growth problem, but acceptance of this fact has been fairly recent. As late as 1969, Duckham

TABLE 3 Philippines Population Data, 1948–1980

and Masefield stated that the Philippines had a low population density and “no real pressure of population on resources” (p. 417). This assessment seems almost naive today, suggesting how fast the settlement frontier closed in recent years and the inertia in public recognition of the current situation.

The availability of areas with low population densities and available agricultural lands has induced interregional migration in the Philippines since World War II (Abad, 1981; Abejo, 1985; Concepcion, 1983; Institute of Population Studies, 1981; Zosa-Feranil, 1987). Since 1948 the major migration patterns have been toward the frontier, primarily to Mindanao, and toward urban areas, particularly the metropolitan Manila area. Although migration to urban areas has been particularly pronounced since 1960, movement to frontier or upland areas continues (Cruz et al., 1986). Between 1975 and 1980, the destination of almost one-fourth of all interregional migrants was the uplands (Cruz and Zosa-Feranil, 1988). The major out-migration areas have been the Visayas and the Bicol and Ilocos regions of Luzon. Although substantial differences persist among some areas, the population has become more evenly distributed since 1948 (Herrin, 1985).

The upland population was estimated by Cruz and Zosa-Feranil (1988) to have reached about 17.8 million by 1988. This included an estimated population of 8.50 million people who reside on public forestlands. This population includes 5.95 million members of indigenous cultural communities and 2.55 million migrants from lowland groups (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). One-third of the upland forest inhabitants are displaced lowland farmers who do not have long-standing land use traditions such as those commonly observed among indigenous communities, which have a better grasp of the fragile nature of the ecology of their lands (Sajise, 1979). The displaced population is also growing faster. The University of the Philippines Population Institute projects that the upland population will grow at a rate of 2.72 to 2.92 percent during the next 25 years, increasing by the year 2015 to a density of 371 persons per km 2 , which is a high population for sloping marginal lands.

Current and projected trends in the economy, social attitudes, and government commitment to effective delivery of family planning services may succeed in reducing national population growth rates. Even so, there is little likelihood that the upland population will participate significantly in this transition. The upland rural population has the least access to family planning programs and is least likely to accept the notion that limiting family size is in its best interest. Wherever open access to public lands prevails, children are viewed as additional labor to clear and cultivate more land.

Agriculture and the Uplands

Agriculture continues to play a major role in the Philippine economy. The Agricultural Policy and Strategy Team (1986) states:

[N]o significant structural transformation has taken place over the past 25 years. Despite the strong industrial orientation of past economic policies, agriculture, fisheries, and forestry continue to employ half of the labor force, contribute about a quarter of the gross domestic production, and earn two-fifths of export revenues. Over 60 percent of our population lives in the rural areas. Our country remains today as it has been in the past, a predominately rural society composed of small farmers, agricultural laborers, fishermen, pedicab drivers, and others.

Agriculture's share of the total economy declined slowly in the postwar period, from 36 percent of net value added in 1955 to 29 percent in 1980 (David, 1983). Agriculture's share of the Philippine gross domestic product in 1987 (28.5 percent) was almost the same as it was in 1970 (World Bank, 1989b).

Between 1972 and 1980, the ratio between the price of rice and the non-food price index declined from 1.0 to 0.59 (Hill and Jayasuriya, 1984). The growth that did occur in the agricultural sector came not as the result of but despite government policies (David, 1982; Rocamora, 1979).

Landlessness and near landlessness in rural areas has been reported to be more than 75 percent (Rosenberg and Rosenberg, 1980), and landlessness among the agricultural farm population is almost 50 percent (Agricultural Policy and Strategy Team, 1986; Porter and Ganapin, 1988). Land reform has largely been ineffective in transfer-ring land to the tenant cultivators because of bureaucratic delays and widespread erosion of the spirit of the agrarian reform laws (Carroll, 1983; International Labour Office, 1974; Kerkvliet, 1974; Tiongzon et al., 1986; Wurfel, 1983).

Has the limited effectiveness of land reform resulted in further concentration of control over agricultural lands? In Mindanao, commercial agricultural plantations are expanding. This expansion forces poorer farmers onto marginal lands, particularly in association with the banana and pineapple industries (Agricultural Policy and Strategy Team, 1986; Costello, 1984; Tiongzon et al., 1986; van Oosterhout, 1983). Krinks (1974) showed that there was an increasing concentration of poor farmers in a frontier region in southern Mindanao. Commercial use of agricultural land and the increased concentration of poor farmers on agricultural lands in lowland areas in Leyte has decreased the amount of land available for poor farmers, forcing poor

farmers to initiate farming in upland areas (Belsky and Siebert, 1985). The expansion of land for raising sugarcane in the western Visayas from 1960 to 1975 was also primarily at the expense of small-scale upland rice and maize production (Luning, 1981). As effective control of agricultural land becomes more concentrated in the hands of wealthier farmers and corporations, small farms are becoming smaller (Luning, 1981), a process that has been accelerated by the subdivision of property through inheritance. The end result has been increasing landlessness for the rural poor (Cruz and Zosa-Feranil, 1988).

Arable land that can be sustainably farmed on an annual basis with minimal investment in land conservation covers 8.4 million ha, or 28 percent of the country (Bureau of Soils, 1977). Most of the increase in farm area since 1960 has been on nonarable land, as defined by the Bureau of Soils (1977).

Kikuchi and Hayami (1978) argued that the Philippines shifted from extensive to intensive cultivation between 1950 and 1969. As the land/labor ratio declined, the rate of increase in the amount of cultivated land slowed and the Philippine government was forced to invest in irrigation. Hooley and Ruttan (1969) proclaimed the closing of the land frontier in the 1960s.

There was widespread agreement that by the late 1960s or early 1970s, the Philippines had reached the limits of its land frontier and that future growth of agricultural output would have to come from increases in productivity rather than from increases in the area of production. Agricultural output and productivity did increase, but the area under cultivation also increased considerably. From 1970 to 1980, the number of farms increased by 1.06 million (45.3 percent) and farm area ( Table 4 ) increased by 1.23 million ha (14.5 percent). As a result, the average farm size decreased 21 percent, from 3.61 to 2.84 ha. The continued decrease in forest area in the 1980s also implies that the area of farmland continues to increase. Thus, the notion of a land frontier based on arable, safely cultivated land is not appropriate for conditions in the Philippines (Cruz and Zosa-Feranil, 1988; Gwyer, 1977; National Economic Development Authority, 1981). In 1982, 2.5 million ha of cropland was on upland areas (Agricultural Policy and Strategy Team, 1986).

Upland Migration

Cruz et al. (1986) estimated that 14.4 million people lived in the uplands in 1980, and 77 percent of those people lived on lands officially classified as public forestlands. From 1948 to 1980, the upland population grew at a rate of 2.5 to 2.8 percent per year. This is less

TABLE 4 Deforestation and Its Relationship to Increases in Population and Farmland in the Philippines, 1948–1980

than the national rate because of the higher mortality and the lower birth rates in the upland areas than in the lowland areas (M. C. Cruz, College of Development Economics and Management, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, personal communication, 1990).

Migration accounted for the bulk of the population growth in the upland areas (Cruz et al., 1986). Of the 18.6 million people who lived in the uplands in 1988, 6 million had lived there before 1945, 2 million had migrated there between 1945 and 1948, and 10 million had migrated there since 1948 (Lynch and Talbott, 1988). In addition, high rates of migration to the uplands continued in the 1980s (World Bank, 1989a). The highest rates of population growth in the uplands were in municipalities with logging concessions (Cruz and Zosa-Feranil, 1988).

Most observers agree that migration occurs because of the lack of opportunities in the lowlands. Poor people are forced to the uplands because they have no other suitable choices. Cruz and Zosa-Feranil (1988) estimated that 70 percent of all upland migrants were landless lowlanders. These poor farmers may be referred to as shifting or slash-and-burn cultivators (Westoby, 1981).

Intensification of Rice Production in the Lowlands

Lowland rice fields in the Philippines are about half irrigated and half rainfed. Initially, the green revolution (the breakthroughs in rice varietal technology in the late 1960s) increased labor use intensity in rice production (Otsuka et al., 1990). More rice crops were produced each year (two instead of one), and more intensive management was applied. But rainfed rice farming did not experience the extent of technical change that occurred in irrigated rice farming or the same gain in productivity. Therefore, the economic disparity between the irrigated and rainfed rice fields increased (Otsuka et al., 1990).

The increased labor demand for irrigated rice accelerated the migration of labor from rainfed to irrigated areas. The intensity of labor use in irrigated rice production plateaued, however, and in many areas it declined as labor-displacing technologies gained widespread use. The technologies included broadcast seeding rather than transplanting of seedlings and herbicide application rather than weeding by hand. This reduced the labor absorption potential and the returns to labor, particularly landless labor. The income-earning prospects of the landless labor pool has declined, as exemplified by the evolution of labor arrangements that are progressively less favorable.

There is some potential for further intensification of rice cropping in irrigated areas and diversification to alternative higher income crops, including grain legumes, and tree crops. It is unlikely, however, that these changes will proceed fast or far enough to substantially increase the amount of labor that can be absorbed in lowland rice farming activities in the future, suggesting a continued rapid increase in the number of underemployed or unemployed families in lowland rural areas.

Upland Farming Systems

One of the most serious gaps in understanding land use in the uplands, particularly agriculture-forest interactions, relates to shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation. Agriculture in the uplands consists of traditional shifting cultivation (long fallow periods), nontraditional or migrant shifting cultivation (short fallow periods), permanent or intensive agriculture, backyard gardens, pastoral systems, or any combination of these. There is no reliable information on the extent of these forms of agriculture or the proportion of shifting cultivation in grasslands or secondary or primary forests. There are also no data at the national or provincial level on how often farmers shift their plots, although case studies do exist (Barker, 1984; Conklin, 1957). Vandermeer

(1963) in a study of Cebu province, which is now entirely deforested, points out that what had originally been a shifting system of maize cultivation has now been transformed into permanent, sedentary farming. The main impetus for the change was increasing population density. Table 4 notes the relationships among deforestation, increases in population, and increases in the amount of farmland.

Analysis of an upland area in Mindanao from 1949 to 1988 revealed a dynamic land use transition from fallow rotation to permanent open-field and perennial crop systems (Garrity and Agustin, In press). The evolution of permanent, mixed agricultural systems in a pioneer community in the mountains of Laguna province dominated by shifting cultivation was documented by Fujisaka (1986) and Fujisaka and Wollenburg (1991). The planting of trees and perennial crops was observed by Cornista et al. (1986) as a typical stage in the evolution toward more permanent cultivation in communities throughout the Philippines.

Agricultural expansion has resulted in a net reduction in the country 's grassland area. Data from an historical study of land use changes for an upland community in Mindanao from the immediate postwar period to the present illustrates this trend (Garrity and Agustin, In press). The area of cultivated land increased at a much faster rate than the loss of forest cover from 1949 to 1987. The steady decline in the grassland area provided the major source for the expansion of the area devoted to crops ( Figure 1 ).

DEFORESTATION IN POSTWAR PHILIPPINES

There are few reliable historical data on forest cover in the Philippines. Many of the records that did exist have been lost. The Spanish forest records were consumed in a Manila fire in 1897 (Tamesis, 1948), the records of the Bureau of Forestry in Manila and the College of Forestry in Los Baños were destroyed during fighting in 1945 (Sulit, 1947), and the comprehensive Mindanao forest survey of 1954–1961 (Agaloos, 1976; Serevo et al., 1962) has disappeared. The authoritative source of current forest cover data is the Philippine–German Forest Resources Inventory Project (Forest Management Bureau, 1988).

Forest Types

Philippine forests are usually divided into six types: dipterocarp, molave, beach, pine, mangrove, and mossy. Dipterocarps account for more than 90 percent of all commercial forest products in terms of economic value (Agaloos, 1984). Some 89 percent of the total log

FIGURE 1 Comparative changes in major land use areas between 1949 and 1987. Claveria, Misamis Oriental Province (Mindanao), Philippines. Source: Garrity, D. P., and P. Agustin. In press. Historical Land Use Evolution in a Tropical Acid Upland Agroecosystem. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.

production in the Philippines comes from the species Shorea almon (almon), Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong), Parashorea plicata (tikan), S. plicata (mayapis), S. negrosensis (red lauan), S. polysperma (tanguile), and Pentacme contorta (white lauan). The largest timber volume comes from red lauan.

The molave forest, a dry, monsoon forest found only in the western Philippines, makes up only 3 percent of the total forest area of the Philippines (Agaloos, 1984) and is usually included in the dipterocarp category (Umali, 1981). Beach forests formerly grew in coastal areas as a transition between mangrove and other inland forests, but they have been virtually eradicated in the Philippines (Agaloos, 1984) and Southeast Asia (Whitmore, 1984). Two types of pine are native to the Philippines—Benguet pine ( Pinus kesiya ), found in northern Luzon, and Mindoro pine ( P . merkusii ), found in parts of Mindoro and the Zambales Mountains in western Luzon. Pine forests occupy less than 1 percent of the total land area (Forest Management Bureau, 1988).

Mangrove forests are restricted to coastal fringes and tidal flats and occupy about 139,000 ha (Forest Management Bureau, 1988), less than 0.5 percent of the total land area. They have been subjected to intense logging pressure because woods that grow in mangrove for-

ests are valuable for fuel (charcoal) and thatch. As a result many mangrove forests have been converted to fish ponds (Gillis, 1988; Johnson and Alcorn, 1989).

Mossy forests are stunted forests with no commercial value (Agaloos, 1984; Weidelt and Banaag, 1982). They are referred to in the literature as mountain or cloud forests and as unproductive forest by the Forest Management Bureau. They are found at higher elevations (usually above 1,800 m) throughout the Philippines and cover about 4 percent (1.14 million ha) of the total land area (Forest Management Bureau, 1988).

Some 92 percent of the decrease of forest types since 1969 has been accounted for by the loss of old-growth dipterocarp forests (Forest Management Bureau, 1988). Destruction of mangroves has been rapid and dramatic as well, but the area involved is insignificant compared with the area of dipterocarps lost. The major cause of the decline of primary forests has been logging (World Bank, 1989a).

Forest Cover Before 1950

Deforestation in the Philippines has not occurred only in the twentieth century. Wernstedt and Spencer (1967) reported that forest cover declined from about 90 percent of the total land area at the time of the first contact with the Spanish in 1521 to about 70 percent by 1900. The major causes were likely to have been the steady increase in population and the spread of commercial crops (primarily abaca [a fiber from the leafstalk of banana— Musa textilis —native to the Philippines], tobacco, and sugarcane) as the Philippines slowly became integrated into the world economic system (Lopez-Gonzaga, 1987; Roth, 1983; Westoby, 1989).

Reliable statistics on forest cover before 1950 do not exist; thus, a discussion of forest cover and its decline must be based on estimates made by contemporary observers. Comparisons between the various estimates are problematic. Therefore, the estimates presented in Table 5 are meant to be broadly indicative. The area of the Philippines covered by forests declined from 70 percent in 1900 to just below 60 percent in 1939. Logging increased rapidly after 1945 and was back to pre-World War II production levels by 1949 (Poblacion, 1959; Tamesis, 1948). In addition, farming in the forests increased after the war because of continuing food shortages (Sulit, 1963; Tamesis, 1948). The overall extent of deforestation was estimated by Myers (1984) to be 55 percent in 1950. A figure closer to 50 percent for 1950 is probably more appropriate based on subsequent estimates.

TABLE 5 Estimates of Forest Cover in the Philippines, 1876–1950

Forest Cover Changes, 1950–1987

Since 1950 there has been a continuous decline in forest cover in the Philippines. In absolute terms, deforestation in the 1950–1969 and 1969–1987 periods were about the same ( Table 6 ). On a percent basis, deforestation was more rapid from 1969 to 1987 than it was from 1950 to 1969, with the highest rates occurring from 1976 to 1980 ( Table 7 ). The very high rates of deforestation observed for the 1976-1980 period were associated with the peak period of martial law, when large-scale corruption in timber extraction was prevalent (Alano, 1984; Aquino, 1987).

Although data are not strongly reliable, the rate of deforestation apparently slowed in the 1980s because the remaining forests became much less accessible. If the rate of deforestation estimated to have occurred from 1980 to 1987 continued to 1991, the Philippines had

about 6.03 million ha of forest cover in 1991, about 20 percent of the country's total land area.

The Master Plan for Forestry Development (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990) estimated total forest cover to be 6.69 million ha. The area of old-growth dipterocarp forests was projected to be only 949,000 ha. However, if the old-growth dipterocarp forest has continued to decline at the 1969-1987 rate of deforestation, then only 409,600 ha of this forest type would have remained in 1991. If this rate of decline continues, old-growth dipterocarp forests will disappear entirely by 1995—long before effective management systems to preserve them can be put into place. Thus, one of the major issues confronting Philippine forestry is how to manage secondary dipterocarp forests on a sustainable basis, for which there is little proven experience.

The calculated rates of annual deforestation differ widely, depending on the data sets chosen for analysis ( Table 8 ). The 1980 forest data are from the Forest Development Center (1985) and the Philippine-German Forest Resources Inventory Project (Forest Management Bureau, 1988), which were projected back from deforestation data for 1987. The 1987 data are from the Swedish Space Corporation and the Philippine–German Forest Resources Inventory Project. There are large discrepancies in deforestation rates among the four possible combinations of the two surveys each for 1980 and 1987. Between the smallest and largest rates of deforestation, the difference is more than 200 percent. A reasonable estimate is that deforestation

TABLE 6 Forest Cover in the Philippines, 1950–1987

TABLE 7 Deforestation Rates in the Philippines, 1950–1987

in the 1980s was about 155,000 ha/year. The World Resources Institute (1990) estimated that deforestation is about 143,000 ha/year. This issue is discussed more thoroughly in the section on future scenarios.

The Deforestation Process in the Philippines

Figure 2 is a simplified model of the major forces that have led to deforestation in the Philippines. Although some deforestation has been caused by other factors, for example, the use of trees to make charcoal and the conversion of mangrove forests to fish ponds, the two most important activities leading to deforestation were logging (legal and illegal) and the expansion of agriculture. Both of these factors must be considered together, along with rural poverty and the open-access nature of forests (Gillis, 1988). The deforestation process in the Philippines since World War II can be characterized by two major activities: the conversion of primary to secondary forests by logging activities and the removal of secondary forest cover by the expansion of agriculture. In most cases, roads provide access to the forest for both types of activities.

Logging does not necessarily result in deforestation; rather, selective logging, properly practiced, converts a primary forest into a de-

graded secondary forest ( Figure 2 ). Clear-cutting is known to have been practiced in certain areas, but this has been relatively rare in Southeast Asia (Gillis, 1988), and data on the relative extent of clear-cutting versus selective logging in the Philippines do not exist. Selective logging results in some deforestation, given the extensive road networks and collection and loading areas needed for capital-intensive logging and the extensive damage to forests reported to occur as a result of some logging operations (Blanche, 1975; Burgess, 1971, 1973; Egerton, 1953; Gillis, 1988; Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development, 1982; World Bank, 1989a).

The relationship between logging and the conditions of primary and secondary forests is a dynamic one. As logging converts primary forests to secondary forests, loggers move on to new primary forests. Implicit in this scheme is the notion that secondary forests do not return to a state suitable for a second harvest, although several concessionaires in the Philippines are known to have returned for a second cut. Concessionaires have not, in general, engaged in protection of secondary forests, enrichment planting, or reforestation (Food and Agriculture Organization and United Nations Environment Program, 1982). Overall, it appears that there has been minimal protection of forests in the Philippines.

Expansion of agriculture takes place primarily in secondary forests. Logged forests are more likely than primary forests to be penetrated by roads, and roads greatly facilitated the expansion of agriculture (Asian Development Bank, 1976; Edgerton, 1983; Food and

TABLE 8 Annual Rates of Deforestation in the Philippines Between 1980 and 1987 Based on Different Forest Inventories

FIGURE 2 Model of deforestation in the Philippines. Source: Kummer, D. 1992. Deforestation in the Postwar Philippines. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.

Agriculture Organization and United Nations Environment Program, 1981: Hackenberg and Hackenberg, 1971; Segura-de los Angeles, 1985; Vandermeer and Agaloos, 1962; van Oosterhaut, 1983). Also, it is much easier for poor farmers to clear secondary forests than it is for them to clear primary forests (Byron and Waugh, 1988). In an economic sense, logging lowers the costs of clearing the land by settlers (Southgate and Pearce, 1988). The majority of logged-over forestlands have been converted to grasslands or are used for agriculture (Hicks and McNicoll, 1971).

Natural forest regeneration is prevented by a range of prevailing factors: fire in uncultivated logged-over areas and ranch areas, grass succession and loss of tree seed in shifting cultivated areas, and permanent conversion to agricultural fields in intensively farmed areas. The relationships among the expansion of agriculture, the creation of secondary forests, and deforestation are also dynamic. Preceding logging and the expansion of agriculture is the construction of roads (Hackenberg and Hackenberg, 1971). These roads are primarily the result of development considerations by provincial or national government or are built by loggers who have concessions. The roads

vary from little more than dirt tracks to paved highways. They facilitate the spread of agriculture by opening up new areas; this occurred in parts of Mindanao in the 1950s and early 1960s (Vandermeer and Agaloos, 1962; Wernstedt and Simkins, 1965). In addition, logging provides jobs and, thus, directly leads to population increases. The relationship between new roads and deforestation has been clearly made by Thung (1972) for Thailand and by Fearnside (1986) for Brazil.

The expansion of agricultural activities onto forested lands is driven by two forces: increases in population and widespread poverty. In addition, the expansion of agriculture in some areas is promoted by wealthier people who open up forestlands for perennial crop production or cattle grazing or simply to establish a land claim. This is often accomplished through support for poor farmers who are subsidized to clear the land. The overriding goal of the low-income households in upland regions is to produce or earn enough to eat. Food income provides basic security (U.S. Agency for International Development, 1980). Poor people are forced to engage in subsistence agriculture because it is often the only option available (Gwyer, 1978). Segura-de los Angeles (1985), in a case study of an upland agroforestry project in Luzon, noted that 88 percent of all those surveyed consumed all of the rice they produced and did not have a marketable surplus. Although upland farmers in Davao grew some commercial crops, their primary crops were rice and maize (Hackenberg and Hackenberg, 1971).

Timber Concessions

The granting of timber concessions occurred for two reasons: the legitimate desire of the Philippine government to foster development and the granting of political favors to either Philippine elites or multinational corporations (primarily U.S. corporations in the 1950s and 1960s). Postwar Philippine governments do not appear to have been concerned with development in the forest sector; rather, it appears that forests are viewed as an asset whose benefits should flow mainly to politicians and well-connected individuals (Ofreno, 1980; Palmier, 1989). As Hackenberg and Hackenberg (1971) pointed out in their study of Davao City, Mindanao, “The basis of wealth is lumber, and the profits are instantaneous for those with political connections to secure a concession” (p. 8). In fact, it is difficult to distinguish between politicians and loggers, since loggers contribute heavily to political campaigns and many politicians control logging concessions (The Economist, 1989). It is now generally accepted that commercial forest resources were vastly underpriced throughout the postwar pe-

riod and that the high rents flowed to a small group of people (Boado, 1988; Cruz and Segura-de los Angeles, 1984; Power and Tumaneng, 1983; Repetto, 1988).

Factors Associated with Deforestation

Deforestation in 67 provinces was analyzed statistically from 1970 to 1980 (Kummer, 1990). The study used data on the annual allowable cut, which was greater than legally reported logging and may more accurately reflect the actual volume of timber harvested, considering the additional timber that is extracted illegally. Deforestation from 1970 to 1980 was positively related to the annual allowable cut in 1970 and to the absolute change in the area devoted to agricultural activities (Kummer, 1990). The distance from Manila was not significantly related to the deforestation rate, but in those areas of the Philippines where logging was banned during the reign of Ferdinand E. Marcos (1965–1986), the logged area determined from the rates of deforestation were actually higher than the rates where logging was allowed (Schade, 1988).

Postwar discussions of deforestation in the Philippines have tended to blame either loggers or migrant farmers in frontier areas engaged in nontraditional shifting cultivation for the decline in forest cover. These two agents cannot be considered separately; rather, they are linked. The Philippines has recently completed the Master Plan for Forestry Development (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). The plan articulates a people-oriented forestry program that is sensitive to the current understanding of the complex underlying determinants of deforestation. The policy prescriptions and implementation devices presented in the plan are analyzed later in this chapter.

APPROACHES TO LAND USE SUSTAINABILITY IN THE UPLANDS

This section evaluates current and potential directions for formulating concrete solutions to deforestation and sustainable land use. It examines the determinants of sustainable agricultural systems and forest systems within each of the three major land use subecosystems in Philippine uplands. The approach emphasizes the interrelatedness of social and technical issues and the importance of an integrated social-technical approach to forest and agricultural development.

A large and rapidly expanding portion of the upland landscape is being converted to areas that are permanently farmed. These farms

are found in the more relatively accessible sloping areas that are closest to the lowlands and nearest to roads. They are predominantly cultivated with subsistence food crops, particularly maize and upland rice, but they are partly used for perennial crop plantations, especially coconut plantations. At increasing elevations and more remote locations that are difficult to access, the land predominantly contains grasslands and brushlands. The remaining forested areas are generally the secondary forest remnants of previous logging activities or localized unlogged areas, which are found at the highest elevations and on the steepest slopes.

These three broad land use types (permanently farmed sloping lands, grasslands, and forested lands) tend to form distinct entities that flow into each other. The permanently cultivated lands expand into the grasslands as shifting cultivation on the grassland margins intensifies, and the grasslands advance at the expense of the forested lands as settlement and the relentless use of fire open and transform the forests. The human and natural ecology of each of these three entities is distinct, and technology and policy instruments must be adapted to the realities of each one.

Permanently Farmed Sloping Lands

The major issue in permanently farmed sloping lands is how to sustain and increase farm productivity to improve the welfare of the farm population and thereby reduce the rate of migration into the remaining forested lands. Increase in and sustainability of farm productivity may be achievable through policy reform and technological changes in agricultural activities, but the development of more successful farming systems in sloping settled lands will not eliminate the migratory pressure on forested lands. Technical change could make forested lands more valuable for agriculture, thus encouraging further migration. It is also evident, however, that if the current upland populations cannot become more successful in sustaining their incomes and increasing their employment opportunities, more farmers and their families will be forced to migrate from unproductive farms that can no longer support them, resulting in more rapid and destructive misuse of forestlands.

This suggests that sustainable upland agricultural production systems are necessary to alleviate many problems of human welfare in the uplands and lowlands and ensure more effective forest conservation, but such changes are not sufficient to solve the problem of the conversion of forests to agricultural uses. The essential elements of a strategy for upland development are the same as those that would

apply in lowland areas. They include the need for a positive incentive framework and the availability of appropriate technical solutions. Agricultural technology can provide a crucial, supporting role in solving the forest conversion problem. Progressive policies in forestry, agriculture, land tenure, and general economic development will impinge greatly on the effectiveness and appropriateness of potential technologies.

There are many factors that limit the stability, productivity, and sustainability of upland farms, including climatic variations, biologic stresses, and social and economic uncertainties. A fundamental factor is the nature and rapidity of soil degradation.

The sloping upland soils in the Philippines fall into three contrasting types: acidic, infertile soils; young, relatively fertile volcanic soils; and calcareous soils. The strongly acidic, infertile soils, which are low in available phosphorus, are predominant. The young, more fertile volcanic soils cover large areas in the southern Tagalog and Bicol regions, on Negros Island, and in some areas of Mindanao. These have been the most successfully developed upland agricultural areas. Calcareous upland soils are found on the central Visayan islands of Cebu and Bohol. Restrictions on the available phosphorus also tend to be pronounced in calcareous soils.

In addition to the three basic classes of soils, the immense and localized variations in rainfall patterns because of the diverse topography of the Philippines, and the frequency and severity of damage from catastrophic typhoons affect the sustainable management of upland agricultural systems. Farming systems must be adapted to take into account these various conditions.

Philippine upland farmers face a diversity of land types and high levels of risk, yet they have limited access to credit and marketing resources. Under these conditions, agricultural technologists must be able to offer practical, low-cost farming practices that are viable under a wide array of conditions or that are more specifically tailored to a few conditions but that produce results quickly.

CONTOUR HEDGEROW SYSTEMS

Research on upland agroforestry in the Philippines is limited. Agriculturalists and foresters have few technical tools to cope with the enormous variety of circumstances that require attention. Gibbs et al. (1990) pointed out that the highly inadequate knowledge of agroforestry techniques was probably the weakest aspect in the successful evolution of the government's Integrated Social Forestry Program.

Leucaena Hedgerows Leucaena ( Leucaena leucocephala ) is common in rural areas with less acidic soils. It was indigenously grown in fencerows as a fodder source for cattle. The National Research Council (1977) indicated that the tree showed promise as a hedgerow intercrop that could supply large quantities of nitrogen and organic matter to a companion food crop. Those observations stimulated applied research on hedgerow intercropping in several locations around the Philippines. Guevara (1976) reported that hedgerow intercropping produced crop yield increases of 23 percent. Vergara (1982) cited experiments in which yields increased by about 100 percent, with no advantage of inorganic nitrogen application beyond the nitrogen supplied by green leaf manure. Alferez (1980) observed a 56 percent yield increase when upland rice was grown in alleys between hedgerows of Leucaena.

Hedgerows of Leucaena provided a barrier to soil movement on sloping lands. Data from studies on a steeply sloping site in Mindanao indicated a dramatic reduction in both runoff and soil loss (O'Sullivan, 1985). In that study, O 'Sullivan (1985) also observed a consistent yield advantage over a 4-year period with maize fertilized by the Leucaena prunings obtained from adjacent hedgerows.

By the early 1980s, hedgerow intercropping was advocated by the Department of Agriculture as a technology that was better able to sustain permanent cereal cropping with minimal or no fertilizer inputs and as a soil erosion control measure for sloping lands. The extension of this system among Filipino farmers was encouraged by the work of the Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center (MBRLC), a nongovernmental organization (NGO) that began working with Leucaena in the mid-1970s (Watson and Laquihon, 1987). MBRLC developed a 10-step program for farmer implementation of Leucaena hedgerows that was designated sloping agricultural land technology (SALT). SALT recommended that every third alleyway between the double hedgerows of L. leucocephala be planted with perennial woody crops, such as coffee trees, with the majority of the alleys maintained by continuous cropping with annual food crops. This concept offered the possibility of more diversified sources of farm income and improved soil erosion control.

By the mid-1980s, SALT was adopted by the Philippine Department of Agriculture as the basis for its extension effort in the sloping uplands. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources also used it as the technical basis for its social forestry pilot projects. A training effort for extension personnel was launched, and demonstration plots of SALT were installed on farmers' fields throughout the country. Several publications have been developed to spread

practical information about the SALT system (Celestino, 1984, 1985; Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development, 1986).

Some adoption of Leucaena hedgerows occurred in high-intensity extension projects, but there was little evidence of widespread farmer interest in the SALT system. The lack of secure land tenure was implicated as a constraint to the implementation of this or any long-term land improvement system among tenant farmers or occupants of public lands. Among farmers with secure land tenure, however, the large initial investment of labor, the difficulty in obtaining planting materials, and the technical training and information required for sustained implementation were serious constraints to initiating SALT systems. In addition, the labor needed to manage the hedges, particularly to prune them 3 to 10 times each year, depending on the management system, was found to absorb a large proportion of the household's available labor. This labor investment tended to compete with other income-generating tasks and may have limited the area that could feasibly be farmed in this manner (S. Fujisaka, Social Sciences Division, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines, personal communication, 1989).

Hedgerows of Other Species The extension effort on Leucaena hedgerows suffered a major setback in 1985 when the exotic psyllid leafhopper ( Heteropsylla cubana ) invaded the Philippines, attacking hedgerows and killing or stunting trees throughout the country. This forced a search for replacement hedgerow tree species. Gliricidia sepium has been the most common replacement, but it must be propagated from cuttings in most areas, increasing the labor investment to establish hedgerows. Other species that have shown promise in hedgerow trials include Flemingia congesta, Acacia vellosa, Leucaena diversifolia, and Cassia spectabilis (Mercado et al., 1989; H. R. Watson, Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center, Bansalan, Philippines, personal communication, 1989). Alnus japonica is used in the acid soil highlands in northern Luzon (Barker, 1990).

Pava et al. (1990) compared the changes in crop yields associated with planting a double row of leguminous hedgerows by a group of 10 farmers who adopted the system and a control group of farmers who did not. Over the 2-year interval of monitoring, maize yields increased by both methods, but the greatest increase was among the control group of nonadopters. Fertilizer use among both groups was very similar. When queried about the perceived value of the hedgerows, the farmers who adopted leguminous hedgerows emphasized that their investment in hedgerows was long-term insurance that their children could continue to farm the land.

Contour Bunding with Hedgerows World Neighbors, another NGO, made a substantial contribution during the past decade (Granert, 1990; Granert and Sabueto, 1987). The World Neighbors approach was oriented toward the development of a high degree of direct participation by farmers in devising and implementing local solutions to the perceived dominant constraints to crop cultivation on steeply sloping lands. A system of contour bunding was developed. The bunds provided a base for the establishment of double-contour hedgerows of leguminous trees or forage grasses and a barrier to surface runoff, which is carried off the field in contour ditches.

The contour hedgerow concept was applied to the strongly acidic upland soils by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and the Philippine Department of Agriculture (Fujisaka and Garrity, 1988). Although these soils are generally deep, soil loss is a problem because it exposes a very acidic subsoil with toxic levels of aluminum. After 3 years of hedgerow intercropping, there was a striking natural development of terraces ( Figure 3 ). Modest yield benefits were ob-

FIGURE 3 Terrace formation and crop growth in a contour hedgerow system of upland rice and leguminous trees on strongly acidic Oxisol soils. Source: Basri, I, A. Mercado, and D. P. Garrity. 1990. Upland rice cultivation using leguminous tree hedgerows on strongly acid soils. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Agronomy, San Antonio, Texas, October 21–26, 1990.

FIGURE 4 Yield (on a row-by-row basis) of upland rice grown in alleys between hedges of a leguminous tree, Cassia spectabilis, that supplied green. leaf manure for the rice crop. P, phosphorus; N, nitrogen. Source: Basri, I., A. Mercado, and D. P. Garrity. 1990. Upland rice cultivation using leguminous tree hedgerows on strongly acid soils. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Agronomy, San Antonio, Texas, October 21–26, 1990.

served when upland rice was grown between hedgerows of Cassia spectabilis, a common non-nodulating leguminous tree (Basri et al., 1990). Yields of maize and rice were consistently increased when they were intercropped with hedgerows of Gliricidia sepium (Mercado et al., 1992). However, crop yields were seriously reduced in the rows adjoining the hedges, with or without the application of external nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers ( Figure 4 ). The primary roots of both tree species spread laterally into the alleyways at shallow depths (20 to 35 cm) immediately beneath the plow layer. Feeder roots were situated to explore and compete for nutrients and water in the crop root zone.

Sustainability in Alley Cropping Systems The sustainability of crop yields in alley cropping systems is a major concern on all soil types. The work reviewed by Szott et al. (1991) raises particular questions about the viability of hedgerow intercropping on strongly acidic soils. The high level of exchangeable aluminum in the subsoil inhibits the

deep tree-rooting patterns that are typically observed on higher-basestatus soils. Phosphorus and other mineral elements are often more limiting than nitrogen in these soils. The acidity of the subsoil appears to promote intense competition among roots for mineral nutrients in the surface soil of the alleys and prevents nutrient pumping from the deeper soil layers. The organic matter inputs from hedgerow prunings of Gliricidia and Cassia spectabilis do not supply adequate quantities of phosphorus to meet the nutrient requirements of cereal crops (Basri et al., 1990). Furthermore, the prunings are composed of phosphorus that the tree may have captured predominantly from the crop root zone. The results obtained with other alley cropping systems on acidic Ultisols in Peru (Fernandes, 1990) and in Sumatra, Indonesia (Evensen, 1989), support the results obtained in Mindanao by IRRI.

Grass Strips Grass strips have also received major attention as contour vegetative barriers for erosion control in different parts of the world (Lal, 1990). Considerable work has been done in the Philippines with napier grass ( Pennisetum purpureum ), guinea grass ( Panicum maximum ), and other grasses (Fujisaka and Garrity, 1988; Granert and Sabueto, 1987). The predominant attention has been given to the more vigorous forage grasses, since they tend to provide high levels of biomass for ruminant fodder. Therefore, they are presumed to serve as a beneficial way to use the area of the field occupied by hedgerows, which is lost to food crop production. Experimental data ( Table 9 ) and field observations of plantings in various locations indicate that use of forage grasses for intercropping has the potential to markedly reduce erosion and rapidly develop natural terraces on slopes. Therefore, the establishment of forage grasses has been extended as an alternative to the use of leguminous tree species on contour bunds.

Two major problems have surfaced from the use of grass strips. Farmers have difficulty keeping the tall, rapidly growing tropical forage species trimmed to prevent them from shading adjoining field crops. The biomass productivity of grass hedgerows exceeds the fodder requirements of most small-scale farm enterprises, and it is a burden for farmers to cut the unnecessary foliage frequently. High levels of biomass production also tend to exacerbate competition for nutrients and water with the adjoining food crops and reduce cereal crop yields (D. P. Garrity and A. Mercado, International Rice Research Institute, unpublished data).

Intercropping with Noncompetitive Species The constraints observed from intercropping with both trees and forage grasses have stimu-

TABLE 9 Soil Loss Affected by Contour Hedgerow Grasses Vegetation

lated an alternative concept of using hedgerows that contain noncompetitive or relatively inert species (Garrity, 1989). An inert species is one that has a short stature and a low growth rate, which minimizes hedgerow-crop competition but provides an effective ground cover for filtering out soil particles. This concept places primary emphasis on the rapid and effective development of terraces to improve field hydrology and maximize soil and nutrient retention. Vetiver zizanioides may exemplify an inert hedgerow species (Smyle et al., 1990). Vetiver is found throughout the Philippines. It tends to form a dense barrier and does not self-propagate to become a weed in cultivated fields. However, it must be propagated by vegetative tillers, which is a laborious process.

Natural Vegetative Filter Strips An alternative approach that has received little attention is the installation of natural vegetative filter strips. These are narrow contour strips that are left unplowed and on which vegetation is allowed to grow naturally. They may be established at the time that a piece of fallow land is brought into cultivation or during the interval between crops in a continuous cropping system. The dominant species in natural vegetative filter strips are native weedy grasses: Imperata cylindrica, Paspalum conjugatum, Chrysopogon aciculatus, or others, depending on the location and the management regime to which the strips are subjected. These natural grasses can be suppressed by allowing cattle to graze them, cutting them down, or mulching them with crop residues. Natural vegetative filter strips are capable of reducing soil loss at least as effectively as commonly recommended introduced species ( Table 9 , Paspalum conjugatum treatment). They are generally less competitive with food

crops than other hedgerow species, and they are adapted to local ecosystems and resilient in terms of longevity and reestablishment.

There have been some isolated observations of the indigenous development of natural vegetative barriers by upland farmers in the Philippines (Balina et al., 1991; Fujisaka, 1990; Ly, 1990). However, research has not been targeted to exploit this option in Philippine uplands. (In the United States there has been extensive research on the use of natural vegetative filter strips for sediment and chemical pollution control [Williams and Lavey, 1986].)

Farm-level adoption of natural vegetative filter strips has been observed to be comparatively simple. Contour lines are laid out at the desired spacing. The field is plowed on the contour, allowing the designated strips to be left as fallow vegetation. In fields where the technique has been implemented, the soil in runoff water is deposited at the filter strip. This deposition, combined with the movement of soil down the slope during tillage operations, results in the rapid development of terraces of 30 to 70 cm deep within 2 years. The leveling effect of terrace formation evidently improves water retention in the field, and the loss of either applied or native soil nutrients is reduced. These effects need to be investigated under a range of field conditions.

The natural vegetative filter strip approach can be considered the initial stage in a long-term process of contour hedgerow development on farms. As terraces form, farmers may diversify the terrace risers for use in other enterprises by planting trees or perennial crops as they fit their management objectives. The natural vegetative filter strip concept may be a practical basis for the rapid, wide-scale dissemination of hedgerow technology. Therefore, a substantial effort in both strategic and farmer-participatory research on natural vegetative filter strips is warranted.

Cash Crop Production in Hedgerows may also be suitable for the production of perennial cash crops. Some perennial crops that have been used in these systems include coffee, papaya, citrus, and mulberry. The suitability of the perennial species is limited by the degree of shading of the associated food crops. The cash income that can be made is a major advantage of using perennial crops. Erosion control may not be provided by the perennial crop, but it may be provided by grass that occupies the area between the widely spaced plants.

Cattle Production Backyard production of cattle has become an important enterprise in some densely settled upland areas, particularly Batangas province. A trend toward more intensive small-scale beef and goat production is now under way in many parts of the country.

This trend is stimulated by historically high meat prices. Leguminous tree species, particularly Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium, are widely used as high-protein forages, especially in the dry season. Backyard ruminant production will stimulate more intensive husbandry of manure. An important model of the development of leguminous trees in hedgerows is the use of prunings as a source of animal feed, either for on-farm use or off-farm sales (Kang et al., 1990). Harvesting of fodder potentially increases the value of the hedgerow prunings, but it also depletes soil nutrient reserves more rapidly because the nutrients contained in the prunings are removed from the field before they can provide their nutrients to the crop. Unless this manure is spread back on the land or replaced, and nutrient supplements provided in the form of fertilizer, the rate of soil depletion may be accelerated. Currently, the use of green leaf manure is insignificant in upland cropping systems.

The experience of the past 15 years with alley cropping and the use of contour hedgerows suggests that appropriate solutions must be tailored to the diverse soil and environmental conditions, farm sizes and labor availabilities, markets, and farmer objectives. The tendency for a package approach to be applied by extension systems must be replaced with a model that recognizes a wide range of possible hedgerow species and management systems (Garrity, 1989). There has been little attempt to clarify the appropriate hedgerow technologies for the range of specific local physical and institutional settings.

REDUCED-TILLAGE SYSTEMS

Clean cultivation is the universal soil management practice of Filipino upland farmers whether they use animal power or hand tillage on steep slopes. Crop residues are plowed under, burned, or removed and used as fodder. Retention of surface residues through conservation tillage systems is unexploited, although the value of such practices in reducing soil erosion is profound on tropical sloping uplands (Lal, 1990). Many studies have shown significant benefits from maintaining a surface mulch. Thapa (1991) found that soil loss was reduced by 90 percent by the presence of a vegetative barrier, but the maintenance of crop residues on the soil surface reduced soil loss by more than 98 percent. It has been shown (R. Raros, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines, personal communication, 1989) that upland rice can be dependably established in thick residues without tillage in a hedgerow system, and the yields of a system with three continuous crops per year can be sustained.

At present, no practical approach has been developed to satisfac-

torily cope with weeds in reduced-tillage systems. Broad-spectrum herbicides such as glyphosate are beginning to be used on a limited basis by small-scale farmers, but the intense weed pressures on upland farms and the tendency for weed species to shift rapidly to resistance to herbicides has severely constrained the development of herbicide-based solutions.

The possibility of successfully using a reduced-tillage system has been reinforced by recent observations on a farmer-evolved system of maize production in Mindanao (D. P. Garrity, International Rice Research Institute, unpublished data). The system involves a crop sequence of three crops of maize monoculture per year but only one primary tillage operation annually. Interrow cultivation and late weeding during the maize grain-filling period enable the second and third crops to be planted on the day of harvest without tillage and with low weed pressures. This unconventional approach provides interesting prospects for practical techniques for reducing the tillage needed for food crop farming with limited resources.

NUTRIENT SUPPLY

External fertilizer use on food crops by upland farmers is seldom important. This is due to their severe capital constraints, transport difficulties, and low returns from fertilizer use. Therefore, a long-term decline in yields is typically observed (Fujisaka and Garrity, 1988). It is widely believed that the sustainability of food crop production could be enhanced by improved retention of crop residues and by the adoption of more diverse crop rotations that include nitrogen-fixing legumes (Mclntosh et al., 1981). The limited work done to date has shown that there are mixed benefits from these practices. The practical constraints to the implementation of improved nutrient cycling practices are often considerable.

Leguminous grains play an insignificant role in upland cropping systems. Mung beans ( Phaseolus aureus ) and soybeans ( Glycine max ) are adapted to neutral and slightly acidic soils, whereas cowpeas ( Vigna sinensis, also known as black-eyed peas) are more suited to highly acidic soils (Torres et al., 1988). When leguminous grains are inserted into cereal crop-based rotations immediately before upland rice or maize is planted, the legume improves the nutrient balance of the next cereal crop (Magbanua et al., 1988; Torres et al., 1989). Intercropping of cereals and legumes may increase their combined productivities, but it does not increase the net availability of nitrogen to the cereal crop (Aggarwal et al., 1992).

Farmers who cultivate grain legumes do so as an income or food

source, but they do not usually observe better cereal crop performance as a result of the legume's inclusion as a second crop in cerealbased rotations (International Rice Research Institute, 1991). This appears to be due to the low biomass production by tropical leguminous grains that mature early and to nitrogen losses during the long fallow period between the time that the legume is harvested and the establishment of the following wet season crop.

Forage legumes have greater longevity in the field than do leguminous grains, and they produce large amounts of nitrogen-rich biomass. On high base-status soils, viny legumes such as lablab ( Lablab purpureus ) or siratro ( Macroptilium atropurpureum ) can be intercropped with upland rice or maize. They produce 100 to 200 kg of nitrogen/ ha in plowed down green manure during the dry season for the succeeding wet season cereal crop (Aggarwal and Garrity, 1989; Torres and Garrity, 1990). They also provide high-quality forage during the dry season. Lablab also provides a nutritious and marketable food legume for humans (Torres and Garrity, 1990).

On strongly acidic soils, most of the forage legumes have slow establishment rates, are not resilient to pruning, and do not accumulate substantial amounts of biomass during the dry season. This may be attributed to poor rooting and nodulation in the presence of high levels of exchangeable aluminum and low amounts of available phosphorus in the soil. Their inclusion within annual crop sequences therefore often appears to be impractical without the application of lime or phosphorus or both.

PHOSPHORUS AS A CRITICAL CONSTRAINT

The acidic upland soils of the Philippines are predominantly fine-textured, with organic carbon contents of 2 to 3 percent and with a moderate level of total nitrogen. Phosphorus deficiency is frequently the most limiting nutritional problem (International Rice Research Institute, 1987) and often must be overcome before any response to nitrogen is observed (Basri et al., 1990; Garrote et al., 1986). Phosphorus pumping from the deeper soil layers is limited by subsoils with toxic levels of aluminum and low phosphorus reserves. Since constant nutrient removal or offtake is occurring, crop yield sustainability and significant biologic nitrogen fixation will depend on the importation of mineral nutrients, particularly phosphorus and lime. Greater appreciation of the importance of importing these nutrients in upland agroecosystems with acidic soils is needed.

Deposits of phosphate rock in the Philippines are an efficient source of both phosphorus and calcium (Atienza, 1989; Briones and

Vicente, 1985). The exploitation of phosphate rocks for farm use has been neglected and could be expedited. This would require greater government and commercial recognition of the fundamental importance of these minerals to permanent upland agricultural system.

PERENNIAL CROPS

Coconuts are the dominant plantation crop in the Philippines, which has the world's largest area devoted to this crop, covering nearly one-sixth of the land surface (4.88 million ha [Swedish Space Corporation, 1988]). In addition, there are about 100,000 ha of plantations of rubber and other estate trees.

Coconut trees occupy much of the steepest nonarable land at lower elevations. Although the canopy of a coconut plantation is relatively open, the land on which coconut is grown provides satisfactory soil protection against erosion when an appropriate grassy or leguminous ground cover is established. Much of the land on which coconut is grown is owned by wealthier families but is managed in smallholdings by tenants or caretakers. The livelihoods of millions of the poorest families and the economic future of many parts of the uplands are heavily dependent on the health of the coconut industry. A long-term decline in the world market demand for coconut oil is projected because of the increasing worldwide preference for vegetable oils, which have a lower saturated fat content.

Land tenure is the dominant barrier to more productive management of the lands on which coconut is grown. Landlords generally prohibit understory cropping to avoid future claims to permanent occupancy. However, numerous crop species thrive under coconuts (Paner, 1975). Multistory cropping systems—with a two- or three-tiered canopy that may include fruits, vegetables, and food crops—improve farm income and are observed in some areas. It is unclear whether the planned extension of agrarian reform to the areas planted in coconuts, which was indicated in the 1987 Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program legislation, will have any effect in overcoming this land tenure barrier. The titling of lands on which coconut is grown to tenant farmers would result in a dramatic increase in land use intensity for coconut. This would significantly alleviate the high degree of income uncertainty for tenant farmers who grow coconuts.

FARM FORESTRY

The concept of farmers producing fast-growing trees as crops was popularized in the mid-1970s by the Paper Industries Corporation of

the Philippines, which set up woodlots on farms to grow trees for pulpwood production (World Bank, 1989a). The practice has gained momentum in recent years, as the depletion of old-growth hardwood forests sent domestic timber prices steeply upward. Substantial numbers of small-scale farmers in northern Mindanao now plant in short rotations and then sell gmelina ( Gmelina arbored ) and falcata ( Albizia falcataria ) as timber. G. arborea is harvested and coppiced in up to three 10-year cycles. Fast-growing hardwoods such as gmelina are also integrated into contour hedgerow systems. The Master Plan for Forestry Development (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990) places emphasis on contract forestry with private individuals and communities and is supported by a loan from the Asian Development Bank. Development of these systems would be greatly accelerated if credit for contract tree growing is extended to small-scale farmers and hardwood production in hedgerows is encouraged.

DIVERSIFICATION

The most plausible model of sustainable smallholder farming in the uplands is one of diversification into mixed farming systems. Given the exceptionally high production and marketing risks in the uplands and the generally low marginal returns, a number of alternative enterprises must be undertaken on upland farms to provide stability (Chambers, 1986) and to take maximum advantage of the complementarities that occur among income-generating activities (for example, leguminous trees for fodder, green leaf manure, and fuelwood; cattle for labor, cash income, and manure).

Upland farm families must place primary or exclusive emphasis on subsistence food crop production. The land use systems that result from the pursuit of these needs, however, are the least ecologically sustainable alternatives. The issue from policy, research, and extension perspectives is how to enable the farm enterprise to move profitably along a trajectory that will continually increase the area devoted to perennial plants and decrease the area devoted to annual plants ( Figure 5 ). The gradual expansion of home gardens, ruminant livestock production, and plantation and timber tree crops will contribute to this end. Greater private and public sector support for the development of these enterprises will be essential. However, this must be linked with the improvement of methods for greater sustained food crop production per unit area to release land and labor for other cash-generating activities.

The Philippine Department of Agriculture has only recently begun to give significant attention to the task of understanding upland

FIGURE 5 Model of the evolutionary development of a small-scale upland farm on sloping land.

agricultural technologies. Upland agricultural systems are in starkcontrast to the less heterogeneous lowland systems that have historically received overwhelming attention. Therefore, a major reorientation of both the research and extension approach is under way. This reorientation involves the decentralization of operations to the local level. The Department of Agriculture has adopted a farming systems research and development model for technology generation in the uplands, with strong emphasis on farmer-participatory research (Dar and Bayaca, 1990). To be effective, this transformation must be pursued more vigorously and will require major increases in staff capability and mobility.

The Grasslands and Brushlands

The most common form of vegetation in the Philippine uplands is grass, predominantly Imperata cylindrica (cogon) or Themeda triandra (samsamong, silibon, or bagocboc) or, at higher elevations, Miscanthus japonicus (runo). The rhizomes of these perennials are highly resistant to fire, but the shoots are flammable during dry periods. They readily invade abandoned swiddens, land cleared of forests, and forest openings. A small portion of the grassland area may be a result of natural disturbances, but the overwhelming majority owe their existence to repeated disturbance by fire, which is usually started by humans to obtain game or fodder or to clear land (Bartlett, 1956).

At the turn of the twentieth century, 40 percent of Luzon and extensive areas of other Philippine islands were covered with grass. The land classification of 1919 estimated that grassland covered 19 percent of the country, a figure that stayed roughly constant through 1957 (Roth, 1983). An analysis (Swedish Space Corporation, 1988) of Philippine land use estimated the area of pure grassland to be 1.8 million ha, with an additional 10.1 million ha in extensive cultivation mixed with grasslands and brushlands (that is, about 33 percent of the country's land surface). This suggests that more than 20 percent of the surface area of the country is covered by grasslands (see Table 2 ). The grasslands appear to have served as an intermediate zone—a portion continually being transformed into permanent croplands or plantations—for a long period of time, whereas new area is created as the forest withdraws. In some intensive grass-fallow rotation systems, fire climax savannah is used indefinitely as the fallow species (for example, see Barker [1984]).

The cogon grasslands are commonly used as pasture, but they have a carrying capacity that is probably lower than 0.25 animal units (0.3 cattle) per ha (World Bank, 1989a). Cogon grass is suitable as a forage only during early growth, so the range is regularly burned toward the end of the dry season, which contributes to wildfires that penetrate and further destroy forestlands. Range management by private ranchers is generally poor, and improved management practices have not resulted in competitive economic returns. Overgrazing during the regrowth period reduces ground cover and makes grassland the most significant source of soil erosion in the Philippines. Thus, the net social returns from cattle ranching are low, and justification of this form of land use is questionable.

There has been a precipitous decline in ranching during the past 15 years. A major factor has been the communist insurgency, which targeted its operations against ranches. Associated with this has been a 50 percent decline in the size of the national cattle herd during this 15-year period.

What should be done about the grasslands? They continue to function as a migratory sink for the settlement of landless and jobless families, and in this sense, they are still a frontier. The social value of these lands, however, is greatly constrained by government land use policy and a regressive pattern of formal and informal land tenure. Although the land is publicly administered as forestland by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), wealthy families (pseudo-landlords) have laid claim to large areas, relegating settler families to tenancy.

Small-scale farming in grasslands is predominantly practiced with

animal labor. Settlers initially practice a migratory system of farming, shifting their farm area as necessary to sustain crop yields. The greater population densities necessitate rotating the fallow areas of fields within permanent farm boundaries. As the farm size decreases, permanent cropping evolves, in many cases with extremely low comparative yields (Vandermeer, 1963).

SECURITY OF LAND TENURE

Since 1894, the Philippine state has proclaimed about two-thirds of the country's area as public forestland. In 1975, all land with a slope of 18 percent or greater was proclaimed by legislation to be part of the public domain. Subsequent legislation further eroded the rights of occupant families to the land on which they lived. Although the legislation was ostensibly intended to strengthen the state's ability to conserve the forests, its unanticipated effect was to greatly weaken occupants' interest in any long-term forms of sustainable land management.

Later, the realization grew that the upland populations were going to be permanent and were increasing rapidly. This led to a succession of weak programs that involved occupancy permits and communal tree farming contracts. The Integrated Social Forestry Program (ISFP) arose in the early 1980s as an extension of the earlier approaches. It was based on a Certificate of Stewardship Contract (CSC), which grants leasehold occupancy rights for up to 7 ha of land to a family for a 25-year period and is renewable for another 25 years (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). CSC holders are obligated to use conservation farming practices, plant at least five trees per hectare, and assist in protecting adjacent forest areas. The ISFP promotes agroforestry practices, particularly contour hedgerow farming.

Although the CSC is aimed at strengthening the land tenure security of upland farm families, it is a weak instrument for doing so. Many poor farmers and their families face substantial problems in asserting a CSC claim against the claim of more powerful but absentee pseudo-landlords. The CSC lease is nontransferable and, thus, cannot be used as collateral for loans for investing in farm improvements. The CSC lease may be canceled at the discretion of the Forest Management Bureau, and it is heritable only within the 25-year lease period.

The speed of implementation of ISFP has been disappointing. Only 2.5 percent of the upland area has so far been included in stewardship leases. The Master Plan for Forestry Development (Depart-

ment of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990) targeted CSCs to be issued to 626,700 families during the 10-year period from 1988 to 1997. This would cover an estimated 1.88 million ha of public land. Assuming an average of six persons per family, this would involve a population of 3.76 million. These targets appear to be overly optimistic unless major new funding and staffing becomes available.

Secure land tenure in the uplands would decrease the number of large land claims by elite individuals who use poor families as tenants. Many poor families are part of a well-organized effort of occupation of forestlands carried out by wealthier individuals who hope to lay claim to the land by paying taxes on it. Under such arrangements, the agricultural inputs of the cultivator may be subsidized by the pseudo-landlord and personal credit may be advanced to the cultivator, or the cultivator may be contracted to plant perennial crops for an agreed price per plant and permitted to grow food crops on the young plantation until the trees become established. Then, the cultivator must move on to a new area to renew the cycle or may be hired to care for the plantation.

CSC leaseholds provide a mechanism that serves as a counter-weight to the grip of local elites. Effective independence for the cultivator will depend, however, on the infrastructure and support services that will make it possible to earn a viable living from the land without the patronage of landlords. The sense of security that the CSC provides to powerless migrant farmers was explored by Pava et al. (1990). The granting of CSCs will encourage more migration into the uplands. This will happen even if recent migrants are excluded from the program. It will be especially pronounced in areas where the bulk of the fertile lowlands are controlled by a few landed elites.

FALLOW IMPROVEMENT SYSTEMS

There are a variety of farming systems in the grasslands, ranging from shifting cultivation to permanent cultivation systems. The technology appropriate for a shifting cultivation system differs from that for a permanent field cultivation system because of the major differences in labor and land use intensity required for each system. As Raintree and Warner (1986) pointed out, shifting cultivators maximize their returns to labor rather than to land and resist inappropriate labor-intensive technologies. Hedgerow farming is a solution that is suitable to the more intensive stages of permanent cultivation. A more relevant concern in shifting systems is management of fallow fields.

Barker (1984) analyzed the role of fallow fields in shifting cultivation. A crop that improves fallow fields must yield higher nutrient levels and accumulate more organic matter than the natural fallow it is to replace. Little work has been done on practical methods of rapidly regenerating soil fertility in fallow fields of the Philippines. Fallow fields are usually burned or subjected to intensive grazing. Farmers acknowledge that these practices are often ineffective in regenerating fertility, and this has been corroborated by sampling the nutrient status of fields (Fujisaka, 1989).

Leguminous cover crops have been proposed as candidates for managed fallow fields, but empirical evidence of their practical utility is sparse. The ubiquitous presence of dry season grassland fires and the difficulty in preventing fires on the grasslands will limit this practice. Protection from communal grazing is also a constraint in many areas. Problems of seed supply and seed collection limit the adoption of leguminous cover crops, but a system for marketing cover crops is rapidly developing (P. C. Dugan, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, personal communication, 1990). A much greater research effort is needed at national and local levels, particularly regarding species that can be used as food for humans (for example, Psophocarpus palustris [siratro]).

Systems for enhancing fallow fields with leguminous trees have been demonstrated. MacDicken (1990) described an indigenous planned fallow that has evolved on steep slopes in Cebu since before 1900. Dense stands of naturally reseeded Leucaena leucocephala are used in the fallow portion of the cycle. When the Leucaena trees are cut, the stems are placed on the contour and staked to create contour bunds. A fallow period of 3 to 7 years is followed by several years of cereal cropping. The concept of naturally reseeded fallow fields deserves serious attention as an alternative fallow for both grassland and forest agroecosystems, where natural woody plant regeneration after cropping is suppressed. Tree species that are suited to strongly acidic soils and are prolific in seed production also need to be identified. Flemingia congesta is a candidate species for medium-elevation sloping acid soils, and Alnus japonica is a candidate species for the highlands.

A tree fallow system for shifting cultivation on the island of Mindoro, which used cuttings of Leucaena that was intercropped with the food crops, allowed development of a tree cover on fallow land after the cropping cycle (MacDicken, 1990). The value of such systems remains unconfirmed. There are also uncertainties in applying these systems—or variations of them—to the diverse range of fallow environments on grasslands or forestlands. Exclusion of fire will also be

a dominant concern in successful implementation of such systems. A major sustained research effort on managed fallows is critical.

REFORESTATION EFFORTS

The grassland areas have been a major target of Philippine government reforestation efforts for the past 30 years (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). Official forestry statistics indicate that about 1 million ha of tree plantations was planted between 1960 and 1989. This effort was managed by the Forest Management Bureau.

In most ongoing reforestation contracts, fast-growing and leguminous hardwoods are planted as nurse trees to form a protective canopy, with a few premium species planted as the climax crop. Foremost among the nurse trees are Acacia mangium, Acacia auriculiformis, Leucaena diversifolia (psyllid-resistant strains of L. leucocephala), and Gliricidia sepium. The major premium quality species include Swietenia species and Pterocarpus grandiflorus. Other species that can grow in areas dominated by Imperata cylindrica are Gmelina arborea, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, and leguminous pioneer species. Sometimes, contractors mechanically till the areas to be planted and seed leguminous cover crops during the first year to improve the soil microenvironment. In most projects, nursery-grown plantings are used.

The success record, however, has been disappointing. In a recent nationwide inventory of the status of plantations (Forest Management Bureau, 1988), the actual extent of surviving trees was found to be only 26 percent. In the central and western areas of the country, which have prolonged dry seasons, the situation was more dismal. For example, Reyes and Mendoza (1983) found that after an intensive reforestation effort in the watershed containing the Pantabangan Reservoir, the survival of replanted trees was only 10 to 15 percent because of poor weed control, pests and diseases, and fire.

Control of fires on newly established plantations is difficult and costly. Public reforestation projects are given neither adequate incentives nor appropriate management capabilities to provide protection from fires. In fact, many plantations were deliberately torched by local people who saw that there was nothing to be gained from the presence of a government plantation in their area.

CONTRACT REFORESTATION

The overwhelming failure of reforestation efforts managed by the Forest Management Bureau has recently prompted a major redirec-

tion in approach. The approach is called contract reforestation, by which DENR plans to establish artificial forests via contracts with families, communities, local governments, the private sector, and NGOs on about 630,000 ha by the year 2015 (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). Contracting consists of a two-phase strategy. First, DENR contracts for the establishment, maintenance, and protection of artificial forests for a 3- to 4-year period. If the contractors perform well in meeting the provisions of the reforestation contract, they can apply for a Forestland Management Agreement (the second phase). This entitles them to harvest, process, and sell or otherwise use the products grown on their reforested areas. The private forestland manager, however, must pay the government a share of the income from sales of production output. This share is equivalent to the amount of money needed to reforest 1 ha of denuded area when 1 ha of 3- to 4-year-old trees is cut. Harvesting and other thinning activities are done in accordance with a DENR-approved management plan.

The majority of the lands targeted for the contract reforestation program are relatively degraded or remote. Because of low profitability and high interest rates, private firms are hesitant to invest their own corporate funds to establish industrial tree plantations (Domingo, 1983; Guiang, 1981). The funds that the government has designated for this program are largely from international donors, particularly the Asian Development Bank.

DENR hopes to generate reforestation funds from production shares under the Forestland Management Agreement. In this way, DENR could spread the financial and environmental benefits of reforestation activities. It is presumed that managers have strong incentives to protect and manage their artificial forests, since they reap the major profit from the sale of the tree crops. They can also plant and intercrop cash crops, fruit trees, and other agricultural crops to augment their incomes and to provide additional incentive for protecting, replanting, or enriching the plantation forests. DENR has also provided an indirect subsidy for rehabilitating grasslands and brushlands that are not profitable under the industrial tree plantation scheme. Enthusiasm for contract forestry is tempered by apprehension about constrictive regulatory controls. If the regulatory attitude prevails during implementation of the program, as is typical of DENR programs, progress will be disappointing.

A major factor in the success of the contract forestry program is the assumption that independent managers will strive to protect their investment from fire. The excellent fire control technologies of indigenous peoples, for example, methods used on the 15,000-ha ancestral

lands of the Kalahan Education Foundation, Nueva Viscaya, can be more widely disseminated (Barker, 1990).

THE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF FIRE

When an area is cleared of tropical forest it changes from an ecosystem essentially immune to fire to one in which fires are extremely common. J. B. Kauffman's research (cited in Savonen [1990]) showed that rain forests are capable of catching fire only on an average of 1 day each 11 years, but partially logged areas burn after an average of only 6 rainless days. Grassland areas are flammable after only 1 rainless day.

Repeated burning kills potential tree propagules in fallow fields and favors grasses, in particular Imperata cylindrica, over perennials. When burning or other disturbance is halted, I. cylindrica is rapidly invaded and shaded out by taller, woody species. If the area is large enough, however, I. cylindrica grass may persist for decades, even after the fires have stopped, because the propagules of other plants have been eliminated.

All aspects of this discussion on technology for more productive uses of grasslands for agriculture and forestry emphasize the dominance of fire as a debilitating constraint. Determined ecologic and farm-level management research on fire control will be essential to achieve progress in the better use of grasslands. Identification of practical and cost-effective tactics will require a systems approach. A national research project on the ecology and management of fire could collate the knowledge on the subject that can be provided by indigenous peoples, design a comprehensive framework for investigation, and assist regional and local research teams in undertaking work in this area within the respective land use system research programs.

LOCAL ORGANIZATION FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

During the past decade, social forestry research has provided much insight into the complex constraints in the evolution of effective community organizations to sustainably manage local upland resources (Borlagdan, 1990). Many of these organizations will be needed to serve the needs of upland farmers in thousands of villages throughout the Philippines. The initiation of farmers' organizations has so far been limited to specific project sites. Careful consideration must be given to the development of a structure that will link these organizations at the provincial, regional, and national levels. Such a struc-

ture might draw on some of the experiences of the conservation districts in the United States (Cook, 1989). These independent units of local government, of which there are more than 3,000, regulate resource use and assist farmers in implementing conservation practices. Conservation districts are created through a referendum involving all occupants of the land. They are governed by an elected board that enlists the skills and services of government agencies at all levels to advance conservation programs in the district.

Saving and Rebuilding the Remaining Natural Forests

The commercially exploitable old-growth dipterocarp forests in the Philippines are nearly exhausted. The Master Plan for Forestry Development (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990) estimates their extent at slightly less than 1 million ha. We estimate that the actual extent may be closer to 700,000 ha—or lower. Nearly all of this area is to be protected under recently enacted DENR policies banning logging in old-growth forests. Therefore, DENR anticipates that further declines in forested areas will be slight (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). It appears to be optimistic to assume that commercial logging will stop immediately, that illegal logging can be controlled (since it has been resilient in the past), and that indigenous communities and migrants to the forest will not further convert significant areas of the forest to permanent agricultural uses.

The Philippine government has now acknowledged that it is incapable of managing forestlands on its own (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). DENR recognizes the logic of community control in managing forest resources. The issue now is whether DENR mechanisms set in place to implement this concept will be sufficient to address the needs.

THE ROLE AND RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES

The people of the indigenous communities differ in their willingness to accept the concept of stewardship leases rather than full titling of the land to the community. Their reasons fall into three categories, depending on the community's circumstances:

Ethnic communities that have been able to maintain secure control of their land: Forest-dwelling ethnic minorities of the Cordillera who have staunchly protected their land fear that acceptance of stewardship leases will mean that they must give up their claim to ownership.

Communities that have traditionally possessed land but whose lands are under strong encroachment pressure from lowland settlers or plantation expansion: Groups such as the Ikalahans and Mangyans struggled successfully over a long period of time to obtain a lease and consider stewardship leases to be the best practical means for trying to maintain the integrity of their land.

Communities that have been displaced from their traditional lands: These communities, such as the T'boli, have been forcibly dispossessed and inhabit new locations where they do not have a basis for traditional land claims. Others, such as the Bilaan, have been completely dispossessed of any land and live in squalid refugee camps. These groups are desperately seeking some form of land tenure security and are highly receptive to leasing arrangements.

The predominant concern of many communities regarding land tenure is encroachment by outside interests. The first Communal Forest Lease was obtained in 1974 by the Ikalahan in Nueva Viscaya (Cornista and Escueta, 1990). The major land threat was from lowland farmers and elites from the nearby municipality who claimed land on the Ikalahan 's traditional reservation. By 1988, a total of nine communal leases ranging from 50 to more than 15,000 ha were issued to a variety of groups.

An organizing force was critical to the eventual development of these leases. This was usually provided by an NGO. Developing community leadership to manage the process was an essential and often difficult process. Many failures in community management can be anticipated; therefore, a heavy investment in management skills will be essential within DENR, NGOs, and the communities.

COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT

In 1989, DENR moved to implement the Community Forestry Program (CFP) (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). This allows organized cooperatives of forest occupants and upland farmers to extract, process, and sell forest products in exchange for the community 's commitment to protect, manage, and enrich the residual forest. DENR provides 25-year wood utilization permits to organized communities under a Community Forestry Management Agreement, which is renewable for another 25 years. The change in policy was intended to democratize access to forest resources, generate employment in the uplands, and manage the remaining production forests in a sustainable manner.

Under DENR's Master Plan for Forestry Development (1990), a

total of 1.5 million ha is targeted for community-based forest management. The forests classified for CFP are generally fragmented, inadequately stocked, part of canceled concession areas, near rural communities, and unprofitable for large-scale commercial extraction and processing. In 1990, 26 percent of the forests classified for CFP were in good condition, 40 percent were in fair condition, and 34 percent were in poor condition. Only small-scale and labor-intensive types of forest extraction and processing will result in profitable operations in these forests.

The CVRP-1 Social Forestry Project (1984–1989) was the first test of the community-based forestry concept (Dugan, 1989). The project was located on a 17,000-ha site on Negros Oriental island that had 4,500 ha of forest and about 17,500 inhabitants. The area had been under a logging ban since 1979, but illegal deforestation continued at an annual rate of about 1,360 ha. Eighteen Forest Stewardship Associations composed of forest occupants and farmers were initiated. They assumed responsibility for managing and conserving designated portions of the forest under the guidance of the project staff. The rate of forest destruction declined abruptly—by 92 percent—as the cooperatives began policing their zones, and it remained at only 100 ha annually through 1989. Shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation in the forest was drastically curtailed. Large-scale illegal logging was eliminated. Using labor-based technology, the cooperative members participated in limited wood extraction, which increased their incomes far beyond what they had earned previously. These projects were proven successes that supported the hypothesis that the deforestation process can be controlled only when the forest occupants have a direct stake in the enterprise.

Nevertheless, some serious deficiencies in community organization, training, and cooperative management were observed. These deficiencies led to confusion in the cooperatives, and instances of corruption and abuses of forest regulations were uncovered. The need for a major reorientation of the skills and attitudes of the foresters involved in a community-based management setting was also highlighted. Success of the approach will be possible only with a large core of committed and competent people. Currently, no organized pool of people has such expertise. The limitation of human resources in the communities and in DENR will make the rapid expansion of community-based forestry uncertain. To date, DENR's experience with implementation of CFP has been limited to the selection of NGOs to operate the program and site identification, but inadequate attention has been given to organizing and training members of the community (Guiang, 1991; Guiang and Gold, 1990). Therefore, emphasis

on training programs that can teach the required managerial skills will be needed.

The technical, managerial, social, marketing, and financial management requirements of community-based forest management projects are enormous. Most NGOs, which have strong community-organizing capabilities, must strengthen their capabilities in taking resource inventories, preparing management plans, harvesting methods, marketing, processing, and managing finances.

Under a 1989 DENR directive, part of the money from the sale of products extracted from residual forests should be invested in systems that provide forest dwellers with alternative livelihoods. These systems must not be dependent on forest resources. A key need is for investment in village nurseries that will supply perennial and timber seedlings to individuals on a sustained basis.

SUSTAINED-YIELD FORESTRY

Little is known about the ecology of dipterocarp forests. It is not possible to say with confidence that any selective cutting system will ensure the sustained development and harvest of dipterocarp wood. Therefore, maintenance of the remaining fragments of lowland and upland old-growth dipterocarp forests is of the highest priority. Much more research into the ecology and physiology of dipterocarp forests is essential if the remaining fragments are to be expanded into viable forests. Previous efforts to establish dipterocarp forests have generally failed, but there have been a few cases of dipterocarp forest survival on plantations (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). The factors that govern such successes need to be investigated more thoroughly.

LABOR-BASED TIMBER EXTRACTION

Some foresters argue that sustained-yield timber extraction is highly feasible when native-style logging exclusively is used by local communities (Dugan, 1989). The experience gained from the CVRP-1 Social Forestry Project lends strong support to this contention. Timber extraction is naturally limited by the lower technical efficiency of carabao (water buffalo) logging, but the economic efficiency and profitability for both local harvesters and sawmills is attractive as compared with mechanized logging. Mechanized logging is skewed toward once-over extraction of the 150-plus-year-old virgin trees, with a return harvest expected after some 30 to 100 years, assuming that

forest destruction in the logging operation did not permanently disrupt the ability of the valued timber species to regenerate.

Indigenous logging methods emphasize repeated extraction of small amounts of timber and other forest products. These labor-based systems may allow an incremental annual extraction, determined on the basis of the annual accumulation of wood that can be harvested. This would provide continuous income from a limited tract of land and would be less destructive to the environment than capital- and machine-intensive systems. Employment in forest industries may quadruple if indigenous systems are adopted (P. C. Dugan, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, personal communication, 1990).

FOREST ENRICHMENT

As communities manage forests to achieve sustainable yields, there will be a tendency to extract the higher quality species, which will eventually lead to species impoverishment—a major concern. Enrichment planting of valuable timber species is a method that has been proposed to avoid impoverishment of economically valuable species in selectively or severely logged forests. There are virtually no data, however, to verify the effectiveness of enrichment techniques or to address the numerous practical questions that arise in their implementation. A strong research effort involving species establishment and ecologic studies in the field is urgently needed. Strategic research will need to be complemented with in-depth surveys of the methods of indigenous farmers and evaluations by participating farmers from multiple locations in forests representing wide ecologic gradients.

FUTURE IMPERATIVES FOR SUSTAINABLE UPLAND FARMING AND FORESTRY

The phenomenal depletion of natural resources in the Philippines reflects major deficiencies in the country's development efforts since its independence in 1946. The outstanding characteristics of the lack of development are the failure to create jobs and raise the living standards of the majority of Filipinos as well as the large inequalities in the distribution of wealth and access to financial and social resources. Therefore, a critical consideration in an assessment of future scenarios of forestry and agriculture in the Philippine upland ecosystem must include accurate prediction of trends in the political economy.

There is a no lack of detailed studies of the state of the Philippine environment or suggestions as to what should be done. Such studies include Dames and Moore International et al. (1989), Fay (1989), Por-

ter and Ganapin (1988), World Bank (1989a), and the Master Plan for Forestry Development (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). The major structural problem in the Philippines has been the inequality of income and wealth. Most observers agree that land reform in postwar Philippines has failed to reduce the power of the landed elites or to transfer substantial amounts of land to tillers. Implementation of the current agrarian reform program is clouded by similar doubts.

Another dominant structural problem is the failure of the industrial sector to provide new jobs at a rate fast enough to absorb the burgeoning labor pool. Upland agricultural and environmental problems cannot be solved as long as the mass of Filipinos are unemployed or underemployed and earn less than a subsistence wage. There must be a structural shift away from agriculture. The upland sustainability crisis is strongly interconnected with national political, economic, and ecologic stability. The strategy for attacking it must be bold, but it must be sensitive to the realities of these aspects.

Elements of a Strategy

There are three overarching elements to a comprehensive strategy for evolving sustainable land use systems in the Philippine uplands: tenure, technology, and delivery. Tenure encompasses human populations and their relationship to the land. Technology covers the technical solutions and the institutional capabilities to develop them. Delivery involves the mechanisms that government institutions and the private sector use to deliver the policy and various infrastructural supports to facilitate and guide the process of change.

TENURE: PEOPLE AND EMPOWERMENT

Reduce Population Growth Rates Any strategy to address the sustainable management of upland resources must include a reduction in the rate of population growth. This must be powered by a national consensus on the need for a vigorous population control program. National and international efforts could vigorously pursue that policy dialogue by supporting the call by a group of Filipino development specialists for a new national consensus on establishing the two-child family (Porter and Ganapin, 1988).

The poorest households in the rural uplands have the highest birth and mortality rates. Government must redirect health care programs to ensure that there are greater investments in village-level health and paramedical personnel, and family planning support and

education should be an integral part of the effort. The cost and political risks from embarking on a vigorous population control program will necessitate strong and sustained international support. Demographic goals and an effective organization to meet those goals must be highlighted as a fundamental component of such support.

Reform Land Tenure to Reinforce Local Stewardship Future success in bringing sustainable land use to the uplands is fundamentally dependent on major changes in the ways that public lands are managed. The Philippine government has proved to be incapable of managing the country's land area. The area under direct central government control must be decreased rapidly. Although this is a declared intention of government policy, progress has been slow.

To harness the energies of upland populations in creating sustainable land use systems and to ensure the success of reforestation and forest remnant conservation efforts, the national government must establish a new political relationship with the upland population. It must recognize the boundaries of the lands held by the indigenous occupants and move to recognize their full ownership rights. The dominant issue is empowerment of the upland people so that they can have a secure stake in the land.

The Philippine Constitution restricts leaseholds on public lands to terms of 25 years, which are renewable for another 25 years. However, further definition of the terms of the lease is at DENR's administrative discretion. As of 1988, only 2.2 percent of publicly owned forestlands were placed under leasehold arrangements; thus, only a fraction of the upland farming population has been affected. The Master Plan for Forestry Development (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990) projects a large increase in leaseholds, but DENR has not allocated budgetary support and does not have the implementation capacity to effectively carry out an aggressive program.

In addition, the form of land tenure security in the Certificate of Stewardship Contract (CSC) now being issued will not be adequate to foster viable farm operations with the degree of land stewardship needed. The CSC must be amended to enable it to be transferable and so that farmers can use it as collateral to obtain credit. The transferability of the CSC should, however, apply only to actual land occupants, to avoid an eventual concentration of landholdings.

These provisions should be interpreted as the initial stages that will eventually lead to unrestricted land titles. They give the occupants time to demonstrate their capacity to develop a sustainable land management system. Complete title to the land would then be-

come an incentive to practice conservation farming methods and to be a good steward of the land. Granting of immediate and unconditional titles to the land is not practical because of the immense administrative work load it would entail.

A comprehensive government response must be initiated to deal with the existence of tenancy in the uplands resulting from the land claims of pseudo-landlords. Although they are illegal, these claims result in nominal tax revenues for local governments, which otherwise have very limited sources of income. It is essential that local governments realize that the changes in land tenure in the uplands will be to their benefit through taxes, income, and social stability. Therefore, the national government must make provisions for local governments to receive alternative sources of income. The 1991 Local Government Code began the process of enabling local governments to obtain local tax revenue. Two additional mechanisms that can be implemented are the allocation of authority for local governments to levy modest taxes on individual leaseholds and to undertake contractual forestry activities on the public lands in their jurisdiction.

Recognize the Ancestral Rights of Indigenous Occupants There is a strong legal basis granting ownership rights to indigenous peoples who have historically inhabited the land (Lynch and Talbott, 1988). Recognition of these rights has so far been ignored by DENR, but we believe it is a crucial element in the sustainable management of upland resources. In general, the optimum mechanism by which these rights can be recognized is a community title. The precise instrument by which secure tenure should be granted, however, may have to vary somewhat for different communities. Direct titles to the land should immediately be given to indigenous communities that have strong and cohesive leadership, particularly in the autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao and the Central Cordillera area of northern Luzon, which have legislative power over ancestral domains and natural resources.

Initially it is not necessary that all those with ancestral property rights receive titles that recognize those rights. The most immediate need is for the delineation of the ancestral domains by survey teams, so that a common basis of understanding exists between the national government and the communities (Lynch and Talbot, 1988) and so that communities can exercise effective control over their domains.

An important activity in developing an instrument of land tenure should be the formulation of a management plan than contains flexible but comprehensive mechanisms for allocating land among the

inhabitants and for applying sound land management practices. As public land management is progressively privatized, it will be necessary to give local governments the authority to apply zoning restrictions so that they can control private land usage. These functions will strengthen local governments and overcome the strong objections from some quarters that the titling of public lands will lead to abuse of the land.

TECHNOLOGY: DEVELOPMENT AND DISSEMINATION

Research Upland Agriculture New technologies will be critical to the development of sustainable agriculture in the uplands, but the technologies being extended have not been proved in the diverse environments and for the variety of circumstances farmers face in the uplands. Two issues must be addressed: What will it take to make small-scale farming permanently sustainable? What will it take to improve fallow-rotation systems where they are still practiced?

Permanent small-scale upland farming systems are evolving in the sloping upland areas and are gradually replacing shifting cultivation. Acceleration of the trend toward permanent agricultural systems will fundamentally require simple, effective soil erosion control on open fields by use of vegetation barriers and residue management; mineral nutrient importation to balance the uptake of nutrients by crops and to stimulate greater biological nitrogen fixation; and diversification toward mixed farming systems that include perennials and ruminant animals, in addition to subsistence food crops. The technologies needed to meet these needs are known. Some fulfill multiple requirements (for example, trees in contour hedgerows may provide erosion control, fodder, and crop nutrients). But knowledge of how to adapt them to the wide array of diverse ecologic niches encountered by upland farmers is still inadequate. Much can be done now to take specific action to implement these concepts. The work must rely on farmer-participatory experimentation to refine specific solutions for local conditions.

The major innovation for farming on sloping lands has been the sloping agricultural land technology (SALT) that uses hedgerows of leguminous trees. A serious constraint of SALT is its high labor requirement. On acidic soils, there are questions concerning negative crop-hedgerow interactions. A major extension problem is the lack of hedgerow planting materials of forages, multipurpose trees, and perennial crops.

Because of the limitations of trees and introduced forage grasses in hedgerows, serious efforts should be invested in the refinement

and dissemination of simpler methods, including natural vegetative filter strips. The advantages of natural vegetative filter strips are their simplicity of installation, their low labor requirements, and their excellent erosion control and terrace formation capabilities. They also provide a good foundation for soil conservation efforts, so that farmers may subsequently diversify into more labor-intensive hedgerow enterprises, including those that grow perennials, leguminous trees, and improved forages.

The importation of mineral nutrients will be essential to the development of sustainable food crop production on permanent farms in the uplands. Because the majority of soils are strongly acidic, phosphorus is usually the most limiting nutrient, and lime application is often necessary to lower the soil's acidity and alleviate aluminum toxicity. Programs that help upland farmers reduce soil degradation should also consider how to provide supplies of phosphorus and lime at the most favorable prices and provide instruction as to their most efficient use. Nitrogen fertilizer is an important tool that can be used to familiarize lowland rice farmers with nutrient use and bolster national rice sufficiency.

In areas that use fallow rotation systems, there is hope for improved fallow management if fire can be controlled. The use of trees planted in fallow fields has been demonstrated successfully in systems without animal labor. Little research has been directed to the agronomics of trees in fallow fields. In systems that use animal labor, forage legumes have been tested as an alternative to natural Imperata cylindrica infestation, but their effects are poorly documented. Much more research will be needed to refine the agronomic practices used in managed fallows in different environments.

Other top research priorities for sloping lands involve the development of appropriate small-scale mixed farming systems, such as those that include animal, perennial, and tree production, to gradually reduce reliance on food crops. Systems research will be essential for making more rapid progress in diversifying small-scale upland farms. Many NGOs are active in promoting sustainable low-input agricultural systems in the Philippines (Garcia-Padilla, 1990) and will play an important role in adapting solutions to specific local conditions.

Integrate Livestock into Upland Farming Systems There must be greater emphasis on ruminant livestock in achieving sustainability in mixed farming systems. Most hedgerow systems supply the farm with increased quantities of legumes or grass forage. Hedgerow farming enables larger livestock populations and contributes to alleviating the deficit in ruminant meat production.

There is an opportunity for greater investment in NGO-operated

programs to distribute ruminants (cattle, goats, and sheep) to small-scale upland farmers for cut-and-carry production systems. Animals would be distributed to farmers who have succeeded in installing hedgerows that contribute to conservation practices. The incentive would popularize the use of contour hedgerows and make it economically attractive to practice conservation. Farmers would receive parent animals and then retain female animal offspring, returning the parent animals so that the program rolls over and expands. International donors may also find such a program to be a sound investment, if it is well managed.

Reorient Forestry Research and Development Forestry in the Philippines will change dramatically in the next 20 years. The extraction of high-value timber from old-growth dipterocarp forests will disappear as the few remaining forests vanish or become protected. The reorientation of forestry to the development of sustainable management systems for secondary forests should begin in earnest. Interest in rehabilitating degraded forests will grow as the real value of timber rises. Tree plantations and farm forestry can then become viable income-producing activities.

Management systems in forestry must be drastically altered, but the technical knowledge base to support these changes is extremely weak. Research on both technical solutions and management systems must be accelerated to provide a sound basis for new directions. Major research efforts will be needed in the following areas: the ecology and management of dipterocarp forests for sustained production, community-oriented forest management, restoration systems for degraded secondary forests, the ecology and management of fire, the impact of policy changes on the supply of wood, and plantation and farm forestry issues. The research must be strongly oriented to the social as well as biologic sciences and requires a systems approach. The development of joint international collaboration will be important to the acceleration of forestry research.

Develop a Research Methodology It is at the interface between forestry and farming that the major future research and development challenges will be encountered ( Figure 6 ). The forestry sector must engage in forestry for the benefit of the land and the people, and the agricultural sector must do the same, thereby creating sustainable upland farming and forestry. An understanding of the constraints and solutions is needed before upland farming populations and government can become effective partners in conserving, managing, and replanting forests while meeting basic subsistence food production needs. Teamwork is essential.

FIGURE 6 Evolution of a more integrated approach to sustainable land use in sloping uplands.

Farming systems research evolved as a framework for a more comprehensive, multidisciplinary attack on the complex constraints in agroecosystems (Harrington et al., 1989). Ecosystem-based research should be targeted to the broader continuum that includes forest management and agriculture. Such work needs a methodology that provides foresters and agriculturalists a common framework within which to interact.

Hart and Sands (1991) have proposed a sustainable land use-systems research strategy based on a farming systems approach that may provide a starting point. It applies a farming systems perspective to the land use system, targeting the land management unit within the context of its biophysical and socioeconomic environments and emphasizes the ecosystem as the starting point of problem analysis and research design ( Figure 7 ).

The watershed is the natural unit on which to base a systems research effort because of the interconnected nature of all land uses

FIGURE 7 A research and development process that could be used by a multidisciplinary team as a guide in the development of an appropriate sustainable land use systems research framework. Source: Hart, R. D., and M. W. Sands. 1991. Sustainable land use systems research. In Sustainable Land Use Systems Research, R. D. Hart and M. W. Sands, eds. Kutztown, Pa.: Rodale Institute.

within a water catchment area, particularly the interplay between uplands and lowlands. The most technically and economically efficient approach would focus on site-specific conservation-oriented farming and forestry technologies. The watershed framework ensures that the social, economic, and political linkages between upstream and downstream lands are not neglected in the analyses (Magrath and Doolette, 1990).

Institutional mechanisms and project structures need to be evolved to make it feasible for the forestry and agricultural sectors to jointly participate in common research and extension work. Professionals in both sectors—long separated by administrative barriers and divergent academic traditions—need to recognize the improved research that can be the result of working together. International donors can assist in generating research opportunities; for example, the Ford Foundation has provided support to a team of foresters and agriculturalists at Central Mindanao University to develop methods of farmer participation in generating practical solutions for sustainable hillside cultivation (Pava et al., 1990).

Colleges of agriculture and forestry need to be encouraged to set up joint academic and research programs targeted to upland ecosystems. The recent initiation of the Committee on Agroforestry at the University of the Philippines, Los Baños, is a step in this direction (R. del Castillo, Agroforestry Program, University of the Philippines, Los Baños, personal communication, 1990). Mechanisms for research collaboration between professionals in DENR and the Department of Agriculture are urgently needed. These may be fostered by an expansion in scope and the participation of the Upland Working Group of DENR (Gibbs et al., 1990). Explicit linkages between the Ecosys-

tems Research and Development Bureau of DENR and the Department of Agriculture's research programs, particularly key community-based forestry and contract reforestation projects, would generate a greater focus on the constraints to using various land use systems in deforested areas. The Philippine Council for Agricultural and Resources Research and Development, which has responsibility for approving and encouraging both agriculture and forestry research, will play a central role in expanding resource management-oriented research.

The Philippines needs a more definitive network of on-farm (field) laboratories in carefully selected watersheds where multidisciplinary research and development teams can focus their efforts. These field laboratories need sustained support with a budget structure that keeps team members working together. These sites would be linked to the less intensive applied research and extension programs carried out by NGOs and government departments. Research should be particularly sensitive to the use of techniques that enhance participatory approaches to rural development, drawing strongly on the technical knowledge of indigenous people in all phases of research (S. Fujisaka, Social Science Division, International Rice Research Institute, Los Bañ os, Philippines, personal communication, 1989).

Support International Research The complex upland sustainability issues faced by the Philippines are common to most countries in Southeast Asia. Because the problems transcend national boundaries, stronger international mechanisms that provide efficient research and development support to the respective nations are needed. A number of institutions and networks are involved with upland resource management (Garrity and Sajise, 1991), including the Southeast Asian Universities Agroecosystems Network, the Asian Rice Farming Systems Network, the International Board for Soils Research and Management (IBSRAM) Sloping Lands Network, and the Multipurpose Tree Species (MPTS) Network.

The major challenge is to evolve new institutional arrangements that direct research toward the upland ecosystem as a totality. A focus on the Southeast Asian upland ecosystem does not fall within the mandate of any of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). But there are major CGIAR initiatives in forestry (Center for International Forestry Research) and agroforestry (the Southeast Asian regional program of the International Centre for Agroforestry Research). Nevertheless, there remains concern that such efforts may address only components of the upland ecosystem, whereas the key to eventual success lies in coping with the interrelatedness of

the problems across sectors and in developing the capacity to strengthen each country's research and development institutions to conceptualize, plan, and implement interventions that are appropriate to each ecosystem. This will require a novel upland ecosystem-based approach to international research. The evolving concept of ecoregional research (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Technical Advisory Committee, 1991), under which a consortium of international centers is planning a joint long-term effort to develop alternatives to shifting (slash-and-burn) agricultural systems, represents a promising mechanism for providing this leadership.

DELIVERY: INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE, PROGRAMS, AND POLICY

Implement Institutional Changes DENR has recognized that its future role will be primarily in development, replacing its historical role as a regulatory agency. It acknowledges that development and management of production forests and plantation forestry are the domain of the private sector and that it should support and guide this transition (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990). Such a role will require a fundamental restructuring of DENR's administration, policy framework, and staff technical capabilities and attitudes. The recent enactment of the Local Government Code requires the transfer of many DENR functions to local government units, decentralizing resource management and giving much greater authority to local leaders.

The redirection of DENR must specifically include a systematic strengthening of forestry policy and planning capabilities, for which there is substantial support expected from international donors. Operations will need to be further decentralized, with much greater accountability and resources at the local level.

DENR has consistently claimed exclusive control over public forestlands, 55 percent of the land area of the country. However, the majority of that land is devoted to agricultural pursuits, not forestry. The development of sustainable upland agricultural systems is a task for which the Department of Agriculture has a much stronger capability. DENR should recognize the potential role of the Department of Agriculture in providing agricultural and agroforestry research and extension services. Within the past several years, the Department of Agriculture has reoriented its priorities to give much greater attention to upland agriculture. A much greater level of support for upland technology development and extension is required to widen this role.

Vigorously Implement the Master Plan for Forestry Development The Master Plan for Forestry Development (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990) marks a fundamental turning point in the philosophy and methodology of forest management in the Philippines. It provides a basis for a range of reforms and restructuring that is essential to future forest preservation and sustainable land use systems. The master plan contains unrealistically optimistic projections for trends in forest cover, but it provides a framework for the kind of comprehensive, directed effort that is necessary.

Enforce Timber Pricing Reform and Logging Ban New fees for timber cutting based on recent legislation have been increased to 25 percent of the actual market price (for example, for logs with a price of P2,000 [US$80.00] per cubic meter, the fee is P500 [US$20.00]). It remains to be seen how effective the government will be in collecting the increased fees and using them to increase forest protection and management expenditures.

A major national debate on a total logging ban occurred in 1991. DENR directives in 1991 instituted a ban in old-growth dipterocarp forests. Logging in secondary-growth forests was restricted to lands with slopes of less than 50 percent and land less than 1,000 m above sea level. Enforcement of these policies will be impossible, however, unless greater investments in enforcement procedures are made and forest occupants are directly involved in forest preservation through limited use of the forests. An integrated protected area system for the conservation of the most important natural habitats is under development. NGOs are seen to be the key to the successful implementation of this effort. They will assume responsibility for the management of national parks, wildlife refuges, and other wild lands.

Give Priority to People-Oriented Forestry Now that regulation of the forests by the national government has been acknowledged to be inadequate, forest protection through empowerment of people and their communities is officially accepted as the only workable model. Implementation of a successful community forestry program will be an immense organizational task that will require a strong commitment by the forest occupants and upland farmers. Capable NGOs will be a key to the program. If further conversion of forests to agricultural uses is blocked through effective community enforcement and shifting cultivation is to decline, there must be agricultural innovation to maintain viable farming systems on the lands surrounding the forests. The equitable capture of income from the limited harvest of forest products will be crucial to financing this transition.

The implementation of current policy will turn the primary responsibilities for forest protection, tree production, and land conservation over to upland communities, NGOs, and individuals. This grass roots approach will open a new era in the management of the uplands. However, it may not be any more effective in forest conservation than a top-down approach unless local management entities receive appropriate support to develop the complex skills needed to guide their efforts. Community-based organizations will require professional guidance to achieve even minimal management capabilities.

NGOs will be involved in implementing many of the new people-oriented forestry programs. They are working as partners with DENR in contracting reforestation and community forest management projects. Eventually, they might form local environment and natural resource centers that would assist the national government in training and on-farm research. Only a few NGOs are competent to handle community-based resource management on a large scale. A major priority of national and international support must be to strengthen NGOs.

The Timber License Agreements (TLAs), by which logging rights are allocated, need thorough reform. Long-term security is essential to engendering a sustainable management perspective among private forest managers. The national government, however, has the tendency to cancel leases on areas peremptorily, sometimes without due process. Many TLA holders continually fear the cancellation of their leases as political circumstances change, with the consequent loss of their fixed investments in processing plants, infrastructure, and forest development in their areas. Moreover, the total 50-year lease period (an initial 25 years that is renewable for another 25 years) does not provide sufficient time for responsible firms to practice sustained forest management. Dipterocarp forests require at least 30 to 40 years for each cutting cycle, and cutting cycles are often much longer. To overcome the destructive short-term perspective, longer lease periods will be necessary. However, these will be accompanied by much stricter enforcement of sustainable forestry practices, making the threat of cancellation solely contingent on quantifiable performance standards. TLAs will be given to only a few firms that demonstrate a people-oriented management focus.

Coordinate International Donor Imperatives Foreign assistance has been critical in all facets of the change toward people-oriented forestry and forest policy reform that has emerged in the Philippines in the recent past. The Ford Foundation 's sustained support for research on social forestry developed the knowledge and institutional base for government to test the concept. Innovative projects supported by the U.S. Agency for International Development (particu-

larly the Rainfed Resources Development Project) and the World Bank enabled new models of upland management to be implemented on a trial basis. Because the administrative and policy environment has shifted in a favorable direction, international aid to ensure the success of new models will be even more crucial.

The overall effort needs a comprehensive blueprint for sustainable upland management. The Master Plan for Forestry Development (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990) is an important step in this direction. A coordinated donor approach to upland development could assist in rationalizing the priorities and ensuring that the effort is comprehensive and consistent. The redirection of programs within DENR and the Department of Agriculture will place tremendous pressure on their limited staffs and resources. It is essential that staff supported by international projects be equally distributed among programs managed by the departments. However, project aid should be contingent on identifiable progress made by the national government in implementing policy and institutional change over a set period of time. NGOs are envisioned to assume a vastly greater role in upland development.

Deforestation Scenarios

The Master Plan for Forestry Development (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990) is an appropriate starting point for anticipating future land use scenarios in the Philippine uplands. The plan recognizes the limitations of past forestry management and attempts to formulate a macrolevel plan to change the nature of the forestry sector. Specifically (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1990:60),

the forestry sector of the country will be directed in the long run towards a condition whereby all of the forest resources will be under efficient and equitable management, conservation, and utilization, satisfying in appropriate ways and on a sustainable basis the needs of the people for forest-based commodities and services.

The master plan presents three scenarios to the year 2015 based on (1) a continuation of the status quo, (2) the implementation of a total logging ban, and (3) the implementation of the master plan. If implemented, the master plan would provide for extensive reforestation, continued logging of secondary forests on a commercial scale, and an aggressive integrated social forestry program. The estimated increase in total protection and production forests would be from 6.693 million ha in 1990 to 8.422 million ha in 2015.

Several major shortcomings of the plan have led to overly optimistic projections. The master plan states that total forest cover in 1990 was 6.694 million ha; however, the Philippine–German Forest Resources Inventory Project (Forest Management Bureau, 1988) concluded that forest cover in 1988 was only 6.461 million ha. The master plan may have started with a larger forest base than is justified.

The master plan assumed a deforestation rate of 88,000 ha/year in 1990. The Philippine–German Forest Resources Inventory Project (Forest Management Bureau, 1988) determined the deforestation rate to have been 210,300 ha/year between 1969 and 1988 and suggested a rate of about 130,000 ha/year in 1987–1988. Kummer (1990) calculated the rate to have been 157,000 ha/year from 1980 to 1987. It is likely that the current deforestation rate is significantly greater than the master plan's assumption.

The master plan indicates that reforestation increased from 40,000 ha in 1987 to 131,000 ha in 1989. Such a rapid increase appears optimistic, considering the actual maximum plantation survival rates of 50 to 70 percent. The sustainability of such rates is also uncertain. The master plan also assumes that secondary forests can be managed effectively to achieve sustained yields. Little evidence is available to support this, particularly the expectation that selectively logged forests can be returned to their full stocks in 20 to 40 years.

Overall, the master plan does not adequately address the numerous constraints that may limit its success. Given the past failure of Philippine forest management, the current political and economic uncertainties, and the sustained commitment of personnel and resources that is necessary, the master plan appears to be overly optimistic, even if one were to assume a best-case scenario.

Table 10 presents three scenarios of projected trends in the natural forest cover of the Philippines. These estimates were constructed to envelop the range of forested areas that may be expected. The baseline scenario assumes a current rate of forest loss of 125,000 ha/ year that gradually decreases to 25,000 ha/year by 2015. It assumes that it will be about a decade before there is an effective capability to enforce policies that limit either old-growth or secondary forest loss and that a moderate rate of reforestation (75,000 ha/year) will begin to significantly reduce the pressure on the natural forest after 2000.

The worst-case scenario assumes that the political and economic fortunes of the Philippines will deteriorate during the 1990s. Reforestation rates would decline to 25,000 ha/year ( Table 11 ). Natural forest cover loss would continue to exceed 100,000 ha/year into the first decade of the twenty-first century because of the lack of enforcement capability and political uncertainty. The natural forest cover would be reduced to 3.32 million ha by 2015.

TABLE 10 Scenarios of Natural Forest Cover in the Philippines, 1990 –2015

TABLE 11 Alternative Reforestation Scenarios of Natural and Plantation Forests in the Philippines, 1990–2015 (Hectares)

TABLE 12 Estimates of Forest Cover in 2015 Based on Three Scenarios (in Hectares)

In the best case scenario, it is assumed that the master plan will be largely successful. Substantial annual reforestation (100,000 ha/ year) will occur, and deforestation will drop to negligible levels by 2015. The natural forest cover at that time would be 4.90 million ha. This compares with the 5.40 million ha estimated to result from full implementation of the master plan ( Table 12 ). The master plan assumes a confluence of numerous optimistic assumptions in limiting natural forest losses, for which the cumulative probability is low. However, the two scenarios provide similar estimates for the area of coverage achieved in forest plantations by the year 2015 (2.90 million versus 3.00 million ha), up from less than 0.50 million ha in 1991. The Philippines will be highly dependent on the successful expansion of plantation forestry to avoid the complete loss of natural forest cover.

The next 30 years will be a crucial period for the Philippines. Recognition is dawning that many aspects of life will be changed. The land frontier that had always existed as a safety valve for poor and dispossessed people has disappeared during the present generation. The forest resources that had seemed virtually inexhaustible were expended in a prodigal manner. Yet, the population that relies on extractable resources from the uplands is growing as rapidly as ever. The ecologic balance has been lost, and national awareness of the dire implications of this loss is only beginning to emerge. It is difficult for a country to learn how to cope with circumstances in which all of the old assumptions are overturned. Such a serious crisis, however, also offers opportunities to take bolder steps than would be politically feasible in better times. It will be a period in which the willingness to experiment with new solutions will grow.

What is the desired vision of the state of the uplands in 2015 emerging from the current national debate? It is one of a much denser

upland population than was previously anticipated. However, uplanders will be involved in managing forestlands and farmlands in novel ways. Families that occupy upland farms will have a form of secure land tenure by which they can gain credit to intensify and diversify their farming systems. Perennial and tree cropping systems will be common enterprises and will be integrated with livestock and food crop production. Cropping systems will use improved cultivars along with soil fertility-enhancing fertilizer and lime amendments and will be practiced on slopes that are naturally terraced with vegetative barriers. The structural transformation of the national economy will have occurred, and the population of the rural uplands will gradually have begun to decline.

In 2015, large areas of degraded grasslands will be managed as farm forests planted by individuals and communities under secure land tenure agreements. The natural production forests will be managed by local communities—with guidance from professional foresters—by using low-disturbance logging methods with animal labor. Indigenous communities will have secure control of their ancestral lands. The preservation forests and protected areas will be managed by communities and NGOs in collaboration with the national government. Much of the Philippines' remaining biodiversity will have been lost in this period, but protection will have stabilized some of the most representative habitats.

Such a picture of the future of the uplands may be overly optimistic. It embodies landmark changes in philosophy and policy that are now accepted by the national government and some that are already part of existing programs. The critical concern, however, is whether the political will and the management capacity can be developed to thoroughly implement the changes. During the years between now and then, judicious international assistance in research, training, policy, and financing will be critical.

Abad, R. G. 1981. Internal migration in the Philippines: A review of research findings . Philippine Stud. 29:129–143.

Abejo, S. 1985. Migration to and from the National Capital Region: 1975–1980. J. Philippine Statist. 36:ix–xxii.

Agaloos, B. C. 1976. Aerial photography in forest surveys. Pp. 33–36in Asian Forestry Industry Yearbook.

Agaloos, B. C. 1984. Silvicultural and logging systems in the Philippines. Pp. 210–233 in Proceedings of the First ASEAN Forestry Congress. Quezon City, Philippines: Bureau of Forest Development.

Aggarwal, P. K., and D. P. Garrity. 1989. Intercropping of legumes to con-

tribute nitrogen in low-input upland rice-based cropping systems. Pp. 209–228 in Nutrient Management for Food Crop Production in Tropical Farming Systems. Haren, Netherlands: Institute of Soil Fertility.

Aggarwal, P. K., D. P. Garrity, S. P. Liboon, and R. A. Morris. 1992. Resource use and plant interactions in a rice-mungbean intercrop. Agron. J. 84:71–78.

Agricultural Policy and Strategy Team. 1986. Agenda for Action for the Philippine Rural Sector. Los Baños: University of the Philippines.

Alano, B. P. 1984. Import smuggling in the Philippines: An economic analysis. J. Philippine Devel. 11:157–190.

Alferez, A. C. 1980. Utilization of leucaena as organic fertilizer to food crops. Second SE ARC A Professorial Chair Lecture, Agronomy Department, University of the Philippines, Los Baños, December 16, 1980.

Allied Geographic Section. 1944. Timber resources of the Philippine islands. Allied Geographic Section, Southwest Pacific Area. Unpublished document.

Aquino, B. A. 1987. Politics of Plunder. Quezon City: University of the Philippines.

Asian Development Bank. 1976. The Forest Economy of the Philippines. Manila: Asian Development Bank.

Atienza, R. N. 1989. Research status on management and utilization of acid soils in the Philippines. Paper presented at the Workshop on Management of Acid Soils in Humid Tropical Asia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, January 30 to February 3, 1989.

Baliña, F. T., L. Tung, and A. P. Obusa. 1991. An indigenous soil and water conservation technique observed in Matalom, Leyte, Philippines. Pp. 1–7 in On-Farm Research Notes, Vol. 7. Baybay, Leyte: Visayas State College of Agriculture.

Barker, T. C. 1984. Shifting Cultivation Among the Ikalahans. UPLB-PESAM Working Series No. 1. Los Baños: University of the Philippines.

Barker, T. C. 1990. Agroforestry in the tropical highlands. Pp. 195–227 in Agroforestry: Classification and Management, K. C. MacKicken, and N. T. Vergara, eds. New York: Wiley.

Bartlett, H. H. 1956. Fire, primitive agriculture, and grazing in the tropics. Pp. 692–720 in Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, W. L. Thomas, ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Basri, I., A. Mercado, and D. P. Garrity. 1990. Upland rice cultivation using leguminous tree hedgerows on strongly acid soils. Paper presented at the American Society of Agronomy, San Antonio, Texas, October 21–26, 1990.

Belsky, J. M., and S. Siebert. 1985. Social stratification, agricultural intensification and environmental degradation in Leyte, Philippines: Implications for sustainable development. Paper presented at Sustainable Development of Natural Resources in the Third World—An International Symposium, Ohio University, Athens, September 3–6, 1985.

Blanche, C. A. 1975. An overview of the effects and implications of Philippine selective logging on the forest ecosystem. Pp. 97–109 in Proceed-

ings of the Symposium on the Long-Term Effects of Logging in South-east Asia, R. S. Suparto, ed. Biotrop Special Publication No. 3. Bogor, Indonesia: Regional Center for Tropical Biology.

Boado, E. L. 1988. Incentive policies and forest use in the Philippines. Pp. 165–203 in Public Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources, R. Repetto and M. Gillis, eds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Bonita, M. L., and A. Revilla. 1977. The Philippines forest resources, 1976–2026. Pp. 3–8 in Project Reports and Technical Papers, Vol. 2. Manila: Development Academy of the Philippines.

Borja, L. J. 1929. The Philippine lumber industry. Econ. Geogr. 5:194–202.

Borlagdan, S. B. 1990. Social forestry in upland Cebu. Pp. 266–283 in Keepers of the Forest: Land Management Alternatives in Southeast Asia, M. Poffenburger, ed. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press.

Briones, A. M., and P. R. Vicente. 1985. Fertilizer usage of indigenous phosphate deposits. I. Application of apatitic phosphate rock for corn and upland rice in a hydric dystrandept. Philippine Agron. 68:1–17.

Bureau of Forestry. 1902. Report of the Bureau of Forestry of the Philippine Islands. Report 7/1/1901–9/1/1902. Manila: Philippine Commission.

Bureau of Soils. 1977. Land Capability Classes. Manila, Philippines: Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

Burgess, P. F. 1971. The effect of logging on hill dipterocarp forests. Malayan Nature J. 24:231–237.

Burgess, P. F. 1973. The impact of commercial forestry on the hill forests of the Malay Peninsula. Pp. 35–38 in Proceedings of the Symposium on Biological Resources and National Development, E. Soepadmo and K. G. Singh, eds. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Malayan Nature Society.

Byron, N., and G. Waugh. 1988. Forestry and fisheries in the Asian-Pacific Region: Issues in natural resource management. Asian-Pacific Econ. Lit. 2:46–80.

Carroll, J. J. 1983. Agrarian reform, productivity and equity: Two studies. Pp. 15–23 in Second View from the Paddy, A. J. Ledesma, P. Q. Makil, and V. A. Miralao, eds. Manila, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press.

Celestino, A. F. 1984. Establishment of Ipil-Ipil Hedgerows for Soil Erosion and Degradation Control in Hilly Land. FSSRI/UPLB-CA Monograph. Los Baños: University of the Philippines.

Celestino, A. F. 1985. Farming systems approach to soil erosion control and management. Pp. 64–70 in Soil Erosion Management, E. T. Craswell, J. V. Remenyi, and L. G. Nallana, eds. ACIAR Proceedings Series 6. Canberra: Australian Center for International Agricultural Research.

Census Office of the Philippine Islands. 1920. Census of the Philippine Islands, 1918. Manila: Bureau of Printing.

Chambers, R. 1986. Normal Professionalism, New Paradigms, and Development. Discussion Paper 227. Brighton, U.K.: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex.

Concepcion, M. B., ed. 1983. Population of the Philippines: Current Per-

spectives and Future Prospects. Manila, Philippines: National Economic Development Authority.

Conklin, H. C. 1957. Hanunoo Agriculture in the Philippines. Forestry Development Paper No. 12. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Cook, M. G. 1989. Conservation districts: A model for conservation planning and implementation in developing countries. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Conservation Farming on Hillslopes, Taichung, Taiwan, March 20–29, 1989.

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) , Technical Advisory Committee. 1991. An Ecoregional Approach to Research in the CGIAR. Rome, Italy: Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research.

Cornista, L. B., F. A. Javier, and E. F. Escueta. 1986. Land Tenure and Resource Use among Upland Farmers. Paper Series No. 2. Los Baños, Philippines: Agrarian Reform Institute.

Cornista, L. B., and E. F. Escueta. 1990. Communal forest leases as a tenurial option in the Philippines uplands . Pp. 134–144 in Keepers of the Forest: Land Management Alternatives in Southeast Asia, M. Poffenburger, ed. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press.

Costello, M. A. 1984. Social change in Mindanao: A review of the research of a decade. Kinadman 6:1–41.

Cruz, C. A., and M. Segura-de los Angeles. 1984. Policy Issues on Commercial Forest Management. Working Paper 84–03. Manila: Philippine Institute for Development Studies.

Cruz, M. C., and I. Zosa-Feranil. 1988. Policy implications of population pressure in Philippine uplands. Paper prepared for the World Bank and Canadian International Development Agency Study on Forestry, Fisheries, and Agriculture Resource Management , University of the Philippines, Los Baños, Philippines.

Cruz, M. C., I. Zosa-Feranil, and C. L. Goce. 1986. Population Pressure and Migration: Implications for Upland Development in the Philippines. Working Paper 86-06. Los Baños, Philippines: Center for Policy and Development Studies.

Dacanay, P. 1943. The Forest Resources of the Philippines. Manila, Philippines: Bureau of Forestry and Fishery.

Dames and Moore International, Louis Berger International, and Institute for Development Anthropology. 1989. Sustainable Natural Resources Assessment—Philippines. Manila, Philippines: U.S. Agency for International Development.

Dar, W. D., and R. R. Bayaca. 1990. The Accelerated Agricultural Production Project—Research and Outreach Subproject (AARP-ROS): Institutionalizing a Community-Based and Participatory Approach in Farming Systems Development in the Philippines. Quezon City, Philippines: Department of Agriculture.

David, C. C. 1982. The impact of economic policies on agricultural incentives. Paper presented at the Development Academy of the Philippines, Manila, October 6, 1982.

David, C. C. 1983. Economic Policies and Philippine Agriculture. Working Paper 83-02. Manila: Philippine Institute for Development Studies.

Department of Environment and Natural Resources. 1990. Master Plan for Forestry Development. Manila, Philippines: Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

Domingo, I. 1983. Industrial pulpwood plantations. A paper presented during the First ASEAN Forestry Congress, Philippine International Convention Center, Manila, October 10–15, 1983.

Duckham, A. N., and G. B. Masefield. 1969. Farming Systems of the World. New York: Praeger.

Dugan, P. C. 1989. Returning the Forests to the People: Addressing Operational and Policy Constraints in Community-Based Forest Management. Manila, Philippines: U.S. Agency for International Development.

The Economist. 1989. A Brazilian tale. 310(7590):31–32.

Edgerton, R. K. 1983. Social disintegration on a contemporary Philippine frontier: The case of Bukidnon, Mindanao. J. Contemp. Asia 13:151–175.

Egerton, J. O. 1953. Notes on Logging in the Philippines. Malayan Forest. 16:146–156.

Evensen, C. L. I. 1989. Alley Cropping and Green Manuring for Upland Crop Production in West Sumatra. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Hawaii, Honolulu.

Fay, C., ed. 1989. Our Threatened Heritage. Manila, Philippines: Solidaridad.

Fearnside, P. M. 1986. Spatial concentration of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Ambio 15:74–81.

Fernandes, E. C. M. 1990. Alley Cropping on Acid Soils. Ph.D. dissertation. North Carolina State University, Raleigh.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 1946. Forestry and Forest Products: World Situation, 1937–1946. Washington, D.C.: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

FAO. 1948. Forest Resources of the World. Washington, D.C.: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). 1981. Forest Resources of the World. Washington, D.C.: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

FAO and UNEP. 1982. Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project (4 vols.). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Forest Development Center. 1985. A 50-Year Development Program for the Philippines. Los Baños, Philippines: Forest Development Center.

Forest Management Bureau. 1988. Natural Forest Resources of the Philippines. Manila, Philippines: Philippine–German Forest Resources Inventory Project.

Fujisaka, S. 1986. Pioneer shifting cultivation, farmer knowledge, and an upland ecosystem: Co-evolution and systems sustainability in Calminoe, Philippines . Philippine Quart. Culture Soc. 14:137–164.

Fujisaka, S. 1989. The need to build upon farmer practice and knowledge: Reminders from selected upland conservation projects and policies. Agroforest. Syst. 9:141–153.

Fujisaka, S. 1990. Has Green Revolution Rice Research Paid Attention to Farmers' Technologies? Los Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute.

Fujisaka, S., and D. P. Garrity. 1988. Developing sustainable food crop farming systems for the sloping acid uplands: A farmer-participatory approach. Pp. 1982–193 in Proceedings of the SUAN IV Regional Symposium on Agroecosystem Research . Khon Kaen, Thailand: Khon Kaen University.

Fujisaka, S., and E. Wollenburg. 1991. From forest to agroforest and logger to agroforester: A case study . Agroforest. Syst. 14:113–130.

Garcia-Padilla, V. 1990. Working Towards LEISA: A Register of Organizations and Experiences in Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture in the Philippines . Urdaneta, Philippines: Agtalon.

Garrity, D. P. 1989. Hedgerow systems for sustainable food crop production on sloping lands. Contour (Asia Soil Conservation Network Newsletter) 2:18–20.

Garrity, D. P., and P. Agustin. In press. Historical land use evolution in a tropical acid upland agroecosystem .Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.

Garrity, D. P., and P. E. Sajise. 1991. Sustainable land use systems in South-east Asia: A regional assessment . Pp. 59–76 in Sustainable Land Use Systems Research, R. D. Hart and M. W. Sands, eds. Kutztown, Pa.: Rodale Institute.

Garrote, B. P., A. Mercado, and D. P. Garrity. 1986. Soil fertility management in acid upland environments. Philippine J. Crop Sci. 11(2):113–123.

Gibbs, C, E. Payauan, and R. del Castillo. 1990. The growth of the Philippine Social Forestry Program. Pp. 253–265 in Keepers of the Forest: Land Management Alternatives in Southeast Asia, M. Poffenburger, ed. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press.

Gillis, M. 1988. The logging industry in tropical Asia. Pp. 177–184 in People of the Tropical Rain Forest, J. Denslow Sloan and C. Padoch, eds. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Granert, W. 1990. Final report of the agroforestry specialist. In Final Report: Technical Assistance for RRDP Natural Resources Component Cycle II. Quezon City, Philippines: Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

Granert, W. G., and T. Sabueto. 1987. Farmers' involvement and use of simple methods: Agroforestry strategies for watershed protection. In Agroforestry in the Humid Tropics, N. T. Vergara and N. Briones, eds. Los Baños, Philippines: East-West Center/Southeast Asian Regional College of Agriculture.

Guevara, A. B. 1976. Management of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wet for Maximum Yield and Nitrogen Contribution to Intercropped Corn. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Hawaii, Honolulu.

Guiang, E. 1981. A Critical Analysis of Tree Plantation Ventures in the Philippines . Master's thesis. La Salle University, Manila, Philippines.

Guiang, E. 1991. Community Forestry Program: Assessment and Status of Implementation as of 31 December 1990. Quezon City, Philippines: Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

Guiang, E., and M. Gold. 1990. Use of “Pump-Priming” Strategy to Enhance the Employment-Regenerating Potential of Agroforestry Development: Experiences from the Philippines. East Lansing: Department of Forestry, Michigan State University. Mimeograph.

Gwyer, G. 1977. Agricultural Employment and Farm Incomes in Relation to Land Classes: A Regional Analysis. Technical Paper No. 6. Manila, Philippines: National Economic Development Authority–United Nations Development Program/World Bank Regional Planning Assistance Project.

Gwyer, G. 1978. Developing hillside farming systems for the humid tropics: The case of the Philippines. Oxford Agr. Stud. 7:1–37.

Hackenberg, R., and B. H. Hackenberg. 1971. Secondary development and anticipatory urbanization in Davao, Mindanao . Pacific Viewpoint 12:1–19.

Hainsworth, R. G., and R. T. Moyer. 1945. Agricultural Geography of the Philippines. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Harrington, L. W., M. D. Read, D. P. Garrity, J. Woolley, and R. Tripp. 1989. Approaches to on-farm client-oriented research: Similarities, differences, and future directions. Pp. 35–53 in Developments in Procedures for Farming Systems Research: Proceedings of an International Workshop. Grand Petit Mountain, Ark.: Winrock International.

Hart, R. D., and M. W. Sands. 1991. Sustainable land use systems research. Pp. 1–12 in Sustainable Land Use Systems Research, R. D. Hart, and M. W. Sands, eds. Kutztown, Pa.: Rodale Institute.

Herrin, A. N. 1985. Migration and agricultural development in the Philippines. Pp. 369–391 in Urbanization and Migration in ASEAN Development, P. M. Hauser, D. B. Suits, and N. Ogawa, eds. Tokyo: National Institute for Research Advancement.

Hicks, G. L., and G. McNicoll. 1971. Trade and Growth in the Philippines. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.

Hill, H., and S. Jayasuriya. 1984. Philippine economic performance in regional perspective. Contemporary Southeast Asia 6:135–158.

Hooley, R., and V. W. Ruttan. 1969. The Philippines. Pp. 215–250 in Agricultural Development in Asia, R. T. Shand, ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Institute of Population Studies. 1981. Migration in Relation to Rural Development: ASEAN Level Report. Bangkok, Thailand: Chulalongkorn University.

International Labour Office. 1974. Sharing in Development: A Programme of Employment, Equity and Growth for the Philippines. Geneva: International Labour Office.

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). 1987. Annual Report for 1986. Los Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute.

IRRI. 1991. Program Report for 1990. Los Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute.

Johnson, N., and J. Alcorn. 1989. Ecological, Economic and Development Values of Biological Diversity in Asia and the Near East. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development.

Kang, B. T., L. Reynolds, and A. N. Atta-Krah. 1990. Alley farming. Advances Agron. 43:315–359.

Kerkvliet, B. J. 1974. Land reform in the Philippines since the Marcos coup. Pacific Affairs 47:286–304.

Kikuchi, M., and Y. Hayami. 1978. Agricultural growth against a land resource constraint: A comparative history of Japan, Taiwan, Korea and the Philippines. J. Econ. Hist. 38:839–864.

Krinks, P. 1974. Old wine in a new bottle: Land settlement and agrarian problems in the Philippines. J. Southeast Asian Stud. 5:1–17.

Kummer, D. 1990. Deforestation in the Post-War Philippines. Ph.D. dissertation. Boston University, Massachusetts.

Kummer, D. 1992. Deforestation in the Postwar Philippines. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.

Lal, R. 1990. Soil Erosion in the Tropics. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Lopez-Gonzaga, V. 1987. Capital Expansion, Frontier Development, and the Rise of Monocrop Economy in Negros (1850–1898). Occasional Paper No. 1. Bacolod, Philippines: La Salle University.

Luning, H. A. 1981. The Need for Regionalized Agricultural Development Planning: Experiences from Western Visayas, Philippines. Los Baños, Philippines: Southeast Asian Regional College of Agriculture.

Ly, Tung. 1990. FARMI Newsletter. Baybay, Philippines: Farm and Resource Management Institute, Visayas State College of Agriculture.

Lynch, O. J., and K. Talbott. 1988. Legal responses to the Philippine deforestation crisis. J. Int. Law Politics 20:679–713.

MacDicken, K. G. 1990. Agroforestry management in the humid tropics. Pp. 99–149 in Agroforestry: Classification and Management, K. G. MacDicken and N. T. Vergara, eds. New York: Wiley.

Magbanua, R. D., R. O. Torres, and D. P. Garrity. 1988. Crop residue management to sustain productivity. Paper presented at the 4th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Federation of Crop Science Societies of the Philippines, Davao City, Philippines, April 27–30, 1988.

Magrath, W. B., and J. B. Doolette. 1990. Strategic issues in watershed development. Pp. 1–34 in Watershed Development in Asia. World Bank Technical Paper No. 127. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

McIntosh, J. L., I. G. Ismail, S. Effendi, and M. Sudjadi. 1981. Cropping systems to preserve fertility of red-yellow podzolic soils in Indonesia. Pp. 409–429 in International Symposium on Distribution, Characterization, and Utilization of Problem Soils. Tsukuba, Japan: Tropical Agriculture Research Center.

Mercado, A. R., A. M. Tumacas, and D. P. Garrity. 1989. The establishment and performance of tree legume hedgerows in farmer 's fields in a sloping acid upland environment. Paper presented at the 5th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Federation of Crop Science Societies of the Philippines, Iloilo City, Philippines, April 26–29, 1989.

Mercado, A., Jr., A. Montecalvo, D. P. Garrity, and I. H. Basri. 1992. Upland rice and maize response in a contour hedgerow system on a sloping acid upland soil. Paper presented at the 8th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Federation of Crop Science Societies of the Philippines, Zamboanga City, Philippines, May 24–28, 1992.

Myers, N. 1984. The Primary Source. New York: Norton.

National Census and Statistics Office. 1980. Population, Land Area, and Density: 1970, 1975, and 1980. Manila: National Census and Statistics Office.

National Census and Statistics Office. 1985. 1980 Census of Agriculture: National Summary. Manila, Philippines: National Census and Statistics Office.

National Economic Council. 1959. The Raw Materials Resources Survey: Series No. 1, General Tables. Manila, Philippines: Bureau of Printing.

National Economic Development Authority. 1981. Regional Development: Issues and Strategies on Agriculture. Regional Planning Studies Series No. 3. Manila, Philippines: National Economic Development Authority.

National Research Council. 1977. Leucaena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the Tropics. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.

Ofreno, R. E. 1980. Capitalism in Philippine Agriculture. Quezon City, Philippines: Foundation for Nationalist Studies.

O'Sullivan, T. E. 1985. Farming systems and soil management: The Philippines/Australian development assistance program experience. Pp. 77–81 in Soil Erosion Management, E. T. Craswell, J. V. Remenyi, and L. G. Nallana, eds. ACIAR Proceedings Series 6. Canberra: Australian Center for International Agricultural Research.

Otsuka, K., V. G. Cordova, and C. C. David. 1990. Modern rice technology and regional wage differentials in the Philippines . Agric. Econ. 4:297–314.

Palmier, L. 1989. Corruption in the West Pacific. Pacific Rev. 2:11–23.

Paner, V. E. 1975. Multiple Cropping Research in the Philippines. Proceedings of the Cropping Systems Workshop. Los Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute.

Pava, H. M., J. B. Arances, I. O. Mugot, J. M. Magallanes, J. M. Manubag, and I. S. Sealza. 1990. The Himaya MUSUAN Experience. Musuan, Philippines: Central Mindanao University.

Pelzer, K. J. 1941. An Economic Survey of the Pacific Area. Part I. Population and Land Utilization. New York: Institute of Pacific Relations.

Pernia, E. M. 1988. Urbanization and spatial development in the Asian and Pacific region: Trends and issues. Asian Devel. Rev. 6:86–105.

Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development. 1982. The Philippines Recommends for Dipterocarp Production. Los Baños: Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development .

Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development. 1986. Sloping agricultural land technology. Technology 8:5/86.

Poblacion, G. 1959. Logging in the Philippines. Filipino Forest. 11:89–106.

Population Reference Bureau. 1990. World Population Data Sheet 1990. Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau.

Porter, G. D., and D. Ganapin. 1988. Resources, Population, and the Philippines' Future. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.

Power, J. H., and T. D. Tumaneng. 1983. Comparative Advantage and Gov-

ernment Price Intervention Policies in Forestry. Working Paper 83-05. Manila: Philippine Institute for Development Studies.

Raintree, J. B., and K. Warner. 1986. Agroforestry pathways for the intensification of shifting cultivation . Agroforest. Syst. 4:39–54.

Repetto, R. 1988. The Forests for the Trees? Government Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.

Revilla, A. V. 1988. The constraints to and prospects for forest development in the Philippines . Pp. 137–147 in Proceedings of the RP-German Forest Resources Inventory Application of Results to Forest Policy, R. Lennertz, and K. Uebelhor, eds. Quezon City, Philippines: Forest Management Bureau.

Reyes, M. R., and V. B. Mendoza. 1983. The Pantabangan watershed management and erosion control project. Pp. 485–555 in Forest and Watershed Development and Conservation in Asia and the Pacific, L. S. Hamilton, ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview.

Rocamora, J. E. 1979. Rural development strategies: The Philippine case. Pp. 63–106 in Approaches to Rural Development: Some Asian Experiences, Inayatullah, ed. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Asian and Pacific Development Administrative Center.

Rosenberg, J. G., and D. A. Rosenberg. 1980. Landless Peasants and Rural Poverty in Indonesia and the Philippines . Ithaca, N.Y.: Center for International Studies, Cornell University.

Roth, D. M. 1983. Philippine forests and forestry: 1565–1920. Pp. 30–49 in Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century World Economy, R. P. Tucher, and J. R. Richards, eds. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.

Sajise, P. E. 1987. Stable upland farming in the Philippines: Problems and prospects. Pp. 633–644 in Impact of Man's Activities on Tropical Upland Forest Ecosystems, Y. Hadi, K. Awang, N. M. Majid, and S. Mohamed, eds. Darul Ehsan, Malaysia: Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Pertanian.

Savonen, C. 1990. Ashes in the Amazon. J. Forest. 88(9):20–25.

Schade, J. 1988. Consequences of the FRI for forest policy. Pp. 95–102in Proceedings of the RP-German Forest Resources Inventory Application of Results to Forest Policy, R. Lennertz and K. Uebelhor, eds. Quezon City, Philippines: Forest Management Bureau.

Segura-de los Angeles, M. 1985. Economic and social impact analysis of an upland development project in Nueva Ecija, Philippines. J. Philippine Devel. 12:324–394.

Serevo, T., F. Asiddao, and M. Reyes. 1962. Forest resources inventory in the Philippines. Philippine J. Forest. 18:1–19.

Smyle, J., W. Magrath, and R. G. Grimshaw. 1990. Vetiver grass—A hedge against erosion. Paper presented at the American Society of Agronomy, San Antonio, Texas, October 21–26, 1990.

Southgate, D., and D. Pearce. 1988. Agricultural Colonization and Environmental Degradation in Frontier Developing Economies. Working Paper No. 9. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

Sulit, C. 1947. Forestry in the Philippines during the Japanese occupation. Philippine J. Forest. 5:22–47.

Sulit, C. 1963. Brief history of forestry and lumbering in the Philippines. J. Amer. Chamber Com. Philippines 39:16–24.

Swedish Space Corporation. 1988. Mapping of the Natural Conditions of the Philippines. Solna: Swedish Space Corporation.

Szott, L. T., C. A. Palm, and P. A. Sanchez. 1991. Agroforestry in acid soils of the humid tropics. Advances Agron. 45:275–300.

Talbot, L. M., and M. A. Talbot. 1964. Renewable Natural Resources in the Philippines—Status, Problems, and Recommendations. Manila, Philippines: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources .

Tamesis, F. 1937. General Information on Philippine Forests. Manila, Philippines: Bureau of Printing.

Tamesis, F. 1948. Philippine forests and forestry. Unasylva 6:316–325.

Thapa, B. B. 1991. Evaluation of Infiltration, Surface Runoff, and Soil Losses at Various Levels of Rainfall in Relation to Surface Cover, Tillage and Soil Management Practices. Master's thesis. University of the Philippines, Los Baños.

Thung, H. L. 1972. An Evaluation of the Impact of a Highway on a Rural Environment in Thailand by Aerial Photographic Methods. Ph.D. dissertation. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

Tiongzon, M. L., A. Regalado, and R. Pascual. 1986. Philippine Agriculture in the 70s and 80s: TNC's Boon, Peasants' Doom. Agricultural Policy Studies No. 2. Quezon City, Philippines: Philippine Peasant Institute.

Torres, R. O., and D. P. Garrity. 1990. Evaluation of batao (Lablab purpureus L. Sweet) as a dual purpose component of upland cropping patterns . Paper presented at the 6th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Federation of Crop Science Societies of the Philippines, Naga City, Philippines, May 16–18, 1990.

Torres, R. O., R. D. Magbanua, and D. P. Garrity. 1988. Evaluation of cow-peas as legume component in acid upland rice-based cropping systems. Philippine J. Crop Sci. 13(2):91–98.

Torres, R. O., D. P. Garrity, R. J. Buresh, R. K. Pandey, R. T. Bantilan, F. M. Tumacas, and A. Montecalvo. 1989. Production in rice-based rainfed upland cropping systems. Paper presented at the 5th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Federation of Crop Science Societies of the Philippines, Iloilo City, Philippines, April, 26–28, 1989.

Umali, R. M. 1981. Forestland assessment and management for sustainable uses in the Philippines. Pp. 289–301 in Assessing Tropical Forestlands: Their Suitability for Sustainable Uses, R. A. Carpenter, ed. Dublin: Tycooly.

U.S. Agency for International Development. 1980. Preliminary Analysis of Philippine Poverty as a Base for a U.S. Assistance Strategy. Manila, Philippines: U.S. Agency for International Development.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1905. Census of the Philippine Islands, 1903. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Vandermeer, C. 1963. Corn cultivation on Cebu: An example of an advanced stage of migratory farming. J. Trop. Geogr. 17:172–177.

Vandermeer, C., and B. C. Agaloos. 1962. Twentieth century settlement of Mindanao. Papers Michigan Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 47:537–548.

van Oosterhout, A. 1983. Spatial conflicts in rural Mindanao, the Philippines. Pacific Viewpoint 24:29–49.

Vergara, N. T. 1982. Sustained outputs from legume tree-based agroforestry systems. In New Directions in Agroforestry: The Potential of Tropical Legume Trees, N. T. Vergara, ed.

Watson, H. R., and W. L. Laquihon. 1987. Sloping agricultural land technology: An agroforestry model for soil conservation. In Agroforestry in the Humid Tropics, N. T. Vergara, and T. N. Briones, eds. College, Laguna, Philippines: East-West Center/Southeast Asian Regional College of Agriculture.

Weidelt, H. J., and V. S. Banaag. 1982. Aspects of Management and Silviculture of Philippine Dipterocarp Forests. Eschborn, Federal Republic of Germany: German Agency for Technical Cooperation.

Wernstedt, F. L., and P. D. Simkins. 1965. Migration and the settlement of Mindanao. J. Asian Stud. 25:83–103.

Wernstedt, F. L., and J. E. Spencer. 1967. The Philippine Island World. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Westoby, J. 1981. Who's Deforesting Whom? IUCN Bull. 14:124–125.

Westoby, J. 1989. Introduction to World Forestry. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Whitford, H. N. 1911. The Forests of the Philippines. Bulletin No. 10. Manila, Philippines: Bureau of Forestry.

Whitmore, T. C. 1984. Vegetation map of Malesia at scale of 1:5,000,000. J. Biogeogr. 11:461–471.

Williams, R. D., and E. D. Lavey. 1986. Selected Buffer Strip References. Durant, Okla.: Water Quality and Watershed Research Laboratory.

World Bank. 1989a. Philippines: Environment and Natural Resource Management Study. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

World Bank. 1989b. Philippines: Toward Sustaining the Economic Recovery. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

World Resources Institute. 1990. World Resources, 1990–91. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.

Wurfel, D. 1983. The development of post-war Philippine land reform: Political and sociological explanations. Pp. 1–14 in Second View from the Paddy, A. Ledesma, P. Makil, and V. Miralao, eds. Manila, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press.

Zon, R. 1910. The Forest Resources of the World. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Zon, R., and W. N. Sparhawk. 1923. Forest Resources of the World. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Zosa-Feranil, I. 1987. Persisting and Changing Patterns of Population Redistribution in the Philippines. Quezon City: Population Institute, University of the Philippines.

Rainforests are rapidly being cleared in the humid tropics to keep pace with food demands, economic needs, and population growth. Without proper management, these forests and other natural resources will be seriously depleted within the next 50 years.

Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment in the Humid Tropics provides critically needed direction for developing strategies that both mitigate land degradation, deforestation, and biological resource losses and help the economic status of tropical countries through promotion of sustainable agricultural practices. The book includes:

A practical discussion of 12 major land use options for boosting food production and enhancing local economies while protecting the natural resource base.
Recommendations for developing technologies needed for sustainable agriculture.
A strategy for changing policies that discourage conserving and managing natural resources and biodiversity.
Detailed reports on agriculture and deforestation in seven tropical countries.

READ FREE ONLINE

Welcome to OpenBook!

You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

Show this book's table of contents , where you can jump to any chapter by name.

...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

Switch between the Original Pages , where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter .

Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

View our suggested citation for this chapter.

Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

Get Email Updates

Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free ? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released.

Agriculture Farming
Livestock Farming

Project Reports

Hydroponics
Best Fertilizers
Vertical Farming
Sheep Farming
Goat Farming
Poultry Farming
Fish Farming
Pig Farming
Dairy Farming
Rabbit Farming
Success Stories of Farmers
Boost Fruit Yield
District Wise Crop Production
Schemes & Subsidies
Agriculture Colleges
Farm Insurance
Disease Control And Management

Agriculture

Aquaculture

Horticulture

Agri Business

How to Improve Agriculture in the Philippines, Ways, Ideas, and Tips

Table of contents, different priority sectors that can enhance agriculture sector stability , irri and ipac, pest occurrence, available equiapment, implementing land reform, plant more densely, irrigation facilities, high-quality seeds, green methods of pest control, core cropping, better monitoring technology, improved seeds, heat-tolerant varieties, proper marketing facilities, organic fertilizer, plant many crops, raised beds, supply of quality inputs, transportation facilities, key policy recommendations to improve agriculture in the philippines.

Introduction to how to improve agriculture in the Philippines: In an agricultural country like the Philippines, agricultural mechanization is necessary to increase land, labor, and crop productivity. The mechanization of farm work offers many advantages, including the timely performance of operations, efficiency in performing farm work, reduction of labor hours, and increase in land and labor productivity. Agriculture is still a major factor in the Philippine economy, although its relative share in the gross domestic product (GDP) has been declining for many years.

One of the important roles of agriculture is the source of employment. While agriculture accounts for only 10% of the country’s GDP, it still employs about 30% of the country’s labor force. This shows that the productivity of labor in agriculture is lower than in other sectors and the structural change taking place in the Philippine economy is slow and weak. Due to limited diversity and low productivity, Philippine agriculture may stand out among others. Traditional crops such as rice, maize, and coconut account for more than 50% of the total area already harvested, and more attention has recently been paid to higher-value crops.

The agricultural productivity is depending on them;

Use of high yielding varieties (HYV)
Better management methods
Efficient use of irrigation water
Pest management
Soil health management
and other related factors

Agricultural production is distributed throughout the country, approximately 32%, or 9.67 million hectares, the total land area of the Philippines is classified as agricultural land, of which 51% is arable and 44% is a permanent crop.

Guide on how to improve agriculture in the Philippines, the role of government, factors that affect the agriculture productivity and ways to improve

Priority sectors that can enhance sector stability are;

1. Encourage investment in agriculture that promotes area-based development. Ensuring that every region in the Philippines is given priority through specific development programs will no longer be a problem. Every aspect will be tapped, which will lead to comprehensive agricultural development and ultimately economic development.

2. Give priority to investments that can increase and sustain productivity.

If the productive capacity of those working in the agricultural sector is developed, many opportunities will open up which can ensure growth. However, productivity growth should not be limited to one or two aspects – it should cover the entire supply chain, from production to marketing.

3. Ensure effective irrigation systems and an efficient transport infrastructure

Irrigation systems have been a constant problem for the average Filipino farmer. It will make a big difference if investment in advanced irrigation systems is given priority. Highlighting its key implications, he noted that an improved irrigation system in any part of the Philippines could increase productivity by 15% to 20%.

4. Invest in some programs that will decrease climate risks and disasters, and decrease pests and diseases

Farmers have been exposed to pests and diseases and periodic typhoons, but as the years go by, climate change has added to the burden that hinders the sector’s growth. According to the DA, farmers are most affected by storms and other effects of climate change. Restoration also takes time, so it’s best to build flexibility. Farmers should be taught different ways in which they can reduce and mitigate climate risks. If possible, make climate-resilient crops available.

5. Promote more private sector investment and support

The private sector can be linked through agribusiness schemes such as contract farming. It is the agricultural production under an agreement between a buyer and a farmer. The two parties then set conditions for certain aspects, such as the amount of crop production. The FAO added that both farmers and private entities can benefit from contract farming. Farmers are guaranteed to buy a certain amount of their crops. Meanwhile, the private sector will have an adequate supply at an agreed price.

The role of government to improve agriculture in the Philippines

In the Philippines, high poverty rates can be attributed to low employment for the farmers. About 70% of low-income Filipinos work in agriculture, forestry, or fishing. While many farmers and agricultural workers are looking for employment, it seems that the Philippine government is shifting its focus from local farmers to imports.

In the Philippines, for example, the IRRI (International Rice Research Institute) has developed a variety of rice that can withstand natural disasters, especially floods. With funding from the Gates Foundation, IRRI expects to increase rice production by 50% over the next 10 years. The Philippine government implemented the Inclusive Partnerships for Agricultural Competitiveness (IPAC) project by working for agricultural development.

Partially funded by the World Bank, the project aims to increase the livelihoods of small farmers. Small farmers can increase their income and gradually become more self-reliant. In rural farming lands, developing an irrigation system makes farming more efficient for the people of the Philippines. The scheme plays an important role in reducing poverty from which 20% of the beneficiaries are poor farmers.

Factors that affect the agriculture productivity in the Philippines

Numerous different factors can cause an increase or decrease in agricultural production. It is important to note that productivity is not an absolute measure, but rather reflects the ratio between input and output. Factors that affect the productivity of a field are:

Some extreme weather patterns like drought, prolonged rainy season, early or late frosts, and other factors ruin crops and bring productivity down.

In addition to spoiling crops, pests can increase crop production costs. Measures such as fencing, chemical or biological treatment, companion planting, or crop rotation may be required to control them, all of which change the ratio of input to output.

Innovation is a key factor in agricultural productivity – Farmers who can develop creative ways to cultivate better, as it were, will experience an increase in productivity. Because of this, many agricultural companies and nations invest in developing new farming techniques and researching new farming methods. Studying ancient methods for learning from previous generations can also play a role in agricultural innovation.

In some areas where access to machine farm equipment is limited, agricultural productivity may be reduced as people primarily handle their crops by hand. This involves a huge investment of time, energy, and money and also limits the total capacity of the earth.

Market Supply and Demand Farmers will adjust their activities to meet the needs of consumers and this may affect agricultural production. In some cases, governments also provide subsidies to farmers to compensate for not growing crops, which can reduce productivity measures.

Innovation is an important factor in agricultural production. If farmers want to increase their productivity, they need to cultivate more carefully using the Farm Management System. It helps them track all farm activities, from fertilizer consumption, pesticides, workers’ working hours, and mechanization to financing and managing the entire production from complete farm analysis and reports.

Ways to improve agricultural productivity in the Philippines

The Philippines, as an agricultural country, needs to invest in promoting inclusive growth and building more sustainable agriculture and food systems that are resilient to disasters. Its main objective is to develop the agricultural sector so that food self-sufficiency can be achieved, rural communities can be developed and farmers’ income can be increased. The share of agriculture in the economy is about 40% of GDP and two-thirds of jobs are created by agriculture.

However, the agricultural sector is constantly surrounded by challenges that result in low agricultural income, low rural employment, lack of food security, and low agricultural competitiveness. Of the 17 global Sustainable Development Goals, the Philippines must specifically achieve its goals of eliminating/minimizing hunger, achieving food security, improving nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture.

Land reform is the first and most important point for improving productivity. Machines, tractors, and implements make ground improvements. These machines have the advantage of smoothing uneven farming areas to work efficiently on the field. It is easy to work in the field and then improve productivity. Therefore, this is the best way to increase agriculture productivity.

This is the easiest method to improve productivity in agriculture, the crops come close to each other in this plant. Growers keep their vegetables too far away, leaving large areas to grow well.

In case if you miss this: Pig Farming In The Philippines, How To Start

Ways to improve agricultural productivity in the Philippines

The productivity of the crop depends not only on the quality of input but also on the irrigation facilities. Therefore, canals and tube wells should be constructed to provide better irrigation facilities for crop protection. Extensive flood control measures should be taken to prevent flood damage. Strategic irrigation plants need water to survive. In some regions, they get all the water they need from the rain. Though, this is not always the case, especially in arid regions of the world. In such areas, farmers can use an irrigation system to keep their land sufficiently moist. Overall, farmers irrigate about 18% of the world’s crops.

In the agriculture sector, water management is the best way to improve productivity. You can increase yields by up to 50% by using a sprinkler irrigation system. Also, manufacturing canals provide better irrigation to protect crops from tube wells. Some systems using irrigation in crops at the lower end of the efficiency spectrum have field flooding, canal irrigation, and sprinkler-based irrigation.

And, at the higher end are targeted irrigation systems such as drip irrigation. Compared to previous methods, drip irrigation provides water to plants in a way that reduces evaporation and generally does not provide plants with too much water. Under these circumstances, farmers can use advanced sensors to find the amount of moisture in their fields, and their irrigation efforts accordingly.

Recent research shows that small farmers (who grow about 80% of the world’s total food) have very limited access to high-quality seeds. This is an easy problem to solve, as it is easy to get high-quality seeds. After a farmer receives this type of seed, generally continue to reap the benefits of high-yielding varieties for many years to come, by saving and replanting the seeds he harvests in each season.

In case if you miss this: Aquaculture In The Philippines, How To Start

Spraying conventional pesticides and herbicides on crops can destroy local and remote ecosystems. After prolonged use of pesticides, resistant grasses and insects often begin to develop and spread. Alternative pest control methods can help prevent these problems.

The most common use of biological methods to control insect populations. Such methods are used for the introduction of predatory species like praying mantises, ladybugs, green lacewings, and certain wasps, which prey upon pests. Farmers should take special care not to introduce varieties that cause more harm than good while using this method. Farmers can use green forms of liquid pesticides such as essential oils to keep unwanted organisms at bay in cases where biological control is not an option.

Core cropping serves two main purposes. The first step is to prevent soil erosion from the fields. This problem often arises when the fields are left bare after harvesting. Holding the soil without roots together is a risk of erosion due to wind and water. However, if farmers plant the core crop after harvesting the basic cash crop, the problem is greatly reduced. The second main purpose of the core crop is to reintroduce important nutrients into the soil. The most important of these nutrients is nitrogen, which plants like beans can get from the environment through a symbolic relationship with bacteria.

Especially in developing countries, farmers do not know how much water and nutrients their plants need. Scientists have developed sensors that can easily detect soil water and nutrients, thus facilitating the efficient use of agricultural resources. Especially such technology is useful in areas where significant resources are scarce.

Any technology capable of reducing resource loss, therefore, can improve relationships as well as profits. Some other promising monitoring technologies are drones and remote sensors mounted on satellites. These sensors can help farmers to find the right parts of their fields that are prone to pests, diseases, and malnutrition, and thus allow the implementation of targeted intervention measures.

In case if you miss this: Urban Agriculture in the Philippines, Livestock

Seeds play an important role in better seed fields and are better for increasing the productivity of a better seed farm. Better seeds are suitable for increasing yields.

These are allowing the plant to maintain its productivity at high temperatures. This increases crop yields by up to 23% by improving heat-tolerant varieties.

Marketing infrastructure needs to be broadened and strengthened to help farmers sell their produce at better prices. Proper arrangements should be made for the unloading of produce in the markets. In addition, a price support policy should be adopted and farmers should be guaranteed minimum prices.

Continuous cultivation removes some of the nutrients from the soil that cover crops that are unable to regenerate. When this happens, farmers can safely restore their nutrient levels by using organic fertilizers such as kelp, animal manure, oyster shells, and bone meal. Although these substances are often more expensive than their artificial counterparts, they are also much better for the environment.

In case if you miss this: Biofertilizers In Agriculture, Types, Advantages

In agriculture, the next method to increase productivity is to plant more crops.

In the traditional farming system, the crops are placed in separate rows from the tractor trails, in permanent beds, multiple rows of crops are planted within the same width beds. It creates short paths, dense gardens, and active growing areas. In general, raised beds are a symbol of improving crop productivity.

Provide quality goods to the farmers in the country at reasonable times and control prices. Effective measures need to be taken to curb the sale of adulterated fertilizers to prevent the exploitation of farmers.

Villages should be connected to the markets to facilitate the farmers in producing new agricultural products and enable them to sell their produce in the markets. This will help in increasing their income which will make the farmers interested in adopting better farm technology with sufficient income. In this way, the farmer can invest more in improving the land.

1. Improve agricultural policy performance to increase long-term productivity growth of the sector

Refocus the policy package to improve food security.
Focus on agricultural land policies, from land distribution to protection of property rights through land governance reforms.
Budget support for long-term structural reforms.
Reorganize the agricultural knowledge system.

2. Focus on agricultural education and extension services to improve farm management skills.

Take a holistic approach to risk management with a policy focus on catastrophic risks.
Evaluate insurance and cash transfer schemes that may encourage adaptive decisions.

3. Improve the capacity of the agricultural sector to adapt to climate change

Make climate-adaptation policy objectives
Develop clear guidelines on “adaptation” to climate adaptation
Make new infrastructure projects “climate-free” and provide farmers with reliable climate information.
Encourage more efficient use of water.

Types of Pesticides Used in Agriculture: A Beginner’s Guide

Economical aquaculture: a guide to low-budget fish farming, 15 common planting errors that can doom your fruit trees, how to make houseplants bushy: effective tips and ideas, innovative strategies for boosting coconut pollination and yield, pollination strategies for maximum pumpkin yield, the complete guide to chicken fattening: strategies for maximum growth.

Natural Solutions for Tulip Problems: 100% Effective Remedies for Leaf and Bulb-Related Issues

Revolutionizing Citrus Preservation: Towards a Healthier, Greener Future

Natural Solutions for Peony Leaf and Flower Problems: 100% Effective Remedies
Maximizing Profits with Avocado Contract Farming in India: A Comprehensive Guide
Natural Solutions for Hydrangea Problems: 100% Effective Remedies for Leaf and Flowers
The Ultimate Guide to Choosing the Perfect Foliage Friend: Bringing Life Indoors
From Sunlight to Sustainability: 15 Ways to Use Solar Technology in Agriculture
The Ultimate Guide to Dong Tao Chicken: Exploring from History to Raising
The Eco-Friendly Makeover: How to Convert Your Unused Swimming Pool into a Fish Pond
Mastering the Art of Delaware Chicken Farming: Essentials for Healthy Backyard Flocks
20 Best Homemade Fertilizers for Money Plant: DIY Recipes and Application Methods

How to Craft a Comprehensive Free-Range Chicken Farming Business Plan

Brighten Your Flock: Raising Easter Egger Chickens for Beauty and Bounty
How to Optimize Your Poultry Egg Farm Business Plan with These Strategies
Subsidy for Spirulina Cultivation: How Indian Government Schemes Encouraging Spirulina Farmers
Ultimate Guide to Raising Dominique Chickens: Breeding, Feeding, Egg-Production, and Care
Mastering the Art of Raising Jersey Giant Chickens: Care, Feeding, and More
Ultimate Guide to Raising Legbar Chickens: Breeding, Farming Practices, Diet, Egg-Production
How to Raise Welsummer Chickens: A Comprehensive Guide for Beginners
How to Protect Indoor Plants in Winter: A Comprehensive Guide
Ultimate Guide to Grow Bag Gardening: Tips, Tricks, and Planting Ideas for Urban Gardeners
Guide to Lotus Cultivation: How to Propagate, Plant, Grow, Care, Cost, and Profit
Agriculture Drone Subsidy Scheme: Government Kisan Subsidy, License, and How to Apply Online
Ultimate Guide to Raising Araucana Chickens: Breed Profile, Farming Economics, Diet, and Care
Bringing Hydroponics to Classroom: Importance, Benefits of Learning for School Students
Ultimate Guide to Raising Polish Chickens: Breed Profile, Farming Economics, Diet, and Care
Ultimate Guide to Raising Australorp Chickens: Profile, Farming Economics, Egg Production, Diet, and Care
Silkie Chicken Farming: Raising Practices, Varieties, Egg Production, Diet, and Care
Sussex Chicken Farming: Raising Practices, Varieties, Egg Production, Diet and Care

Natural Solutions for Tulip Problems: 100% Effective Remedies for Leaf...

Natural solutions for peony leaf and flower problems: 100% effective..., maximizing profits with avocado contract farming in india: a comprehensive..., natural solutions for hydrangea problems: 100% effective remedies for leaf..., the ultimate guide to choosing the perfect foliage friend: bringing..., from sunlight to sustainability: 15 ways to use solar technology..., the ultimate guide to dong tao chicken: exploring from history..., the eco-friendly makeover: how to convert your unused swimming pool..., mastering the art of delaware chicken farming: essentials for healthy..., 20 best homemade fertilizers for money plant: diy recipes and..., brighten your flock: raising easter egger chickens for beauty and..., borewell drilling cost, pump price, and pipe cost, polyhouse subsidy, cost, profit, project report, tractor subsidy, bank loan, eligibility, schemes, process, malabar neem project report details guide, cold storage project report, cost and subsidy, mushroom farming project report, cost and profit analysis.

Subscribe Now

How can the Philippines have a booming agricultural sector?

Already have Rappler+? Sign in to listen to groundbreaking journalism.

This is AI generated summarization, which may have errors. For context, always refer to the full article.

How can the Philippines have a booming agricultural sector?

MANILA, Philippines – One would expect a booming agricultural sector in a country rich with vast fertile lands, but this seems to be not the case in the Philippines.

According former budget secretary Benjamin Diokno, the government should focus on the agricultural sector which employs a third of the labor force. (READ: PH agriculture: Why is it important? )

“It is cheaper to create jobs in agriculture than in other sectors,” he told Rappler.

In addition, pushing for the sector’s development will lead to inclusive growth , especially as agricultural workers are the poorest in the labor sector. (READ: The state of agriculture, fisheries under Aquino )

“Agricultural growth in the last 5 years was anemic,” Diokno stressed. “If you pay attention to agriculture in the rural area, that’s growth inclusive.”

Data from the Philippine Statistics Authority show that there is no significant change in poverty incidence among farmers.

What can be done

In a forum organized by Greenpeace Philippines, Nheden Sarne of the Agricultural Commodities Division of the National Economic and Development Authority said there are a lot more improvements needed before the country’s agricultural sector achieves its full potential.

While the bulk of the programs of the Department of Agriculture (DA) are commodity-centric, Sarne suggested that it would be better if policies and projects will also focus on priority areas that can boost the stability of the sector.

1. Encourage investments in agriculture that promote area-based development

By ensuring that each area in the Philippines is prioritized through specific development programs, there will no longer be a problem of getting left behind. Each aspect will be tapped, leading to inclusive agricultural growth and eventually, economic growth.

2. Prioritize investments that can increase and sustain productivity

If the productivity of those working on the agricultural sector is developed, a lot of opportunities will open that can ensure growth. However, productivity enhancement should not only be on one or two aspects – it should cover the entire supply chain from production to marketing.

3. Ensure well-functioning irrigation systems and an efficient transport infrastructure

Irrigation systems have been a constant problem of the average Filipino farmer. If investments in a developed irrigation system is prioritized, it will make a huge difference.

Underscoring its important Sarne, noted that an improved irrigation system in any part of the Philippines can increase productivity by 15% to 20%.

4. Invest in programs that will increase resilience to climate risks and disasters, as well as pests and diseases

Farmers used to just face off with pests and diseases, and periodic typhoons, but as years passed by, climate change has contributed to the burden that hinders growth in the sector.(READ: How climate change harms the ASEAN food basket )

According to DA, farmers are the most affected by typhoons and other effects of climate change. Rehabilitation also takes time so developing resiliency is best.

Farmers should be taught on the various ways they can mitigate and reduce climate risks. If possible, climate-resilient crops should be made available. (READ: Empowering farmers against climate change )

5. Promote greater private sector investments and support

Connection with the private sector can be made through agri-business schemes such as contract farming.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines contract farming as “agricultural production carried out according to an agreement between a buyer and farmers.” Conditions then are set between the two parties regarding certain aspects such as quantity of crops to be produced. The FAO added that both farmers and private institutions can benefit from contract farming.The farmers are guaranteed buyers of a specific quantity of their crops. Meanwhile, the private institution will then have adequate supply at agreed-upon price.

Reforms needed

Beyond programs that aim to uplift the current situation, Sarne suggested revisiting certain agriculture-related policies revisited to test their effectiveness. If proven to be ineffective, these should be reconsidered or at least, revised.

One of these laws include Republic Act 8178, or the Agricultural Tariffication Act.

“ Dapat may close monitoring na maayos pagdating sa importation ng agricultural products,” Sarne stressed. “ Hindi iyong import lang nang import; dapat maayos ang proseso rin. ”

(There should be close monitoring when it comes to importation of agricultural products. there should be a proper process, not just always importing.)

In addition to land and water reforms, Sarne also encouraged reforms at the National Food Authority.

He said the NFA should maximize the productivity of the local farmers by increasing domestic palay procurement. The NFA’s role should also cover buffer stocking or ensuring a vast supply of rice.

Prioritize farmers

At the end of the day, the welfare of farmers should be kept in mind when implementing agriculture programs and projects. They are, after all, the country’s main food producers.

“ Ang mas importante siguro na sa hanay ng mga farmers ay ma-diversify at increase ang kanilang sweldo ,” Sarne said. “ Sobrang maliit po ang sweldo para masustentuhan ang pangangailangan ng isang pamilya na pagsasaka lamang ang kabuhayan. ”

(What’s more important is that we increase and diversify the income of farmers. Their income is very small and definitely makes it hard for a farming family to make ends meet.)

Being a country with rice as a staple, we cannot afford to lose our farmers. Their unproductivity can lead to a problem of food insecurity.

“ May magugutom talaga kapag di masigla ang agriculture mo (There will really be hungry people if the agricultural sector is weak),” Diokno stressed. – Rappler.com

Add a comment

Please abide by Rappler's commenting guidelines .

There are no comments yet. Add your comment to start the conversation.

How does this make you feel?

Jodesz Gavilan

Recommended stories, {{ item.sitename }}, {{ item.title }}.

Checking your Rappler+ subscription...

Upgrade to Rappler+ for exclusive content and unlimited access.

Why is it important to subscribe? Learn more

You are subscribed to Rappler+

Humanizing agriculture workers can encourage regular Filipinos to support the industry

AVANT GARDENER

I’m currently taking my PhD in Communications, and I want to center it on agriculture. This has led me to reading academic papers about the role of agriculture media in helping the agriculture industry.

One of them is “The Role of Agricultural Journalism in Building the Rural South” by C. G. Scruggs and Smith W. Moseley published in the journal Agricultural History (Vol. 53, No. 1, Southern Agriculture Since the Civil War: A Symposium) in January 1979.

I feel that there are similarities between how agriculture journalism was instrumental in the Southern United States then and the Philippines now, with a few exceptions, most of them owing to new technology and the changing demographic of the current time.

While most of agriculture journalism traditionally deals with conveying either hard news or hard facts (as in the case of how-tos and farming tips), it should be acknowledged that it had grown beyond that, and of rate good of the industry.

I am referring to using feature-style coverage when discussing agriculture, whether by audio, video, or text. While data and adherence to science are very important, presenting agriculture insiders as individuals humanizes them and helps the lay audience understand that the agriculture industry isn’t a machine but a community whose wellbeing directly impacts theirs, as there would be no food without farmers and fishers. Focusing on success stories can also help other farmers discover new farming and business techniques. This, I feel, is an unconventional but ultimately necessary point of view in Philippine agriculture in particular, where the reluctance of many farmers to embrace new methods of farming and doing business have contributed to the stagnation of the industry.

Agriculture journalism is by no way going to “save” the industry, but it hoped that its adherence to the scientific method, melded with the engaging language of lifestyle feature writing, may influence industry practitioners to adopt an experimental mindset when it comes to new techniques both in production and with business practices.

Scruggs and Moesely, write: “It would be fatuous for the agricultural journalist to gesture at the achievement and claim the major role in the accomplishment. But we believe it can be safely said that farm magazines were among the principal engines of change in the agricultural South in the period since the armed conflict of the 1860s.”

One could argue that the Philippines is not a country predisposed to reading, but that is a challenge and not a hindrance. Technology continues to grow at a fast rate that offers journalists and educators numerous channels beyond the written word to get their points across.

Scruggs and Moseley identified “three kinds of material:” first, “an editorial judgment essay by the editor on the burning issue of the moment” next, “news of world or national affairs reprinted from other journals of the day-often without knowledge or permission of the originating publication” and last, “...letters from farmers. This mode of exchange of information between farmers formed the main base of agricultural information found in early publications.”

I believe that agriculture journalism should deviate from this, particularly when it comes to reporting news from other sources without their knowledge or permission. While farmer to farmer problem solving is still valued, scientific findings should also be valued in the field and research and discoveries should be given wider reach to help hasten their adoptability or integration.

That said, great care should be taken not to erase the voice of the farmer or fisher, something that can easily be done by accident. Thus, it is important to arm farmers with the building blocks for them to be able to tell their own story, a barrier lessened by the advent of social media, though it may still be hindered by a lack of internet access.

It is hoped that, through proper training and distribution, agriculture journalists can strengthen the importance of information dissemination in the agriculture industry, particularly in a country with a majority that doesn’t particularly care for hard information, with the intent of strengthening the industry as a whole. If Scruggs and Moseley are to go by, this is possible and has been done:

“Since that time it is safe to say that every major improvement in southern agriculture has been assisted by farm publications. While each publication often had a particular special crusade and can be given major credit in some special area, farm publications vibrated out again and again and again the basic message: produce more bushels or pounds per acre, improve efficiency!”

Home — Essay Samples — Economics — Financial Crisis — Crisis In The Agriculture Sector In The Philippines

Crisis in The Agriculture Sector in The Philippines

Categories: Financial Crisis Philippines

About this sample

Words: 614 |

Published: Jan 28, 2021

Words: 614 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Dr. Karlyna PhD

Verified writer

Expert in: Economics Geography & Travel

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

5 pages / 2973 words

2 pages / 1025 words

5 pages / 2597 words

5 pages / 2444 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Financial Crisis

Stratton Oakmont, a Long Island-based brokerage firm, quickly gained notoriety in the 1990s for its aggressive sales tactics and fraudulent practices. The firm, founded by Jordan Belfort and Danny Porush, specialized in penny [...]

The financial crisis that occurred in 2007-2008 took a major impact on the United States, it was considered the most dangerous crisis since the Great Depression. Due to the fact that this crisis did not just effect the US, it [...]

According to scholars, a financial crisis is an expansive variety of situations in that some if not all of the available financial assets abruptly drop a large part of their original value(Martin and Milas, pp.443-459). Notably, [...]

Following the financial crisis in 2008, there is much more enthusiasm in the policy-making classes for supra-national regulation, or , at least, coordination of regulatory rules. A good example of rules being set on a global [...]

One of the most apparent impacts of the 2007-2009 global financial crisis on the United States economy has been high rates of unemployment and inflation. In recent years, the macroeconomic study of unemployment and inflation has [...]

“Supply and demand” are two of the most well-known words in the subject of economics. Simply put, “supply” is the amount of something that is available, or can be made available, to consumers. “Demand” is how much consumers want [...]

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

Instructions Followed To The Letter
Deadlines Met At Every Stage
Unique And Plagiarism Free

Agri-Commodities
Asean Economic Community
Banking & Finance
Business Sense
Entrepreneur
Executive Views
Export Unlimited
Harvard Management Update
Monday Morning
Mutual Funds
Stock Market Outlook
The Integrity Initiative
Editorial cartoon
Design&Space
Digital Life
360° Review
Biodiversity
Climate Change
Environment
Envoys & Expats
Health & Fitness
Mission: PHL
Perspective
Today in History
Tony&Nick
When I Was 25
Wine & Dine
Live & In Quarantine
Bulletin Board
Public Service
The Broader Look

Today’s front page, Tuesday, May 7, 2024

today's front page businessmirror 050724

ECCP calls for agricultural value chain development to address food insecurity, poverty, rural underdevelopment in PHL

Andrea E. San Juan
May 7, 2024
3 minute read

The European Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines (ECCP) has released its advocacy papers for 2024 which includes recommendations related to achieving stable food supply, good nutrition, implementing effective health financing methods, among others.

Under the chamber’s agriculture advocacy paper, ECCP underscored the need to pursue agricultural value chain development; digitalise the agriculture sector; facilitate easier access to finance for agriculture stakeholders; boost efforts to encourage youth participation in the agricultural sector, among others.

Agriculture

“The pursuit of agricultural value chain development is paramount for the Philippines to address the challenges of food insecurity, poverty, and rural underdevelopment,” the advocacy paper of ECCP noted.

The chamber said that by investing in technologies, infrastructure, and institutions that strengthen the entire agricultural value chain, the Philippines can unlock the sector’s full potential, increase food production and achieve food security.

ECCP explained that agricultural value chain development encompasses the entire process from farm to fork, involving various stages such as production, processing, distribution, and marketing.

By focusing on optimising each stage of the value chain, from improving agricultural practices and technologies at the production level to enhancing infrastructure and logistics for distribution and marketing, the European chamber said the Philippines can “significantly’ boost its agricultural productivity and competitiveness.

ECCP also underscored the need to boost efforts to encourage youth participation in the agricultural sector as many experts have highlighted the “adverse effects” of an ageing population of farmers on the country’s food security.

“Attracting youth to participate in the sector remains a challenge, as many farmers prefer their children to pursue higher-paying occupations rather than farming,” ECCP said.

This trend, it noted, is reflected in the “declining enrollment rates” in agriculture programs and related courses, which saw an annual average decline rate of 1.5 percent before the pandemic.

“In order for the country to achieve its goals for the agriculture sector, we must first address the problem of ageing farmers,” ECCP noted.

Nutrition

ECCP underscored the importance of good nutrition. The chamber said it is “crucial” for establishing a stable foundation for socio-economic development.

While the chamber expressed appreciation towards “well-meaning” intent behind proposed and implemented fiscal measures targeting food and beverage products with ingredients that may have a negative impact on health, it said that emphasis should be shifted towards promoting a healthy lifestyle.

“This should be accomplished through a comprehensive, society-wide approach that includes consumer education and awareness regarding physical exercise and health, increased availability of healthier options in the market, and fostering a shift in consumer attitudes towards diet. Such measures are essential for effectively addressing obesity and other lifestyle-related non-communicable diseases,” the chamber’s advocacy paper noted.

Other initiatives, ECCP said, would be to improve access to affordable healthy food options in “underserved” communities, designing neighbourhoods that encourage physical activity through accessible parks and bike lanes.

“The government may also consider expanding to more children and extending the duration of the school feeding program, to include milk as a component,” the ECCP advocacy paper said.

Health financing methods

In terms of health, ECCP said there is a need to expand the PhilHealth coverage and strengthen its capacity to support the provision of health services and products.

“An essential component facilitating the enhancement and inclusivity of healthcare is the implementation of effective health financing methods regardless of disease area involved. Under which, insurance serves as a critical aspect, as it offers individuals a safety net, especially during hospitalisations and unforeseen health crises,” ECCP noted.

ECCP said the Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth), serving as the country’s primary health insurance provider, “holds significant responsibility in bridging the accessibility gap to groundbreaking health treatments and vital products.”

The 2024 edition of the ECCP Advocacy Papers presents issues and recommendations formulated from “productive” exchanges among ECCP sector committees, consultations with representatives from the Philippine government, and engagement with stakeholders, said the chamber.

Stock market today (May 7, 2024): Wall Street rises to add to last week’s gains

Stan Choe / AP Business Writer

4-month national government revenue rises 12.6% to ₱1.42 trillion

Reine Juvierre Alberto

BSP likely to keep rates, says governor

11-fold GOCC dividend rise stirs hope on ₱100-billion goal

57th adb annual meeting adb as a knowledge bridge bringing the best global knowledge to asia and the pacific

Renewable Energy

Multinationals’ scaling back on ESG won’t derail AsPac’s march

Cai U. Ordinario

Marcos Jr.: RTL amendment vital to taming rice prices

Samuel Medenilla

US customs sourcing rules, recalls, spur garments layoff

Gdp in q1 could grow 5.8% moody’s analytics projects, addicted to busyness yes or no.

Henry J. Schumacher

Contact centers seen to grow 9% to $32.2 billion

May 6, 2024

FMJr. wants old school schedule back by 2025

enatula beach in el nido, palawan (igor tichonow:dreamstime.com)

Palawan, Romblon beaches listed with world’s 50 best

Ma. Stella F. Arnaldo

Oil firms to roll back pump prices this week

Lenie Lectura

Stock market today (May 6, 2024): Wall Street inches higher with more corporate earnings on the way

Zimo Zhong / The Associated Press

DepEd reports widespread class suspensions

Claudeth Mocon-Ciriaco

DA sees delay in rice planting this year

Ada Pelonia

Environment group lauds mayor for going after illegal lead smelters

Jonathan L. Mayuga

CCAP keeps confidence on contact center sector’s resilience and revenue potential

BusinessMirror

On Labor Day, Taiwan honors model Pinoy workers

Today in History: May 6, the Hindenburg crashes in flames in New Jersey, killing 97

The Associated Press

Input your search keywords and press Enter.

COMMENTS

Essay About Agriculture In The Philippines
Philippines is one of the richest country when it comes to agriculture, both flora and fauna. Its main agricultural crops are rice, corn, coconut, sugarcane, bananas, pineapple, coffee, mangoes, tabacco and abaca. Most Filipinos are supporting their daily needs through agriculture because they can get food and earn money.
PHILIPPINES: Vibrant Agriculture is Key to Faster Recovery and Poverty
MANILA, September 9, 2020— Transforming Philippine agriculture into a dynamic, high-growth sector is essential for the country to speed up recovery, poverty reduction and inclusive growth, according to the latest report released by the World Bank.. Titled "Transforming Philippine Agriculture During Covid-19 and Beyond," the report says that transforming the country's farming and food ...
Essay on Agriculture Importance In Philippines for Students
100 Words Essay on Agriculture Importance In Philippines The Role of Agriculture. Agriculture is a key part of the Philippines' economy. It provides jobs to many people, especially in rural areas where most of the farming happens. This sector produces food for the nation and also earns money from exporting crops to other countries.
PDF Philippine agriculture: Current state, challenges, and ways forward
agriculture is the lack of competitiveness as manifested by the sector's weak export performance. The Philippine agricultural exports have lagged far behind its Southeast Asian neighbors (Figure 2). In 1997, the only country with a low export base in agriculture as the Philippines Table 1.
Agriculture in the Philippines
Rice paddies in Balagtas, Bulacan. Agriculture in the Philippines is a major sector of the economy, ranking third among the sectors in 2022 behind only Services and Industry.Its outputs include staples like rice and corn, but also export crops such as coffee, cavendish banana, pineapple and pineapple products, coconut, sugar, and mango. The sector continues to face challenges, however, due to ...
A Reflection of a Filipino Farmer
A Reflection of a Filipino Farmer. Adriel Dave 'AD' Alvarez. March 14, 2023 · 4 minutes. 1.9k. 1. 6. AD Alvarez is a Filipino farmer who has ambition to give his life towards improving agriculture and restoring the true importance of farming in the Philippine society. In this opinion essay, he explains the state of agriculture there.
[OPINION] Why Filipino farmers suffer
Mar 13, 2021 9:00 AM PHT. John Patrick P. Habacon. INFO. 'Some [farmers] express that they do not want to see their children following in their footsteps, because they do not want them to suffer ...
(PDF) Sector Study on Philippine Agriculture
Agriculture in the Philippines is a declining sector in terms of total employment. The World Bank estimates 22.86% of Filipinos are employed in the sector and has been. on the decline from 44.91% ...
Transforming Philippine Agriculture: During Covid-19 and ...
MANILA, September 9, 2020--- Transforming Philippine agriculture into a dynamic, high-growth sector is essential for the country to speed up recovery, poverty reduction and inclusive growth ...
Transforming Philippine Agriculture: During COVID-19 and Beyond
Like other rapidly growing and urbanizing middle-income countries, the Philippines is experiencing a structural transformation of its economy. Structural transformation has progressed slowly in the Philippines, however, indicating that Philippine agriculture is not performing to its potential and therefore not fully delivering to the national (and rural) economy.
Agriculture In The Philippines
Agriculture In The Philippines. 998 Words4 Pages. The Philippines, a country in Southeast Asia, whose staple food was rice, was an agricultural country even before. Early settlers in the country, had agriculture as their main source of maintenance. They even designed different ways to cultivate the lands, such as the Kaingin and Tillage Systems.
[OPINION] Palaging pagod at palaging hirap: The story of the Philippine
In 2018, a group of farmers from Negros Occidental gathered in front of the gates of the Department of Agrarian Reform only for them to be turned away by the security guard, who told them ...
The Rise of Organic Agriculture in the Philippines and its ...
In the Philippines , agriculture is one of the main socioeconomic sectors that has been deeply affected by internal and international factors. In the context of economic and ecological unsustainability that arose through the rise of industrial agricultural practices, the Philippines ' government and civil society have promoted the organic ...
Facing the big challenges in Philippine Agriculture
The Philippines' population expansion rate was estimated at 1.4 percent in 2019 by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), while the agriculture sector grew by a measly 0.5 percent in late 2020. These figures clearly show the food-population imbalance, where the rapid rate growth of the population outpace the capacity to produce food.
Essay On Agriculture In The Philippines
Essay On Agriculture In The Philippines. Intro to Economics, Agrarian Reform, Coop. and TaxationAssignment # 4CASALJAY, Aiza C. (BSED-3C)Question: What is the impact of agriculture in our economic development in terms of unemployment, production, exportation and among others?ANSWER:The Philippines is an agricultural country with a land area of ...
The Philippines
Agriculture's share of the Philippine gross domestic product in 1987 (28.5 percent) was almost the same as it was in 1970 (World Bank, 1989b). Between 1972 and 1980, the ratio between the price of rice and the non-food price index declined from 1.0 to 0.59 (Hill and Jayasuriya, 1984). The growth that did occur in the agricultural sector came ...
How to Improve Agriculture in the Philippines, Ways, Ideas, and Tips
Key policy recommendations to improve agriculture in the Philippines. 1. Improve agricultural policy performance to increase long-term productivity growth of the sector . Refocus the policy package to improve food security. Focus on agricultural land policies, from land distribution to protection of property rights through land governance reforms.
Agriculture in the Philippines
Agriculture in the Philippines - statistics & facts. The Philippines is primarily an agricultural country with a large portion of Filipinos living in rural areas and supporting themselves through ...
PDF Importance of Agriculture in The Philippines
One of the most important benefits of agriculture in the Philippines is its contribution to the country's GDP. According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, agriculture, fishery, and forestry accounted for 9.5% of the country's GDP in 2019. This sector also employs around 12 million Filipinos, making it one of the largest sources of ...
How can the Philippines have a booming agricultural sector?
Irrigation systems have been a constant problem of the average Filipino farmer. If investments in a developed irrigation system is prioritized, it will make a huge difference. Underscoring its ...
Humanizing agriculture workers can encourage regular Filipinos to
Humanizing agriculture workers can encourage regular Filipinos to support the industry. BY Yvette Tan. Feb 22, 2024 05:15 PM. AVANT GARDENER. I'm currently taking my PhD in Communications, and I want to center it on agriculture. This has led me to reading academic papers about the role of agriculture media in helping the agriculture industry.
Crisis in The Agriculture Sector in The Philippines
According to the Philippine Statistics Authority released last June 30, 2017, among the nine basic sectors, farmers are one of the highest poverty incidences with a record of 34.3% and have consistently registered as one of the three sectors with the highest poverty incidence last 2006, 2009, and 2012. That same month, the executives of the ...
ECCP calls for agricultural value chain development to address food
The European Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines (ECCP) has released its advocacy papers for 2024 which includes recommendations related to achieving stable food supply, good nutrition ...