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Medievalism and Music by James Cook , Karen Cook LAST MODIFIED: 28 March 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199757824-0241

Medievalism, broadly construed, concerns the cultural and intellectual afterlife of the Middle Ages. It has a long tradition as a topic for critical scholarly engagement. Initially growing up in the disciplines of history and literature, it quickly spread to encompass the disciplines of art, architecture, music, and cultural studies, and began to incorporate theoretical positions taken from critical theory and psychoanalysis. With the founding of Studies in Medievalism by Leslie J. Workman, medievalism began to strike out as an interdisciplinary subject in its own right, crossing boundaries of genre, discipline, and period. The study of music and medievalism is a key part of the broader discipline, as an integral part of understanding popular culture broadly, and the genres of film, television, video games, and opera (among others) specifically. Medievalism is an important part of understanding the context of scholarly and performance traditions such as the historically informed performance practice movement and in understanding many types of music from Wagnerian opera to heavy metal. Indeed, medievalism has a long history in the arts. It has, throughout its history, come to mean many things, from the deliberate creative use of the medieval by later generations in art, literature, music, and other cultural products, to its explicit representation, and even more-general influence, conscious or otherwise. The earliest forays of 18th-century Romanticism tended to hold the medieval in high regard as a way of rejecting the political and ideological formulations of the Age of Enlightenment. It therefore formed an important part of 18th-century movements in art, architecture, literature, poetry, and music. More recently, medievalism has become an important part of popular culture, impacting upon film, television, video game, and popular music to an increasing degree, as well as entering political and journalistic discourse as a way of understanding contemporary phenomena.

The topic of music and medievalism is part of a broader academic discourse on medievalism that crosses disciplinary boundaries. Presented here are important readings from the broader discipline that are nonetheless vital for the study of music and medievalism. The section is divided into Foundational Texts on Medievalism , Reference Works and General Readings on Medievalism , General Literature on Medievalism with Substantial Sections Relating to Music , and Reference Websites, Publications, Societies, and Digital Tools .

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MUSI 020: Medieval and Renaissance Music (SC)

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Performing Music History pp 7–43 Cite as

Medieval and Early Modern Music

• John C. Tibbetts 4 &
• Michael Saffle 5  
• First Online: 30 September 2018

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From the end of the Roman Empire to the beginnings of Baroque music, the Middle Ages and Renaissance—periods closely associated with each other—produced a wealth of music for unaccompanied voices, choruses, and instruments of various kinds. In a chapter devoted to both Medieval and early modern performance practices, Benjamin Bagby examines the origins of “bardic” music, often associated with the so-called “Dark Ages.” William P. Mahrt examines the formation of medieval chant practices and explains that Gregorian chat is alive and well today. Emma Kirkby and Julian Bream explain other developments, including the lute song and vocal practices during the earliest years of opera. Judith Malafronte also discusses early opera as well as the early music movement and its concern with performances practices, while Kirkby also discusses Renaissance and early Baroque dance.

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Approximately 300–1400 C.E. Unless otherwise indicated, all subsequent dates are “Common Era” dates.

Defined by historians as c. 1400–1789 , the year of the French Revolution.

The basso continuo consists of a harmony -providing instrument, such as a harpsichord , guitar, or lute; and an instrument that plays a bass line, such as a viola da gamba , ’cello , or bassoon .

Born Durante degli Alighieri and best known simply as “Dante.”

The legendary Greek poet Homer may have lived c. 800 B.C.E. The surviving poems attributed to him, the Iliad and Odyssey , were performed in antiquity by bards who sang or chanted then, possibly with instrumental accompaniment.

The age of Charlemagne (742–814), who became King of the Franks in 768 and Holy Roman Emperor in 800.

Pythagoras (570–495 B.C.E), the near-legendary Greek philosopher, is credited with working out the mathematical intervals of the overtone series.

Neumes are musical symbols identifying one or more notes sung to a single syllable of text. Early neumes were placed directly above words in the text rather than on a four- or five-line staff.

Revered as a hero and god in ancient Greece and Rome , Hercules (in Greek, Heracles) was born to Jupiter (Zeus), king of the gods, and the moral woman Alcmene; he was celebrated for his physical strength and numerous adventures.

The Plantagenet dynasty ruled England from 1154, with the accession of Henry II , until 1485, when Richard III died.

Beowulf is an epic poem written in Old English , the language spoken in Anglo-Saxon England before the Norman Conquest in 1066.

An original or unedited version of any work.

In this context, a chorale is a harmonized melody in which all voices (usually four) move at the same time. The term “chorale” is also used for early Lutheran hymns, originally sung without accompaniment.

In this context, part of certain systems of notating pitch. Especially associated with medieval music.

Organum refers to early multi-part (polyphonic) music based on chat. In parallel organum, all parts move in the same direction at the same time, although not on the same pitch.

The Ordinary of the Mass includes those sung parts that do not change and appear in every Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei), while the Propers of the Mass constitute those chants that vary from service to service (Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Offertory, Communion). The Gloria is omitted during Advent and Lent, as is the Alleluia during Lent.

Petrarch , born Francesco Petrarca (1304–1374), was one of the foremost Italian humanist poets . Composers in the sixteenth century frequently set his words to music.

Born to the Muse Kalliope and the Thracian king Oeagrus, Orpheus was a legendary musician, so skilled he was able to persuade the king of Hell to release Eurydice, his dead wife.

For this and many other books mentioned below, see “For additional investigation” at the end of the present volume.

A slow dance in duple meter, actually little more than a stroll with a partner of the opposite sex.

Invented in Italy , the masque was a form of “masked” amateur dramatic entertainment, popular especially with English aristocrats during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Louis XIV of France [1638–1715], a monarch who encouraged music and dancing among members of his court.

“Peter Warlock” was the pen name of Philip Arnold Heseltine. Heseltine published music as Warlock and wrote music criticism under his birth name.

A large plucked string instrument popular in the late 1500s and early 1600s.

A plucked string instrument from the Renaissance with a flat back, in contrast to the curved back of a lute.

A broken consort consists of different kinds of instruments—perhaps several recorders , string instruments , and a keyboard instrument. A whole or closed consort consists exclusively of the same kind of instrument—perhaps string instruments only.

Shawms and crumhorns are early double-reed instruments, the theorbo a type of large lute, the sackbut a predecessor of the modern trombone , and the cornetto an instrument with finger holes and a brass mouthpiece.

Cadenzas are improvised or quasi-improvised ornamental interludes that show off individual performers’ artistic and technical ingenuity.

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Tibbetts, J.C., Saffle, M. (2018). Medieval and Early Modern Music. In: Tibbetts, J., Saffle, M., Everett, W. (eds) Performing Music History. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92471-7_2

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This is a free information and listening site for lovers of Early Music, which includes ancient music, Medieval, Renaissance and Baroque music. We organize online Early Music resources and research, and we provide free listening along with information relevant to an ever-expanding range of early music. This site is currently mostly about Western music (which in terms of the early period is limited to European music). However, we plan in due course to expand the site’s focus to include non-Western cultures. Explore our extensive music collection and read about the composers and their works !

The Western musical tradition as we know it today has its earliest origins in Ancient Greece. Historians have classified early music according to the following periods. (The dates are approximate, and somewhat different chronologies can also be found.)

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The Early Music Lovers website, which is currently under construction, will soon be divided into sections according to the above periods, with ample info and listening material. Meanwhile, you can listen to several selected music items by scrolling down this page.

Ancient Greek Music

Listen to the first Delphic Hymn, dated to 138 BCE and addressed to the Greek god Apollo. It was found in an ancient tablet with early musical notation. It is one of the earliest known Western musical compositions. This (instrumental) reconstruction is performed by Petros Tabouris. Music of the classical period aimed at capturing the relationship between man and the universe, aided by a methodical formulation of the Western musical modes. Far from being viewed as mere entertainment, music was seen by the philosophers of classical antiquity (from Pythagoras to Plato and beyond) as grounded in natural science, its primary goal being to harmonize mankind with the cosmos.

Medieval Music

Listen to this collection of medieval plainchants performed by the Hilliard Ensemble, which includes various types of medieval chants. Between the Fall of the Roman Empire and the later Middle Ages, music in the Middle Ages began and developed as monophony. In addition to its monophonic repertoire, Western music, roughly from the 9th century on, developed polyphony, with particular emphasis on texture, rhythm, counterpoint, and eventually Baroque and modern harmony. Music of the medieval era comes in two flavors: sacred (hymns, liturgical chants, and spiritual songs) and secular (chiefly songs and dance music).

Medieval Sacred Music

Early Christian music developed from its immediate roots in the Jewish musical tradition, and it developed by interacting with other, local musical traditions as Christianity spread geographically in the early CE. Even before the establishment of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman empire in the early 4th century, Early Christian liturgy was the cradle of monophonic and polyphonic chants, the latter being one of the pivotal developments in the history of Western music. The early church developed several styles of liturgical rites.

The Syriac Rite

The oldest style of chant, the Syriac Rite mostly consisted of hymns and psalmodies. St. Ephraim, a composer of Syriac chants, is towering figure in early Christian liturgy. Listen to his Hymn of Repentance, chanted in the original Aramaic language by Andreas Hanna.

The Byzantine Rite

The Byzantine rite developed in the eastern part of the Roman Empire, with its capital in Constantinople (today’s Istanbul). The early Byzantine chant was unaccompanied, monophonic, and typically used a vocal drone called the ison. This style of chanting is still widely practiced by the various Orthodox churches. Listen to this Hymn of St. Kassia (Kassiani) of 9th century, performed in English translation by the Boston Byzantine Choir.

The Old Roman Rite

The Old Roman Rite was the original liturgical rite of Rome. All Old Roman chants are anonymous. (In the 9th century, this style of chanting was superseded in the Latin Church by the Gregorian chant.) Listen to the Old Roman “Kyrie Eleison” (“O Lord, Have Mercy”), performed by the Ensemble Organum.

The Ambrosian Rite

The Ambrosian chant is named after St. Ambrose, a 4th century Bishop of Milan. This style of chanting is still used in Milan. He introduced the Eastern (Greek) hymnody into the West and systematized Milanese liturgy. Listen to this Medieval Ambrosian Chant, performed by the Ensemble Organum.

The Coptic Rite

The Coptic Rite is the liturgical rite of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. St. Yared of the 6th century is credited with the composition of the Coptic (or “Abyssinian”) liturgy, which continues to be used by the Coptic Church. Coptic chants are monodic and leave scope for spontaneous improvisation (which has fascinated musicologists). St. Yared is said to be the sole composer of all Coptic chants. Listen to the Hymn of St. Yared, performed by a choir of Coptic monks.

The Gregorian Rite

The Gregorian chant came to be the standard style of Western plainchant (monophonic liturgical song). The formulation of the Gregorian Rite was commissioned by Emperor Charlemagne (c. 742-814) as the standard for the Holy Roman Empire. The musical requirements for the Gregorian chant were articulated by Pope Gregory I; hence the moniker “Gregorian.” Listen to “Salve Regina,” composed by St. Hermannus Contractus (a.k.a. Blessed Hermann of Reichenau, 1013-1054) and performed here by Béatrice Gobin.

Medieval Secular Music

Secular music of the Middle Ages developed within the courtly and folk traditions, and sometimes interacted with the musical tradition of the church. The best example of late medieval courtly music is the music of the Troubadours, 11-13th century composers and performers of songs, (chiefly) in the Old Occitan or “langue d’Oc.” The Troubadours represent the pinnacle of secular music in the late Middle Ages. Listen to Bernart de Ventadorn’s famous song, “Can vei la lauzeta mover” (“When the Lark Flies”), sung by Alla Francesca.

Early Polyphony

We have examples of simple two-part polyphony from as early as the 9th century. But polyphony (which, simply put, means music that involves playing or singing different notes simultaneously) takes off in a big way in the middle of the 12th century, especially with the so-called Notre Dame school of composers centred on the Notre Dame Cathedral of Paris. In musicology this is called the “ars antiqua” style (a modern coinage). Listen to “Sederunt Principes” for four voices by the composer Pérotin (1199), performed by the Early Music Consort of London – a good example of this school of composition.

Renaissance Polyphony

The development of polyphony during the Renaissance distinguishes the period’s music markedly from its Medieval counterparts. The polyphonic arrangement of music, accentuated by intricate and well-textured counterpoints, is the defining feature of Renaissance music, eventually paving the way for the Baroque era. Listen to Gregorio Allegri’s Miserere performed by the The Choir of Claire College, Cambridge, conducted by Timothy Brown.

Early Baroque

The Baroque is a tremendously complex period of music history characterized by vigorous development, notably a new type of harmony which is based on modulation (as distinct from Renaissance “modal harmony”). Listen to l’Orpheo (“Orpheus,” 1607) by Claudio Monteverdi, the first great opera, performed here by Jordi Savall, La Capella Reial de Catalunya and he Montserrat Figueras, with Furio Zanasi as Orfeo and and Arianna Savall as Euridice. In this opera, Monteverdi pioneered harmonic modulation as a “secondary” technique.

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Professor Robert Adlington, Head of Research at the Royal College of Music, commented: ‘The Royal College of Music’s magnificent Museum and historic collections are not only assets to College staff and students, but also make extraordinary contributions to the wider research community in the UK and internationally. In marrying heritage and innovation and seeking to benefit the widest range of external users, the work of the Museum team embodies core aspects of the College’s vibrant research culture.’ 

One of the largest collections of its kind in the world, the Royal College of Music Museum houses over 14,000 musical items. It reopened in October 2021 after a £4.8 million redevelopment, and includes an accessible learning space, the Weston Discovery Centre, and the Wolfson Centre in Music and Material Culture. A centre of innovation, the museum recently used world-leading technology to create 3D models of rare instruments from the collections to protect against conservation concerns, while recent exhibitions include Hidden Treasures showcasing a world of curiosities from the RCM collections, and Music, Migration and Mobility which explored the story of émigré musicians from Nazi Europe in Britain.   

The RCM Museum is  free to visit  and is open Tuesday–Friday, 10.15am-5.45pm and Saturday–Sunday, 11am-6pm. The Museum also hosts a series of intimate concerts featuring RCM musicians performing on and amongst the artefacts. These take place on Friday lunchtimes and tickets can be  booked online . 

Royal College of Music

Prince Consort Road

London SW7 2BS

United Kingdom

Registered charity No. 309268

+44 (0)20 7591 4300

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