writing research process

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11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

• Identify reasons to research writing projects.
• Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

• Medical laboratory technician
• Small business owner
• Information technology professional
• Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

• Choose a topic.
• Plan and schedule time to research and write.
• Conduct research.
• Organize research and ideas.
• Draft your paper.
• Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

• In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
• In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
• What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

• People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
• The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

• University Libraries
• Scholarly Writing Guide

The Research Process

Scholarly writing guide: the research process.

• The Writing Process
• Style & Editing
• Getting Published

This page includes resources on the general research process across disciplines , and for researchers of various kinds, including students and the general public.

For more specific, discipline-focused resources and methodologies, see the list of research guides linked below,  Subject Guides for your areas of study, or some of our SAGE Research Methods databases . 

Key questions for beginning researchers:

1. What are your research questions? What are you trying to understand, analyze, explain, argue, or demonstrate through empirical evidence or persuasive argument? Your questions should be relevant to your field of study and address the needs of other researchers, practitioners, students, or general audiences. This is the What  of your research.

2. What is your methodology/approach? Are you gathering and analyzing new data, working with existing data from previous studies, using case studies or interviews, reviewing the literature on a topic, offering an original theoretical argument, explaining a project or process in your workplace, etc.? This is the How of your research.

3. Who is your audience? Are you primarily addressing other researchers in your field, professionals in applied fields, students (at what level?), policy-makers or the general public?  This will help determine what kind of journal or other publication you want to aim for and what kind of methods and analysis you’ll need in order to explain your research and results to those audiences. This is the Who of your research.

4. What impact or effect do you hope to have on the discipline?  What are you hoping that readers take away from your work? How would you like them to make use of it? What new ideas, methods, approaches, or attitudes do you hope to encourage through your work? This is the Why of your research.

UNT Libraries Resources

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Books on the Research Process

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• Knowledge Base
• Research process

A Beginner's Guide to Starting the Research Process

When you have to write a thesis or dissertation , it can be hard to know where to begin, but there are some clear steps you can follow.

The research process often begins with a very broad idea for a topic you’d like to know more about. You do some preliminary research to identify a  problem . After refining your research questions , you can lay out the foundations of your research design , leading to a proposal that outlines your ideas and plans.

This article takes you through the first steps of the research process, helping you narrow down your ideas and build up a strong foundation for your research project.

Table of contents

Step 1: choose your topic, step 2: identify a problem, step 3: formulate research questions, step 4: create a research design, step 5: write a research proposal.

First you have to come up with some ideas. Your thesis or dissertation topic can start out very broad. Think about the general area or field you’re interested in—maybe you already have specific research interests based on classes you’ve taken, or maybe you had to consider your topic when applying to graduate school and writing a statement of purpose .

Even if you already have a good sense of your topic, you’ll need to read widely to build background knowledge and begin narrowing down your ideas. Conduct an initial literature review to begin gathering relevant sources. As you read, take notes and try to identify problems, questions, debates, contradictions and gaps. Your aim is to narrow down from a broad area of interest to a specific niche.

Make sure to consider the practicalities: the requirements of your programme, the amount of time you have to complete the research, and how difficult it will be to access sources and data on the topic. Before moving onto the next stage, it’s a good idea to discuss the topic with your thesis supervisor.

>>Read more about narrowing down a research topic

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

So you’ve settled on a topic and found a niche—but what exactly will your research investigate, and why does it matter? To give your project focus and purpose, you have to define a research problem .

The problem might be a practical issue—for example, a process or practice that isn’t working well, an area of concern in an organization’s performance, or a difficulty faced by a specific group of people in society.

Alternatively, you might choose to investigate a theoretical problem—for example, an underexplored phenomenon or relationship, a contradiction between different models or theories, or an unresolved debate among scholars.

To put the problem in context and set your objectives, you can write a problem statement . This describes who the problem affects, why research is needed, and how your research project will contribute to solving it.

>>Read more about defining a research problem

Next, based on the problem statement, you need to write one or more research questions . These target exactly what you want to find out. They might focus on describing, comparing, evaluating, or explaining the research problem.

A strong research question should be specific enough that you can answer it thoroughly using appropriate qualitative or quantitative research methods. It should also be complex enough to require in-depth investigation, analysis, and argument. Questions that can be answered with “yes/no” or with easily available facts are not complex enough for a thesis or dissertation.

In some types of research, at this stage you might also have to develop a conceptual framework and testable hypotheses .

>>See research question examples

The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It involves making decisions about the type of data you need, the methods you’ll use to collect and analyze it, and the location and timescale of your research.

There are often many possible paths you can take to answering your questions. The decisions you make will partly be based on your priorities. For example, do you want to determine causes and effects, draw generalizable conclusions, or understand the details of a specific context?

You need to decide whether you will use primary or secondary data and qualitative or quantitative methods . You also need to determine the specific tools, procedures, and materials you’ll use to collect and analyze your data, as well as your criteria for selecting participants or sources.

>>Read more about creating a research design

Finally, after completing these steps, you are ready to complete a research proposal . The proposal outlines the context, relevance, purpose, and plan of your research.

As well as outlining the background, problem statement, and research questions, the proposal should also include a literature review that shows how your project will fit into existing work on the topic. The research design section describes your approach and explains exactly what you will do.

You might have to get the proposal approved by your supervisor before you get started, and it will guide the process of writing your thesis or dissertation.

>>Read more about writing a research proposal

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Writing for Inquiry and Research

(2 reviews)

Jeffrey Kessler, University of Illinois Chicago

Mark Bennett, University of Illinois Chicago

Sarah Primeau, University of Illinois Chicago

Charitianne Williams, University of Illinois Chicago

Virginia Costello, University of Illinois Chicago

Annie R. Armstrong, University of Illinois Chicago

Copyright Year: 2023

ISBN 13: 9781946011213

Publisher: University of Illinois Library - Urbana

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Terry Lovern, Adjunct Instructor, Radford University on 5/27/24

The book is quite comprehensive, showcasing the experience from all the authors. The authors' interdisciplinary approach works well, adding to the text's depth and breadth. Incorporating explanatory videos in the sections is an excellent choice,... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

The book is quite comprehensive, showcasing the experience from all the authors. The authors' interdisciplinary approach works well, adding to the text's depth and breadth. Incorporating explanatory videos in the sections is an excellent choice, which eliminates the need to add more tutorials via YouTube. It covers all the necessary steps for conducting and composing a research paper.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

Although the authors leave out important topics like emergent digital technologies and plagiarism, they at least acknowledge those shortcomings as they advocate that writing is always a human-centric action. An instructor could easily supplement other materials to cover these missing topics though.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The authors focus on what they view as the most important, evergreen steps of research writing. This approach will help the text endure over time as opposed to needed constant updates for things like digital media. Technology could be supplemented with other OER texts or by the instructor.

Clarity rating: 5

The book is clear and concise. First-year students and instructors alike should have no problem following the text due to its well organized content.

Consistency rating: 5

The book has no consistency problems. The authors use a simple, easy to follow organization of topics; their accumulated experience with first-year writing keeps the content consistent.

Modularity rating: 5

The authors do an excellent job of breaking the research writing process into easy to use sections. Assigning them out of order in class would be confusing; however, an instructor could spend a week or longer on a chapter, adding anything else they feel is necessary.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Excellent organization. Each section is distinct and separate, but shows how the entire research process is connected and scaffolded. The appendices are also laid out well and organized.

Interface rating: 5

No interface issues or problems with the text itself.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No discernible surface errors are in the text.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The book is fairly neutral, so any first-year student or instructor should be able to use it. The text contains nothing culturally insensitive or offensive and focuses on how to do research writing.

This would make a great text for anyone teaching the research writing component of first-year composition. The step-by-step structure makes it easy to scaffold and incorporate into a syllabus schedule. The book would also be excellent for mentoring TA's who are learning to teach the material and for new instructors who might want more structure to their course plans.

Reviewed by Angelica Rivera, Director, Northeastern Illinois University on 4/16/24

This book consists of a Preface, Introduction, Chapters I thru Chapter IV. and it also has an Appendix I to Appendix III. Chapter I covers the Annotated Bibliography, Chapter II covers the Proposal, Chapter III covers the Literature Review and... read more

This book consists of a Preface, Introduction, Chapters I thru Chapter IV. and it also has an Appendix I to Appendix III. Chapter I covers the Annotated Bibliography, Chapter II covers the Proposal, Chapter III covers the Literature Review and Chapter IV covers the Research Essay. Each section is broken down into smaller sections to break down each topic. The book is written by 3 different authors who are experts in their field and who write about different writing genres. The authors are interdisciplinary in their approach which means students in various disciplines can use the manual to begin their inquiry process and continue with their research process. This book also has short videos that provide explanations, and references after every chapter to provide additional learning resources. Appendix I covers Reading Strategies, Appendix II covers Writing Strategies and Appendix III covers Research Strategies. Appendix I and Appendix II also have additional resources for reading and writing strategies. This book will help most first year students who are transitioning from high school to college.

This book is accessible for first year students who are in English, Composition or First year experience courses. However, the authors note that there are some limits to the topics addressed as the text does not cover research methods, databases, plagiarism and emerging writing technologies. The authors believe that writing is a human based process regardless of the tools and technologies that one uses when writing.

This book is well researched and will survive the test of time as it is accessible and will serve as a reference tool for a student who is looking to develop their writing question and develop their research approach.

This book is well researched, well organized and well written.

There was consistency throughout the text as all of the authors had experience with working with first year students and/or with the writing process.

The first 3 chapters can be assigned in any order but the fourth chapter should be the 4th step as that part consists of writing the actual research essay. This book is not meant to be used by itself and thus provides additional bibliographic sources and topics to further develop one’s knowledge of the writing process.

This book is written in the logical process of developing a research question and then conducting the research. An instructor can easily assign these chapters in chronological order and it will help the student to brainstorm to create their question and then follow the steps to conduct their research.

There were no issues with the books interface.

I found this manuscript to be well written and it contained no visible grammatical errors.

I found this book to be neutral and accessible to all students irrespective of their various backgrounds.

I give this book 5 stars because it helps students and instructors break down the research process into smaller steps which can be completed in a semester-long course in research writing.

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• Chapter 1: Annotated Bibliography
• Chapter 2: Proposal
• Chapter 3: Literature Review
• Chapter 4: Research Essay
• Appendix I: Writing Strategies
• Appendix II: Reading Strategies
• Appendix III: Research Strategies

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Writing for Inquiry and Research guides students through the composition process of writing a research paper. The book divides this process into four chapters that each focus on a genre connected to research writing: the annotated bibliography, proposal, literature review, and research essay. Each chapter provides significant guidance with reading, writing, and research strategies, along with significant examples and links to external resources. This book serves to help students and instructors with a writing-project-based approach, transforming the research process into an accessible series of smaller, more attainable steps for a semester-long course in research writing. Additional resources throughout the book, as well as in three appendices, allow for students and instructors to explore the many facets of the writing process together.

About the Contributors

Jeffrey C. Kessler is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Illinois Chicago. His research and teaching interrogate the intersections of writing, fiction, and critical university studies. He has published about the works of Oscar Wilde, Henry James, Vernon Lee, and Walter Pater. He earned his PhD from Indiana University.

Mark Bennett has served as director of the University of Illinois Chicago’s (UIC) First-Year Writing Program since 2012. He earned his PhD in English from UIC in 2013. His primary research interests are in composition studies and rhetoric, with a focus on writing program administration, course placement, outcomes assessment, international student education, and AI writing.

Sarah Primeau serves as the associate director of the First-Year Writing Program and teaches first-year writing classes at University of Illinois Chicago. Sarah has presented her work at the Conference on College Composition and Communication, the Council of Writing Program Administrators Conference, and the Cultural Rhetorics Conference. She holds a PhD in Rhetoric and Composition from Wayne State University, where she focused on composition pedagogy, cultural rhetorics, writing assessment, and writing program administration.

Charitianne Williams is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Illinois Chicago focused on teaching first-year composition and writing center studies. When she’s not teaching or thinking about teaching, she’s thinking about writing.

For more than twenty years, Virginia Costello has been teaching a variety of English composition, literature, and gender studies courses. She received her Ph.D. from Stony Brook University in 2010 and is presently Senior Lecturer in the Department of English at University of Illinois Chicago. Early in her career, she studied anarcho-catholicism through the work of Dorothy Day and The Catholic Worker Movement. She completed research at the International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam and has published articles on T.S. Eliot, Emma Goldman, and Bernard Shaw. More recently, she presented her work at the Modern Studies Association conference (Portland, OR, 2022), Conference on College Composition and Communication (Chicago, Il, 2023) and Comparative and Continental Philosophy Circle (Tallinn, Estonia, 2022 and Bogotá, Columbia, 2023). Her research interests include prison reform/abolition, archē in anarchism, and Zen Buddhism.

Annie Armstrong has been a reference and instruction librarian at the Richard J. Daley Library at the University of Illinois Chicago since 2000 and has served as the Coordinator of Teaching & Learning Services since 2007. She serves as the library’s liaison to the College of Education and the Department of Psychology. Her research focuses on enhancing and streamlining the research experience of academic library users through in-person and online information literacy instruction.

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Online Guide to Writing and Research Chapter 4: The Research Process

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• Online Guide to Writing

The Nature of Research

• Why Perform Research?
• When Is Research Needed?
• How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?
• What Are Research Resources?
• Human Resources
• Print Resources
• Electronic Resources
• Find a Topic and Get an Overview
• Survey the Literature
• Ask a Research Question
• Manage Your Resources
• Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing
• Cite Sources
• Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research
• Collect Evidence
• Draw Conclusions
• Informal Research Structure
• Formal Research Structure

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Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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• Writing Worksheets and Other Writing Resources
• The Writing Process

A Process Approach to Writing Research Papers

About the slc.

• Our Mission and Core Values

(adapted from Research Paper Guide, Point Loma Nazarene University, 2010) 

Step 1: Be a Strategic Reader and Scholar 

Even before your paper is assigned, use the tools you have been given by your instructor and GSI, and create tools you can use later. 

See the handout “Be a Strategic Reader and Scholar” for more information.

Step 2: Understand the Assignment 

• Free topic choice or assigned?
• Type of paper: Informative? Persuasive? Other?
• Any terminology in assignment not clear?
• Library research needed or required? How much?
• What style of citation is required?
• Can you break the assignment into parts?
• When will you do each part?
• Are you required or allowed to collaborate with other members of the class?
• Other special directions or requirements?

Step 3: Select a Topic 

• interests you
• you know something about
• you can research easily
• Write out topic and brainstorm.
• Select your paper’s specific topic from this brainstorming list.
• In a sentence or short paragraph, describe what you think your paper is about.

Step 4: Initial Planning, Investigation, and Outlining 

• the nature of your audience
• ideas & information you already possess
• sources you can consult
• background reading you should do

Make a rough outline, a guide for your research to keep you on the subject while you work. 

Step 5: Accumulate Research Materials 

• Use cards, Word, Post-its, or Excel to organize.
• Organize your bibliography records first.
• Organize notes next (one idea per document— direct quotations, paraphrases, your own ideas).
• Arrange your notes under the main headings of your tentative outline. If necessary, print out documents and literally cut and paste (scissors and tape) them together by heading.

Step 6: Make a Final Outline to Guide Writing 

• Reorganize and fill in tentative outline.
• Organize notes to correspond to outline. 
• As you decide where you will use outside resources in your paper, make notes in your outline to refer to your numbered notecards, attach post-its to your printed outline, or note the use of outside resources in a different font or text color from the rest of your outline. 
• In both Steps 6 and 7, it is important to maintain a clear distinction between your own words and ideas and those of others.

Step 7: Write the Paper 

• Use your outline to guide you.
• Write quickly—capture flow of ideas—deal with proofreading later.
• Put aside overnight or longer, if possible.

Step 8: Revise and Proofread 

• Check organization—reorganize paragraphs and add transitions where necessary.
• Make sure all researched information is documented.
• Rework introduction and conclusion.
• Work on sentences—check spelling, punctuation, word choice, etc.
• Read out loud to check for flow.

Carolyn Swalina, Writing Program Coordinator  Student Learning Center, University of California, Berkeley ©2011 UC Regents

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.

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The Writing Process

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Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Table of Contents

Research Process

Definition:

Research Process is a systematic and structured approach that involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data or information to answer a specific research question or solve a particular problem.

Research Process Steps

Research Process Steps are as follows:

Identify the Research Question or Problem

This is the first step in the research process. It involves identifying a problem or question that needs to be addressed. The research question should be specific, relevant, and focused on a particular area of interest.

Conduct a Literature Review

Once the research question has been identified, the next step is to conduct a literature review. This involves reviewing existing research and literature on the topic to identify any gaps in knowledge or areas where further research is needed. A literature review helps to provide a theoretical framework for the research and also ensures that the research is not duplicating previous work.

Formulate a Hypothesis or Research Objectives

Based on the research question and literature review, the researcher can formulate a hypothesis or research objectives. A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested to determine its validity, while research objectives are specific goals that the researcher aims to achieve through the research.

Design a Research Plan and Methodology

This step involves designing a research plan and methodology that will enable the researcher to collect and analyze data to test the hypothesis or achieve the research objectives. The research plan should include details on the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques that will be used.

Collect and Analyze Data

This step involves collecting and analyzing data according to the research plan and methodology. Data can be collected through various methods, including surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. The data analysis process involves cleaning and organizing the data, applying statistical and analytical techniques to the data, and interpreting the results.

Interpret the Findings and Draw Conclusions

After analyzing the data, the researcher must interpret the findings and draw conclusions. This involves assessing the validity and reliability of the results and determining whether the hypothesis was supported or not. The researcher must also consider any limitations of the research and discuss the implications of the findings.

Communicate the Results

Finally, the researcher must communicate the results of the research through a research report, presentation, or publication. The research report should provide a detailed account of the research process, including the research question, literature review, research methodology, data analysis, findings, and conclusions. The report should also include recommendations for further research in the area.

Review and Revise

The research process is an iterative one, and it is important to review and revise the research plan and methodology as necessary. Researchers should assess the quality of their data and methods, reflect on their findings, and consider areas for improvement.

Ethical Considerations

Throughout the research process, ethical considerations must be taken into account. This includes ensuring that the research design protects the welfare of research participants, obtaining informed consent, maintaining confidentiality and privacy, and avoiding any potential harm to participants or their communities.

Dissemination and Application

The final step in the research process is to disseminate the findings and apply the research to real-world settings. Researchers can share their findings through academic publications, presentations at conferences, or media coverage. The research can be used to inform policy decisions, develop interventions, or improve practice in the relevant field.

Research Process Example

Following is a Research Process Example:

Research Question : What are the effects of a plant-based diet on athletic performance in high school athletes?

Step 1: Background Research Conduct a literature review to gain a better understanding of the existing research on the topic. Read academic articles and research studies related to plant-based diets, athletic performance, and high school athletes.

Step 2: Develop a Hypothesis Based on the literature review, develop a hypothesis that a plant-based diet positively affects athletic performance in high school athletes.

Step 3: Design the Study Design a study to test the hypothesis. Decide on the study population, sample size, and research methods. For this study, you could use a survey to collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance from a sample of high school athletes who follow a plant-based diet and a sample of high school athletes who do not follow a plant-based diet.

Step 4: Collect Data Distribute the survey to the selected sample and collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance.

Step 5: Analyze Data Use statistical analysis to compare the data from the two samples and determine if there is a significant difference in athletic performance between those who follow a plant-based diet and those who do not.

Step 6 : Interpret Results Interpret the results of the analysis in the context of the research question and hypothesis. Discuss any limitations or potential biases in the study design.

Step 7: Draw Conclusions Based on the results, draw conclusions about whether a plant-based diet has a significant effect on athletic performance in high school athletes. If the hypothesis is supported by the data, discuss potential implications and future research directions.

Step 8: Communicate Findings Communicate the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner. Use appropriate language, visuals, and formats to ensure that the findings are understood and valued.

Applications of Research Process

The research process has numerous applications across a wide range of fields and industries. Some examples of applications of the research process include:

• Scientific research: The research process is widely used in scientific research to investigate phenomena in the natural world and develop new theories or technologies. This includes fields such as biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science.
• Social sciences : The research process is commonly used in social sciences to study human behavior, social structures, and institutions. This includes fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, and economics.
• Education: The research process is used in education to study learning processes, curriculum design, and teaching methodologies. This includes research on student achievement, teacher effectiveness, and educational policy.
• Healthcare: The research process is used in healthcare to investigate medical conditions, develop new treatments, and evaluate healthcare interventions. This includes fields such as medicine, nursing, and public health.
• Business and industry : The research process is used in business and industry to study consumer behavior, market trends, and develop new products or services. This includes market research, product development, and customer satisfaction research.
• Government and policy : The research process is used in government and policy to evaluate the effectiveness of policies and programs, and to inform policy decisions. This includes research on social welfare, crime prevention, and environmental policy.

Purpose of Research Process

The purpose of the research process is to systematically and scientifically investigate a problem or question in order to generate new knowledge or solve a problem. The research process enables researchers to:

• Identify gaps in existing knowledge: By conducting a thorough literature review, researchers can identify gaps in existing knowledge and develop research questions that address these gaps.
• Collect and analyze data : The research process provides a structured approach to collecting and analyzing data. Researchers can use a variety of research methods, including surveys, experiments, and interviews, to collect data that is valid and reliable.
• Test hypotheses : The research process allows researchers to test hypotheses and make evidence-based conclusions. Through the systematic analysis of data, researchers can draw conclusions about the relationships between variables and develop new theories or models.
• Solve problems: The research process can be used to solve practical problems and improve real-world outcomes. For example, researchers can develop interventions to address health or social problems, evaluate the effectiveness of policies or programs, and improve organizational processes.
• Generate new knowledge : The research process is a key way to generate new knowledge and advance understanding in a given field. By conducting rigorous and well-designed research, researchers can make significant contributions to their field and help to shape future research.

Tips for Research Process

Here are some tips for the research process:

• Start with a clear research question : A well-defined research question is the foundation of a successful research project. It should be specific, relevant, and achievable within the given time frame and resources.
• Conduct a thorough literature review: A comprehensive literature review will help you to identify gaps in existing knowledge, build on previous research, and avoid duplication. It will also provide a theoretical framework for your research.
• Choose appropriate research methods: Select research methods that are appropriate for your research question, objectives, and sample size. Ensure that your methods are valid, reliable, and ethical.
• Be organized and systematic: Keep detailed notes throughout the research process, including your research plan, methodology, data collection, and analysis. This will help you to stay organized and ensure that you don’t miss any important details.
• Analyze data rigorously: Use appropriate statistical and analytical techniques to analyze your data. Ensure that your analysis is valid, reliable, and transparent.
• I nterpret results carefully : Interpret your results in the context of your research question and objectives. Consider any limitations or potential biases in your research design, and be cautious in drawing conclusions.
• Communicate effectively: Communicate your research findings clearly and effectively to your target audience. Use appropriate language, visuals, and formats to ensure that your findings are understood and valued.
• Collaborate and seek feedback : Collaborate with other researchers, experts, or stakeholders in your field. Seek feedback on your research design, methods, and findings to ensure that they are relevant, meaningful, and impactful.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Jessie Ball duPont Library

Research writing.

• What is Research?

The Seven Steps of Highly Effective Research Papers

• Choosing a Topic
• Finding Sources
• Presenting your Sources
• Organizing your Material
• Discipline-Specific Research
• Citing Sources This link opens in a new window

The Journey

The research process is not necessarily linear. It winds in and around your topic, folds back on itself, leads to tangents (that sometimes turn out to be more important than the issue at hand), and occasionally becomes frustratingly inconclusive. Still, there are some parts of the research puzzle that serve as standard guideposts. If we pay attention to these guideposts, we might keep from pulling all of our hair out. The seven basic steps of research in college are --

1. Choosing a topic

2. Finding sources and acquiring information

3. Determining your main idea (thesis statement or hypothesis)

4. Presenting your sources

5. Organizing your material

6. Writing the finished assignment

7. Citing your sources

Material adapted from  Writing from Sources , 8th edition, by Brenda Spatt

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• Next: Choosing a Topic >>
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13.5 Research Process: Making Notes, Synthesizing Information, and Keeping a Research Log

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Employ the methods and technologies commonly used for research and communication within various fields.
• Practice and apply strategies such as interpretation, synthesis, response, and critique to compose texts that integrate the writer’s ideas with those from appropriate sources.
• Analyze and make informed decisions about intellectual property based on the concepts that motivate them.
• Apply citation conventions systematically.

As you conduct research, you will work with a range of “texts” in various forms, including sources and documents from online databases as well as images, audio, and video files from the Internet. You may also work with archival materials and with transcribed and analyzed primary data. Additionally, you will be taking notes and recording quotations from secondary sources as you find materials that shape your understanding of your topic and, at the same time, provide you with facts and perspectives. You also may download articles as PDFs that you then annotate. Like many other students, you may find it challenging to keep so much material organized, accessible, and easy to work with while you write a major research paper. As it does for many of those students, a research log for your ideas and sources will help you keep track of the scope, purpose, and possibilities of any research project.

A research log is essentially a journal in which you collect information, ask questions, and monitor the results. Even if you are completing the annotated bibliography for Writing Process: Informing and Analyzing , keeping a research log is an effective organizational tool. Like Lily Tran’s research log entry, most entries have three parts: a part for notes on secondary sources, a part for connections to the thesis or main points, and a part for your own notes or questions. Record source notes by date, and allow room to add cross-references to other entries.

Summary of Assignment: Research Log

Your assignment is to create a research log similar to the student model. You will use it for the argumentative research project assigned in Writing Process: Integrating Research to record all secondary source information: your notes, complete publication data, relation to thesis, and other information as indicated in the right-hand column of the sample entry.

Another Lens. A somewhat different approach to maintaining a research log is to customize it to your needs or preferences. You can apply shading or color coding to headers, rows, and/or columns in the three-column format (for colors and shading). Or you can add columns to accommodate more information, analysis, synthesis, or commentary, formatting them as you wish. Consider adding a column for questions only or one for connections to other sources. Finally, consider a different visual format , such as one without columns. Another possibility is to record some of your comments and questions so that you have an aural rather than a written record of these.

Writing Center

At this point, or at any other point during the research and writing process, you may find that your school’s writing center can provide extensive assistance. If you are unfamiliar with the writing center, now is a good time to pay your first visit. Writing centers provide free peer tutoring for all types and phases of writing. Discussing your research with a trained writing center tutor can help you clarify, analyze, and connect ideas as well as provide feedback on works in progress.

Quick Launch: Beginning Questions

You may begin your research log with some open pages in which you freewrite, exploring answers to the following questions. Although you generally would do this at the beginning, it is a process to which you likely will return as you find more information about your topic and as your focus changes, as it may during the course of your research.

• What information have I found so far?
• What do I still need to find?
• Where am I most likely to find it?

These are beginning questions. Like Lily Tran, however, you will come across general questions or issues that a quick note or freewrite may help you resolve. The key to this section is to revisit it regularly. Written answers to these and other self-generated questions in your log clarify your tasks as you go along, helping you articulate ideas and examine supporting evidence critically. As you move further into the process, consider answering the following questions in your freewrite:

• What evidence looks as though it best supports my thesis?
• What evidence challenges my working thesis?
• How is my thesis changing from where it started?

Creating the Research Log

As you gather source material for your argumentative research paper, keep in mind that the research is intended to support original thinking. That is, you are not writing an informational report in which you simply supply facts to readers. Instead, you are writing to support a thesis that shows original thinking, and you are collecting and incorporating research into your paper to support that thinking. Therefore, a research log, whether digital or handwritten, is a great way to keep track of your thinking as well as your notes and bibliographic information.

In the model below, Lily Tran records the correct MLA bibliographic citation for the source. Then, she records a note and includes the in-text citation here to avoid having to retrieve this information later. Perhaps most important, Tran records why she noted this information—how it supports her thesis: The human race must turn to sustainable food systems that provide healthy diets with minimal environmental impact, starting now . Finally, she makes a note to herself about an additional visual to include in the final paper to reinforce the point regarding the current pressure on food systems. And she connects the information to other information she finds, thus cross-referencing and establishing a possible synthesis. Use a format similar to that in Table 13.4 to begin your own research log.

Types of Research Notes

Taking good notes will make the research process easier by enabling you to locate and remember sources and use them effectively. While some research projects requiring only a few sources may seem easily tracked, research projects requiring more than a few sources are more effectively managed when you take good bibliographic and informational notes. As you gather evidence for your argumentative research paper, follow the descriptions and the electronic model to record your notes. You can combine these with your research log, or you can use the research log for secondary sources and your own note-taking system for primary sources if a division of this kind is helpful. Either way, be sure to include all necessary information.

Bibliographic Notes

These identify the source you are using. When you locate a useful source, record the information necessary to find that source again. It is important to do this as you find each source, even before taking notes from it. If you create bibliographic notes as you go along, then you can easily arrange them in alphabetical order later to prepare the reference list required at the end of formal academic papers. If your instructor requires you to use MLA formatting for your essay, be sure to record the following information:

• Title of source
• Title of container (larger work in which source is included)
• Other contributors
• Publication date

When using MLA style with online sources, also record the following information:

• Date of original publication
• Date of access
• DOI (A DOI, or digital object identifier, is a series of digits and letters that leads to the location of an online source. Articles in journals are often assigned DOIs to ensure that the source can be located, even if the URL changes. If your source is listed with a DOI, use that instead of a URL.)

It is important to understand which documentation style your instructor will require you to use. Check the Handbook for MLA Documentation and Format and APA Documentation and Format styles . In addition, you can check the style guide information provided by the Purdue Online Writing Lab .

Informational Notes

These notes record the relevant information found in your sources. When writing your essay, you will work from these notes, so be sure they contain all the information you need from every source you intend to use. Also try to focus your notes on your research question so that their relevance is clear when you read them later. To avoid confusion, work with separate entries for each piece of information recorded. At the top of each entry, identify the source through brief bibliographic identification (author and title), and note the page numbers on which the information appears. Also helpful is to add personal notes, including ideas for possible use of the information or cross-references to other information. As noted in Writing Process: Integrating Research , you will be using a variety of formats when borrowing from sources. Below is a quick review of these formats in terms of note-taking processes. By clarifying whether you are quoting directly, paraphrasing, or summarizing during these stages, you can record information accurately and thus take steps to avoid plagiarism.

Direct Quotations, Paraphrases, and Summaries

A direct quotation is an exact duplication of the author’s words as they appear in the original source. In your notes, put quotation marks around direct quotations so that you remember these words are the author’s, not yours. One advantage of copying exact quotations is that it allows you to decide later whether to include a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. ln general, though, use direct quotations only when the author’s words are particularly lively or persuasive.

A paraphrase is a restatement of the author’s words in your own words. Paraphrase to simplify or clarify the original author’s point. In your notes, use paraphrases when you need to record details but not exact words.

A summary is a brief condensation or distillation of the main point and most important details of the original source. Write a summary in your own words, with facts and ideas accurately represented. A summary is useful when specific details in the source are unimportant or irrelevant to your research question. You may find you can summarize several paragraphs or even an entire article or chapter in just a few sentences without losing useful information. It is a good idea to note when your entry contains a summary to remind you later that it omits detailed information. See Writing Process Integrating Research for more detailed information and examples of quotations, paraphrases, and summaries and when to use them.

Other Systems for Organizing Research Logs and Digital Note-Taking

Students often become frustrated and at times overwhelmed by the quantity of materials to be managed in the research process. If this is your first time working with both primary and secondary sources, finding ways to keep all of the information in one place and well organized is essential.

Because gathering primary evidence may be a relatively new practice, this section is designed to help you navigate the process. As mentioned earlier, information gathered in fieldwork is not cataloged, organized, indexed, or shelved for your convenience. Obtaining it requires diligence, energy, and planning. Online resources can assist you with keeping a research log. Your college library may have subscriptions to tools such as Todoist or EndNote. Consult with a librarian to find out whether you have access to any of these. If not, use something like the template shown in Figure 13.8 , or another like it, as a template for creating your own research notes and organizational tool. You will need to have a record of all field research data as well as the research log for all secondary sources.

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Seven Steps of the Research Process

Cornell University Library

Learning Objectives

• Find appropriate information for a college-level research paper.
• Cite sources using standard citation rules.

The following seven steps outline a simple and effective strategy for finding information for a research paper and documenting the sources you find. Depending on your topic and your familiarity with the library, you may need to rearrange or recycle these steps. Adapt this outline to your needs.

STEP 1:  IDENTIFY AND DEVELOP YOUR TOPIC

State your topic idea as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about use of alcoholic beverages by college students, you might pose the question, “What effect does use of alcoholic beverages have on the health of college students?” Identify the main concepts or keywords in your question. In this case they are alcoholic beverages, health, and college students.

STEP 2:  FIND BACKGROUND INFORMATION

After you identify your research topic and some keywords that describe it, find and read articles in subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, and handbooks. These articles will help you understand the context (historical, cultural, disciplinary) of your topic. They are the foundation supporting further research. The most common background sources are subject encyclopedias and dictionariesfrom our print and online reference collection. Class textbooks also provide definitions of terms and background information.

Look up your keywords in the indexes to subject encyclopedias. Read articles in these encyclopedias to set the context for your research. Note any relevant items in the bibliographies at the end of the encyclopedia articles. Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings.

TIP: EXPLOIT BIBLIOGRAPHIES

• Read the background information and note any useful sources (books, journals, magazines, etc.) listed in the bibliography at the end of the encyclopedia article or dictionary entry. The sources cited in the bibliography are good starting points for further research.

• Look up these sources in our catalogs and periodical databases. Check the subject headings listed in the subject field of the online record for these books and articles. Then do subject searches using those subject headings to locate additional titles.

• Remember that many of the books and articles you find will themselves have bibliographies. Check these bibliographies for additional useful resources for your research.

By using this technique of routinely following up on sources cited in bibliographies, you can generate a surprisingly large number of books and articles on your topic in a relatively short time.

STEP 3:  USE CATALOGS TO FIND BOOKS AND MEDIA

Use guided keyword searching to find materials by topic or subject. Print or write down the citation (author, title,etc.) and the location information (call number and library). Note the circulation status. When you pull the book from the shelf, scan the bibliography for additional sources. Watch for book-length bibliographies and annual reviews on your subject; they list citations to hundreds of books and articles in one subject area.

STEP 4:  USE INDEXES TO FIND PERIODICAL ARTICLES

Use periodical indexes and abstracts to find citations to articles. The indexes and abstracts may be in print or computer-based formats or both. Choose the indexes and format best suited to your particular topic; ask at the reference desk of your library if you need help figuring out which index and format will be best.

You can find periodical articles by the article author, title, or keyword by using periodical indexes. If the full text is not linked in the index you are using, write down the citation from the index and search for the title of the periodical in your library’s catalog.

STEP 5:  FIND INTERNET RESOURCES

Use search engines.  Check to see if your class has a bibliography or research guide created by librarians.  Some search tools include:

• Search Engines – Comparison table of recommended search engines; how search engines work
• Subject Directories – Table comparing some of the best human-selected collections of web pages
• Meta-Search Engines – Use at your own risk: not recommended as a substitute for directly using search engines
• Invisible Web – What it is, how to find it, and its inherent ambiguity (searchable databases on the Web).  

STEP 6:  EVALUATE WHAT YOU FIND

Critically analyzing information sources:  initial appraisal.

• What are the author’s credentials–institutional affiliation (where he or she works), educational background, past writings, or experience? Is the book or article written on a topic in the author’s area of expertise? You can use the various Who’s Who publications for the U.S. and other countries and for specific subjects and the biographical information located in the publication itself to help determine the author’s affiliation and credentials.
• Has your instructor mentioned this author? Have you seen the author’s name cited in other sources or bibliographies? Respected authors are cited frequently by other scholars. For this reason, always note those names that appear in many different sources.
• Is the author associated with a reputable institution or organization? What are the basic values or goals of the organization or institution?

Date of Publication

• When was the source published? This date is often located on the face of the title page below the name of the publisher. If it is not there, look for the copyright date on the reverse of the title page. On Web pages, the date of the last revision is usually at the bottom of the home page, sometimes every page.
• Is the source current or out-of-date for your topic? Topic areas of continuing and rapid development, such as the sciences, demand more current information. On the other hand, topics in the humanities often require material that was written many years ago. At the other extreme, some news sources on the Web now note the hour and minute that articles are posted on their site.

Edition or Revision

• Is this a first edition of this publication or not? Further editions indicate a source has been revised and updated to reflect changes in knowledge, include omissions, and harmonize with its intended reader’s needs. Also, many printings or editions may indicate that the work has become a standard source in the area and is reliable. If you are using a Web source, do the pages indicate revision dates?
• Note the publisher. If the source is published by a university press, it is likely to be scholarly. Although the fact that the publisher is reputable does not necessarily guarantee quality, it does show that the publisher may have high regard for the source being published.

Title of Journal

• Is this a scholarly or a popular journal? This distinction is important because it indicates different levels of complexity in conveying ideas. If you need help in determining the type of journal, see Distinguishing Scholarly from Non-Scholarly Periodicals. Or you may wish to check your journal title in the latest edition of Katz’s Magazines for Libraries (Olin Ref Z 6941 .K21, shelved at the reference desk) for a brief evaluative description.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CONTENT:  CONTENT ANALYSIS

Having made an initial appraisal, you should now examine the body of the source. Read the preface to determine the author’s intentions for the book. Scan the table of contents and the index to get a broad overview of the material it covers. Note whether bibliographies are included. Read the chapters that specifically address your topic. Reading the article abstract and scanning the table of contents of a journal or magazine issue is also useful. As with books, the presence and quality of a bibliography at the end of the article may reflect the care with which the authors have prepared their work.

Intended Audience

What type of audience is the author addressing? Is the publication aimed at a specialized or a general audience? Is this source too elementary, too technical, too advanced, or just right for your needs?

Objective Reasoning

• Is the information covered fact, opinion, or propaganda? It is not always easy to separate fact from opinion. Facts can usually be verified; opinions, though they may be based on factual information, evolve from the interpretation of facts. Skilled writers can make you think their interpretations are facts.
• Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it questionable and unsupported by evidence? Assumptions should be reasonable. Note errors or omissions.
• Are the ideas and arguments advanced more or less in line with other works you have read on the same topic? The more radically an author departs from the views of others in the same field, the more carefully and critically you should scrutinize his or her ideas.
• Is the author’s point of view objective and impartial? Is the language free of emotion-arousing words and bias?
• Does the work update other sources, substantiate other materials you have read, or add new information? Does it extensively or marginally cover your topic? You should explore enough sources to obtain a variety of viewpoints.
• For example, if you were researching Konrad Adenauer’s role in rebuilding West Germany after World War II, Adenauer’s own writings would be one of many primary sources available on this topic. Others might include relevant government documents and contemporary German newspaper articles. Scholars use this primary material to help generate historical interpretations–a secondary source. Books, encyclopedia articles, and scholarly journal articles about Adenauer’s role are considered secondary sources. In the sciences, journal articles and conference proceedings written by experimenters reporting the results of their research are primary documents. Choose both primary and secondary sources when you have the opportunity.

Writing Style

Is the publication organized logically? Are the main points clearly presented? Do you find the text easy to read, or is it stilted or choppy? Is the author’s argument repetitive?

Evaluative Reviews

• Locate critical reviews of books in a reviewing source, such as Summon’s Advanced Search,  Book Review Index, Book Review Digest, and ProQuest Research Library. Is the review positive? Is the book under review considered a valuable contribution to the field? Does the reviewer mention other books that might be better? If so, locate these sources for more information on your topic.
• Do the various reviewers agree on the value or attributes of the book or has it aroused controversy among the critics?
• For Web sites, consider consulting one of the evaluation and reviewing sources on the Internet.

Examples in Video:

• How to Read Citations : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1yNDvmjqaE
• How to Identify Scholarly Journal Articles:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uDGJ2CYfY9A
• How to Identify Substantive News Articles : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QAiJL5B5esM

  STEP 7:  CITE WHAT YOU FIND USING A STANDARD FORMAT

Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.

Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes, it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references. Knowingly representing the work of others as your own is plagiarism. Use one of the styles listed below or another style approved by your instructor.

MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION (MLA)

MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 8th ed. New York: MLA, 2016.

This handbook is intended as an aid for college students writing research papers. Included here is information on selecting a topic, researching the topic, note taking, the writing of footnotes and bibliographies, as well as sample pages of a research paper. Useful for the beginning researcher.

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed. Washington: APA, 2010

The authoritative style manual for anyone writing in the field of psychology. Useful for the social sciences generally. Chapters discuss the content and organization of a manuscript, writing style, the American Psychological Association citation style, and typing, mailing and proofreading.

RESEARCH TIPS

• Work from the general to the specific.  Find background information first, then use more specific and recent sources.
• Record what you find and where you found it. Record the complete citation for each source you find; you may need it again later.
• Translate your topic into the subject language of the indexes and catalogs you use. Check your topic words against a thesaurus or subject heading list.

Seven Steps of the Research Process Copyright © 2016 by Cornell University Library is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Table of Contents

• Collaboration

Information Literacy

Writing process, the writing process – research on composing.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley

The writing process refers to everything you do in order to complete a writing project. Over the last six decades, researchers have studied and theorized about how writers go about their work. They've found that the writing process can be seen in three main ways: (1) a series of steps or stages ; (2) a cognitive, problem-solving activity ; and (3) a creative, intuitive, organic, dialogic process that writers manage by listening to their inner speech and following their felt sense . Learn about scholarship on the writing process so you can understand how to break through writing blocks and find fluency as a writer, researcher, and thought leader.

Synonymous Terms

Composing process.

In writing studies , the writing process may also be known as the composing process . This may be due to the dramatic influence of Janet Emig’s (1971) dissertation, The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders . Emig’s research employed think-aloud protocols and case-study methods to explore the composing processes of high school students.

Creative Process

In creative writing and literature, the writing process may be known as the creative process .

In the arts and humanities the term creative process is reserved for artistic works, such as paintings, sculptures, performance art, films, and works of literature.

Related Concepts

Composition Studies ; Creativity; Felt Sense ; Growth Mindset ; Habits of Mind ; Intellectual Openness ; Professionalism and Work Ethic ; Resilience ; Self Regulation & Metacognition

What is the Writing Process?

Research on composing processes conducted over the past 60 years has led to three major distinct ways of defining and conceptualizing the writing process:

• prewriting , invention , research , collaboration , planning , designing , drafting , rereading , organizing , revising , editing , proofreading , and sharing or publishing
• The writing process refers to cognitive, problem-solving strategies
• The writing process refers to the act of making composing decisions based on nonrational factors such as embodied knowledge , felt sense , inner speech, and intuition.

1. The writing process refers to writing process steps

The writing process is often characterized as a series of steps or stages. During the elementary and middle-school years, teachers define the writing process simply as prewriting , drafting , revising , and editing . Later, in high-school and college, as writing assignments become more challenging, teachers introduce additional writing steps: invention , research , collaboration , designing , organizing , proofreading , and sharing or proofreading.

2. The writing process refers to Problem-Solving Strategies

As an alternative to imagining the writing process to be a series of steps or stages that writers work through in linear manner, Linda Flower and John Hayes suggested in 1977 that writing should be thought of as a “thinking problem,” a “problem-solving process,” a “cognitive problem solving process,” or a “goal-directed thinking process.”

3. The writing process refers to the act of making composing decisions based on flow, felt sense and other elements of embodied knowledge

For some writers, viewing the writing process as a series of steps or problems feels to mechanistic, impersonal and formulaic. Rather than view that the writing process to be a series of writing steps or problem solving strategies , Sondra Perl , an English professor, suggests that composing is largely a process of listening to one’s felt sense — one’s “bodily awareness of a situation or person or event:

“A felt sense doesn’t come to you in the form of thoughts or words or other separate units, but as a single (though often puzzling and very complex) bodily feeling”. (Gendlin 1981, 32-33)

What are Writing Process Steps?

In elementary and middle schools in the U.S., the writing process is often simplified and presented at four or five key steps: prewriting , writing , revising , and editing –and sometimes and publishing or sharing . As students progress through school, the writing process is presented in increasingly complex ways. By high school, teachers present “the writing process steps” as

• Proofreading
• Sharing – Publishing

Is there one perfect way to work with the writing process?

People experience and define the writing process differently, according to their historical period, literacy history, knowledge of writing tools, media , genres — and more. One of the takeaways from research on composing is that we’ve learned writers develop their own idiosyncratic approaches to getting the work done. When it comes to how we all develop, research , and communicate information , we are all special snowflakes. For example,

• Hemingway was known for standing while he wrote at first light each morning.
• Truman Capote described himself as a “completely horizontal author.” He wrote lying down, in bed or on a couch, with a cigarette and coffee handy.
• Hunter S. Thompson wrote through the nights, mixing drinking and partying with composing
• J.K. Rowling tracked the plot lines for her Harry Potter novels in a data.
• Maya Angelou would lock herself away in a hotel room from 6:30 a.m. to 2 p.m. so she has no distractions.

Furthermore, the steps of the writing process a writer engages in vary from project to project. At times  composing  may be fairly simple. Some situations  require little planning ,  research ,  revising  or  editing , such as

• a grocery list, a to-do list, a reflection on the day’s activity in a journal
• documents you routinely write, such as the professor’s letter of recommendation, a bosses’ performance appraisal, a ground-water engineer’s contamination report.

Over time, writers develop their own unique writing processes. Through trial and error, people can learn what works for them.

Composing  may be especially challenging

• when you are unfamiliar with the  topic ,  genre ,  medium ,  discourse community
• when the thesis/research question/topic  is complicated yet needs to be explained simply
• when you are endeavoring to synthesize other’s ideas and research
• when you don’t have the time you need to perfect the document.

What are the main factors that affect how writers compose documents?

Writers adjust their writing process in response to

• Writers assess the importance of the exigency, the call to write, before commiting time and resources to launching
• the writers access to information
• What they know about the canon, genre, media and rhetorical reasoning
• their writerly background
• the audience
• Writers assess the importance of the exigency, the call to write, before committing time and resources to working on the project.

Why does the writing process matter?

The writing processes that you use to compose documents play a significant role in determining whether your communications are successful. If you truncate your writing process, you are likely to run out of the time you need to write with clarity and authority .

• Studying the writing processes of successful writers can introduce you to new rhetorical moves, genres , and composing processes. Learning about the composing processes of experienced writers can help you learn how to adjust your rhetorical stance and your writing styles to best accomplish your purpose .
• By examining your writing processes and the writing processes of others, you can learn how to better manage your work and the work of other authors and teams.
• By recognizing that writing is a skill that can be developed through practice and effort, you can become more resilient and adaptable in your writing endeavors.

Do experienced writers compose in different ways than inexperienced writers?

Yes. Experienced writers engage in more substantive, robust writing processes than less experienced writers.

• Experienced writers tend to have more rhetorical knowledge and a better understanding of composing steps and strategies than inexperienced writers.
• Experienced writers tend to be more willing than inexperienced writers to make substantive changes in a draft, often making changes that involve rethinking the meaning of a text. Some professional writers may revise a document hundreds of times before pushing send or publishing it.
• Experienced writers engage in revision as an act of internal conversation, a form of inner speech that they have with themselves and an imagined other–the internalized target audience. In contrast, inexperienced writers tend to confuse editing for revision . They tend to make only a few edits to their initial drafts, focusing primarily on surface-level changes such as correcting grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors.
• Experienced writers are adept at working collaboratively, leveraging the strengths of team members and effectively coordinating efforts to produce a cohesive final product. Inexperienced writers may struggle with collaboration, communication, and division of labor within a writing team

What is Process Pedagogy?

Process pedagogy, which is also known as the process movement, emerged in the United States during the late 1960s and early 1970s. In The Making of Knowledge in Composition , Steve North (1987) links the emergence of process pedagogy to

• Sputnik and America’s concern it was falling behind Russia
• the GI Bill and the changing demographics of undergraduate students in the post-war era.

Additionally, process pedagogy emerged in response to dissatisfaction with traditional, product-oriented approaches to teaching writing. In the current-traditional paradigm of writing, the focus of the classroom was on “the composed product rather than the composing process; the analysis of discourse into words, sentences, and paragraphs; the classification of discourse into description, narration, exposition, and argument; the strong concern with usage (syntax, spelling, punctuation) and with style (economy, clarity, emphasis)” (Young, 1978, p. 25).

The process movement reflected a sea change on the part of middle schools, high schools, and universities in the U.S. Traditionally, classroom instruction focused on analysis and critique of the great works of literature: “The student is (a) exposed to the formal descriptive categories of rhetoric (modes of argument –definition, cause and effect, etc. — and modes of discourse — description, persuasion, etc.), (b) offered good examples (usually professional ones) and bad examples (usually his/her own) and (c) encouraged to absorb the features of a socially approved style, with emphasis on grammar and usage. We help our students analyze the product, but we leave the process of writing up to inspiration” (Flower and Hayes, 1977, p. 449).

In contrast to putting the focus of class time on analyzing great literary works,  the canon , process pedagogy calls for teachers to put the emphasis on the students’ writing:

• Students need help with prewriting , invention , research , collaboration , writing , designing , revising , organizing , editing , proofreading , and sharing
• Teachers do not comment on grammar and style matters in early drafts. Instead, they focus on global perspectives . They prioritize the flow of ideas and expression over correctness in grammar and mechanics.
• Students engage in prewriting and invention exercises to discover and develop new ideas
• Students repeatedly revise their works in response to self-critique , peer review , and critiques from teachers
• Teachers should provide constructive feedback throughout the writing process.

What does “teach the process and not the product mean”?

“Teach the process not the product ” is both the title of a Donald Murray (1972) article and the mantra of the writing process movement, which emerged during the 1960s.

The mantra to teach the process not the product emerged in response to the research and scholarship conducted by Donald Murray, Janet Emig, Peter Elbow, Ann Berthoff, Nancy Sommers, Sondra Perl, John Hayes and Linda Flower.

What does it mean to describe the writing process as recursive ?

The term  recursive writing process  simply means that writers jump around from one activity to another when  composing . For instance, when first drafting a document, a writer may pause to reread something she wrote. That might trigger a new idea that shoots her back to Google Scholar or some other database suitable for  strategic searching .

How do researchers study the writing process?

The writing process is a major subject of study of researchers and scholars in the fields of composition studies , communication, writing studies , and AI (artificial intelligence).

The writing process  is something of a black box: investigators can see  inputs  (e.g., time on task) or  outputs  (e.g.,  written discourse ), yet they cannot  empirically observe  the internal workings of the writer’s mind. At the end of the day investigators have to jump from what they observe to making informed guesses about what is really going on in the writer. Even if investigators ask a writer to talk out loud about what they are thinking as they compose , the investigators can only hear what the writer is saying: they cannot see the internal machinations associated with the writer’s thoughts. If a writer goes mute, freezes, and just stares blankly at the computer screen, investigators cannot really know what’s going on. They can only speculate about how the brain functions.

Research Methods

To study or theorize about the writing process, investigators may use a variety of research methods .

Doherty, M. (2016, September 4). 10 things you need to know about banyan trees. Under the Banyan. https://underthebanyan.blog/2016/09/04/10-things-you-need-to-know-about-banyan-trees/

Emig, J. (1967). On teaching composition: Some hypotheses as definitions. Research in The Teaching of English, 1(2), 127-135. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED022783.pdf

Emig, J. (1971). The composing processes of twelfth graders (Research Report No. 13). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Emig, J. (1983). The web of meaning: Essays on writing, teaching, learning and thinking. Upper Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc.

Ghiselin, B. (Ed.). (1985). The Creative Process: Reflections on the Invention in the Arts and Sciences . University of California Press.

Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. (1980). Identifying the Organization of Writing Processes. In L. W. Gregg, & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive Processes in Writing: An Interdisciplinary Approach (pp. 3-30). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.  

Hayes, J. R. (2012). Modeling and remodeling writing. Written Communication, 29(3), 369-388. https://doi: 10.1177/0741088312451260

Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. S. (1986). Writing research and the writer. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1106-1113. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1106

Leijten, Van Waes, L., Schriver, K., & Hayes, J. R. (2014). Writing in the workplace: Constructing documents using multiple digital sources. Journal of Writing Research, 5(3), 285–337. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2014.05.03.3

Lundstrom, K., Babcock, R. D., & McAlister, K. (2023). Collaboration in writing: Examining the role of experience in successful team writing projects. Journal of Writing Research, 15(1), 89-115. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2023.15.01.05

National Research Council. (2012). Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.https://doi.org/10.17226/13398.

North, S. M. (1987). The making of knowledge in composition: Portrait of an emerging field. Boynton/Cook Publishers.

Murray, Donald M. (1980). Writing as process: How writing finds its own meaning. In Timothy R. Donovan & Ben McClelland (Eds.), Eight approaches to teaching composition (pp. 3–20). National Council of Teachers of English.

Murray, Donald M. (1972). “Teach Writing as a Process Not Product.” The Leaflet, 11-14

Perry, S. K. (1996).  When time stops: How creative writers experience entry into the flow state  (Order No. 9805789). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304288035). https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/when-time-stops-how-creative-writers-experience/docview/304288035/se-2

Rohman, D.G., & Wlecke, A. O. (1964). Pre-writing: The construction and application of models for concept formation in writing (Cooperative Research Project No. 2174). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.

Rohman, D. G., & Wlecke, A. O. (1975). Pre-writing: The construction and application of models for concept formation in writing (Cooperative Research Project No. 2174). U.S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

Sommers, N. (1980). Revision Strategies of Student Writers and Experienced Adult Writers. College Composition and Communication, 31(4), 378-388. doi: 10.2307/356600

Vygotsky, L. (1962).  Thought and language.  (E. Hanfmann & G. Vakar, Eds.). MIT Press.  https://doi.org/10.1037/11193-000

Related Articles:

Discovering Your Unique Writing Process: A Guide to Self-Reflection

Problem-Solving Strategies for Writers: a Review of Research

The 7 Habits of Mind & The Writing Process

The Secret, Hidden Writing Process: How to Tap Your Creative Potential

The Ultimate Blueprint: A Research-Driven Deep Dive into The 13 Steps of the Writing Process

Recommended.

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Professional Writing – How to Write for the Professional World

Credibility & Authority – How to Be Credible & Authoritative in Research, Speech & Writing

Citation Guide – Learn How to Cite Sources in Academic and Professional Writing

Page Design – How to Design Messages for Maximum Impact

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• Joseph M. Moxley

Understanding your writing process is a crucial aspect of developing as a writer. For both students and professional writers, reflection on the process of writing can lead to more effective...

Traditionally, in U.S. classrooms, the writing process is depicted as a series of linear steps (e.g., prewriting, writing, revising, and editing). However, since the 1980s the writing process has also...

In contrast to the prevailing view that the writing process refers to writing steps or problem solving strategies, a third view is that the writing process involves nonrational factors, such...

This article provides a comprehensive, research-based introduction to the major steps, or strategies, that writers work through as they endeavor to communicate with audiences. Since the 1960s, the writing process has...

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Basic Steps in the Research Process

The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper. Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these steps.

Step 1: Identify and develop your topic

Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research assignment. Since this is the very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be done correctly. Here are some tips for selecting a topic:

• Select a topic within the parameters set by the assignment. Many times your instructor will give you clear guidelines as to what you can and cannot write about. Failure to work within these guidelines may result in your proposed paper being deemed unacceptable by your instructor.
• Select a topic of personal interest to you and learn more about it. The research for and writing of a paper will be more enjoyable if you are writing about something that you find interesting.
• Select a topic for which you can find a manageable amount of information. Do a preliminary search of information sources to determine whether existing sources will meet your needs. If you find too much information, you may need to narrow your topic; if you find too little, you may need to broaden your topic.
• Be original. Your instructor reads hundreds of research papers every year, and many of them are on the same topics (topics in the news at the time, controversial issues, subjects for which there is ample and easily accessed information). Stand out from your classmates by selecting an interesting and off-the-beaten-path topic.
• Still can't come up with a topic to write about? See your instructor for advice.

Once you have identified your topic, it may help to state it as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about the epidemic of obesity in the American population, you might pose the question "What are the causes of obesity in America ?" By posing your subject as a question you can more easily identify the main concepts or keywords to be used in your research.

Step 2 : Do a preliminary search for information

Before beginning your research in earnest, do a preliminary search to determine whether there is enough information out there for your needs and to set the context of your research. Look up your keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's Reference collection (such as encyclopedias and dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalog of books, periodical databases, and Internet search engines. Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings. You may find it necessary to adjust the focus of your topic in light of the resources available to you.

Step 3: Locate materials

With the direction of your research now clear to you, you can begin locating material on your topic. There are a number of places you can look for information:

If you are looking for books, do a subject search in One Search . A Keyword search can be performed if the subject search doesn't yield enough information. Print or write down the citation information (author, title,etc.) and the location (call number and collection) of the item(s). Note the circulation status. When you locate the book on the shelf, look at the books located nearby; similar items are always shelved in the same area. The Aleph catalog also indexes the library's audio-visual holdings.

Use the library's  electronic periodical databases  to find magazine and newspaper articles. Choose the databases and formats best suited to your particular topic; ask at the librarian at the Reference Desk if you need help figuring out which database best meets your needs. Many of the articles in the databases are available in full-text format.

Use search engines ( Google ,  Yahoo , etc.) and subject directories to locate materials on the Internet. Check the  Internet Resources  section of the NHCC Library web site for helpful subject links.

Step 4: Evaluate your sources

See the  CARS Checklist for Information Quality   for tips on evaluating the authority and quality of the information you have located. Your instructor expects that you will provide credible, truthful, and reliable information and you have every right to expect that the sources you use are providing the same. This step is especially important when using Internet resources, many of which are regarded as less than reliable.

Step 5: Make notes

Consult the resources you have chosen and note the information that will be useful in your paper. Be sure to document all the sources you consult, even if you there is a chance you may not use that particular source. The author, title, publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later when creating a bibliography.

Step 6: Write your paper

Begin by organizing the information you have collected. The next step is the rough draft, wherein you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will help you organize your ideas and determine the form your final paper will take. After this, you will revise the draft as many times as you think necessary to create a final product to turn in to your instructor.

Step 7: Cite your sources properly

Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.

Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references. The  MLA  and the  APA  Styles are two popular citation formats.

Failure to cite your sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable!

Step 8: Proofread

The final step in the process is to proofread the paper you have created. Read through the text and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Make sure the sources you used are cited properly. Make sure the message that you want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly stated.

Additional research tips:

• Work from the general to the specific -- find background information first, then use more specific sources.
• Don't forget print sources -- many times print materials are more easily accessed and every bit as helpful as online resources.
• The library has books on the topic of writing research papers at call number area LB 2369.
• If you have questions about the assignment, ask your instructor.
• If you have any questions about finding information in the library, ask the librarian.

Contact Information

Craig larson.

Librarian 763-424-0733 [email protected] Zoom:  myzoom   Available by appointment

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5 The Research Process

Chapter attribution.

David Murray

Michelle Miller

Sherena Huntsman

Writing Research Process

The writing process takes you from the very beginning of a writing project—finding topics and analyzing audience and purpose—all the way to the end—writing and revising the rough draft. The following chapters focus on some of the key phases of that process:

• Strategies for team-writing
• Audience Analysis
• Brainstorming and invention
• Note-taking
• Libraries, Documentation, Cross-Referencing
• Strategies for Peer-Reviewing
• Power-Revision Techniques

Find Report Topics

As a writer in a technical writing course, you may need some strategies for finding topics for writing projects, which are provided in this section.

By definition, technical writing courses are opportunities to focus on practical uses of your writing skills. In the ideal technical writing course, you would have a work-related writing project every two to three weeks: for example, instructions for that pesky printer down the hall or a white paper on a newly adapted software program. However, technical writing courses are also great opportunities for exploring science and technology: latest advances in nanotechnology, theories about the origin of the universe, methods for hydroponic gardening. If your instructor encourages you to find your own topics, take a look at the following suggestions. These are just a few ways you can generate ideas.

Brainstorming Process

Read  Sondra Perl’s Composing Guidelines available through the International Focus Institute Group

These guidelines will help you discover what is on your mind and what you can write about.

• Answer the 12 questions located in the guidelines
• Complete the journal response located in the guidelines

Topic ideas from interesting courses or projects related to your major or areas of interest

See if the following list of audiences brings to mind technical writing projects

Consider interesting course or projects related to your major

What’s going on at work? Are there projects there just waiting for you?

Brainstorm Topics for Writing Projects

If you have a topic for your writing project, the next step is to think about subtopics related to it. During this stage, the “invention” or “brainstorming” stage, use the following suggestions to explore your writing project topic:

A Checklist of Invention Questions

Use an invention checklist like the following. If you ask yourself the questions listed below, you’ll be less apt to overlook important subtopics; and, with use, these questions eventually become almost automatic.

• Problems or needs: Does your writing project concern itself with a problem or a need?
• Solutions and answers: Should your writing project discuss potential solutions or answers to the problems or questions presented in the project?
• Historical events and natural phenomena: Does your writing project concern itself with some historical event or natural (or mechanical) phenomenon?
• Causes and effects: Should your writing project discuss the causes, effects, or both related to the phenomenon, historical event, or problem you are discussing?
• Descriptions: Which aspects of your writing project require description?
• Processes: Does your writing project involve processes, procedures, routines, or repetitive events that must be discussed in steps?
• Classes: Can the main topic or any subtopic within your writing project be divided into classes or types?
• Comparisons to similar or familiar things: Can similar things in your writing project be compared to each other? Can you compare something complex in your writing project to something familiar or common?
• Illustrative examples: Will a discussion of examples related to your writing project be effective?
• Theoretical background (definitions): Are there unfamiliar terms in your writing project? Should you include them in your project and define them?
• Applications: Can you discuss the applications related to your writing project?
• Advantages and benefits: Should you discuss the advantages or benefits related to your subject?
• Disadvantages and limitations: Are certain disadvantages, problems, limitations, or drawbacks associated with your subject?
• Warnings, cautions, and guidelines: Does your writing project need cautionary or guideline statements?
• Economics or financial considerations: Should you discuss cost factors, purchase expenses, maintenance and operation costs, production or output costs, or savings?
• Importance of the topic: Should you discuss the importance of your subject, why people should be concerned about it or interested in it?
• Historical background and important names: Is there some important historical background—events and names—that should be discussed in your project?
• Future developments: Should your writing project speculate about future developments or possibilities related to the subject?
• Social, political, legal, or ethical implications: Does the topic of your writing project raise certain social or ethical questions—as, for example, certain medical technologies do?
• Reasons for or against: In your writing project, should you try to convince readers to take certain actions or think a certain way concerning your topic?
• Conclusions: Should your writing project draw certain conclusions about what it discusses?
• Recommendations: Should your writing project make certain recommendations to its readers?
• Alternatives or choices: Should your writing project discuss several alternatives or choices related to your subject matter?
• Criteria, requirements: Will your writing project use certain criteria to draw its conclusions or to make its recommendations?
• Tests and methods used: Should you have a section on the tests you perform, the methods or theories you use, or the procedures and equipment you use?
• Statistical presentations and analyses: Should you include a section that summarizes and analyzes the data you collect in your project?
• Legal and administrative demands: Should your writing project discuss which agencies to apply to, which forms to fill out, or which steps to take in order to accomplish the purpose of your project?
• Business or professional contexts: Should you describe the specific business or professional situation, for example, a supervisor’s orders, that generates the need for your project? (This applies if you invent a writing situation also.)

Narrow That Report Topic

For a writing project in a technical writing course, the ideal starting place is a workplace problem requiring some writing as part of the solution. With such a project, the audience and problem are there to help you narrow the topic. However, if you begin with a topic, it’s harder to narrow. Narrow the topic and do some careful research—the result will be a practical, useful document that doesn’t go on forever.

Narrowing means selecting a portion of a larger topic: for example, selecting a specific time period, , component, or use or application. Narrowing also means deciding on the amount of detail to use in discussing those topics.

Following the Narrowing Process

• Let’s walk through a typical narrowing exercise to see how it works. This works “backward” from a topic to a realistic audience and purpose.First ask yourself what you are interested in, and what your frame of reference is.
• What can you do with your topic? Is there a specific type or method you want to focus on?
• What are some of the components of this topic? Are there different theories? Practices? Steps? Components?
• Now you are getting somewhere! Since you can’t write about everything, pick one. If this idea sparks your curiosity; it’s the right topic for a technical document of some kind.
• What is your specific interest with this topic? Is there something you personally would like to know more about? It might help to look at what the people who are in the discourse community like to talk about.
• At this point, pick the narrowed topic that is most accessible given your knowledge.
• So what’s it going to be? What questions do you have about your topic that you plan on answering? What kind of project could this become? Are there any expenses? What do you need to write about it?

To this point, you’ve been operating in a vacuum, not considering audience and situation, focusing instead on your interests in this topic. Now it’s time to get real—to define a real or realistic audience and situation. Who wants this document? Who would hire you to write it? How would people obtain this document? Are we there yet? Not quite. Narrowing means two things: zooming in on progressively smaller and smaller subtopics. And deciding on level and amount of detail. In this overview, must you cover the subtopics in excruciating detail? No, at most you’ll want to cover practicality in moderate detail: readers need enough detail to see that the method actually works. Use the same amount of detail for yield, perhaps citing some comparative studies. But use only light detail for management and costs. You must keep this overview relatively brief and readable.

• Costs—how expensive to build and run a system? light detail
• Practicality—do they really work? moderate detail
• Management—how much hassle? light detail
• Yield—how much and how good is the produce? moderate detail

Finishing the Process

In the end, try to produce something that is integrated with a real or realistic situation. The questions below can help you do this.

Outlining-Generating Items and Sequencing Them

When you write a technical report, not only must you think of the right information to include (or exclude); you must also find a good way to arrange it. This is a two-part chapter: this part focuses on generating outline items and sequencing them; the second part focuses on turning a rough outline into a good, polished outline.

Outlines for technical reports are usually hard to handle solely in your mind; it’s a little like trying to add a list of large numbers mentally. You must get report outlines in print or on screen in order to think about the arrangement of the topics within them. A good working outline serves you in at least four important ways:

• It shows you which areas of information to investigate and gather information on.
• It shows you which areas you can safely ignore (thus saving you plenty of time).
• It enables you to schedule your work into manageable units of time.
• It gives you a “global” view of your report project, an overall sense of the contents, parts and organization of the report.

Generating Outline Elements

If you go through a brainstorming process, you have generated a rough list of topics that you can start working with. The topic list below concerns co-combustion, which is the incineration of municipal solid waste (MSW) with conventional fuels to reduce conventional fuel consumption costs and related MSW disposal problems. Imagine that you had developed a topic list on this subject and then had narrowed the list to these topics:

• Advantages of co-combustion
• Steps in co-combusting MSW
• Disadvantages of co-combustion
• Historical background on co-combustion
• Economics of co-combustion
• Special components for co-combustion
• Composition of MSW
• Co-combustion power plant construction costs
• Co-combustion power plant operating costs
• Economic advantages of co-combustion
• Environmental advantages of co-combustion
• Characteristics of municipal solid waste (MSW)
• Environmental disadvantages of co-combustion
• Methods of MSW disposal

Grouping, Combining, and Subordinating Outline Elements

You can tell that the list above needs serious help:

• So what do we do with environmental advantages of co-combustion and environmental disadvantages of co-combustion? It might be best to create a higher-level heading environmental aspects of co-combustion and subordinate those other two beneath it. And so that means we no longer need Advantages and Disadvantages of Co-combustion. It has been split into an economics group and an environment group.
• Looking further at the rough list of topics, you can probably see that Steps in co-combusting MSW, Special components for co-combustion, Composition of MSW, Characteristics of municipal solid waste (MSW) are related to each other and should exist in their own area of the outline.

So this is how the business of generating, grouping, combining and subordinating works early in the outlining process. Outlining is a messy process so you’ll probably come back to this phase again.

Sequencing Outline Elements

The next step in outlining is to sequence the items appropriately. There are so many different patterns of sequencing that only most common ones can be reviewed here. And, frankly, these are all pretty obvious. If they are obvious to you, skip to Elaborating the rough outline.

Chronological sequencing. One of the most common patterns in outlining is the chronological one. In a historical background section of an outline, the chronological approach is just about the only one you can use. Here is an outline excerpt concerning the historical background of nuclear research:

II. Historical background of nuclear research

A. Becquerel’s theory of radiation in uranium (1896)

B. The work of the Curies  (far

C. The work of Rutherford  past)

1. Demonstration of the internal structure of the atom (1911)

2. Transmutation of atoms (1919)

D. Development of technology to study atomic structure

1. Cascade transformer (1928)

2. Linear accelerator (1931)

3. Cyclotron (1932)

4. Betatron (1940)

E. Hahn-Strassmann discovery of uranium fission (1938)

F. Oppenheimer work on nuclear chain reactions  (near  (1940s)  past)

G. Explosion of the first atomic bomb (1945)

In some outlines, however, you almost don’t notice the chronological pattern. For example, effects come after causes; solutions, after problems; or findings, after research method. The chronological pattern is most important in a research proposal outline:

I. Introduction

A. Historical background on caffeine studies  (past)

B. Objectives of the study

C. Limitations of the study

D. Plan of development

II. Review of the literature on caffeine

III. Experimental method to be used

IV. Results of the tests

V. Discussion of the results

VI. Summary and conclusions

VII. Implications for further research  (future)

Chronologically, the researcher first defines the problem, the reviews the literature on the problem, plans a research method, conducts the research and gathers data, analyzes the data and draws conclusions from it. Afterward, she may consider areas for further research on the problem. At-rest to in-motion sequence. Another common outlining pattern is to start with an object at rest, motionless as if in a photograph, and then to move to a discussion of it in operation, in action as if in a motion picture.

II. Basic Components of Wind-Powered Electrical Systems

A. Rotor  (motionless)

B. Generator

III. Basic Operation of Wind-Powered Electrical Systems

A. Wind energy into mechanical energy

B. Mechanical energy into electrical  (in motion)  energy

C. Stabilization of electrical energy

D. Conversion to household current

Specific to general sequence. Some outlines move from a specific, close-up focus to a more general, panoramic focus. They seem to start with a microscope, examining the minute details of a subject, and end with a telescope, considering the subject from a distance in relation to other things. (This pattern can also be reversed.)

II. Characteristics of municipal solid waste (MSW)

III. Methods of disposal of MSW  (microscope)

IV. Processing municipal solid waste

V. Plant modifications for co-combustion

VI. Advantages of co-combusting MSW

A. Environmental advantages

B. Economic advantages  (telescope)

VII. Case studies of three co-combustion plants

In this next outline, the focus broadens after part III, changing to aspects related to computerized voice recognition technology:

II. Human voice production

A. The generation of sound

B. Factors affecting the human  (microscope)  voice

III. Components of the isolated word recognition system

A. The preprocessor

B. The feature extractor

C. Components in the classification phase

D. Decision algorithms

IV. Problems with computerized speech recognition

A. Accuracy

B. Limited vocabulary size

V. Applications of voice recognition systems

A. Data entry

B. Mobility

C. Security

D. Telephone access

E. Devices for the handicapped  (telescope)

VI. Current availability of speech recognition systems

VII. The future of the computerized speech recognition industry

Rhetorical sequence. Elements in outlines can also be arranged rhetorically, in other words, according to what is most effective for the reader. Here are some examples of rhetorical patterns:

• Simple to complex
• Least important to most important (or vice versa)
• Least controversial to most controversial
• Most convincing to least convincing (or vice versa)
• Most interesting to least interesting

This list is by no means complete, but you can see that elements in it are arranged according to impact on the reader—that is, the impact the writer would like to have. Here are some excerpts of outlines where these patterns are used.

If you have ever studied computer programming, you know that commands like PRINT are simple; variable assignment commands (like LET A = 30), less simple; and FOR-NEXT loop statements, rather complex. If you were outlining a report on fundamental BASIC commands for the beginner, you’d probably start with the simple ones and work your way to the complex:

Simple-to-complex order

III. USEFUL BASIC COMMANDS

D. FOR-NEXT

An obvious outlining principle is to avoid creating interruptions within an outline sequence. Here’s an example:

Outline excerpt with interruption

I. Municipal solid waste generated in the US

A. Total amounts of MSW

1. Increases since 1950

2. Projected increases to the year 2000

B. Processing MSW for cocombustion

1. Primary storage

2. Grinding

3. Air sorting

4. Magnetic separating

5. Screening

6. Secondary storage

C. Characteristics of MSW

1. Composition of MSW

a. food waste

b. paper and other rubbish

c. non-combustibles

2. Factors affecting energy content

a. moisture content

b. areas of MSW origination

II. Power plant modifications for co-combustion

Revised outline excerpt

B. Characteristics of MSW

II. Processing MSW for co-combustion

A. Primary storage

B. Grinding

C. Air sorting

D. Magnetic separating

E. Screening

F. Secondary storage

III. Power plant modifications for co-combustion

In the problem version, the municipal solid waste discussion is interrupted by the MSW-processing discussion. A better arrangement would be to discuss MSW fully before going on to the discussion of how it is processed. Use these common arrangement principles to get your topic list into an initial rough order. The rearranged version of the topic list shown previously might look this way:

I. Historical background

A. Rising energy, utility costs

B. Search for alternatives (review)

II. Composition of MSW

III. Special components of the co-combustion plant

IV. Steps in the co-combustion of MSW

V. Economics

A. Cost to build or convert

B. Cost to operate

C. Cost of produced electricity

VI. Advantages

A. Less coal used

B. Reduction of utility rates

C. Less landfill used

D. Reduction of landfill costs and needs

VII. Disadvantages

A. Expense of converting existing facilities

B. Handling MSW

C. Increased emissions

Electronic Note-Taking Methods

As of 2015, the writing-teaching world—at least at the college level and in terms of textbooks—is seriously behind in terms of what it knows and what it teaches about note-taking for major writing projects. Strangely, the very best writing resource on the Internet, the  Purdue OWL , has nothing on note-taking. Read the following section Traditional Note-Taking Methods for a review of just what good  any  note-taking system is.

Until we get our act together, consider how the traditional note-taking system is implemented in software applications.

A number of software applications are available that support note-taking and related tasks: Evernote, EasyBib, NoodleTools, and more. Their basic functions are similar so let’s use NoodleTools. It has a nice set of YouTube videos that walk you through the main phases of its use.

Traditional Note-Taking Process: An Overview

In the traditional system of taking notes for a long report, you:

• Develop a rough outline.
• Do any preliminary reading necessary to construct a rough outline.
• Locate your information sources, and make bibliography cards for each source.
• Take the actual notes on index cards.
• Label each notecard according to its place in the outline.
• Provide bibliographic information on each notecard.
• Change or add extra detail to the outline as the note-taking process continues.
• Check off the areas of the outline for which sufficient notes have been taken.

When you have taken sufficient notes to cover all parts of an outline, you transcribe the information from the notecards into a rough draft, filling in details, adding transitions, and providing your own acquired understanding of the subject as you write. Naturally, you may discover gaps in your notes and have to go back and take more notes.

Developing the Rough Draft

As the section on outlining emphasizes, you must have a working outline before you begin gathering information. The rough outline shows you which specific topics to gather information on and which ones to ignore. Think of the outline as a series of questions.

If you don’t have a good, specific outline, the sky is the limit on how many notes you can take. Think of the outline as a set of boxes that you fill up with the information you collect as you do your research for the report:

Direct Quotes

In most technical reports, direct quotation is needed only for the following situations:

• Statements by important or well-known authorities or leaders
• Controversial statements you do not want attributed to you
• Statements expressed in unusual, vivid, or memorable language

There are essentially two types of direct quotation: “block” quotations and “running” quotations.

Here is an example of a block quotation (any quotation over 3 lines long):

In Myers’ view, the nuclear power industry has every reason to comply with the NRC’s regulations to the very letter:

The NRC issues an order to shut down or imposes civil fines only after repeated violations have indicated what the NRC considers “a pattern of non- compliance.” The NRC argues that, particularly with power plants, civil penalties are unnecessary for the most part. “The greatest penalty,” one official said, “is to require the plant to shut down, forcing it to buy replacement power (often at a cost of $100,000 to $200,000 per day) elsewhere. A civil penalty’s largest cost—the NRC is limited to a $5,000-per-violation ceiling per 30 days—is the stigma attached to it.” (8:46) The “stigma” refers to the fact that, once a nuclear power plant is fined, it will likely be the target of public concern and even more stringent and frequent NRC inspection.

“Running” quotations are direct quotations that are trimmed down and worked into the regular sentences of a report. Notice how much smoother and more efficient the running quotation is in the revised version below:

Ineffective direct quotation: There are two types of light water reactors: the pressurized water reactor and the boiling water reactor. LWRs of both types convert heat to electricity with an efficiency of about 32 percent—significantly less than the best fossil-fueled plants, although about equal to the national average for all thermal electricity generation [13:438]. As for harnessing the energy potential of uranium, LWRs are estimated to average only between 0.5 and 1.0 percent.

Revision with running quotation: There are two types of light water reactors: the pressurized water reactor and the boiling water reactor. According to Paul Ehrlich, who has been a consistent critic of nuclear power, both these types of LWRs “convert heat to electricity with an efficiency of about 32 percent—significantly less than the best fossil-fueled plants, although about equal to the national average for all thermal electricity generation” (13:438). As for harnessing the energy potential of uranium, LWRs are estimated to average only between 0.5 and 1.0 percent.

Guide for Using Direct Quotes

When you use direct quotations in your report, keep these guidelines in mind.

Using ellipsis in direct quotations. The three dots “…” show that words are omitted from the sentence. The brackets “[ ]” indicate changes made by the writer using the quotation so that it would read as good English and make sense.

• Never use “free-floating” quotations in reports. Always “attribute” direct quotations; that is, explain who made the quoted statement. Notice how this is done in Figure 6.
• Always provide adequate introduction for direct quotations and explain their meaning and importance to your readers. Notice how the block quotation above on NRC penalties (a) prepares the reader for the quotation, and, afterwards, (b) provides interpretive comment, on the meaning of the word “stigma” in particular.
• Use indented or “block” quotations whenever a direct quotation goes over three lines long. With any lengthy quotation, make sure that it is important enough to merit direct quotation.
• Whenever possible, “trim” the quotation so that it will fit into your own writing.
• Punctuate direct quotations correctly. You can see the rules for punctuating direct quotations.
• Use ellipses to shorten direct quotations. When you do, however, make sure that the resulting quotation reads as good English.
• Use direct quotations only when necessary: if the passage doesn’t fit one of the reasons for direct quotation cited at the beginning of this section, paraphrase or summarize it instead.

Paraphrasing

In technical-report writing, usually the better approach is to paraphrase. When you paraphrase, you convey the information fact-by-fact, idea-by-idea, and point-by-point in your own words. The writer of the original passage ought to be able to read your paraphrase and say that it is precisely what she or he had meant.

Paraphrases are necessary and preferable for a number of reasons:

• You paraphrase because the content of the passage is so important to your report that you need every bit of it.
• When you paraphrase, you adjust the wording of the original to meet the needs of your audience, the purpose of your report, and your own writing style. In other words, you “translate” other writers’ material into your own.
• A report of mostly direct quotations would be hard to read.
• Readers tend to skip over direct quotations, particularly long ones.
• One final reason for paraphrasing: you are actually writing bits of the rough draft of your report as you paraphrase.

Here is an example of an original passage and its paraphrases, with the unique wording of the original (which must be changed in the paraphrase) underlined.

Original passage: About a third of light-water reactors operating or under construction in the United States are boiling-water reactors. The distinguishing characteristic of a BWR is that the reactor vessel itself serves as the boiler of the nuclear steam supply system. This vessel is by far the major component in the reactor building, and the steam it produces passes directly to the turbogenerator. The reactor building also contains emergency core cooling equipment, a major part of which is the pressure suppression pool which is an integral part of the containment structure. . . . . earlier BWRs utilized a somewhat different containment and pressure suppression system. All the commercial BWRs sold in the United States have been designed and built by General Electric. Several types of reactors that use boiling water in pressure tubes have been considered, designed, or built. In a sense, they are similar to the CANDU, described in Chapter 7, which uses pressure tubes and separates the coolant and mo- derator. The CANDU itself can be designed to use boiling light water as its coolant. The British steam-generating heavy-water reactor has such a system. Finally, the principal reactor type now being constructed in the Soviet Union uses a boiling-water pressure tube design, but with carbon moderator. Anthony V. Nero,  A Guidebook to Nuclear Reactors , Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.

Paraphrased version: Boiling water reactors, according to Anthony V. Nero in his  Guidebook to Nuclear Reactors , either completed or constructed, make up about one third of the light-water reactors in the U.S. The most important design feature of the BWR is that the reactor vessel itself acts as the nuclear steam supply system. The steam this important component generates goes directly to the turbogenerator. Important, too, in this design is the emergency core cooling equipment, which is housed with the reactor vessel in the reactor building. One of the main components of this equipment is the pressure suppression pool. The containment and pressure suppression system currently used in BWRs has evolved since the early BWR designs. General Electric is the sole designer and builder of these BWRs in the U.S. The different kinds of reactors that use boiling water in pressure tubes are similar to the CANDU, which separates coolant and moderator and uses pressure tubes, also. CANDU can also use boiling light water as a coolant. The British have designed a reactor generated steam from heavy water that uses just such a system. Also, the Soviets have developed and are now building as their main type of reactor a boiling pressure tube design that uses carbon as the moderator. [12:232]

Guide for Writing and Using Paraphrases

Here are some guidelines to remember when paraphrasing:

• In most cases, paraphrase rather than use direct quotation.
• Avoid the distinctive wording of the original passage.
• Do not interpret, criticize, or select from the original passage.
• Include bibliographic information on the author, source, and page numbers.
• In the rough draft, cite the author’s name and other important details about her or him just as you would if were quoting directly.
• Refer to the paraphrased author in such a way to make it clear where the paraphrase begins and ends.
• Document a paraphrase just as you would a direct quotation. Mark the area of the paraphrase by citing the paraphrased author’s name at the beginning of the paraphrase and by inserting a footnote or parenthetical reference at the end.
• See what the  Purdue OWL  has to say about paraphrasing.

Summaries are usually much shorter than their originals. A summary concentrates on only those points or ideas in a passage that are important. Unlike in a paraphrase, the information in a summary can be rearranged. Here is a passage from which summaries below will be taken:

Numerous systems are available for controlling abnormalities [in boiling water reactors]. In the event that control rods cannot be inserted, liquid neutron absorber (containing a boron compound) may be injected into the reactor to shut down the chain reaction. Heat removal systems are available for cooling the core in the event the drywell is isolated from the main cooling systems. Closely related to the heat removal systems are injection systems for coping with decreases in coolant inventory.

Both abnormalities associated with the turbine system and actual loss of coolant accidents can lead closing of the steam and feedwater lines, effectively isolating the reactor vessel within the drywell. Whenever the vessel is isolated, and indeed whenever feedwater is lost, a reactor core isolation cooling system is available to maintain coolant inventory by pumping water into the reactor via connections in the pressure vessel head. This system operates at normal pressures and initially draws water from tanks that store condensate from the turbine, from condensate from the residual heat removal system, or if necessary, from the suppression pool.

A network of systems performs specific ECC [emergency core cooling] functions to cope with LOCAs [loss-of-cool- ant accidents]. (See Figure 6.) These all depend on signals indicating low water level in the pressure vessel or high pressure in the drywell, or both.

The systems include low-pressure injection, utilization of the RHR system, and high- and low-pressure core spray systems. The high-pressure core spray in intended to lower the pressure within the pressure vessel and provide makeup water in the event of a LOCA. In the event the core is uncovered, the spray can directly cool the fuel assemblies. Water is taken from the condensate tanks and from the suppression pool. On the other hand, should it become necessary to use low-pressure systems, the vessel must be depressurized. This depressurization can be accomplished by opening relief valves to blow down the vessel contents into the drywell (and hence the suppression pool). Once this action is completed, the low-pressure core spray may be used to cool the fuel assemblies (drawing water from the suppression pool) or RHR low-pressure injection (again from the suppression pool) may be initiated, or both. The RHR system may also be used simply to cool the suppression pool. (Two other functions of the RHR are to provide decay heat removal under ordinary shutdown conditions and, when necessary, to supplement the cooling system for the spent fuel pool and the upper containment pool.)

Anthony V. Nero,  A Guidebook to Nuclear Reactors , Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1979, pp. 104-107.

Sentence-length summaries . Often summaries are only a sentence long. To create sentence-length summaries, use one or a combination of the following methods:

• Locate a sentence or two in the original passage that summarizes the information that you want, and simply rewrite it in your own words.
• If no individual sentence will work, locate several sentences that contain the right information, and combine them.
• Sometimes, the summary sentence is like a new sentence, scarcely resembling any in the original.

Extended summaries . A summary can be longer than a single sentence because of the important information contained in the original passage. (Remember, however, that a paraphrase is a point-by-point recap of the original, while the summary is a selection, reordering and condensation of the original.)

Guide for Using Summaries

Whenever you summarize, you must handle the resulting summary the same way you would a direct quotation or paraphrase.

• Cite the name of the author and other important information about that author.
• Document that summary using whichever system is appropriate for your report.
• If it is an extended summary, make it clear where that summary begins and ends, for example, by referring to the author’s name at the beginning and placing a footnote or parenthetical reference at the end.

If you follow the guidelines presented in the preceding, plagiarism should not be a problem at all, but make sure you understand what it is.

Reports with plagiarized information are often easy to spot for several reasons:

• Plagiarism is the practice—whether deliberate or not—in which a writer borrows other people’s facts, ideas, or concepts and presents them as if they were her or his own.
• Plagiarism is also the practice—again whether deliberate or not—in which a writer uses other writers’ exact words without quotation marks.
• In all cases, plagiarism is the lack of proper documentation: documentation refers to any system of footnoting or reference that indicates the author and source of the borrowed information.
• A reader may recognize the ideas or facts in the report as those of someone else. An expert in a field of knowledge can spot this theft of information right away.
• A reader may realize that the report writer could not possibly have developed certain information in the report. If a writer who is at the beginning of his studies sounds like an advanced physicist, something is fishy.
• Most readers can also spot a sudden change in the style or tone of the language of a report. Most people’s writing style is as readily identifiable as their voices over the telephone.

Plagiarism is bad business: the plagiarizer can fail an academic course or lose his or her reputation among business and professional associates. It only takes simple documentation to transform a report with plagiarized material in it into one with legally borrowed material. The section on documentation explains these procedures in detail.

An Introduction to Technical Communication Copyright © by sherenahuntsman is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Write an Abstract in Research Papers (with Examples)

An abstract in research papers is a keyword-rich summary usually not exceeding 200-350 words. It can be considered the “face” of research papers because it creates an initial impression on the readers. While searching databases (such as PubMed) for research papers, a title is usually the first selection criterion for readers. If the title matches their search criteria, then the readers read the abstract, which sets the tone of the paper. Titles and abstracts are often the only freely available parts of research papers on journal websites. The pdf versions of full articles need to be purchased. Journal reviewers are often provided with only the title and abstract before they agree to review the complete paper. [ 1]  

Abstracts in research papers provide readers with a quick insight into what the paper is about to help them decide whether they want to read it further or not. Abstracts are the main selling points of articles and therefore should be carefully drafted, accurately highlighting the important aspects. [ 2]  

This article will help you identify the important components and provide tips on how to write an abstract in research papers effectively

What is an Abstract?  

An abstract in research papers can be defined as a synopsis of the paper. It should be clear, direct, self-contained, specific, unbiased, and concise. These summaries are published along with the complete research paper and are also submitted to conferences for consideration for presentation.  

Abstracts are of four types and journals can follow any of these formats: [ 2]  

• Structured  
• Unstructured  
• Descriptive  
• Informative  

Structured abstracts are used by most journals because they are more organized and have clear sections, usually including introduction/background; objective; design, settings, and participants (or materials and methods); outcomes and measures; results; and conclusion. These headings may differ based on the journal or the type of paper. Clinical trial abstracts should include the essential items mentioned in the CONSORT (Consolidated Standards Of Reporting Trials) guidelines.  

Figure 1. Structured abstract example [3] 

Unstructured abstracts are common in social science, humanities, and physical science journals. They usually have one paragraph and no specific structure or subheadings. These abstracts are commonly used for research papers that don’t report original work and therefore have a more flexible and narrative style.  

Figure 2. Unstructured abstract example [3] 

Descriptive abstracts are short (75–150 words) and provide an outline with only the most important points of research papers. They are used for shorter articles such as case reports, reviews, and opinions where space is at a premium, and rarely for original investigations. These abstracts don’t present the results but mainly list the topics covered.  

Here’s a sample abstract . [ 4]  

“Design of a Radio-Based System for Distribution Automation”  

A new survey by the Maryland Public Utilities Commission suggests that utilities have not effectively explained to consumers the benefits of smart meters. The two-year study of 86,000 consumers concludes that the long-term benefits of smart meters will not be realized until consumers understand the benefits of shifting some of their power usage to off-peak hours in response to the data they receive from their meters. The study presents recommendations for utilities and municipal governments to improve customer understanding of how to use the smart meters effectively.  

Keywords: smart meters, distribution systems, load, customer attitudes, power consumption, utilities  

Informative abstracts (structured or unstructured) give a complete detailed summary, including the main results, of the research paper and may or may not have subsections.   

Figure 3. Informative abstract example [5] 

Purpose of Abstracts in Research    

Abstracts in research have two main purposes—selection and indexing. [ 6,7]  

• Selection : Abstracts allow interested readers to quickly decide the relevance of a paper to gauge if they should read it completely.   
• Indexing : Most academic journal databases accessed through libraries enable you to search abstracts, allowing for quick retrieval of relevant articles and avoiding unnecessary search results. Therefore, abstracts must necessarily include the keywords that researchers may use to search for articles.  

Thus, a well-written, keyword-rich abstract can p ique readers’ interest and curiosity and help them decide whether they want to read the complete paper. It can also direct readers to articles of potential clinical and research interest during an online search.  

Contents of Abstracts in Research  

Abstracts in research papers summarize the main points of an article and are broadly categorized into four or five sections. Here are some details on how to write an abstract .   

Introduction/Background and/or Objectives  

This section should provide the following information:  

• What is already known about the subject?  
• What is not known about the subject or what does the study aim to investigate?  

The hypothesis or research question and objectives should be mentioned here. The Background sets the context for the rest of the paper and its length should be short so that the word count could be saved for the Results or other information directly pertaining to the study. The objective should be written in present or past simple tense.  

Examples:  

The antidepressant efficacy of desvenlafaxine (DV) has been established in 8-week, randomized controlled trials. The present study examined the continued efficacy of DV across 6 months of maintenance treatment . [ 1]  

Objective: To describe gastric and breast cancer risk estimates for individuals with CDH1 variants.  

Design, Setting, and Participants (or Materials and Methods)  

This section should provide information on the processes used and should be written in past simple tense because the process is already completed.  

A few important questions to be answered include:  

• What was the research design and setting?  
• What was the sample size and how were the participants sampled?  
• What treatments did the participants receive?  
• What were the data collection and data analysis dates?  
• What was the primary outcome measure?  

Hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated for each cancer type and used to calculate cumulative risks and risks per decade of life up to age 80 years.  

This section, written in either present or past simple tense, should be the longest and should describe the main findings of the study. Here’s an example of how descriptive the sentences should be:  

Avoid: Response rates differed significantly between diabetic and nondiabetic patients.  

Better: The response rate was higher in nondiabetic than in diabetic patients (49% vs 30%, respectively; P<0.01).  

This section should include the following information:  

• Total number of patients (included, excluded [exclusion criteria])  
• Primary and secondary outcomes, expressed in words, and supported by numerical data  
• Data on adverse outcomes  

Example: [ 8]  

In total, 10.9% of students were reported to have favorable study skills. The minimum score was found for preparation for examination domain. Also, a significantly positive correlation was observed between students’ study skills and their Grade Point Average (GPA) of previous term (P=0.001, r=0.269) and satisfaction with study skills (P=0.001, r=0.493).  

Conclusions  

Here, authors should mention the importance of their findings and also the practical and theoretical implications, which would benefit readers referring to this paper for their own research. Present simple tense should be used here.  

Examples: [ 1,8]  

The 9.3% prevalence of bipolar spectrum disorders in students at an arts university is substantially higher than general population estimates. These findings strengthen the oft-expressed hypothesis linking creativity with affective psychopathology.  

The findings indicated that students’ study skills need to be improved. Given the significant relationship between study skills and GPA, as an index of academic achievement, and satisfaction, it is necessary to promote the students’ study skills. These skills are suggested to be reinforced, with more emphasis on weaker domains.  

When to Write an Abstract  

In addition to knowing how to write an abstract , you should also know when to write an abstract . It’s best to write abstracts once the paper is completed because this would make it easier for authors to extract relevant parts from every section.  

Abstracts are usually required for: [ 7]    

• submitting articles to journals  
• applying for research grants   
• writing book proposals  
• completing and submitting dissertations  
• submitting proposals for conference papers  

Mostly, the author of the entire work writes the abstract (the first author, in works with multiple authors). However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work.   

How to Write an Abstract (Step-by-Step Process)  

Here are some key steps on how to write an abstract in research papers: [ 9]  

• Write the abstract after you’ve finished writing your paper.  
• Select the major objectives/hypotheses and conclusions from your Introduction and Conclusion sections.  
• Select key sentences from your Methods section.  
• Identify the major results from the Results section.  
• Paraphrase or re-write the sentences selected in steps 2, 3, and 4 in your own words into one or two paragraphs in the following sequence: Introduction/Objective, Methods, Results, and Conclusions. The headings may differ among journals, but the content remains the same.  
• Ensure that this draft does not contain: a.   new information that is not present in the paper b.   undefined abbreviations c.   a discussion of previous literature or reference citations d.   unnecessary details about the methods used  
• Remove all extra information and connect your sentences to ensure that the information flows well, preferably in the following order: purpose; basic study design, methodology and techniques used; major findings; summary of your interpretations, conclusions, and implications. Use section headings for structured abstracts.  
• Ensure consistency between the information presented in the abstract and the paper.  
• Check to see if the final abstract meets the guidelines of the target journal (word limit, type of abstract, recommended subheadings, etc.) and if all the required information has been included.  

Choosing Keywords for Abstracts  

Keywords [ 2] are the important and repeatedly used words and phrases in research papers and can help indexers and search engines find papers relevant to your requirements. Easy retrieval would help in reaching a wider audience and eventually gain more citations. In the fields of medicine and health, keywords should preferably be chosen from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) list of the US National Library of Medicine because they are used for indexing. These keywords need to be different from the words in the main title (automatically used for indexing) but can be variants of the terms/phrases used in the title, abstract, and the main text. Keywords should represent the content of your manuscript and be specific to your subject area.  

Basic tips for authors [ 10,11]  

• Read through your paper and highlight key terms or phrases that are most relevant and frequently used in your field, to ensure familiarity.  
• Several journals provide instructions about the length (eg, 3 words in a keyword) and maximum number of keywords allowed and other related rules. Create a list of keywords based on these instructions and include specific phrases containing 2 to 4 words. A longer string of words would yield generic results irrelevant to your field.  
• Use abbreviations, acronyms, and initializations if these would be more familiar.  
• Search with your keywords to ensure the results fit with your article and assess how helpful they would be to readers.  
• Narrow down your keywords to about five to ten, to ensure accuracy.  
• Finalize your list based on the maximum number allowed.  

  Few examples: [ 12]  

Important Tips for Writing an Abstract  

Here are a few tips on how to write an abstract to ensure that your abstract is complete, concise, and accurate. [ 1,2]  

• Write the abstract last.  
• Follow journal-specific formatting guidelines or Instructions to Authors strictly to ensure acceptance for publication.  
• Proofread the final draft meticulously to avoid grammatical or typographical errors.  
• Ensure that the terms or data mentioned in the abstract are consistent with the main text.  
• Include appropriate keywords at the end.

Do not include:  

• New information  
• Text citations to references  
• Citations to tables and figures  
• Generic statements  
• Abbreviations unless necessary, like a trial or study name  

Key Takeaways    

Here’s a quick snapshot of all the important aspects of how to write an abstract . [2]

• An abstract in research is a summary of the paper and describes only the main aspects. Typically, abstracts are about 200-350 words long.  
• Abstracts are of four types—structured, unstructured, descriptive, and informative.  
• Abstracts should be simple, clear, concise, independent, and unbiased (present both favorable and adverse outcomes).  
• They should adhere to the prescribed journal format, including word limits, section headings, number of keywords, fonts used, etc.  
• The terminology should be consistent with the main text.   
• Although the section heading names may differ for journals, every abstract should include a background and objective, analysis methods, primary results, and conclusions.  
• Nonstandard abbreviations, references, and URLs shouldn’t be included.  
• Only relevant and specific keywords should be used to ensure focused searches and higher citation frequency.  
• Abstracts should be written last after completing the main paper.  

Frequently Asked Questions   

Q1. Do all journals have different guidelines for abstracts?  

A1. Yes, all journals have their own specific guidelines for writing abstracts; a few examples are given in the following table. [ 6,13,14,15]  

Q2. What are the common mistakes to avoid when writing an abstract?  

A2. Listed below are a few mistakes that authors may make inadvertently while writing abstracts.  

• Copying sentences from the paper verbatim  

An abstract is a summary, which should be created by paraphrasing your own work or writing in your own words. Extracting sentences from every section and combining them into one paragraph cannot be considered summarizing.  

• Not adhering to the formatting guidelines  

Journals have special instructions for writing abstracts, such as word limits and section headings. These should be followed strictly to avoid rejections.  

• Not including the right amount of details in every section  

Both too little and too much information could discourage readers. For instance, if the Background has very little information, the readers may not get sufficient context to appreciate your research. Similarly, incomplete information in the Methods and a text-heavy Results section without supporting numerical data may affect the credibility of your research.  

• Including citations, standard abbreviations, and detailed measurements  

Typically, abstracts shouldn’t include these elements—citations, URLs, and abbreviations. Only nonstandard abbreviations are allowed or those that would be more familiar to readers than the expansions.  

• Including new information  

Abstracts should strictly include only the same information mentioned in the main text. Any new information should first be added to the text and then to the abstract only if necessary or if permitted by the word limit.  

• Not including keywords  

Keywords are essential for indexing and searching and should be included to increase the frequency of retrieval and citation.  

Q3. What is the difference between abstracts in research papers and conference abstracts? [16]  

A3. The table summarizes the main differences between research and conference abstracts.  

  Thus, abstracts are essential “trailers” that can market your research to a wide audience. The better and more complete the abstract the more are the chances of your paper being read and cited. By following our checklist and ensuring that all key elements are included, you can create a well-structured abstract that summarizes your paper accurately.  

References  

• Andrade C. How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference presentation. Indian J Psychiatry . 2011; 53(2):172-175. Accessed June 14, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136027/  
• Tullu MS. Writing the title and abstract for a research paper: Being concise, precise, and meticulous is the key. 2019; 13(Suppl 1): S12-S17. Accessed June 14, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6398294/  
• Zawia J. Writing an Academic Paper? Get to know Abstracts vs. Structured Abstracts. Medium. Published October 16, 2023. Accessed June 16, 2024. https://medium.com/@jamala.zawia/writing-an-academic-paper-get-to-know-abstracts-vs-structured-abstracts-11ed86888367  
• Markel M and Selber S. Technical Communication, 12 th edition. 2018; pp. 482. Bedford/St Martin’s.  
• Abstracts. Arkansas State University. Accessed June 17, 2024. https://www.astate.edu/a/global-initiatives/online/a-state-online-services/online-writing-center/resources/How%20to%20Write%20an%20Abstract1.pdf  
• AMA Manual of Style. 11 th edition. Oxford University Press.  
• Writing an Abstract. The University of Melbourne. Accessed June 16, 2024. https://services.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/471274/Writing_an_Abstract_Update_051112.pdf  
• 10 Good Abstract Examples that will Kickstart Your Brain. Kibin Essay Writing Blog. Published April 5, 2017. Accessed June 17, 2024. https://www.kibin.com/essay-writing-blog/10-good-abstract-examples/  
• A 10-step guide to make your research paper abstract more effective. Editage Insights. Published October 16, 2013. Accessed June 17, 2024. https://www.editage.com/insights/a-10-step-guide-to-make-your-research-paper-abstract-more-effective  
• Using keywords to write your title and abstract. Taylor & Francis Author Services. Accessed June 15, 2024. https://authorservices.taylorandfrancis.com/publishing-your-research/writing-your-paper/using-keywords-to-write-title-and-abstract/  
• How to choose and use keywords in research papers. Paperpal by Editage blog. Published March 10, 2023. Accessed June 17, 2024. https://paperpal.com/blog/researcher-resources/phd-pointers/how-to-choose-and-use-keywords-in-research-papers  
• Title, abstract and keywords. Springer. Accessed June 16, 2024. https://www.springer.com/it/authors-editors/authorandreviewertutorials/writing-a-journal-manuscript/title-abstract-and-keywords/10285522  
• Abstract and keywords guide. APA Style, 7 th edition. Accessed June 18, 2024. https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/abstract-keywords-guide.pdf  
• Abstract guidelines. American Society for Microbiology. Accessed June 18, 2024. https://asm.org/events/asm-microbe/present/abstract-guidelines  
• Guidelines for conference abstracts. The Lancet. Accessed June 16, 2024. https://www.thelancet.com/pb/assets/raw/Lancet/pdfs/Abstract_Guidelines_2013.pdf  
• Is a conference abstract the same as a paper abstract? Global Conference Alliance, Inc. Accessed June 18, 2024. https://globalconference.ca/is-a-conference-abstract-the-same-as-a-paper-abstract/  

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• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on October 26, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, using sub-questions to strengthen your main research question, research questions quiz, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

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Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific

Complex and arguable

Relevant and original

Chances are that your main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. That’s why sub-questions are important: they allow you to answer your main question in a step-by-step manner.

Good sub-questions should be:

• Less complex than the main question
• Focused only on 1 type of research
• Presented in a logical order

Here are a few examples of descriptive and framing questions:

• Descriptive: According to current government arguments, how should a European bank tax be implemented?
• Descriptive: Which countries have a bank tax/levy on financial transactions?
• Framing: How should a bank tax/levy on financial transactions look at a European level?

Keep in mind that sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if you need the findings to answer your main question. If your main question is simple enough to stand on its own, it’s okay to skip the sub-question part. As a rule of thumb, the more complex your subject, the more sub-questions you’ll need.

Try to limit yourself to 4 or 5 sub-questions, maximum. If you feel you need more than this, it may be indication that your main research question is not sufficiently specific. In this case, it’s is better to revisit your problem statement and try to tighten your main question up.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (“ x affects y because …”).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses . In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

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How writers are (and are not) incorporating ai into their process.

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Justin Belmont is Founder & CEO of Prose , a leading content marketing agency that has powered 1,000+ brands for over a decade.

Ask any writer and they’ll tell you: Writing is frustrating. From coming up with ideas to getting the words down, the whole process can turn you into a wreck. So when generative AI burst onto the scene with the release of ChatGPT, some writers and content creators in our network were intrigued by the possibility of speeding up their workflows.

Almost a year and a half since its release, ChatGPT isn’t quite capable of writing an engaging, unique piece of work from beginning to end just yet. (Ask any teacher who’s had to slog through rote, AI-generated student essays.) But more and more writers are dabbling in some AI-assisted writing.

Let’s walk through the writing process from start to finish and identify the parts where AI could come in handy, and where writers should still rely on good old-fashioned human intelligence.

Generating Ideas

“There is no such thing as a new idea,” Mark Twain once said . “It is impossible. We simply take a lot of old ideas and put them into a sort of mental kaleidoscope. We give them a turn and they make new and curious combinations.”

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Though he never lived to give ChatGPT a spin, Twain might as well have been talking about AI when he said “mental kaleidoscope.” (In fact, Mental Kaleidoscope could be a fun name for a writer-friendly AI model!)

Generative AI models are great at spitting out lots of ideas in a matter of seconds. Are they all good ideas? Of course not. But it’s like having a little writing partner on your shoulder, giving you some stuff to chew on during those moments of writer’s block.

No, AI isn’t a cure-all for writer’s block—many of the ideas aren’t completely original. But for now, generative AI is helping writers and content creators get past those dreaded moments when it’s just them and the blank page.

Occasionally, our writers will enter prompts in the brainstorming stage to identify key points and relevant links to sources. This helps to ensure we’re addressing all the main elements in some way (even if it means consciously leaving out certain aspects) and taking recent literature on the topic into consideration.

From tracking down stats to double-checking facts, plenty of people (including some writers in our network) use AI in the research process. Tools like ChatGPT are skilled at boiling down complex ideas into simple prose, especially if you use some creative prompting to limit the amount of jargon in the answer. So naturally, technical writers can use AI to fill in some blanks when they can’t track down necessary subject matter experts for a piece.

But AI isn’t perfect for research. For instance, if you ask ChatGPT to track down more specific stats around AI in the research process, it reminds you that its last update was in January 2022, before the release of ChatGPT itself. So if you’re looking for specific information from the last few years, the current version of ChatGPT may come up short.

Generative AI tools are also prone to hallucination. While this could improve, we’re still at a point where AI’s output must be fact-checked against other sources—because you never know when it’ll decide to be confidently incorrect .

While it might take some creative prompting, AI thrives when it comes to organizing information and giving it a logical flow. Is it remarkably creative? Not really, but it gets the job done. After all, outlines are for structure—you aren’t yet unpacking the meat of your argument.

Structuring a book calls for more complex outlines that AI can’t quite generate with logical consistency or creativity. But when it comes to outlining a short piece of writing, like a blog post, AI can be a valuable asset.

Tip: Don’t give up after a single prompt. Sometimes, you’ll need to prod AI a few times to deliver what you’re looking for (e.g., “more thorough!” “more interesting!” “more humor!”).

AI may be helpful for drafting little snippets of text—a subhead or maybe some alternative options for the title. But it’s hard to imagine many serious writers generating full text from ChatGPT anytime soon. Anyone who has spotted an AI-generated email or LinkedIn message can understand why: AI-generated text is boring . It gets a bit more fun when you tell ChatGPT to “write like Shakespeare,” but that’s just a playful exercise—no one is actually going to put out marketing copy that evokes Hamlet .

To paraphrase Hemingway, “Writing is rewriting.” Editing might be the most important part of the writing process, so is it worth handing the editing reins over to AI?

In some cases, maybe. You can send a written piece to ChatGPT in chunks and ask it to copyedit—though most word processors do that anyway. For shorter pieces, you can feed the entire thing to ChatGPT and have it observe the piece for logical inconsistencies. Or if you’re not happy with some phrasing, you can ask ChatGPT to offer alternatives while you edit.

But no one knows a piece better than the writer who wrote it originally. Much of the editing process is about “killing your darlings” and condensing. For now, generative AI isn’t great at spotting those moments where a piece might drag. Humans, with their lizard-brain need for novelty and entertainment, are still best for that.

Writing, like any craft, is a practice. While it might be tempting to outsource much of the process to AI, coming up with ideas, structuring and editing are valuable skills for any writer to learn. You’ll only learn by doing it, so maybe give it a try yourself first before letting ChatGPT take a crack.

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Teach. Learn. Grow.

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Why it’s so important to have students write about what they read

To be honest, I always felt like I was swimming upstream as an educator: lesson planning, participating in professional learning communities, conforming to the district’s focus on test preparation (redo, please!), addressing parent questions and student conflicts. I was busy.

Research on ways to improve my practice sat perpetually on the back burner. The closest I got was checking out the school library’s copy of The Reading Teacher magazine, and even then, I mostly focused on the classroom activities. Now that I’m in a different role in education and have time to avail myself of research, I’ve discovered that teaching reading and writing in a connected manner was one of those things I should pat myself on the back for. Writing and reading skills both stand to benefit when we have students write about what they read.

Reading and writing go hand in hand

Steve Graham, a prominent researcher who focuses on writing instruction, has written extensively about “the reciprocal relation that exists between reading and writing.” In an article from 2020 , he explains that when students receive and apply writing instruction, their reading ability improves, and as students become more fluent and comprehending readers, their writing ability also improves.

This claim is well substantiated: Graham and some of his colleagues conducted a meta-analysis of studies that examined 47 literacy programs that balanced reading with writing, meaning both were taught about equally, with neither exceeding 60% of instructional time. The researchers wanted to learn whether those programs with a dual focus on reading and writing improved students’ reading and writing performance overall. And guess what? They did.

Even though I was unaware of any research on the subject when I was in the classroom, there were many reasons I chose to have students write about what they read. And now I know from the work of Graham and his colleagues that these practices were sound.

The benefits of integrating writing and reading instruction

One of my favorite ways to pair reading and writing instruction in my classroom was to invite students to write about assigned reading. I would do this for both fiction and non-fiction reading we’d done—and for pieces of varying lengths, too. Here is why I found this practice to be so beneficial:

• Writing about published works facilitates reading comprehension and reveals text connections. Having students write about what they read gave me insight into what they understood about a text, how it impacted them, and how they connected to it. Even in elementary grades, kids were eager to share their thoughts with me and with their peers, and writing gave them a way to do that.
• Published works can become mentor texts. Opportunities to have students write about what they read let me see if students were able to model good writing that had been evident in a book or article we had focused on. If the author used similes or metaphors, for example, we discussed those when we read. We talked about why authors used figurative language and how it impacted the text and the reader. If the text was informational, we discussed important academic language, what each word meant, and why authors used “big words” when discussing a subject. Then, when students wrote about those texts, I got to observe them following the model of the author, which helped them understand things like an author’s purpose, an author’s craft, genre, and text structure.
• Professional writing can model sound grammar and syntax. When students wrote about what they read, I could even see how they noticed grammar and syntax that had been modeled by the author. I would then encourage the use of those elements of writing and have them practice using them the way the author did, or in new and creative ways.
• Other people’s writing can generate ideas for student writing. The mental blocks so commonly prevalent with students seemed to lessen when they didn’t have to grab something out of thin air to write about. Writing about reading gave them something to glom onto.
• Writing about what we read can improve engagement while reading. I strived to get to know my students, as my colleague Kayla McLaughlin describes in “4 ways to get students excited about writing.” I would choose highly engaging books my kids would be interested in. Does this mean the only writing they ever did was text based? No. There are many types of writing, and students must be able to approach them all with confidence. But it does mean that almost every text had accompanying writing work and that the texts were designed to appeal to my students.

When to incorporate writing tasks

Deciding when to incorporate writing is an important part of your lesson planning. There are great opportunities for writing before your students read a text and during and after, too.

• Prereading: Ask students to write about a topic you will be getting ready to read about. My students loved the book Out of the Dust by Karen Hesse. The historical context of the Dust Bowl encouraged thinking about human consequences on the environment, the verse invited discussions about form, and the themes of hope and perseverance got us thinking about empathy. I posed different questions for students to answer prior to reading depending on what aspects I wanted to focus on. For example, if I wanted to focus on the science in the book with my fifth-graders, I would ask them to share things humans have done that have harmed the planet in their writing log. If I wanted to teach the difference between poetry, narrative, and informational texts with my fourth-graders, I would ask them to write descriptions of each of those forms. In both cases, writing before we did our reading gave me a good sense for our starting point ahead of my lessons.
• During reading: Quick writes can be effective during reading to help students reflect and give you insight into current understanding. These can be in response to guided questions, such as “Which character do you like best so far and why?” They can be answered in just a couple of sentences to help build student confidence and comfort with writing.
• After reading: Most of the time, I would give students prompts after reading, but sometimes, they were so fired up they just wanted to get some thoughts on paper. I found it useful when they were extra passionate about something to allow them to discuss it with a partner first; otherwise, the writing could be all over the place. I encouraged them to use evidence from the text to support their main points, rather than relying on their emotional reactions only, which they quickly realized strengthened their writing.

Support a sound writing process with our free resource

Informal and quick writes are valuable and have their place in your classroom. We also know from research that the process behind writing is as important as the product created. An intentional, formal process encourages deep analysis and critical thinking. Researchers David Galbraith and Veerle Baaigen refer to writing as a “knowledge-transforming” process because it activates our recently acquired knowledge and helps encode that knowledge into our memory. That’s why we have designed guidance to support you in encouraging students to think not only about what they focus on when they write but also how a sound process can help them achieve their goals. NWEA calls this guidance a writing plan, and we have outlined expectations specific to grade bands: K–1 , 2–5 , 6–8 .

Regardless of which grade band document you open, you’ll see questions that guide students to think about purpose, audience, type of writing, organization, and the writing process. The K–1 band keeps things basic so students can better understand what to think about before writing. As we move to the 2–5 and 6–8 bands, more detail is given, especially regarding the writing process. So, for example, K–1 students will focus on keeping calm, which we know is important for beginning writers who are fearful that they don’t have enough of a grasp of spelling and grammar to get their points across. Then, in grades 6–8, students are encouraged to advance to thinking about who their writing community includes and the more exacting steps they may take as part of the process (e.g., setting daily goals, avoiding distractions, reading a draft aloud to catch typos).

The consistent focus across K–8 in our writing plan tools emphasizes that process writing can—and should—be a part of the curriculum at all grades. The changing level of sophistication across K–8 shows that the writing process should always remain developmentally appropriate.

Another thing to note: Our writing plan tools don’t just apply to the ELA classroom. Several studies, including by Graham , have shown the benefits of writing in other disciplines , like science, history, and math, because that writing deepens students’ learning of the specific content being taught. Regardless of your content area, we encourage you to explore how you can use our writing plan tools in your classroom.

A note on writing and assessment

If your school uses MAP® Growth™ , you might be wondering how an interim assessment like MAP Growth fits in. While MAP Growth doesn’t assess writing, it does assess reading.

MAP Growth provides a RIT score for the reading domain. Knowing a student’s reading RIT score is lower than the proficiency norms for their grade level would be helpful when you think about what their writing scores might look like on your state summative. If the score is low, I encourage you to use formative assessment to further determine how best to differentiate instruction and build those reading and writing connections. For example, if your Class Profile report shows students’ RIT scores are low in vocabulary, choose books rich in academic language or that include figurative language in meaningful ways. Spend instructional time talking about the meaning of those words and the impact of the words on the text. Then have students write using the academic language or using figurative language to make their points.

MAP Growth also includes a language usage test that will give you insight into students’ strengths with grammar and conventions.

If you currently teach reading and writing separately, there’s no better time to reflect on how to have students write about what they read. That way, you won’t have to look back later and wish you, too, could have a redo.

I encourage you to explore opportunities for writing before, during, and after reading a text and to turn to our writing plan tools for support, including beyond the ELA classroom. Together, formative and interim assessment can help you get a good understanding for where students are in their growth as writers, and they’ll give you the information to course correct as needed.

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• Open access
• Published: 09 July 2024

Exploring the potential of artificial intelligence to enhance the writing of english academic papers by non-native english-speaking medical students - the educational application of ChatGPT

• Jiakun Li 1   na1 ,
• Hui Zong 1   na1 ,
• Erman Wu 1 , 4   na1 ,
• Rongrong Wu 1 ,
• Zhufeng Peng 1 ,
• Jing Zhao 1 ,
• Lu Yang 1 ,
• Hong Xie 2 &
• Bairong Shen 1 , 3  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  736 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Academic paper writing holds significant importance in the education of medical students, and poses a clear challenge for those whose first language is not English. This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of employing large language models, particularly ChatGPT, in improving the English academic writing skills of these students.

A cohort of 25 third-year medical students from China was recruited. The study consisted of two stages. Firstly, the students were asked to write a mini paper. Secondly, the students were asked to revise the mini paper using ChatGPT within two weeks. The evaluation of the mini papers focused on three key dimensions, including structure, logic, and language. The evaluation method incorporated both manual scoring and AI scoring utilizing the ChatGPT-3.5 and ChatGPT-4 models. Additionally, we employed a questionnaire to gather feedback on students’ experience in using ChatGPT.

After implementing ChatGPT for writing assistance, there was a notable increase in manual scoring by 4.23 points. Similarly, AI scoring based on the ChatGPT-3.5 model showed an increase of 4.82 points, while the ChatGPT-4 model showed an increase of 3.84 points. These results highlight the potential of large language models in supporting academic writing. Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference between manual scoring and ChatGPT-4 scoring, indicating the potential of ChatGPT-4 to assist teachers in the grading process. Feedback from the questionnaire indicated a generally positive response from students, with 92% acknowledging an improvement in the quality of their writing, 84% noting advancements in their language skills, and 76% recognizing the contribution of ChatGPT in supporting academic research.

The study highlighted the efficacy of large language models like ChatGPT in augmenting the English academic writing proficiency of non-native speakers in medical education. Furthermore, it illustrated the potential of these models to make a contribution to the educational evaluation process, particularly in environments where English is not the primary language.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Large language models (LLMs) are artificial intelligence (AI) tools that have remarkable ability to understand and generate text [ 1 , 2 ]. Trained with substantial amounts of textual data, LLMs have demonstrated their capability to perform diverse tasks, such as question answering, machine translation, and writing [ 3 , 4 ]. In 2022, Open AI released a LLM called ChatGPT [ 5 ]. Since its inception, ChatGPT has been widely applied in medicine domain, especially after testing, it can demonstrate the medical level that meets the requirements of passing the United States Medical Licensing Exam [ 6 ]. It can provide personalized learning experience according to the preference style of medical students [ 7 ]. Research has shown that the explanations provided by ChatGPT are more accurate and comprehensive than the explanations of basic principles provided in some standardized higher education exams [ 8 ]. Therefore, many researchers believe that ChatGPT may improve students’ problem-solving ability and reflective learning [ 9 ].

Writing English language based academic papers is very important for the development of medical students in universities. China is a non-native English-speaking country with a large population of medical students, so it is necessary to provide medical education and offer relevant courses, especially to cultivate their ability to write English academic papers [ 10 ]. This is essential for future engagement in scientific research and clinical work within the field of medicine. However, the ability of these non-native English-speaking medical students in writing English papers is relatively limited, and they need continuous training and improvement [ 11 ].

LLMs can be used to generate and modify text content and language styles, and can be applied to the quality improvement of scientific papers [ 12 , 13 ]. ChatGPT exhibits considerable potential in medical paper writing, assist in literature retrieval, data analysis, knowledge synthesis and other aspects [ 14 ]. Students received AI-assisted instruction exhibited improved proficiency in multiple aspects of writing, organization, coherence, grammar, and vocabulary [ 15 ]. Additionally, AI mediated instruction can positively impacts English learning achievement and self-regulated learning [ 16 ]. LLMs can also perform language translation [ 13 , 17 ]. Moreover, it can automatically evaluate and score the level of medical writing, and provide modification suggestions for improvement [ 18 ]. These studies indicate that incorporating large language models like ChatGPT into medical education holds promise for various advantages. However, their usage must be accompanied by careful and critical evaluation [ 19 ]. As far as we know, there is currently no research to evaluate the usability and effectiveness of ChatGPT in medical mini paper writing courses through real classroom teaching scenarios.

Therefore, in this study, we introduce the ChatGPT into real-world medical courses to investigate the effectiveness of employing LLMs in improving the academic writing proficiency for non-native English-speaking medical students. By collecting and analyzing data, we aim to provide evidence of the effectiveness of employing a LLM in improving the English academic writing skills of medical students, thereby facilitating better medical education and improve the scientific research ability and writing skills for students.

Participants

The research included 27 third-year medical students from the West China School of Medicine at Sichuan University. These students are all non-native English speakers. These students had concluded their fundamental medical coursework but had not yet embarked on specialized subjects. Exclusion criteria were applied to those who failed to fulfill the requisite homework assignments.

Initial Stage: The task involved composing an English academic paper in accordance with the stipulations of English thesis education. Considering the students’ junior academic standing, the composition of a discussion section in paper was not mandated. Each student was tasked with authoring a concise, “mini paper.”

Experimental Phase: Upon the completion of their individual “mini papers,” students had initially submitted these under the label “group without ChatGPT.” Subsequently, they engaged with ChatGPT-3.5 for a period of two weeks to refine their English academic manuscripts. After this period, the revised mini papers were resubmitted under the designation “group with ChatGPT.” Alongside this resubmission, students also provided a questionnaire regarding their experience with ChatGPT. The questionnaire was administered in Mandarin, which is the commonly used language in the research context. We conducted a thorough discussion within our teaching and research group to develop the questionnaire. Two students, who failed to meet the stipulated submission deadline, were excluded from the study.

All mini papers underwent evaluation and scoring based on a standardized scoring criterion. The assessment process encompassed three distinct approaches. Firstly, two teachers independently scored each mini paper using a blind review technique, and the final score was determined by averaging the two assessments. Secondly, scoring was performed using ChatGPT-3.5. Lastly, scoring was conducted using ChatGPT-4.

Evaluation Criteria: The scoring was composed of three dimensions: structure, logic, and language, with each dimension carrying a maximum of 20 points, culminating in a total of 60 points. The scores for each section were categorized into four tiers: 0–5 points (Fail), 6–10 points (Below Average), 11–15 points (Good), and 16–20 points (Excellent). The minimum unit for deduction was 0.5 points.

Structure emphasizes the organization and arrangement of the paper. It ensures that the content is placed in the appropriate sections according to the guidelines commonly found in academic journals. Logic refers to the coherence and progression of ideas within the paper. The logical flow should be evident, with each section building upon the previous ones to provide a cohesive argument. A strong logical framework ensures a systematic and well-supported study. Language refers to the correctness and proficiency of English writing. Proper language expression is essential for effectively conveying ideas and ensuring clear communication, and makes the paper becomes more readable and comprehensible to the intended audience.

Experience questionnaire for ChatGPT: The questionnaire comprised 31 questions, detailed in the attached appendix. (Attachment document)

Data analysis

The Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test was utilized to assess the baseline scores of students before and after using ChatGPT. A paired t-test was utilized to analyze the impact of ChatGPT on the improvement of students’ assignment quality (manual grading). Univariate regression analysis was conducted to investigate the extent of improvement in assignment quality attributed to ChatGPT. Previous studies have shown discrepancies in language learning and language-related skills between males and females. In order to mitigate any potential biases, we implemented gender correction techniques, which encompassed statistical adjustments to accommodate these gender variations [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. The questionnaire was distributed and collected using the Wenjuanxing platform (Changsha Ran Xing Science and Technology, Shanghai, China. [ https://www.wjx.cn ]).

Statistical analyses were performed using the R software package (version 4.2.0, The R Foundation, Boston, MA, USA), Graph Pad Prism 9 (GraphPad Software, CA, USA), and Empower (X&Y Solutions Inc., Boston, MA, USA) [ 23 ].

Manual scoring

Ultimately, the study included 25 participants, with two students being excluded due to late submission of their assignments. These participants were all third-year undergraduate students, including 14 males (56%) and 11 females (44%). The “group without ChatGPT” consisted of 25 participants who wrote mini papers with an average word count of 1410.56 ± 265.32, cited an average of 16.44 ± 8.31 references, and received a manual score of 46.45 ± 3.59. In contrast, the “group with ChatGPT” of 25 participants produced mini papers with an average word count of 1406.52 ± 349.59, cited 16.80 ± 8.10 references on average, and achieved a manual score of 50.68 ± 2.03. Further details are available in Table  1 .

In terms of manual scoring, medical students demonstrated a significant improvement in the quality of their assignments in the dimensions of logic, structure, language, and overall score after using ChatGPT, as depicted in Fig.  1 .

Using ChatGPT improved the quality of students’ academic papers. A statistical analysis of the manual scoring showed that the quality of students’ academic papers improved after using ChatGPT for revision in terms of structure, logic, language, and overall score. The results showed statistical significance. *** p  < 0.001, **** p  < 0.0001

We also conducted a univariate analysis on the impact of ChatGPT on medical students’ academic papers writing across all scoring methods. The results indicated significant improvement in all manual scores and those evaluated by ChatGPT-3.5 for paper structure, logic, language, and total score (all p  < 0.05). Papers assessed by ChatGPT-4 also showed significant improvements in structure, logic, and total score (all p  < 0.05). Although the language scores of papers evaluated by ChatGPT-4 did not show a significant difference, a trend of improvement was observed (β 1.02, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.15, 2.19, p  = 0.1). After adjusting for gender, multivariate regression analysis yielded similar results, with significant improvements in all dimensions of scoring across all methods, except for the language scores evaluated by ChatGPT-4. The total manual scoring of students’ papers improved by 4.23 (95% CI 2.64, 5.82) after revisions with ChatGPT, ChatGPT-3.5 scores increased by 4.82 (95% CI 2.47, 7.17), and ChatGPT-4 scores by 3.84 (95% CI 0.83, 6.85). Further details are presented in Table  2 .

The potential of ChatGPT in scoring support

Additionally, we investigated whether ChatGPT could assist teachers in assignment assessment. The results showed significant differences between the scores given by the ChatGPT-3.5 and manual grading, both for groups with and without ChatGPT. Interestingly, the scores from ChatGPT-4 were not significantly different from human grading, which suggests that ChatGPT-4 may have the potential to assist teachers in reviewing and grading student assignments (Fig.  2 ).

Potential of ChatGPT assisting teachers in evaluating papers. The results showed that there was a significant statistical difference between the scoring results of the GPT3.5 and the manual scoring results, both for the unrevised mini papers (left) and the revised mini papers (right) using ChatGPT. However, there was no significant statistical difference between the scoring results of GPT4 and the manual scoring results, which mean that GPT4 might be able to replace teachers in scoring in the future. ns: no significance, *** p  < 0.001, **** p  < 0.0001

Experience questionnaire

Among the 25 valid questionnaires, social media emerged as the primary channel through which participants became aware of ChatGPT, accounting for 84% of responses. This was followed by recommendations from acquaintances and requirements from schools/offices, each selected by 48% of participants. News media accounted for 44%. (Attachment document)

Regarding the purpose of using ChatGPT (multiple responses allowed), 92% used it mainly to enhance homework quality and improve writing efficiency. 68% utilized ChatGPT for knowledge gathering. 56% employed ChatGPT primarily to improve their language skills. (Attachment document)

In the course of the study, the most widely used feature of ChatGPT in assisting with academic paper writing was English polishing, chosen by 100% of the students, indicating its widespread use for improving the language quality of their papers. Generating outlines and format editing were also popular choices, with 64% and 60% using these features, respectively. (Attachment document)

When asked what they would use ChatGPT for, 92% of participants considered it as a language learning tool for real-time translation and grammar correction. 84% viewed ChatGPT as a tool for assisting in paper writing, providing literature materials and writing suggestions. 76% saw ChatGPT as a valuable tool for academic research and literature review. 48% believed that ChatGPT could serve as a virtual tutor, providing personalized learning advice and guidance. (Attachment document)

Regarding attitudes towards the role of ChatGPT in medical education, 24% of participants had an optimistic view, actively embracing its role, while 52% had a generally positive attitude, and 24% held a neutral stance. This indicates that most participants viewed the role of ChatGPT in medical education positively, with only a minority being pessimistic. (Attachment document)

Among the participants, when asked about the limitations of ChatGPT in medical education, 96% acknowledged the challenge in verifying the authenticity of information; 72% noted a lack of human-like creative thinking; 52% pointed out the absence of clinical practice insights; and 40% identified language and cultural differences as potential issues. (Attachment document)

The results from the participants’ two-week unrestricted usage of the AI model ChatGPT to enhance their assignments indicated a noticeable improvement in the quality of student papers. This suggests that large language models could serve as assistive tools in medical education by potentially improving the English writing skills of medical students. Furthermore, the results of comparative analysis revealed that the ChatGPT-4 model’s evaluations showed no statistical difference from teacher’s manual grading. Therefore, AI might have prospective applications in certain aspects of teaching, such as grading assessments, providing significant assistance to manual efforts.

The results of questionnaire indicate ChatGPT can serve as an important educational tool, beneficial in a range of teaching contexts, including online classroom Q&A assistant, virtual tutor and facilitating language learning [ 24 ]. ChatGPT’s expansive knowledge base and advanced natural language processing capability enable it to effectively answer students’ inquiries and offer valuable literature resources and writing advice [ 25 ]. For language learning, it offers real-time translation and grammar correction, aiding learners in improving their language skills through evaluation and feedback [ 26 ]. ChatGPT can also deliver personalized educational guidance based on individual student needs, enhancing adaptive learning strategies [ 27 ]. Furthermore, in this study, the positive feedback of questionnaire for the usage of ChatGPT in English language polishing of academic papers, as well as for generating paper outlines and formatting, underscores its acceptance and recognition among students. The evaluation results of three dimensions reflects a keen focus on enhancing the structural and formatting quality of their papers, demonstrating the large AI language model’s impressive teaching efficacy in undergraduate education.

In the questionnaire assessing ChatGPT’s accuracy and quality, 48% of respondents indicated satisfaction with its performance. However, it’s important to consider that the quality and accuracy of responses from any AI model, including ChatGPT, can be influenced by various factors such as the source of data, model design, and training data quality. These results, while indicative, require deeper research and analysis to fully understand the capabilities and limitations of ChatGPT in this field. Furthermore, ongoing discussions about ethics and data security in AI applications highlight the need for continued vigilance and improvement [ 28 ]. Overall, while ChatGPT shows promise in medical education, it is clear that it has limitations that must be addressed to better serve the needs of this specialized field.

Manual grading can be a time-consuming task for teachers, particularly when dealing with a large number of assignments or exams. ChatGPT-4 may provide support to teachers in the grading process, which could free up their time, allowing them to focus on other aspects of teaching, such as providing personalized feedback or engaging with students. However, it may not replace the role of teachers in grading. Teachers possess valuable expertise and contextual knowledge that go beyond simple evaluation of assignments. They consider factors such as student effort, creativity, critical thinking, and the ability to convey ideas effectively. These aspects might be challenging for an AI model to fully capture and evaluate. Furthermore, the use of AI in grading raises important ethical considerations. It is crucial to ensure that the model’s grading criteria align with educational standards and are fair and unbiased.

Despite its potential benefits of using ChatGPT in medical education, it also has limitations, such as language barriers and cultural differences [ 29 , 30 ]. When inputted with different languages, ChatGPT may have difficulty in understanding and generating accurate responses. Medical terms and concepts vary across different languages, and even slight differences in translation can lead to misunderstandings. Medical education is also influenced by cultural factors. Different cultures have different communication styles, which can impact the way medical information is exchanged. Recognizing and respecting the diversity of cultural perspectives is crucial for providing patient-centered care, and it should be an important part in medical education, which ChatGPT does not excel at. The model may struggle with translating non-English languages, impacting its effectiveness in a global medical education context. Additionally, while ChatGPT can generate a vast amount of text, it lacks the creative thinking and contextual understanding inherent to human cognition, which can be crucial in medical education. Another concern is the authenticity and credibility of the information generated by ChatGPT [ 31 , 32 ]. In medical education, where accuracy and reliability of knowledge are paramount, the inability to guarantee the truthfulness of the information poses a significant challenge [ 32 , 33 , 34 ].

These limitations of ChatGPT in medical education may be addressed and potentially rectified with updates and advancements in AI models. For instance, in this study, the scoring results showed no statistical difference between the ChatGPT-4 model and manual grading, unlike the significant discrepancies observed with the ChatGPT-3.5 model. This suggests that ChatGPT-4 has improved capabilities to assist manual grading by teachers, demonstrating greater intelligence and human-like understanding compared to the ChatGPT-3.5 model. Similar findings have been noted in other research, highlighting the advancements from version 3.5 to 4. For example, there were clear evidences that version 4 achieved better test results than version 3.5 in professional knowledge exams in disciplines such as orthopedics [ 35 ], dermatology [ 36 ], and ophthalmology [ 37 ].

This study aimed to explore the use of ChatGPT in enhancing English writing skills among non-native English-speaking medical students. The results showed that the quality of students’ writing improved significantly after using ChatGPT, highlighting the potential of large language models in supporting academic writing by enhancing structure, logic, and language skills. Statistical analysis indicated that ChatGPT-4 has the potential to assist teachers in grading. As a pilot study in this field, it may pave the way for further research on the application of AI in medical education. This new approach of incorporating AI into English paper writing education for medical students represents an innovative research perspective. This study not only aligns with the evolving landscape of technology-enhanced learning but also addresses specific needs in medical education, particularly in the context of academic writing. In the future, AI models should be more rationally utilized to further enhance medical education and improve medical students’ research writing skills.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully thank Dr. Changzhong Chen, Chi Chen, and Xin-Lin Chen (EmpowerStats X&Y Solutions, Inc., Boston, MA) for providing statistical methodology consultation.

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32070671 and 32270690), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2023SCU12057). The authors gratefully thank Dr. Changzhong Chen, Chi Chen, and Xin-Lin Chen (EmpowerStats X&Y Solutions, Inc., Boston, MA) for providing statistical methodology consultation.

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Jiakun Li, Hui Zong and Erman Wu contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Urology and Institutes for Systems Genetics, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China

Jiakun Li, Hui Zong, Erman Wu, Rongrong Wu, Zhufeng Peng, Jing Zhao, Lu Yang & Bairong Shen

West China Hospital, West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, No. 37, Guoxue Alley, Chengdu, 610041, China

Institutes for Systems Genetics, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China

Bairong Shen

Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, 830054, China

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Contributions

J.L., H.Z. and E.W. contributed equally as first authors of this manuscript. J.L., H.X. and B.S. were responsible for the conception and design of this study. J.L., E.W., R.W., J.Z., L.Y. and Z.P. interpreted the data. J.L., E.W., H.Z. and L.Y. were responsible for the data acquisition. J.L., H.Z. and E.W. wrote the first draft, interpreted the data, and wrote the final version of the manuscript. J.Z. was committed to the language editing of the manuscript. All authors critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content and approved the final version of the manuscript. H.X. and B.S. contributed equally as the corresponding authors of this manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Hong Xie or Bairong Shen .

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Was not required for this study because the research data were anonymised, and the Research Ethics Committee of West China Hospital of Sichuan University determined it was not necessary based on the study’s nature.

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Not applicable (NA).

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

AI use in the writing process

During the writing of this work the author(s) used generative AI and/or AI-assisted technologies for the purpose of English language polishing. The author(s) take responsibility for the content and intended meaning of this article.

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Li, J., Zong, H., Wu, E. et al. Exploring the potential of artificial intelligence to enhance the writing of english academic papers by non-native english-speaking medical students - the educational application of ChatGPT. BMC Med Educ 24 , 736 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05738-y

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Received : 04 April 2024

Accepted : 02 July 2024

Published : 09 July 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05738-y

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