research questions on parenting styles

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Parenting Styles: A Closer Look at a Well-Known Concept

Sofie kuppens.

1 Erasmus School of Health Policy & Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

2 Department of Public Health and Primary Care, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Eva Ceulemans

3 Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Although parenting styles constitute a well-known concept in parenting research, two issues have largely been overlooked in existing studies. In particular, the psychological control dimension has rarely been explicitly modelled and there is limited insight into joint parenting styles that simultaneously characterize maternal and paternal practices and their impact on child development. Using data from a sample of 600 Flemish families raising an 8-to-10 year old child, we identified naturally occurring joint parenting styles. A cluster analysis based on two parenting dimensions (parental support and behavioral control) revealed four congruent parenting styles: an authoritative, positive authoritative, authoritarian and uninvolved parenting style. A subsequent cluster analysis comprising three parenting dimensions (parental support, behavioral and psychological control) yielded similar cluster profiles for the congruent (positive) authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles, while the fourth parenting style was relabeled as a congruent intrusive parenting style. ANOVAs demonstrated that having (positive) authoritative parents associated with the most favorable outcomes, while having authoritarian parents coincided with the least favorable outcomes. Although less pronounced than for the authoritarian style, having intrusive parents also associated with poorer child outcomes. Results demonstrated that accounting for parental psychological control did not yield additional parenting styles, but enhanced our understanding of the pattern among the three parenting dimensions within each parenting style and their association with child outcomes. More similarities than dissimilarities in the parenting of both parents emerged, although adding psychological control slightly enlarged the differences between the scores of mothers and fathers.

Parenting has gained ample research attention from various scientific disciplines. Many theoretical frameworks emphasize that parenting plays a vital role in child development, which has fueled research investigating the impact of parenting on child development for over 75 years. When studying parenting, researchers can take various strategies by considering parenting practices, parenting dimensions or parenting styles. Parenting practices can be defined as directly observable specific behaviors that parents use to socialize their children (Darling and Steinberg 1993 ). For example, parenting practices intended to promote academic achievement are showing involvement by attending parent–teacher meetings or regular supervision of children’s homework. Other parenting practices pertain to positive reinforcement, discipline, or problem solving.

Rather than focusing on specific parenting practices, other researchers have identified overarching parenting dimensions that reflect similar parenting practices, mostly by modeling the relationships among these parenting practices using factor analytic techniques. There is consensus among scientists about the existence of at least two broad dimensions of parenting, labeled parental support and parental control. Parental support pertains to the affective nature of the parent-child relationship, indicated by showing involvement, acceptance, emotional availability, warmth, and responsivity (Cummings et al. 2000 ). Support has been related to positive development outcomes in children, such as the prevention of alcohol abuse and deviance (Barnes and Farrell 1992 ), depression and delinquency (Bean et al. 2006 ) and externalizing problem behavior (Shaw et al. 1994 ).

The control dimension has been subdivided into psychological and behavioral control (Barber 1996 ; Schaefer 1965 ; Steinberg 1990 ). Parental behavioral control consists of parenting behavior that attempts to control, manage or regulate child behavior, either through enforcing demands and rules, disciplinary strategies, control of rewards and punishment, or through supervisory functions (Barber 2002 ; Maccoby 1990 ; Steinberg 1990 ). An appropriate amount of behavioral control has been considered to positively affect child development, whereas insufficient (e.g., poor parental monitoring) or excessive behavioral control (e.g., parental physical punishment) has been commonly associated with negative child developmental outcomes, such as deviant behavior, misconduct, depression and anxious affect (e.g., Barnes and Farrell 1992 ; Coie and Dodge 1998 ; Galambos et al. 2003 ; Patterson et al. 1984 ). While parental behavioral control refers to control over the child’s behavior, parental psychological control pertains to an intrusive type of control in which parents attempt to manipulate children’s thoughts, emotions, and feelings (Barber 1996 ; Barber et al. 2005 ). Due to its manipulative and intrusive nature, psychological control has almost exclusively been associated with negative developmental outcomes in children and adolescents, such as depression, antisocial behaviour and relational regression (e.g., Barber and Harmon 2002 ; Barber et al. 2005 ; Kuppens et al. 2013 ). The three parenting dimensions (support, psychological control, and behavioral control) have been labelled conceptually distinct, although they are related to some extent (Barber et al. 2005 ; Soenens et al. 2012 ).

Other authors have taken yet a different approach to studying parenting by emphasizing that specific combinations of parenting practices within a parent particularly impact child development rather than separate parenting practices or dimensions (e.g., Baumrind 1991 ; Maccoby and Martin 1983 ). Within such a configurational approach, one examines which patterns of parenting practices occur within the same parent and how these patterns—commonly labelled as parenting styles— are related to children’s development. Such parenting styles have the clear advantage of accounting for different parenting practices at the same time within the same person. As such, it comprises a person–centered approach that focuses on configurations within individuals rather than a variable–centered approach that focuses on relationships among variables across individuals as has been used to identify parenting dimensions (Magnusson 1998 ).

Baumrind ( 1966 , 1967 , 1971 ) is commonly considered a pioneer of research into parenting styles. She introduced a typology with three parenting styles to describe differences in normal parenting behaviors: the authoritarian, authoritative and permissive parenting style. Baumrind ( 1971 ) suggested that authoritarian parents try to shape, control, and evaluate their children’s behavior based on the absolute set of standards; whereas permissive parents are warmer and more autonomy granting than controlling. She considered an authoritative parenting style to fall between those two extremes. Later on in the 1980s, Maccoby and Martin ( 1983 ) attempted to bridge Baumrind’s typology and parenting dimensions. Based on the combination of two dimensions – demandingness and responsiveness – they defined four parenting styles: authoritative (i.e., high demandingness and high responsiveness); authoritarian (i.e., high demandingness and low responsiveness); indulgent (i.e., low demandingness and high responsiveness); and neglectful (i.e., low demandingness and low responsiveness). These two parenting dimensions are similar, yet not identical to the dimensions ‘parental support’ and ‘parental behavioral control’. Based on Maccoby and Martin’s work, Baumrind ( 1989 , 1991 ) expanded her typology with a fourth parenting style, namely the ‘neglectful’ parenting style.

Maccoby and Martin ( 1983 ) research efforts primarily focused on the configuration of the parenting styles and to a lesser extent on their association with children’s development. Baumrind, in contrast, has also extensively studied the association between parenting styles and child development (1967, 1971, 1989, 1991). This work consistently demonstrated that youth of authoritative parents had the most favorable development outcomes; authoritarian and permissive parenting were associated with negative developmental outcomes; while outcomes for children of neglectful parents were poorest. These aforementioned associations have also been replicated by other researchers. An authoritative parenting style has consistently been associated with positive developmental outcomes in youth, such as psychosocial competence (e.g., maturation, resilience, optimism, self-reliance, social competence, self-esteem) and academic achievement (e.g., Baumrind 1991 ; Lamborn et al. 1991 ; Steinberg et al. 1994 ). Findings regarding permissive/indulgent parenting have been inconsistent yielding associations with internalizing (i.e., anxiety, depression, withdrawn behavior, somatic complaints) and externalizing problem behavior (i.e., school misconduct, delinquency), but also with social skills, self–confidence, self–understanding and active problem coping (e.g., Lamborn et al. 1991 ; Steinberg et al. 1994 ; Williams et al. 2009 ; Wolfradt et al. 2003 ). An authoritarian parenting style has consistently been associated with negative developmental outcomes, such as aggression, delinquent behaviors, somatic complaints, depersonalisation and anxiety (e.g., Hoeve et al. 2008 ; Steinberg et al. 1994 ; Williams et al. 2009 ; Wolfradt et al. 2003 ). Children of neglectful parents have shown the least favorable outcomes on multiple domains, such as lacking self-regulation and social responsibility, poor self-reliance and social competence, poor school competence, antisocial behavior and delinquency, anxiety, depression and somatic complaints (e.g., Baumrind 1991 ; Hoeve et al. 2008 ; Lamborn et al. 1991 ; Steinberg et al. 1994 ).

Baumrind’s typology (1966) was initially determined on theoretical grounds, although with time she did conduct empirical validation research (1967, 1971, 1989, 1991). Nonetheless, the empirical studies always started with parenting styles that were predefined in a prototypical score profile in terms of minimum or maximum limit scores (e.g., scores above or below the median) on the different parenting practices; thus parents were first classified using cut–off scores for these predefined parenting styles and afterwards associations with child developmental outcomes were examined. However, such a confirmatory approach is not preferred to investigate parenting styles types (Mandara 2003 ) as it does not allow the identification of the naturally occurring typology, because people are actually forced into some predefined category defined on theoretical grounds. To empirically identify typologies in a certain population an exploratory clustering approach is needed (Everitt et al. 2001 ; Mandara 2003 ). Such clustering methods entail that persons are assessed on different variables (e.g., parenting practices) and patterns that naturally occur in the data are identified. Persons with a similar score profile are classified in the same cluster and those with distinctly different profile scores are classified into other clusters; with the number of clusters and associated score profiles being unknown a priori. The literature shows that researchers started to adopt such clustering methods in research into parenting styles about 15 to 20 years ago (Aunola et al. 2000 ; Beato et al. 2016 ; Brenner andand Fox 1999 ; Carlson and Tanner 2006 ; Chaudhuri et al. 2009 ; Dwairy et al. 2006 ; Gorman-Smith et al. 2000 ; Heberle et al. 2015 ; Hoeve et al. 2008 ; Lee et al. 2006 ; Mandara and Murray 2002 ; Martin et al. 2007 ; McGroder 2000 ; McKinney and Renk 2008 ; Meteyer and Perry-Jenkins 2009 ; Metsäpelto and Pulkkinen 2003 ; Pereira et al. 2008 ; Russell et al. 1998 ; Shucksmith et al. 1995 ; Tam and Lam 2004 ; van der Horst and Sleddens 2017 ; Wolfradt et al. 2003 ). These studies have generally identified three or four parenting styles that resemble the initial theoretical parenting styles.

Although Baumrind’s typology has greatly influenced parenting research, two issues have largely been overlooked in the existing knowledge. A first issue relates to the psychological control dimension which is currently considered the third parenting dimension. Initially, Baumrind paid little attention to the role of psychological control because her control dimension solely referred to parental socializing practices aimed at integrating the child in the family and society (Darling and Steinberg 1993 ). In her later work (1971, 1989, 1991), Baumrind did incorporate aspects of psychological control but the confirmatory nature of that research (cf. using predefined clusters) makes it impossible to determine which parenting styles would naturally evolve when psychological control would be taken into account. Empirical studies have also rarely explicitly included parental psychological control when modeling parenting styles. So far, the limited research including psychological control indices (e.g., Pereira et al. 2008 ; Wolfradt et al. 2003 ) has mostly identified four parenting styles that match the theoretically distinct styles. Within these parenting styles psychological control coincided with behavioral control levels in the authoritarian parenting style, yet cumulative knowledge remains too limited to draw firm conclusions.

A second issue is that existing research provides little insight into the coexistence of maternal and paternal parenting styles and their joint impact on child development. Although Baumrind included both parents in her studies, she assigned a (pre-defined) parenting style to each one separately. In some studies (1991), data was limited to mothers if both parents were assigned a different parenting style; in others (1971) families were entirely excluded in such instances. Not only Baumrind, but research on parenting styles in general has paid less attention to the impact of joint parenting styles on child development (Martin et al. 2007 ; McKinney and Renk 2008 ; Simons and Conger 2007 ), but has mainly focused on the unique, differential or interaction effects of maternal and paternal parenting styles adopting a variable-oriented perspective (e.g., Beato et al. 2016 ; Miranda et al. 2016 ). Children in two-parent households are influenced by the combined practices of both parents (Martin et al. 2007 ); and some studies have clearly shown that mothers and fathers can differ in their parenting style (Conrade and Ho 2001 ; McKinney and Renk 2008 ; Russell et al. 1998 ). Considering how the parenting styles of both parents cluster together, therefore, aligns more closely with the real experiences of children growing up in two-parent households. Only such an approach can shed light onto possible additive and compensatory effects (Martin et al. 2007 ). For example, Simons and Conger ( 2007 ) found evidence for an additive effect as having two authoritative parents was associated with the most favorable outcomes in adolescents, as well as a compensatory effect where one parent’s authoritative parenting style generally buffered the less effective parenting style of the other parent. Similarly, McKinney and Renk ( 2008 ) suggested that in late adolescence perceiving one parent as authoritative while the other parent has a different parenting style, partly buffered for emotional adjustment problems.

Only two studies have simultaneously clustered maternal and paternal practices into joint parenting styles and examined how they are associated with child development (for other approaches, see Martin et al. 2007 ; Simons and Conger 2007 ; Steinberg et al. 1994 ). Meteyer and Perry-Jenkins ( 2009 ) modeled the warmth and dysfunctional discipline practices of both parents resulting in three parenting styles that aligned with Baumrind’s typology, namely supportive parents (i.e., similar to Baumrind’s authoritative style), mixed–supportive parents (i.e., mother’s parenting style is similar to Baumrind’s ‘good enough parenting’–style and father’s to Baumrind’s authoritarian style) and non–supportive parents (i.e., similar to Baumrinds’ authoritarian style). Although insightful, this study did not incorporate aspects of psychological control; was limited to early elementary school children (6– to 7– year olds); and was based on a rather small sample size (85 families). McKinney and Renk ( 2008 ) identified four joint parenting styles in their cluster analyses using late adolescents’ (18–22 years) reports of authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting: congruent authoritative (i.e., an authoritative parenting style by both parents), congruent authoritarian (i.e., an authoritarian parenting style by both parents), an authoritarian father–authoritative mother combination, and a permissive father–authoritarian mother combination. This study used ratings of parenting styles as input for cluster analysis leaving the role of separate parenting dimensions unclear.

We aimed to extend the existing research on the well-known parenting styles concept by identifying joint parenting styles in an exploratory manner using data on three major parenting dimensions (i.e., support, behavioral control and psychological control) and their associations with child behavioral outcomes in a large sample of mothers and fathers raising elementary school children. In particular, we first examined whether the configuration of exploratory identified parenting styles differed when the – often neglected – psychological control dimension was considered in addition to the support and behavioral control dimensions. Secondly, we identified how parenting practices of mothers and fathers clustered together into joint parenting styles. We were particularly interested in exploring whether similarity or dissimilarity would depict the joint parenting styles. Incongruence could be expected from attachment or gender theories that particularly stress differences between parents’ roles, while assortative or socialization processes could result in highly congruent parenting styles. Thirdly, we associated these joint parenting styles to child behavioral outcomes. For incongruent parenting styles, we particularly examined whether the different parenting styles may buffer each other’s impact on child outcomes. For congruent parenting styles, we looked at additive effects in which parents’ (very) similar styles may reinforce each other’s impact on child outcomes.

Participants

Participants were 600 Flemish families with an elementary-school child (301 boys; 299 girls). The children’s age ranged from 8 to 10 years ( M =  9.27, SD  = 0.83). For 556 children both parents participated, while for the remaining children only the mother ( n  = 40) or father ( n  = 4) took part in the study. The participating mothers and fathers were on average 38.09 ( SD  = 4.00) and 40.39 years old ( SD  = 4.85), respectively. Most parents received 12 to 15 years of education. The vast majority of children (92%) were of Belgian origin (i.e., children and both parents born in Belgium). The remaining children mostly originated from another European country ( n =  28); a limited number had an African ( n  = 7), US ( n  = 4), Middle East ( n =  1), Asian ( n =  1) or unknown origin ( n  = 7). Most children (84%) lived in traditional two-parent families with married biological parents; others belonged to a blended family (5%), a household with shared custody (2%), or a single-parent household (9%). In this study, we focused on the subsample of families for which both parents consented to participate. Of the initial 556 families, data were available for a final sample of 527 families due to some non-response.

We used data on parenting collected in a Flemish large-scale study on social determinants of child psychosocial functioning including three cohorts: 8–, 9– and 10– year olds. To safeguard representativeness, a two-stage proportional stratified random sample of elementary school children enrolled in mainstream Flemish schools was drawn. In a first stage, 195 Flemish schools were randomly selected taking into account the distribution of schools across the five Flemish provinces and the Brussels region of which 55 schools agreed to participate. In a second stage, 913 children (2nd to 4th grade) were randomly selected within the participating schools. Parents received an introductory letter and consent form via the teachers. Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained for 600 families with both parents participating for 556 children. We used information on parenting practices collected from both parents. The parents received their questionnaires via the teacher during the second trimester and were asked to complete them individually and independently of each other. Given that 583 mothers (98%), and 538 fathers (96%) actually completed the questionnaire, non-response was fairly low.

Parental behavioral control

Parental behavioral control was operationalized via 19 items of the subscales Rules (8 items; α mother  = 0.79; α father  = 0.82)), Discipline (6 items; α mother  = 0.78; α father  = 0.80) and Harsh Punishment (5 items; α mother  = 0.76; α father  = 0.80) of the Ghent Parental Behavior Scale (Van Leeuwen and Vermulst 2004 ). Each item was scored on a 5–point Likert scale from 1 = never true to 5 = always true. The subscale Rules reflects the extent to which parents provide rules for their children’s behavior (e.g., “I teach my child that it is important to behave properly”; “I teach my child to obey rules”). The subscale Discipline pertains to effective punishments after unwanted behavior (e.g., ‘…taking away something nice’; ‘… give him/her a chore for punishment); whereas the subscale Harsh Punishment points towards parental physical punishment when children misbehave (e.g., “I slap my child in the face when he/she misbehaves”; “I spank my child when he/she doesn’t obey rules”; “I shake my child when we have a fight”). We included multiple subscales to represent the multidimensional nature of the behavioral control dimension, as demonstrated by others (Van Leeuwen and Vermulst 2004 ). In addition, we consider aspects of adequate (i.e., subscales Rules and Discipline) and inadequate behavioral control (i.e., subscale Harsh Punishment) in this study, given the differential association with child outcomes. While the first has been linked to positive child development, the latter has commonly been associated with negative child outcomes. Correlations between maternal and paternal reports were moderate for the subscales Rules ( r  = .31; p <  .001) and Discipline ( r  = 0.47; p <  0.001), but strong for the subscale Harsh Punishment ( r  = 0.52; p <  0.001). Within each parent, weak-to-moderate positive correlations were found between the subscales Rules and Discipline ( r mother  = 0.32; r father  = 0.26; p <  0.001); weak positive correlations between the subscales Discipline and Harsh Punishment ( r mother  = 0.22; r father  = 0.22; p <  0.001); and small negative correlations between the subscales Rules and Harsh Punishment ( r mother  = −0.14, p  = 0.009; r father  = −0.11; p =  0.001).

Parental support

Parental support was operationalized by 11 items (1 = never true to 5 = always true) of the subscale Positive Parenting of the Ghent Parental Behavior Scale (Van Leeuwen and Vermulst 2004 ). This subscale (α mother  = 0.85; α father  = 0.88) pertains to parental involvement, positive reinforcement and problem solving (e.g., “I make time to listen to my child, when he/she wants to tell me something”; “I give my child a compliment, hug, or a tap on the shoulder as a reward for good behavior”). Maternal and paternal reports were moderately correlated ( r  = 0.35, p <  0.001).

Parental psychological control

Parents assessed their own psychologically controlling behavior by means of a Dutch version of the Psychological Control Scale (Barber 1996 ; Kuppens et al. 2009a ) via a 5–point Likert scale from 1 = never true to 5 = always true. This scale (α mother  = 0.70; α father =  0.71) included 8 items pertaining to invalidating feelings, constraining verbal expressions, personal attack, and love withdrawal (e.g., “I am less friendly with my child when (s)he doesn’t see things my way”; “If my child has hurt my feelings, I don’t speak to him/her until (s)he pleases me again”; “I change the subject when my child has something to say”). Correlations between maternal and paternal reports were moderate ( r  = 0.32, p <  0.001).

Child behavioral outcomes

Both parents completed the 20-item Dutch Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; van Widenfelt et al. 2003 ) using a 3–point scale in order to assess child psychosocial behavior (0 = not true to 2 = certainly true). Externalizing problems were operationalized via the subscales Conduct Problems (5 items; α mother  = .60; α father  = 0.61) and Hyperactivity (5 items; α mother =  0.80; α father  = 0.76), while internalizing problems were reflected by the subscale Emotional Symptoms (5 items; α mother =  0.73; α father  = 0.72). We also included the subscale on Prosocial Behavior (5 items; α mother =  0.67; α father  = 0.64). Because high correlations ( r =  0.54–0.71; p <  0.001) between mother and father reports was obtained, an average parental score was created for each subscale.

Data Analyses

To identify joint parenting styles, we conducted cluster analysis in MATLAB. Cluster analysis is an overarching term for procedures used to identify groups or clusters of individuals based on their scores on a number of variables (Everitt et al. 2001 ). Greater similarity emerges between individuals of the same cluster (or who lie geometrically closer according to some distance measure) than between individuals from different clusters (Steinly and Brusco 2011 ). We first ran a cluster analysis based on the four parenting subscales of mothers and fathers (i.e., eight variables as input) that reflect parental support and parental behavioral control to identify joint parenting styles based on these two parenting dimensions (i.e., without considering parental psychological control). To gain insight into the role of parental psychological control in identifying joint parenting styles, we subsequently conducted a cluster analysis on all five parenting subscales of mothers and fathers (i.e., ten variables as input) representing the three parenting dimensions.

We used the conceptual framework of Milligan for a stepwise implementation of cluster analysis (Steinly & Brusco 2011 ) by (1) determining the observations to be clustered; (2) selecting the variables to be included in the clustering procedure; (3) determining whether and how the selected variables should be standardized; (4) selecting a cluster algorithm and association measure (e.g., a distance measure); (5) determining the number of clusters; and (6) validating clustering (i.e., interpretation, testing, and replication). During steps 1 through 3, we performed analyses on the sum scores of the different parenting subscales which were standardized to give each variable equal weight in the analysis. In step 4, we chose Mac Queens K–means cluster algorithm which aims to identify K –clusters with the largest possible between–cluster differences and the smallest possible within–cluster differences (Everitt et al. 2001 ), while the value of K is specified by the user. K-means consists of a reallocation procedure by which persons, starting from an initial random or rational clustering, are reallocated in clusters as long as this yields a decrease in the loss function (i.e., sum of squared Euclidean distance from the corresponding cluster mean). Because the resulting clustering strongly depends on the initial clustering (Steinley 2003 ), we used 1000 random starts and retained the clustering with the lowest loss function value. To determine the optimal number of clusters in step 5, or in other words to define the value of K , we used the CHull procedure (Ceulemans and Kiers 2006 ; Wilderjans et al. 2013 ). CHull is an automated model selection procedure that scans a complexity versus fit plot to find the model with the best complexity versus fit balance. Applied to K-means clustering, this means that we look for the model after which allowing for additional clusters does not substantially decrease the loss function. To interpret the resulting clusters (step 6), we visually inspected the pattern emerging in the cluster profile plots. When comparing the cluster-specific profile scores between parents, we focused on the position of the corresponding profile scores compared to zero (i.e., the standardized mean of the sample) and differences in its substantial interpretation. For example, the terms above and below average mean that a parent scores higher or lower than the standardized mean of the sample.

To assess the validity of the empirically identified joint parenting styles representing all parenting dimensions, we examined their association with child behavioral outcomes via four analyses of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS Version 23 with the SDQ-subscales as dependent variables and the identified joint parenting styles based on the three parenting dimensions as the independent variable. Analyses of residuals did not reveal meaningful violations of model assumptions.

In the following sections, the empirically identified joint parenting styles based on the four subscales reflecting the two parenting dimensions ‘support’ and ‘behavioral control’ are first presented; followed by the results of analyses also considering ‘parental psychological control’ as input behavior. We end with linking the identified joint parenting styles based on three parenting dimensions to child behavioral outcomes.

Clusters with Two Parenting Dimensions

In a first step, we conducted a K –means cluster analysis on the maternal and paternal ratings only using the four parental support and behavioral support subscales for each parent (i.e., eight variables) as input, representing the two parenting dimensions. The analysis was conducted for 1 to 8 clusters each with a 1000 random starts. The corresponding number of clusters versus loss function plot is shown in Fig. ​ Fig.1. 1 . Applying the CHull procedure to this plot pointed towards a solution with four clusters.

Number of clusters vs. loss function plots for the cluster analyses based on the two parenting dimensions (left) and on the three parenting dimensions (right)

Parents belonging to the first cluster (Fig. ​ (Fig.2) 2 ) scored above average on positive parenting, rules and discipline; and scored below average on harsh punishment. A visual inspection of the cluster plot did not reveal notable differences between mothers and fathers. These parents show warmth and involvement in their interaction with their child, but at the same time set clear rules and expectations for children’s behavior. They also discipline the child’s undesirable behavior, but rarely use strict physical punishment when doing so. Because these parents demonstrate elevated support and (adequate) behavioral control levels, we labeled this parenting style as the congruent authoritative parenting style.

Cluster profiles of the analysis based on two parenting dimensions

Parents belonging to the second cluster (Fig. ​ (Fig.2) 2 ) also scored above average on positive parenting and rules, but clearly below average on effective (subscale Discipline) and harsh disciplining (subscale Harsh Punishment). Based on a visual inspection, levels of positive parenting and providing rules of mothers seemed somewhat higher, while effective discipline was somewhat lower compared to fathers, but the substantive interpretation was similar across parents. These parents show warmth and involvement in their parenting while also setting clear rules for children’s behavior, yet they hardly discipline their child in any manner after showing unwanted behavior. Because these parents showed elevated support levels combined with aspects of behavioral control that focus on promoting desired behavior (instead of discouraging unwanted behavior), we labeled this cluster as the congruent positive authoritative parenting style.

The third cluster (Fig. ​ (Fig.2) 2 ) included parents who scored clearly above average on harsh punishment, above average on discipline, and below average on positive parenting and rules; without any notable visual differences between mothers and fathers. These parents are therefore less warm and involved in the relationship with their child. Their parenting is particularly characterized by strict physical punishment following unwanted behavior, without setting clear rules for their children’s behavior. This cluster reflected the congruent authoritarian parenting style .

A fourth cluster (Fig. ​ (Fig.2) 2 ) was identified that yielded below average scores for both parents on all subscales; without salient visual differences between mothers and fathers. These parents do not show marked warmth and involvement with their child, and also do not prominently provide rules or discipline unwanted behavior. Because these parents demonstrated below average scores on both dimensions, we labeled this cluster as a congruent uninvolved parenting style.

Clusters with Three Parenting Dimensions

In a second step, we performed the same K –means cluster analysis, but now psychological control was included as a third parenting dimension. The analysis was again conducted for 1 to 8 clusters each time using 1000 random starts. Applying the CHull procedure to the number of clusters versus loss function plot (Fig. ​ (Fig.1) 1 ) pointed toward a solution with 2 or 3 clusters. However, to enable comparisons between the cluster solution based on the two parenting dimensions, we again selected the solution with four clusters of which the cluster profiles are visualized in Fig. ​ Fig.3 3 .

Cluster profiles of the analysis based on three parenting dimensions

When comparing both cluster solutions, a remarkable similarity in the cluster profiles was observed with the cluster scores on parental psychological control for the congruent authoritative, congruent positive authoritative and congruent authoritarian parenting styles covarying with scores on harsh punishment. These three clusters could thus be interpreted and labeled in a similar manner as earlier. For the congruent uninvolved parenting styles, the pattern for parental support and behavioral control remained fairly unchanged, but both showed slightly above-average psychological control scores. It seems that these parents are thus less supportive and behavioral controlling, yet showing somewhat elevated levels of psychologically intrusive practices. As such, we relabeled the congruent uninvolved cluster as a congruent intrusive parenting style. Adding the psychological control dimension slightly enlarged the differences between the scores of mothers and fathers within each parenting style, but the substantive interpretation remained similar across parents

Given the substantial similarity in emerging parenting styles after including two or three parenting dimensions, we computed the agreement in classification of the corresponding parents. Analyses revealed that parents were generally assigned to the same parenting style if psychological control was taken into account, (Cramer’s V  = .87). Note that the agreement was substantial regardless of the retained number of clusters (2 clusters: V =  .77; 3 clusters: V =  .86; 5 clusters: V =  .83; 6 clusters: V =  .69; 7 clusters: V =  .68; 8 clusters: V =  .65).

Parenting Styles and Child Behavioral Outcomes

The four joint parenting styles were associated to significantly different behavioral outcomes: Prosocial Behavior [ F (3, 520) = 20.15, p <  0.001, R 2 = 0.10]; Hyperactivity [ F (3, 520) = 12.98, p <  0.001, R 2 =  0.07]; Emotional Symptoms [ F (3, 520) = 3.77, p =  .011, R 2 = 0.02]; and Conduct Problems [ F (3, 520) = 20.15, p <  0.001, R 2 = 0.10]. The mean subscale score per joint parenting style are presented in Fig. ​ Fig.4. 4 . To gain more insight into the nature of the differences, pairwise contrasts (Tukey–Kramer) were computed for each ANOVA.

Mean subscale scores on child behavioral outcomes per parenting style

For each child behavioral outcome, a significant difference ( p  < 0.05) was established between the congruent authoritarian parenting style and at least one other parenting style. Children of authoritarian parents demonstrated more negative (i.e., hyperactivity, conduct problems, emotional symptoms) and less positive (i.e., prosocial behavior) child outcomes compared to children whose parents belonged to another parenting style. For conduct problems, the associated standardized mean difference involving authoritarian parents was most pronounced compared to positive authoritative parents ( d =  1.06, p <  0.001), whereas a medium difference (range d =  0.67 – 0.73, p <  .001) with the authoritative and intrusive parenting styles was found. Similarly, for hyperactivity standardized mean differences involving authoritarian parents were large ( d =  0.85, p <  0.001) compared to positive authoritative parents; and medium (range d =  0.60 – 0.63, p <  0.001) compared to authoritative and intrusive parents. Standardized mean differences involving authoritarian parents were large (range d =  0.83–0.93, p <  0.001) for prosocial behavior, but only a small difference ( d =  0.37, p =  0.031) with the intrusive parenting style emerged. Standardized mean differences for emotional symptoms between the authoritarian parenting style were small in magnitude (range d =  0.40 – 0.43, p <  0.05), except for a non-significant ( d =  0.28, p =  0.159) difference with the intrusive parenting style.

In addition, the congruent positive authoritative parenting style yielded significantly lower conduct problem levels in children (range d =  0.33 – 0.39, p <  0.05) compared to authoritative and intrusive parents. In contrast, significantly less prosocial child behavior (range d =  0.46–0.56, p ≤  0.001) was found for the congruent intrusive parenting style compared to (positive) authoritative parents.

With this study, we aimed to add to the parenting styles literature by identifying empirically derived joint parenting styles based on data regarding the three major parenting dimensions as perceived by both mothers and fathers raising elementary school children. These resulting joint parenting styles were subsequently associated with child behavioral outcomes. As highlighted in the introduction, the commonly used parenting typologies have a theoretical underpinning, although empirical studies have generally identified three or four similar parenting styles. Our empirically derived parenting styles based on the two parenting dimensions Support and Behavioral Control bear resemblance to the initial authoritative, authoritarian, and neglectful parenting styles, yet some differences also emerged.

The authoritative parenting style was further broken down into a disciplinary and non-disciplinary subtype. Similarly, although differences between parents within each parenting style were minor, they were more pronounced for the non-disciplinary than for the disciplinary control strategies. These findings highlight that all parenting practices aimed at controlling, managing or regulating child behavior are not necessarily simultaneously used by the same parent, suggesting that considering a variety of parenting practices is crucial to identifying naturally occurring parenting substyles. Some parents seem to provide clear rules, guidelines and expectations for child behavior, but hardly have deviant child behavior followed by an effective disciplinary strategy. One subgroup appears to reflect parents that mostly adopt positive parenting practices (i.e., high support, high rule setting), whereas another subgroup uses a combination of positive (i.e., high support, high rule setting) and negative (i.e., high effective discipline) parenting practices. The latter closely resembles the authoritative parenting style as originally defined (Baumrind 1966 , 1967 , 1971 ), while the former clustering aligns more with a second–order positive dimension obtained in research adopting a variable–oriented approach (Van Leeuwen et al. 2004 ).

In this study, the positive dimension tapped into parenting practices such as parental involvement, positive reinforcement, rule setting, and autonomy–stimulating behavior, while the negative dimensions pertained to negatively controlling efforts such as effective discipline, ignoring or harsh punishment following children’s unwanted behavior. In the uninvolved parenting style, parenting practices bear a resemblance to the neglectful parenting style given the below average scores on all subscales suggesting that parents show less warmth, place fewer restraints on and display little monitoring of children’s behavior. However, we did not identify extreme low scores on parenting dimensions that would suggest a truly neglectful parenting style as originally defined; thus an uninvolved parenting style seems a more appropriate label. Although parent self-reports could overestimate scores of positive parenting and underestimate scores of negative parenting due to social desirability bias, it should be noted that a previous study using adolescent reports also did not find extreme scores for the parenting style clusters (McKinney and Renk 2008 ).

We were not able to empirically identify the originally proposed permissive parenting style reflecting parents that are very loving, warm and involved (high support), yet have relatively few rules for children’s behavior and hardly discipline (low behavioral control). This finding diverges from some previous empirical studies in which the latter parenting style did emerge using an a theoretical (Aunola et al. 2000 ; Carlson and Tanner 2006 ; Shucksmith et al. 1995 ; Wolfradt et al. 2003 ) or empirical clustering approach (McKinney and Renk 2008 ). Our operationalization of the support dimension via the positive parenting subscale of the Ghent Parental Behavior Scale could underlie this divergent finding, because the subscale does not only pertain to warm and responsive parenting practices, but also includes items on problem solving. In contrast to other studies tapping only into warmth and responsiveness, lower scores on solving problems together with the child can attenuate overall scores on parental support. As a result, the pronounced scores on parental support which typify a permissive parenting style may have been somewhat masked in the present study. Alternatively, the parent self-reports may not accurately reflect their actual parenting practices due to a social desirability bias, hampering the identification of the permissive parenting style.

Regarding the role of psychological control in empirically deriving parenting styles, cluster analyses revealed a very similar configuration with four parenting styles when parental psychological control was taken into account. Thus, its addition did not lead to the identification of additional parenting styles, but the third parenting dimension did enhance our understanding. Results clearly pointed toward a substantial overlap between parental psychological control and parental harsh punishment for the congruent authoritarian, authoritative and positive authoritative parenting styles. This finding coincides with research suggesting that inadequate behavior control (e.g., physical punishment) and psychological control by parents are correlated, whereas parental psychological control and adequate behavioral control are considered orthogonal dimensions (Barber 1996 ; Gray andand Steinberg 1999 ; Steinberg 1990 ). For example, Pettit et al. ( 2001 ) found that parental psychological control was preceded in adolescence by harsh, restrictive disciplinary parenting during childhood. Barber and Harmon ( 2002 ) have further argued that parental psychological control may be a marker of a hostile and dysfunctional parent – child relationship, including the use of harsh disciplinary parenting practices.

For the congruent uninvolved parenting style, including parental psychological control actually led to an improved understanding of the previously considered uninvolved parents. As it turned out these parents did use psychologically controlling strategies to some extent, regardless of their lower levels on the other parenting dimension. This pattern could mean that in the parents–child relationship these parents are not so much concerned with the child and their behavior, but with manipulating children’s thoughts, emotions, and feelings to fit their own. It is commonly recognized that by using psychologically controlling strategies, parents intrude into children’s ‘psychological world’, exert parental authority over the children’s own life, and intervene in the individuation process (Barber and Xia 2013 ; Steinberg 2005 ). A recent study by Zhang et al. ( 2015 ) also demonstrated that parental psychological control indeed positively correlated with parent–centered intentions, implying that parents intend to satisfy their own needs by applying controlling behaviors with their children.

Several theories point towards differences in parenting between mother and father (McKinney and Renk 2008 ). For example, psychoanalytic theory argues that mothers are children’s primary attachment figure whereas a greater distance between fathers and their children occurs; the gender and role theory link differences in child rearing to male and female characteristics (e.g., expressiveness and instrumentality) with the traditional mother role as caring figures and fathers taking on the role of authority figure and family provider. The literature also indicates that differences in parenting between mothers and fathers may arise if one parent wants to compensate for the other parent (Meteyer and Perry-Jenkins 2009 ; Simons and Conger 2007 ). Nonetheless, our results revealed more similarities than dissimilarities in the parenting styles of both parents, despite small-to-moderate correlations between mother and father reports. These similarities may reflect an assortative process when choosing a partner, meaning that people tend to look for a partner with similar characteristics (Botwin et al. 1997 ; Buss 1984 , 1985 ; Larsen and Buss 2010 ). Similarity in parenting could also result from socialization processes (Simons and Conger 2007 ); through a process of mutual influence or reciprocity partners gradually form similar views and beliefs on parenting. The slight differences that emerged pertained particularly to a dissimilar position on positive parenting and rule setting. Although less pronounced, this finding aligns with the study by Meteyer and Perry-Jenkins ( 2009 ) that yielded congruent parenting styles for mothers and fathers of 7-year old children, except for a dissimilar position on self-reported parental warmth. Another study using adolescent reports of parenting (McKinney and Renk 2008 ) found more pronounced sex differences. Perhaps sex differences in parenting styles become more apparent as children grow older or when children’s perspectives are considered.

Results on associations between the joint parenting styles and child behavioral outcomes indicated that children of two authoritarian parents showed the poorest behavioral outcomes. These children were perceived as showing significantly more internalizing and externalizing problem behavior and less prosocial behavior compared to children of parents adopting other parenting styles. In contrast, children of two positive authoritative parents demonstrated the lowest levels of conduct problems. These findings could suggest an additive effect in which the impact of similar parenting styles is reinforced as having two authoritarian and two positive authoritative parents was associated with the least and most favorable child behavioral outcomes, respectively.

The obtained associations between parenting styles and child behavioral outcomes partially align with previous research. Firstly, it has repeatedly been demonstrated that an authoritative parenting style coincides most with positive developmental outcomes in children (e.g., Aunola et al. 2000 ; Baumrind 1967 , 1971 , 1989 , 1991 , Darling and Steinberg 1993 ; Dornbusch et al. 1987 ; Lamborn et al. 1991 ; Querido et al. 2002 ; Shucksmith et al. 1995 ; Steinberg et al. 1994 ; Steinberg et al. 1992 ). Our findings confirm this pattern for the children having parents who employ an authoritative parenting style, but children with parents both using a positive authoritative parenting style even showed less conduct problems. This finding could point towards the value of rule setting – in contrast to disciplinary strategies – in preventing behavioral problems. However, as parenting is a reciprocal process with children and parents mutually influencing each other, it is equally likely that parents show less disciplinary strategies simply because their children pose fewer behavior problems as demonstrated by others (Kerr et al. 2012 ; Kuppens et al. 2009b ; Laird et al. 2003 ).

Secondly, previous research has repeatedly linked an authoritarian parenting style with externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in children (e.g., Hoeve et al. 2008 ; Lamborn et al. 1991 ; Steinberg et al. 1994 ; Williams et al. 2009 ; Wolfradt et al. 2003 ). The present findings extend this body of research, although the association was most pronounced for externalizing behavior problems which may be due to children’s age (8 to 10 year olds). In younger children, having authoritarian parents may be more strongly associated with externalizing problem behavior, whereas the association with internalizing problems only emerges as children grow older. The shift in the nature of behavior problems as children age has been linked to the physical, cognitive and social maturation of children and the associated changes in social demands and expectations.

Thirdly, the neglectful parenting style has been associated with the poorest developmental outcomes in children (Baumrind 1991 ; Lamborn et al. 1991 ; Mandara and Murray 2002 ; Shucksmith et al. 1995 ; Steinberg et al. 1994 ). As this parenting style did not emerge in the present study, we were not able to model its association with child outcomes. Even children having parents who were less involved, but intrusive, were doing better than children having authoritarian parents. Findings did reveal that prosocial behavior and conduct problems were significantly lower for children having parents who adopted an intrusive parenting style compared to children of (positive) authoritarian parents. This findings coincides with a growing body of evidence on the deleterious of impact of psychologically controlling parenting in children and adolescents adopting a variable approach (Barber et al. 2005 ; Kuppens et al. 2013 ; Soenens et al. 2012 ), but likewise extends this evidence-base with person-oriented findings on the impact of an intrusive parenting style on child development.

Limitations and Future Research

Although the present study has several merits, it falls short in that only parent self-reports were used to assess parenting and child behavioral outcomes; children’s perspective on their parenting practices may be quite different. For example, Smetana ( 1995 ) found that adolescents perceived their parents as being more permissive and authoritarian compared to parents’ own view on the matter, whereas parents perceived themselves as being more authoritative than their adolescent children. Although a significant convergence between child and parent reports on parenting dimensions has been established in elementary school (Kuppens et al. 2009a ), future research should explicitly take a multiple informant approach when identifying parenting styles as informant perspectives on parenting styles in this age period may differ. In a related vein, multiple informant assessments of child behavioral problems have been shown to be context–specific with differences occurring according to the context (e.g., home, school) that forms the basis for informant’s assessment (Achenbach et al. 1987 ). Involving informants other than parents in the assessment of child behavioral outcomes therefore seems particularly interesting in future research on parenting styles.

Furthermore, inspecting a normally developing sample generally results into a low occurrence of inadequate parenting practices and child behavioral problems. Studying parenting styles in a clinical sample could certainly supplement this view because more variation in parenting practices may yield more or different parenting styles. Hoeve et al. ( 2008 ) have conducted one of the few studies using a sample of children with a high or low risk of antisocial and behavioral problems; and they were able to identify a neglectful parenting style. In addition, the role of parental psychological control in identifying parenting styles may be more pronounced in a clinical sample; an issue that to date remains unresolved.

The present sample closely resembled the population distribution with regard to family composition and paternal educational level, but it was rather homogeneous for ethnicity and mothers were more highly educated. As such, the present findings may not generalize to minority groups or families with less educated mothers; an issue that should be resolved by future studies. For example, previous research has demonstrated that harsh punishment and psychological control are more common among lower SES parents (e.g., Eamon 2001 ; El‐Sheikh et al. 2010 ) and that Caucasian caregivers were more prevalent in an authoritative parenting style cluster (van der Horst and Sleddens 2017 ). The present study clearly complements the scarce body of research on naturally occurring joint parenting styles conducted in US samples, but additional research is needed to replicate these findings. Moreover, as parenting occurs within a cultural belief system that influences attitudes towards particular parenting practices (Durrant et al. 2003 ), cross-cultural research could further clarify the role of culture in identifying naturally occurring (joint) parenting styles incorporating three parenting dimensions. Finally, the cross-sectional associations among joint parenting styles and child outcomes should be complemented by longitudinal research to gain more insight into the directionality of these associations. Longitudinal research covering the entire childhood and adolescence period could also increase our understanding of age-of-child and sex-of parent differences in naturally occurring parenting styles.

Despite these limitations, this study adds to the literature by further empirically validating well-known parenting styles and by increasing our understanding of the role of parental psychological control and joint parenting. The overlap between harsh punishment and parental psychological control in congruent parenting styles and its unique role in the uninvolved parenting style suggests that this intrusive parenting dimension should be routinely considered in practice settings. We also found that adequate behavior controlling practices may be particularly interesting in preventing behavioral problems; and that not only an authoritarian but also a (psychologically) intrusive parenting style can impede upon child development.

Author Contributions

SK: designed and executed the study, conducted part of the data-analysis, and wrote the paper. EC: conducted the cluster analyses, and collaborated in the writing and editing of the final manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the KU Leuven (University of Leuven) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

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Parenting Styles

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

It is a stereotype that, in therapy, all of a person’s problems will be blamed on their parents. That is not the case. But decades of psychological research have suggested that the approach to parenting generally followed by an individual’s mother and/or father can influence the way they approach relationships, challenges, and opportunities. That doesn’t mean that an adult can’t change, of course, especially once they understand what may be influencing their behavior. And parents who become aware of the pitfalls of their own style and how it may affect their kids can also change.

For more on dysfunctional parenting, click here .

On This Page

• What are the four major parenting styles?
• How can a parent’s style predict a child’s future relationships?
• How can mothers and fathers tell what their parenting style is?
• How can parents become more authoritative?
• What is supportive parenting?
• What is attachment parenting?
• How can mothers and fathers transition away from attachment parenting?

Research begun by developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind in the 1960s identified three main parenting styles —authoritarian, indulgent, and authoritative. Later studies added a fourth—neglectful. Every parent does not neatly fit into one of these four categories but they describe the approaches of many.

• An authoritarian parent seeks to maintain a high level of control over their children. They may set and adhere to a strict set of rules, and are more likely to support and take part in corporal punishment such as spanking. Children of highly authoritarian parents may struggle socially and may be likely to become authoritarian parents themselves.
• Neglectful parents (also known as uninvolved or disengaged) take on a limited parenting role. They may not spend as much time as other parents in conversation, play, or other activities, and may not bother to set many house rules. Some children of neglectful parents may resist rules outside of the home and struggle with self-control.
• Indulgent (or permissive) parents may be attentive and warm, but may not set many rules for their children. They may prioritize being their child’s friend over being their parent. Research suggests that the children of permissive parents may show higher levels of creativity but may also feel entitled, and be more interested in taking rather than giving in their own relationships.
• Authoritative parents follow what is widely understood as the preferred approach. Such parents are more pragmatic and flexible. They set clear boundaries but also encourage children’s independence within those limits. Discipline in such families may be more supportive than punitive, and as children get older, their independence increases. Children of authoritative parents may have more highly developed self-control and self-reliance.

Recent research suggests that, in some families, a parent’s style, especially as it relates to maintaining control over their children, could leave their kids vulnerable to emotional abuse from future partners, employers, and and others. Researchers found that people raised with a parent who maintained strict psychological control over them grew to be especially vulnerable to emotionally abusive partners. The effect appeared to be offset, though, by experiencing emotional warmth from the other parent. Research continues to explore the effect of differing parenting styles in the same family, and whether it matters if a mother or father is the authoritarian.

Much research of parenting styles has examined how the styles affect children as they grow up, and how negative effects could be tempered. But other studies have focused on helping parents become more self-aware and change their styles to develop healthier relationships with their kids . Some researchers have developed analytical scales in which parents indicate how they would respond to certain scenarios with an eye toward helping them shift, perhaps through therapy, to a more moderate approach.

In practical terms, most parents do not think of themselves as authoritarian, authoritative, or otherwise, and many mothers and fathers are self-aware enough to know that they may not be consistent with their kids at all times. Experts suggest that attention to some general guidelines can help parents develop a healthier style—for example, being consciously warm and loving toward children, setting age-appropriate limits, actively listening to children’s concerns, gently but firmly asking to be treated with respect, and “catching” kids being good , while making sure they know they’ve been seen and acknowledged.

Supportive parenting describes an approach to authoritative parenting in which mothers and fathers are conscious of how often they say no to children (as they often must, especially when kids are young) so that they can seek more opportunities to say yes to them in encouraging ways that help kids develop confidence and self-esteem. When children are mostly told what they cannot do, they can feel rejected by a parent, even a well-meaning one, with potentially negative emotional outcomes. Being consciously supportive and selfless with children can help them internalize belief in themselves.

Attachment parenting , a term coined by pediatrician William Sears, describes an approach to parenting in which mothers and fathers are physically and emotionally close to their children, especially at an early age, and is characterized in practice by extended periods of breastfeeding and co-sleeping. Sears referred to it as “what mothers and fathers would do instinctively if they were raising their baby on a desert island.” There is little evidence, however, that this approach leads to more positive psychological outcomes for children and many experts reject attachment parenting as unnecessarily demanding of parents and potentially creating conflict and division between new parents.

Parents who commit themselves to attachment parenting and have the time and temperament to maintain the approach throughout early childhood may then be faced with the challenge of weaning their children from the approach. These mothers and fathers may need to consciously practice “ detachment parenting ” so that children entering early adolescence can develop independence and healthy friendships, while resisting feeling rejected themselves as kids begin to resist a parent’s efforts to hold onto their previous level of connection.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Impact of parenting style on early childhood learning: mediating role of parental self-efficacy.

• 1 Department of Education, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming, China
• 2 School of Education, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China

The current study examined the impact of parental style on early childhood learning, as well as the role of parental self-efficacy (PSE) as a mediating factor. In the domains of education and psychology, it is increasingly recognized that parents have a considerable impact on their children’s learning and development. Purposive sampling was used and data was gathered over 3 months from school children’s parents. Hypotheses were tested using smart partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM v3.2.8) software. The findings of the present study reveal that an authoritative parenting style is positively associated with learning outcomes among Chinese students. Moreover, the mediating role of parental self-efficacy has been tested and proved to be a potential mediator between parental style and children’s learning outcomes. High PSE is linked to parents’ adoption of a variety of optimum parenting practices throughout childhood, including maternal sensitivity and responsiveness to children’s needs, warm and affectionate parental behavior, and monitoring. Hence, low PSE has been linked to coercive or harsh parenting as well as a proclivity to give up easily when faced with parental difficulties. In China, further study is needed on the relationship between parenting style, parental self-efficacy, and learning outcome. Future parenting programs could also focus on raising parents’ understanding of the need for both parents’ involvement in expressive activities and mentoring. This could help them boost their parenting self-efficacy even more. Lastly, the implications for parents, children, and teachers are discussed.

Introduction

Recent studies on parental education reveal that researchers have mostly focused on mothers, and while many authors have proposed the systematic inclusion of fathers, few studies have done so ( Giallo et al., 2013 ; Diniz et al., 2021 ). Despite increased acknowledgment of the critical role of fathers play in their children’s growth and learning, research on parental self-efficacy and parental involvement in children’s education has tended to neglect fathers ( Tazouti and Jarlégan, 2019 ). In educational policy and research, the role of parental involvement in children’s education has become a central topic ( Acar et al., 2021 ; Ribeiro et al., 2021 ). In this regard, for enhancing student achievement and eliminating educational disparities, many school reforms include initiatives to promote parental involvement ( Lo et al., 2021 ). The role of family life and parenting styles have a significant impact on the development and maturation of early children. Therefore, parental self-efficacy is typically a goal of programs aimed at improving early life experiences in order to encourage healthy parenting practices. Besides that, parents’ self-efficacy views, according to research may be crucial to the parenting practices. There is an increased sensitivity to learned helplessness and, as a result, a lack of drive to address problems when parents have low self-efficacy ( Qutaiba, 2011 ; Gindrich, 2021 ).

Family involvement refers to parents active participation in a variety of activities and behaviors that encourage their children’s early learning and development. A good example is Head Start school ( Kook and Greenfield, 2021 ). This federal program teaches parents how to work with their children at home, involves parents in early intervention to improve learning outcomes for children (especially those who are poor and underachieving), and provides opportunities for parents to participate in school administration. Obviously, the parent aspect is important to Head Start ( Ma et al., 2016 ). For children’s cognitive and language development, parent involvement in play, learning, and routine home activities is critical ( Tan et al., 2022 ). In this regard, parental involvement in literacy activities such as reading and telling stories is well known to be beneficial to children’s linguistic and cognitive development in the preschool years, as well as long-term academic outcomes. Parent participation, on the other hand, involves a broader range of parent actions than simply reading to children and can include any activity that gives a learning or cognitive stimulation opportunity ( Eijgermans et al., 2022 ).

The role parental involvement is also significant in children’s academic outcomes and have also been related to the provision of educational toys, answering inquiries, and engaging in dialog with them about their experiences. Furthermore, having access to a computer at home and living in a family with a medium to high level of engagement in out-of-home activities such as visiting libraries were linked to optimal developmental outcomes for children ( Le et al., 2021 ). Given the importance of parental involvement in boosting children’s outcomes, it’s not unexpected that there’s been a lot of curiosity about what factors influence the kind and frequency of parents’ involvement in activities with their children. Reduced cognitive stimulation in the home has also been linked to single parenthood and insecure employment ( Martin et al., 2022 ). Even though these results tell us a lot about how economic disadvantage affects parent involvement. Giallo et al. (2013) study reveal that less attention has been paid to the psychosocial characteristics of the parent, child, and family setting that may affect how much time parents spend with their children at home. Based on the above-mentioned literature and gaps there is a need to further explore the impact of various parenting styles on early childhood learning with parental self-efficacy as a mediator. Additionally existing studies have mostly focused on structural or socioeconomic variables, implying that parents with less education who are from a lower socioeconomic standing and are experiencing financial difficulties, are less responsive to their children and provide less learning stimulation. Therefore, the present study focus is to highlight the different parenting styles influence on early childhood learning outcome and how the role of parenting self-efficacy mediates between the two variables.

Research Literature

Supporting theories.

The present study is based on the following theories. According to Bandura’s self-efficacy theory ( Weinberg et al., 1979 ), perceived self-efficacy is a major driver of activity choice, task effort expenditure, and task perseverance in the face of impediments. Self-efficacy, while not the primary predictor of behavior, plays a significant part in people’s decisions about how much effort to put in and how long to keep it up when confronted with stressful conditions ( Clarke-Midura et al., 2019 ; Ran et al., 2022 ).

According to Vygotsky’s social interaction theory, social interaction between the child’s mind and caregiver is a vital key to the child’s cognitive development ( Forman and Cazden, 1986 ). Every parent wishes best for their children, especially when it comes to their intellectual abilities, moral values, and character development. Many parents, on the other hand, are unaware that educating and caring for their children in an overly restricted or overly permissive manner might cause them to lose confidence and ambition to succeed. According to several researchers, the family environment, particularly parenting behavior, influences interpersonal competence and changes in development, including social academic achievement, in teenagers ( Whittaker and Cowley, 2012 ; Shian et al., 2022 ). According to Grolnick and Ryan (1989) , one factor that influences adolescent school competency is the familial environment. The family environment reveals several relationships between parents and children that have an impact on one another, particularly in terms of parental style. In this scenario, the family environment, in the form of parenting style, also provides a learning pattern and facility. Theresya et al. (2018) proposed that a good parenting style creates a positive emotional environment and boosts a child’s self-confidence while learning, which helps the child do better in school.

Parenting Style and Learning Outcome

Early childhood and early school years have long been recognized as crucial to adult well-being and success ( Diniz et al., 2021 ). Education that is developmentally appropriate from an early age leads to better educational outcomes later in life ( Ma et al., 2016 ). Despite the large quantity of studies done in this area, there are major discrepancies in how parents are conceptualized and measured ( Tazouti and Jarlégan, 2019 ). Some academics define parental involvement as involvement in school activities; others define it as parental ambitions for their children; and yet others define it as involvement in their children’s home learning activities. Researchers have recently acknowledged that the concept of parental participation is multidimensional ( Dewi and Indrasa, 2017 ), encompassing a wide range of parental behaviors related to their children’s education. Epstein (1992) defined parental involvement as (1) parent practices that create a positive learning environment at home; (2) parent-school communications about school programs and student progress; (3) parent participation and volunteering at school; (4) parent and school communications about learning activities at home; (5) parent involvement in school decision making and governance; and (6) parent access to a school’s resources ( Catsambis, 2001 ). Parents’ involvement in their children’s education, according to Epstein, is not static. Rather, differences in any of three overlapping domains of influence family, community, or school can alter the forms of parental participation ( Epstein, 1992 ). Based on the previous literature, these variables were studied separately with either father or mother influence on children success. But the objective of present study was to explore the influence of both parents on children’s and how parental self-efficacy leads to better learning outcome ( Zeb et al., 2021 ).

Children’s relationships with their families are critical to their growth ( Popa, 2022 ). Parental child care attitudes are defined by the parents’ warm and caring approach to the child; expectations of the child; communication with the child; and disciplinary attitudes toward them. In family attitudes theory, Diana Baumrind identified three categories of parental attitudes: families that are permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian ( Baumrind, 1968 ). Permissive parents take the strategy of tolerating and endorsing behavior based on the wishes of their children without looking into the causes or grounds of the behavior ( Liu and Guo, 2010 ). Although the child’s behavior is harmful to the environment, it is tolerated, and the parents are powerless to encourage the child to follow the rules. While such parents have greater talents in terms of child care, they have less ability to control their children’s conduct. They give their children too much freedom, lack discipline, and have low expectations of their children ( Verrocchio et al., 2015 ). Furthermore, authoritarian parents use strict rules and constraints formed by an excessive level of authority to control their children’s behavior. For those parents, what matters is that their children follow the rules without questioning them, and that their parents interfere and regulate their children’s behavior without hesitation for the sake of the child. Despite their failures in child care, these parents have the mindset of having the most parental control. They use both verbal and non-verbal (physical) sanctions to penalize the child’s unwanted behavior while failing to appreciate positive behavior ( Song et al., 2022 ).

Moreover, in this parenting style parents place unrealistic expectations on their children ( Ren and Zhu, 2022 ). These are the parents who are the most resistant to change and also make swift decisions. Lastly, with verbal and physical emotions authoritative parents assist their children. They have compassionated and close ties with their children. Those parents approach their children in a more cooperative manner. Their expectations are based on the abilities of their children. Those parents are attempting to mold their children’s cooperative and sensitive behavior. They are aware of their children’s thoughts, feelings, and attitudes, and they treat them with respect ( Liu et al., 2022 ). The norms of authoritative parenting, which are widely regarded as the most ideal kind of parental care and attitudes, are open, obvious, and debatable. Because of its adaptable structure, it can be reconfigured.

The role of these parental attitudes and actions can have an impact on their children’s personality traits and adaption to their surroundings. Growing up in a family with permissive parents might make children selfish. These children are uninterested in other people’s feelings and thoughts. They may be lacking in self-control and have low self-esteem. They could be lacking in social skills. Anxiety, sadness, and uneasiness may be experienced by children of authoritarian parents. When they are furious, they may resort to more physical aggression. Furthermore, they are unable to communicate effectively. They may exhibit a lack of self-assurance. In social situations, they are introverted people who can be confrontational. Children raised by authoritative parents are more capable socially and accept responsibility; they are self-assured, cooperative, pleasant, cheerful, autonomous, socially skillful, and independent ( Önder and Gülay, 2009 ).

With the growing emphasis on early childhood education and school success, it’s more important than ever to understand the development of skills, abilities, knowledge, and behaviors that are particularly important to children. When it comes to defining learning outcomes, there are two ways that are commonly used. One method is to identify and describe desirable learning outcomes for children at various developmental stages using crucial domains of child development. The five domains of learning and development for children in early childhood education and early primary education have been highlighted by the National Education Goals Panel as vital to enhancing human development. Physical well-being and motor development, social and emotional development, and learning approaches (learning styles) that include cultural components of learning, language development, and cognition and general knowledge are among these categories ( Ma et al., 2016 ). The way parents raise their children has a big impact on their development and learning.

In western societies, research has consistently proven that parenting style has a direct relationship with children’s academic achievement ( Luo et al., 2021 ). In general, research shows that children raised by authoritative parents have the best outcomes, whereas children raised by authoritarian or permissive parents have the worst outcomes. A study found that parenting style had a significant impact on children’s self-concept development. The reported level of warmth demonstrated by both their fathers and mothers had a direct relationship with the children’s self-concepts but not with parental permissiveness. Moreover, another previous study discovered that the family style affects the process of acquiring self-efficacy as outlined by Bandura (1986) . According to previous studies focused on western cultures, authoritarian and permissive parenting styles have a negative impact on children’s academic achievement ( Huang and Prochner, 2003 ). Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is constructed as shown below:

H1: Parenting style is positively associated with early childhood learning outcome.

Parental Self-Efficacy and Learning Outcome

Parenthood, while frequently rewarding, is also fraught with stress-inducing obstacles. New parents must deal with the physical and financial demands of caring for a child, as well as the various lifestyle changes that might arise as a result of this additional duty and lead to negative consequences such as strained spousal relationships and social isolation ( Song et al., 2022 ). The emotional cost of parents’ lack of confidence in their capacity to care for their children was noted as a concern for new parents as early as 1986. Once it was found, the idea of being confident in oneself and one’s skills as a parent was called parental self-efficacy, and it was immediately understood within a Bandura (1986) framework.

In the following decades, parental self-efficacy (PSE), which has lately been defined as “parents’ belief in their ability to influence their child in a health and success-promoting manner,” has emerged as a key treatment target for parent and child well-being. Parental self-efficacy has remained relevant in published literature since its inception as such an important clinical emphasis ( Albanese et al., 2019 ). Parental self-efficacy research is based on Bandura’s (1986) self-efficacy theory, which states that one of the major processes influencing behavior is an individual’s conviction in their capacity to effectively complete a task or sequence of activities. As a result, PSE measures a parent’s ability to mobilize the cognitive resources and actions required to exert control over life events. While self-efficacy is defined as a dynamic dimension that varies depending on the task’s needs, external variables, and a person’s previous experiences ( Tazouti and Jarlégan, 2019 ).

A parent’s job is a complex and hard opportunity to support and contribute to a child’s growth and development. In this regard, parental competence is made up of behavioral, affective, and cognitive elements, with parental self-efficacy being a key component. Coleman and Karraker (2000) , for example, reported the following findings: parents with high self-efficacy believe they can effectively and positively influence their children’s development and behavior, and they engage in positive parenting behaviors, are more responsive to their children’s needs, engage in direct interactions with their children, use active coping strategies, and perceive their children to have fewer behavioral problems. On the other hand, for parents who have poor self-efficacy, the opposite is true. Previous literature supported that parent with low self-efficacy, for example, have higher rates of depression, exhibit more defensive and controlling behavior ( Zeb et al., 2021 ), have higher perceptions of child difficulties, report higher stress levels, have a passive parental coping style, place a greater emphasis on relationship problems, show more negative affect, feel helpless in the role of parent, and use punitive disciplinary strategies ( Pelletier and Brent, 2002 ).

Consequently, parents’ involvement in their children’s learning and academic progress is generally beneficial, according to researchers. Greenwood and Hickman (1991) identified a number of studies concentrating on primary school students that found links between parental participation and academic achievement, well-being, attendance, student attitude, homework readiness, grades, and educational goals. The findings revealed that academic achievement, time spent on homework, positive attitudes toward school, and lower rates of high school dropouts are all favorably associated with parental participation ( Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005 ). Several studies have found that parents from higher socioeconomic backgrounds are more involved in their children’s education than parents from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, and that this involvement fosters more positive attitudes toward school, improves homework habits, reduces absenteeism and dropout, and improves academic achievement ( Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996 ). Aside from the high emphasis put on education by Chinese parents, the fierce rivalry for a limited number of spots in higher education has an impact on parents’ parenting behavior. According to prior research performed in China, over 83 percent of parents said they helped their children study in various ways, such as hiring tutors or supervising their children’s homework ( Zhang, 2021 ). In Hong Kong and Taiwan, studies on the relationship between Chinese parenting style and children’s results were also conducted ( Luo et al., 2021 ). In another study, high self-esteem is linked to positive parent-child relationships among Chinese teenagers ( Tan et al., 2022 ). Children who have a poor relationship with their parents, on the other hand, exhibit higher maladjustment and deviant behavior. According to a Taiwanese study ( Huang and Prochner, 2003 ), low achievement motivation and bad learning attitudes were linked to rejecting and inconsistent parents. As a result, the following hypothesis has been developed:

H2: Parental self-efficacy is positively associated with early childhood learning outcome.

Mediating Role of Parental Self-Efficacy Between Parenting Style and Learning Outcome

In the current study parental self- efficacy mediates between the relationship between parenting styles and learning outcome. Parental self-efficacy is another key theoretical construct for understanding influences on parental participation. It is a powerful predictor of parent behavior, with parents who feel more efficacious in their parenting position more likely to engage in parenting actions that are crucial in improving children’s social, emotional, and behavioral development ( Zeb et al., 2021 ). High PSE is linked to parents’ use of a variety of optimal parenting strategies throughout childhood, including maternal sensitivity and responsiveness to children’s needs, warm and affectionate parenting behavior, and monitoring, according to comprehensive descriptive reviews. Low PSE, on the other hand, has been linked to coercive or harsh parenting as well as a proclivity to give up when faced with parental obstacles. While PSE has been associated to increased participation in home learning activities such as reading and helping with homework with older children. Previous research on the relationship between PSE and engagement in play, learning, and home activities with younger children is limited ( Giallo et al., 2013 ).

Parental self-efficacy can have a direct impact on a child’s adaptive ability, but it can also have an indirect impact on a child’s adaptive capacity due to their parents’ engagement behavior. Parents with a high PSE score have fewer negative emotions and are more confident in dealing with challenging parenting situations, which benefits their children’s learning ( Zeb et al., 2021 ). It is critical for children’s development that parents establish a cognitively stimulating home learning environment. According to previous research, PSE moderated the association between parents’ positive perceptions (e.g., individual teacher invitations and general school invitations) and children’s achievement. Parents’ self-efficacy also plays a mediating function in parents’ negative emotions (e.g., parental stress) and parenting practice behaviors, according to previous research, which can help to mitigate the detrimental impact of parents’ emotions on parenting practice behaviors ( Liu et al., 2022 ).

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of parental participation on children’s learning outcomes among Chinese children, as well as the role of parental self-efficacy as a mediating factor. In the domains of education and psychology, it is increasingly recognized that parents have a considerable impact on their children’s learning and development. Academic achievement is very important to Chinese parents, and they expect their children to work hard in class. In this regard, parenting was defined as a series of actions and interactions between a parent and a child that had the potential to affect one another until the child reached adulthood. Parents were figures who played a vital role in the process of parenting, and they were obliged to continue to support and nurture their children’s growth, not just physically but also emotionally ( Dewi and Indrasa, 2017 ). According to Martin and Colbert (1997) , gender, childhood background, and parental beliefs are among the characteristics that can influence the parenting process. Gender influences the parenting process since it is assumed that moms and dads have a closer relationship. Another component determining parenting is childhood background, and the third factor is parental belief. According to Martin and Colbert (1997) , beliefs are the most essential since they influence a parent’s values and behavior. Despite the fact that their confidence originates from nature, and their function as a parent has been influenced by their experiences since childhood, the shape and level of their confidence will change depending on how individuals perceive them ( Martin and Colbert, 1997 ). As a result, the purpose of this study is to look into the impact of parenting style on learning outcomes among Chinese children, as well as the role of parenting self-efficacy as a mediator as presented in Figure 1 . The above literature leads us to hypothesize that:

Figure 1. Conceptual model.

H3: Parenting style is positively associated with Parental self-efficacy.

H4: Parental self-efficacy mediates the relation between parental style and learning outcomes.

Research Methodology

Self-administered questionnaires completed by presents of early child’s school students studied in different school located in China. The purposive sampling was used ( Etikan et al., 2016 ), and data was gathered in 3 months, from January 2022 to March 2022. The data was gathered at a time, and therefore, the study is cross-sectional ( Kesmodel, 2018 ). Author first gets the permission of their school boards and administrators, were used to collect data for this research. After class, students received a packet that included two surveys for their parents, as well as a cover letter. When the cover letter outlined the study’s purpose, to better understand the role of parents in children’s education it asked each parent whether they could complete their own questionnaire without consulting the other. Students returned the completed surveys for their parents to school.

According to G* power software, the minimum sample size necessary for this research is 119 respondents to achieve a power of 0.95 and a medium size effect of 0.15 ( Faul et al., 2007 ). However, the researchers obtained data from 235 parents, exceeding the required sample size. A total of 290 surveys were distributed, and 250 parents returned the survey. After the deletion of incomplete responses, 235 surveys remained useable, representing an 81.03% response rate. The response rate was quite encouraging in the difficult Covid-19 pandemic situation. Out of the 235 parents, 150 mothers and 85 were fathers completed the surveys. Majority of parents age from 35- to 50 years, had a had a degree from a college or university, and household income more than $60,000 to $80,000 United States dollars.

The questionnaire consisted of a total of 58-items, including: a 30-items scale developed by Robinson et al. (1995) was used to measure parental style the independent variable, and a 20-items scale was used for dependent variable children’s learning outcomes adopted from Ajibade et al. (2020) . For the mediating variable parental self-efficacy 8-items scale adopted from Liu and Leighton (2021) . All scale evaluated based on five-point Likert scale, comprising 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (neutral), 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree).

Table 1. Measurement model.

The analysis was conducted with the help of Smart PLS v.3.0 ( Wong, 2013 ). The variables of the survey questionnaire are evaluated and the instrument is made accurate during the first phase of the measurement model. Based on the bootstrapping approach ( T -tests for 5,000 sub- samples), Hair et al. (2017) determined whether or not factor loadings, weights, and path coefficients were statistically significant for each variable. Factor loadings assessments are carried out, as well as Cronbach’s Alpha, Composite Reliability (CR), and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) analyses. The validity of explicit indicator hypotheses may be determined by their factor loadings, which indicate that loadings greater than 0.50 on two or more variables are substantially reflected ( Hair et al., 2011 ). As a result, the three variables and parental style, parental self-efficacy, and learning outcomes all provide valid measurements of their respective variables, as seen in Table 1 . According to Hair et al. (2020) , AVE value is must be greater than 0.5 and the CR and Cronbach’s Alpha are more than 0.6, then variable’s convergent validity is accepted. Hair et al. (2020) developed a strategy for excluding items with factor loadings between 0.40 and 0.70 from assessment if excluding observed variables increases AVE and composite reliability values in reflective scales. Thus, items PS 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 16 for parental style were deleted for the increased of AVE values. By deleting particular items, factor loadings, Cronbach’s Alpha, CR, and AVE calculations will exceed the recommended cut-off values. The Table 1 shows the measurement model that has a convergent validity.

Furthermore, the Henseler et al. (2015) proposed Heterotrait-Monotratit (HTMT) approach was applied. The discriminant validity of the HTMT approach was evaluated in two ways. To begin, the threshold value was determined using HTMT. A value greater than the HTMT threshold value demonstrates the absence of discriminatory validity. The precise HTMT cutoff value is controversial “when the correlation is near to one.” Some researchers have offered a threshold value of 0.85 ( Ab Hamid et al., 2017 ), while others have suggested a value of 0.90 ( Henseler, 2017 ). Second, discriminant validity was assessed and established by examining the confidence intervals around the HTMT values that were less than one. When the value 1 is removed from the interval range, it demonstrates that the variables are empirically clear. According to Table 2 , the HTMT values for all constructs are less than 0.85. As a result, this research accepts discriminating validity.

Table 2. Discriminant validity through Heterotrait-Monotratit (HTMT).

After the measurement model has been calculated, the structural equation model of the observed data is constructed. With the use of bootstrapping technique, we were able to find significant correlations between the variables. We employed the method proposed by Henseler (2017) , to investigate the relationships between the parental style and learning outcomes through mediating role of parental self-efficacy. Therefore, consequently, four particular criteria were utilized to examine the direct and indirect impacts of the structural equation model: To begin, we examine every construct. The degree of R 2 for endogenous latent variables is used to estimate the variance for each construct ( Hair et al., 2017 ). An adequate assessment of R 2 may be conducted depending on the research arrangement ( Cohen, 1988 ). High, medium, and low scores were calculated as follows: 0.26; 0.13; and 0.09. Despite this, the direct effect model in the current study has a 53.5% R 2 value for the endogenous variables of the defined parental self-efficacy, which means that 53.5% of the change in parental self-efficacy is predicted by parental style. Moreover, R 2 value for early childhood learning outcomes is 0.875, which suggests that 87.5% change of learning outcomes is predicted by parental style and parental self-efficacy. Therefore, Table 3 indicate, the model shows a reasonable predictive accuracy.

Table 3. Coefficient of determination in the PLS method.

Secondly, a cross-validation redundancy (Q 2 ) was employed to evaluate the accuracy of the research model in identifying its significant aspects in order to establish predictive significance ( Hair et al., 2017 ). As shown in Table 3 , the direct impacts of each of the above-mentioned factors on early childhood learning outcomes are represented by Q 2 = 0.398 and parental self-efficacy Q 2 = 0.243, which indicates that the value of Q 2 is greater than zero. Hence, the model’s appropriate predictive relevance can be considered ( Henseler et al., 2015 ). The findings also support the direct hypotheses H1 H2 and to H3, the direct effect of parental style on early childhood learning outcomes is positive and significant (β = 0.129, p < 0.001), Furthermore, the direct effect of parental style on parental self-efficacy has positive and significant impact (β = 0.786, p < 0.000) and parental self-efficacy on learning outcomes (β = 0.824, p < 0.000), this suggests that the hypotheses H1, H2 and H3 have been accepted.

In addition, the effect size (f 2 ) is the impact of an independent variable on the dependent variable to estimate the magnitude of an exogenous (independent variable) effect on the endogenous (dependent variable) ( Hair et al., 2017 ). An effect size (f 2 ) estimates between 0.02 and 0.15 or 0.35, according to Cohen (1988) , reflects medium, small and large effects, respectively. Table 4 indicated the effect size as follows: 0.515 for PS to LO, 1.153 PS to PSE and 1.178 PSE to LO. The findings show that these exogenous factors have a medium and large impact on the endogenous variables, respectively. Finally, the Table 4 presented that the indirect mediating effect of parental self-efficacy on the relationship between parental style and learning outcomes is positive and significant (β = 0.648, p < 0.001). Therefore, hypothesis 4 is accepted.

Table 4. Results of the structural equations model.

The current study looked into the effect of parental involvement on early childhood learning outcomes as well as the role of parental self-efficacy in mediating this effect. The academic engagement of students can be influenced by parental actions. Song et al. (2022) looked at how parent participation affected the social and academic functioning. Izzo et al. (1999) used a 3-year longitudinal design to examine several aspects of parent involvement, including the number of educator contacts with parents, the quality of those interactions, parents’ participation in school activities, and parents’ involvement in home activities to help their children develop socially and academically. Tan et al. (2022) studied how these parental involvement variables influenced students’ school engagement, which is particularly relevant to this topic. Students’ engagement was assessed by looking at their attention-getting activities, work habits, task orientation, operating in the face of distractions, frustration tolerance, and ability to cope with failure. Parents’ involvement in school activities was found to be a favorable predictor of student engagement. Surprisingly, higher levels of parent–teacher communication were linked to lower levels of school involvement ( Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005 ). The parent involvement rating scale, parental sense of competence scale, and student assessment of learning gains scale were all employed in the study.

The following hypotheses had to be tested: First, there would be a significant link between parental involvement and learning outcomes. The findings demonstrated a strong, beneficial relationship between parental participation and learning outcomes. Parents who are more involved in their children’s activities at home and at school have higher results. According to research ( Epstein, 1992 ), parental participation is positively associated with children’s achievement and motivation to learn. Previous research has demonstrated the significance of parents’ educational goals for their children. In both primary and secondary schools, high parental ambitions are closely linked to student accomplishment ( Catsambis, 2001 ). Parental participation has been shown to improve students’ math proficiency and accomplishment, as well as advances in reading ability and performance on standardized examinations and academic evaluations. Furthermore, parental involvement has been linked to fewer behavioral issues at school, improved attendance and class preparation, course completion, and decreased dropout rates ( Fan and Williams, 2010 ).

Second, there would be a significant relationship between parental self-efficacy and the learning outcome. The findings demonstrate a positive relationship between parental self-efficacy and learning outcomes. Parental self-efficacy is described as parents’ opinions of their abilities to positively impact their children’s behavior and development in the field of parenting. Parental self-efficacy can be characterized in terms of schooling as parents’ belief that they can have a positive impact on their children’s learning and academic accomplishment. PSE has been connected to parental educational methods, which have been extensively researched. According to previous research, mothers and fathers with strong parental self-efficacy are more involved in their children’s everyday learning and play activities. Several studies have found that when parents have high hopes and expectations for their children, they achieve higher academic achievements and stay in school longer than when their parents have low aspirations and expectations ( Tazouti and Jarlégan, 2019 ).

Third, there would be a significant relationship between parental self-efficacy and parental involvement. According to research, parental self-efficacy is linked to a better knowledge of the role of parents and boosts parents’ monitoring of their children’s schooling. Parental self-efficacy, parental involvement in their children’s education, and academic accomplishment are also linked. PSE also predicts parental involvement and monitoring, which predicts adolescent academic adjustment. Previous research has demonstrated a strong relationship between PSE and parental involvement. Both parents had a deep connection, but the mother’s was stronger. There have been few previous studies that have looked for empirical correlations between these two ideas. According to a prior study, PSE is linked to parents’ knowledge of their role in their children’s education and leads to parents being actively involved in their children’s education ( Tazouti and Jarlégan, 2019 ). Finally, there would be a considerable link between parental involvement and children’s learning outcomes, with parental self-efficacy serving as a mediating factor. The findings are consistent with earlier research. High PSE is linked to parents’ adoption of a variety of optimum parenting practices throughout childhood, including maternal sensitivity and responsiveness to children’s needs, warm and affectionate parental behavior, and monitoring, according to comprehensive descriptive studies. Low PSE, on the other side, has been linked to coercive or harsh parenting, as well as a proclivity to give up easily when faced with parental difficulties ( Giallo et al., 2013 ). According to research, parents that have low parenting self-efficacy experience bad outcomes in their parenting. Low parenting self-efficacy was discovered to have a negative impact on parental behavior toward their children. According to the Indonesian Child Protection Commission ( Setyawan, 2015 ), violence against children in Indonesia has increased over time, with the primary perpetrators being their own parents. The main reason for this was because parents felt they had failed and were no longer capable of caring for their children, so they vented their frustrations by using violence on their children when they made mistakes. In fact, research shows that parents with high parenting self-efficacy view parenting challenges as a challenge rather than a threat, which can lead to them harming their own children. Parental participation has a substantial association with parenting self-efficacy, according to previous study ( Dewi and Indrasa, 2017 ).

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of parental involvement on children’s learning outcomes as well as the role of parental self-efficacy as a mediator. Findings of this study supported our hypothesis of parenting styles, learning outcomes and parental self-efficacy having a significant positive relation. The results revealed that parental participation had a considerable impact on learning outcomes in Chinese students. The study findings also affirm that there is a significant positive relation between parental self-efficacy and learning outcomes. From this study it can be inferred that those students who have parental involvement in their education are more likely to take personal responsibility for their education as compared to others. Besides that, students adopt a mastery goal orientation to learning when their parents show an interest in their child’s education by getting involved. Moreover, those parents who are not aware regarding the needs of students at educational level leads to negative impact on the children’s learning outcome. Therefore, in future studies, more targeted initiatives are needed to help parents develop their knowledge and abilities to give educational support to their children at various stages of schooling. Likewise, programs that promote the parent as teacher model offer the parents a variety of opportunities to learn skills that will help them believe in their own efficacy.

Both parents and teachers will benefit from this research in the future. As a result of this study, parents get understanding and awareness of engaging in activities that result in a more balanced parenting style in order to improve children’s learning outcomes. Moreover, recognizing effective parenting styles can aid in the development of children’s developmental needs, as well as their academic achievement and future professional prospects. Each parenting style has an impact on the social and psychological lives of children. The psychological control is what distinguishes each parenting style from the others. Therefore, it is the responsibility of parents to provide a parental environment and resources that are more conducive to academic success for their children.

The study’s limitations should also be considered because they direct researchers to use these procedures in future research. The current research contributes to a better understanding of the factors that influence children’s learning outcomes. But cross-sectional design of the study is a limitation. Although cross-sectional designs aid in the prediction of relationships, they are unable to capture transitions that may affect the variables’ associations. Therefore, in future researches other methods will be used to further explore these variables.

Theoretical Implications

This study makes an important contribution to the body of literature. According to the previous studies, parental self-efficacy is defined in the field of parenting as parents’ beliefs about their ability to positively influence their children’s behavior and development. Additionally, parental self-efficacy in schooling can be defined as parents’ beliefs that they can have a positive influence on their children’s learning and academic achievement ( Tazouti and Jarlégan, 2019 ). According to previous research, mothers and fathers with strong parental self-efficacy are more involved in their children’s everyday learning and play activities.

Practical Implications

The present study includes several implications. Parental involvement plays a significant role in learning outcome of children at educational level. The findings of this study will be helpful for parents in evaluating their parenting styles. It will provide parents an insight to be more capable and eager to become active if they want to effectively affect their children’s education. Besides that, parents’ experiences such as feeling tired, receiving harsh comments and frequently giving in to children’s demands, are all associated to lower parental self-efficacy. These are the factors that should be consider while providing training and awareness session to the parents. Furthermore, when parents are involved as a resource for academic activities at home, the connection between the school and home environments is strengthened. As a result, the child feels more capable of mastering academic tasks at school. Therefore, parents can help their children learn new content by assisting them in scaffolding new concepts. When children see their parents as role models and trusted learning partners, they are better able to appraise their own talents and performance.

This study will not only prove beneficial that parental support provides a sense of security and comfort in an unpredictable culture as the child strives for growth and self-development. Also, effective when parents are involved, they may establish limits, encourage their children, and provide resources as they face the academic, social, and personal obstacles that each day brings. Moreover, when parents go to parent-teacher conferences, open houses, and other school events, they show that they care about their children.

Understanding social learning theory and how to apply it to self-efficacy development through regulating exposure to sources of influence can be extremely beneficial to practitioners. Furthermore, practitioners can increase local parenting support by adopting practices that are congruent with the establishment of environments rich in positive sources of self-efficacy by developing an awareness of parental self-efficacy experiences in a community. This kind of behavior could affect how parents and children interact with each other and, in turn, how children and communities grow and change over time. Lastly, this research can also support future researches as it provides a new perspective to the relationship between parenting styles, learning outcome and parental self-efficacy among Chinese students.

Limitations

The following are the study’s limitations. First, data from both parents in the family was unavailable, making it unable to run more complicated models involving both parents and make within-family comparisons. More research in this area and the addition of child outcomes would help us learn more about how family relationships affect how children grow and develop. In addition, the sample size was small, limiting the generalizability of the present study.

Future Suggestions

The recommendations for future researchers are listed below. First, the schools can help parents create a welcoming and comfortable learning environment for their children. Besides that, teachers and schools should strengthen their control and warmth with students in order to drive children to improve their academic performance. Second, it is envisaged that future studies will be able to explore the aspects other than the person and their family context that influence learning outcomes, such as peer group and school environment. Third, future research will include qualitative researches with students to go deeper into the subject and also examine the relationship of study variables with demographics.

Moreover, research is needed to determine how mothers’ and fathers’ working hours and employment conditions affect their participation in a variety of play, learning, and caregiving activities with their children. As a result, future parenting programs could focus on raising parents’ understanding of the need for both parents’ involvement in expressive activities and mentoring/advising duties. This could help them boost their parenting self-efficacy even more. Lastly, academic progress is associated to parenting involvement in a significant way. In this context, additional study on parenting styles, learning outcomes, and parental self-efficacy across cultures is needed to examine the differences in parenting styles. Furthermore, the use of a longitudinal study would be beneficial in analyzing changes in people’s perceptions of their parents and different parenting styles over time.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the patients/participants or patients/participants legal guardian/next of kin was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author Contributions

CK wrote the manuscript. FY performed review editing and submission. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the participants of the study for trusting us and sharing their valuable experiences.

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Keywords : parenting style, learning outcome, parental self-efficacy, early childhood, China

Citation: Kong C and Yasmin F (2022) Impact of Parenting Style on Early Childhood Learning: Mediating Role of Parental Self-Efficacy. Front. Psychol. 13:928629. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.928629

Received: 27 April 2022; Accepted: 10 June 2022; Published: 30 June 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Kong and Yasmin. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Fakhra Yasmin, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Parenting in america today, mental health concerns top the list of worries for parents; most say being a parent is harder than they expected.

Pew Research Center conducted this study to better understand how American parents approach parenting. This analysis is based on 3,757 U.S. parents with children under age 18. The data was collected as part of a larger survey of parents with children younger than 18 conducted Sept. 20 to Oct. 2, 2022. Most of the parents who took part are members of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This survey also included an oversample of Black, Hispanic and Asian parents from Ipsos’ KnowledgePanel, another probability-based online survey web panel recruited primarily through national, random sampling of residential addresses.

Address-based sampling ensures that nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Read more about the questions used for this report and the report’s methodology .

Throughout this report, references to parents, including mothers and fathers, include only those who currently have a child younger than age 18.

References to White, Black and Asian adults include only those who are not Hispanic and identify as only one race. Hispanics are of any race.

All references to party affiliation include those who lean toward that party. Republicans include those who identify as Republicans and those who say they lean toward the Republican Party. Democrats include those who identify as Democrats and those who say they lean toward the Democratic Party.

“Middle income” is defined here as two-thirds to double the median annual family income for panelists on the American Trends Panel. “Lower income” falls below that range; “upper income” falls above it. See the methodology for more details.

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and amid reports of a growing youth mental health crisis , four-in-ten U.S. parents with children younger than 18 say they are extremely or very worried that their children might struggle with anxiety or depression at some point. In fact, mental health concerns top the list of parental worries, followed by 35% who are similarly concerned about their children being bullied, according to a new Pew Research Center survey. These items trump parents’ concerns about certain physical threats to their children, the dangers of drugs and alcohol, teen pregnancy and getting in trouble with the police.

By significant margins, mothers are more likely than fathers to worry about most of these things. There are also differences by income and by race and ethnicity, with lower-income and Hispanic parents generally more likely than other parents to worry about their children’s physical safety, teen pregnancy and problems with drugs and alcohol. Black and Hispanic parents are more likely than White and Asian parents to say they are extremely or very worried about their children getting shot or getting in trouble with the police.

(Differences in parental worries, approaches to parenting, and parents’ goals and aspirations are explored in more depth later in this report. The chapters focus on distinctions by gender , race and ethnicity , and income level .)

When asked about their aspirations for their children when they reach adulthood, parents prioritize financial independence and career satisfaction. Roughly nine-in-ten parents say it’s extremely or very important to them that their children be financially independent when they are adults, and the same share say it’s equally important that their children have jobs or careers they enjoy. About four-in-ten (41%) say it’s extremely or very important to them that their children earn a college degree, while smaller shares place a lot of importance on their children eventually becoming parents (20%) and getting married (21%).

There are sharp differences by race and ethnicity when it comes to the importance parents place on their children graduating from college: 70% of Asian parents say this is extremely or very important to them, compared with 57% of Hispanic parents, 51% of Black parents, and just 29% of White parents.

In a nod to the adage about family life that parenting is the hardest job in the world, most parents (62%) say being a parent has been at least somewhat harder than they expected, with about a quarter (26%) saying it’s been a lot harder. This is especially true of mothers, 30% of whom say being a parent has been a lot harder than they expected (compared with 20% of fathers).

At the same time, most parents give themselves high marks for the job they’re doing, with 64% saying they do an excellent or very good job as a parent; 32% say they do a good job, while just 4% say they do an only fair or poor job as a parent. Mothers and fathers give themselves similarly high ratings, but there are differences by income and by race and ethnicity (upper-income and Black and White parents are the most likely to say they do an excellent or very good job).

While a relatively small share of parents place a high level of importance on their own children having children one day, the vast majority – including among mothers and fathers and across income and racial and ethnic groups – describe being a parent as the most (30%) or one of the most (57%) important aspects to who they are as a person. Mothers (35%) are more likely than fathers (24%) to say being a parent is the most important aspect. And Black (42%) and Hispanic (38%) parents are more likely than White (25%) or Asian (24%) parents to say the same.

Related: How Today’s Parents Say Their Approach to Parenting Does – or Doesn’t – Match Their Own Upbringing

These are among the major findings of the nationally representative survey of 3,757 U.S. parents with children younger than 18, conducted Sept. 20-Oct. 2, 2022, using the Center’s  American Trends Panel . 1 Other findings from the survey:

Parents often don’t adhere to a specific parenting style. When asked whether they’re a parent who tends to stick to their guns too much or give in too quickly, praise or criticize their children too much, be overprotective or give too much freedom, and push their children too hard or not hard enough, shares ranging from 34% to 53% say neither option best describes their parenting style. Still, more than four-in-ten parents (45%) say they tend to be overprotective, compared with 20% who say they tend to give too much freedom. And somewhat larger shares say they tend to give in too quickly (35%) rather than stick to their guns too much (30%), praise their children too much (26%) rather than criticize them too much (20%), and not push their children hard enough (30%) rather than push them too hard (25%).

There are wide differences in some of the ways mothers and fathers describe their parenting style. For example, about half of mothers (51%) say they tend to be overprotective, compared with 38% of fathers. In turn, fathers (24%) are more likely than mothers (16%) to say they tend to give their children too much freedom. Mothers are also more likely than fathers to say they tend to give in too quickly (40% vs. 27%, respectively), while fathers are more likely to say they stick to their guns too much (36% vs. 24% of mothers).

Roughly as many parents say they are trying to raise their children in a similar way to how they were raised (43%) as say they are trying to raise them differently (44%). Fathers are more likely to say they are raising their children in a similar way to how they were raised (47%) than to say they are raising them differently (40%). In turn, 48% of mothers say they are trying to raise their children differently from how they were raised, while 40% say they are trying to raise them in a similar way.

There are also differences along racial, ethnic, and income lines. About half (49%) of White parents say they are raising their children in a similar way to how they were raised, compared with 42% of Black parents, 37% of Asian parents and 32% of Hispanic parents. And while 51% of parents with upper incomes say they are trying to raise their children similarly to how they were raised, smaller shares of those with middle (46%) and lower (35%) incomes say the same. (For more on the ways in which parents are trying to raise their children in a similar or different way to how they were raised, see How Today’s Parents Say Their Approach to Parenting Does – or Doesn’t – Match Their Own Upbringing .)

Parents are more likely to say they feel judged by family members than by their friends, other parents in their community or people they interact with online. About half of married or cohabiting parents (52%) say they feel judged by their spouse or partner for how they parent their children at least some of the time, with 18% saying they feel this way always or very often. About four-in-ten or more parents also say they feel judged by their own parents (44%) and their spouse or partner’s parents (41% among those who are married or cohabiting) at least sometimes. Smaller shares say they feel judged at least sometimes by other parents in their community (35%), their friends (29%) or people they interact with on online groups or message boards (25% who offered an answer, excluding those who said this didn’t apply).

Among married and cohabiting parents, fathers are more likely than mothers to say they feel judged by their spouse or partner at least sometimes for how they parent their children, but mothers are more likely than fathers to say they feel judged by people other than their spouse or partner. There are also some differences by race and ethnicity, with Asian parents more likely than other racial or ethnic groups to say they feel judged by their own parents and White parents more likely than other groups to say they feel judged by other parents in their community.

While about half or fewer parents say they regularly feel judged by different groups, a majority of parents (57%) say they think their children’s successes and failures reflect a great deal or a fair amount on the job they’re doing as a parent. About a third (34%) say they reflect some, and just 9% say they do not reflect much or at all on their job as a parent.

The vast majority of parents say being a parent is enjoyable and rewarding all or most of the time, but substantial shares also find it tiring and stressful. About four-in-ten parents (41%) say being a parent is tiring and 29% say it is stressful all or most of the time. Mothers and fathers are about equally likely to say being a parent is enjoyable and rewarding, but larger shares of mothers than fathers say parenting is tiring (47% vs. 34%) and stressful (33% vs. 24%) at least most of the time.

Experiences also vary based on the ages of the children. Parents with children younger than age 5 are more likely than those whose youngest child is 5 or older to say they find parenting to be tiring and stressful. A majority of those with children in the youngest age group (57%) say being a parent is tiring all or most of the time, compared with 39% of those whose youngest child is 5 to 12 years old and 24% of those whose youngest child is a teenager. And while about a third (35%) of those with a child younger than 5 say parenting is stressful all or most of the time, about a quarter of those whose children are all 5 or older say the same.

In thinking about the kind of people they hope their children will be as adults, parents place the most emphasis on their children being honest and ethical. About two-thirds of parents (66%) say it’s extremely important to them that their children grow up to be honest and ethical adults. About half (48%) say the same about their children being hardworking, while about four-in-ten say it’s extremely important to them that their children become the kind of people who are accepting of people who are different from them (42%) and who help others in need (40%). A smaller share (27%) place this level of importance on their children being ambitious as adults. Majorities ranging from 65% to 94% say it is at least very important that their children have each of these traits as adults.

Parents place less importance on their children growing up to have religious or political beliefs that are similar to their own. About a third (35%) say it is extremely or very important to them that their children share their religious beliefs, and 16% say the same about their children’s political beliefs. Republican and Democratic parents are about equally likely to say it’s at least very important to them that their children share their political beliefs.

About four-in-ten Black (40%) and Hispanic (39%) parents say it’s extremely or very important to them that their children share their religious beliefs; 32% each among White and Asian parents say the same. White evangelical Protestant parents (70%) are more likely than White non-evangelical Protestant (29%) and Black Protestant parents (53%) to say it’s very or extremely important to them that their children have religious beliefs that are similar to their own as adults. About a third (35%) of Catholic parents and just 8% of those who are religiously unaffiliated say this.

• The survey includes an oversample of Black, Hispanic and Asian parents. For details, see the Methodology section of the report. ↩

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How today’s parents say their approach to parenting does – or doesn’t – match their own upbringing, k-12 parents differ by party in how frequently they discuss certain national issues with their children, one-in-four u.s. parents say they’ve struggled to afford food or housing in the past year, most k-12 parents say first year of pandemic had a negative effect on their children’s education, parents differ sharply by party over what their k-12 children should learn in school, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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Home / Parenting, Kids & Teens / The 4 types of parenting styles: What style is right for you?

The 4 types of parenting styles: What style is right for you?

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A parent’s job is to prepare their children to be adults who are capable of taking care of themselves and overcoming difficulties. It’s not an easy job. Parents have to set appropriate limits, watch their children fail and let them feel the consequences of their actions. Sometimes parents even endure the harsh screams of “I hate you!” or other painful words.

“I tell parents that it’s OK for your kids to be mad at you and not like you because of the limit you set,” said Hannah L. Mulholland, LICSW, MSW, a Mayo Clinic pediatric social worker. “You’re the best person in the world for them not to like and be mad at because you’re the one person who’s not going to desert them. You’re still going to love them, even when they’re mad at you. But for many parents, the reason they don’t set limits is because they want to be liked.”

Parenting is about supporting children while they make their own mistakes, take on age-appropriate responsibilities, think for themselves and solve their own problems. How you do that is up to you.

For example, you can let your kids choose how and when to do their homework — but also let them know that if they don’t do it, there may be consequences at school. “Let your kid be distressed. Let your kid make mistakes,” Mulholland says. “That’s how they learn.”

Kids who don’t learn might enter the adult world woefully unprepared or even afraid because they don’t know how to have relationships, do their laundry or manage their money. “They get in over their heads because they don’t really know what their own capacity is,” Mulholland says.

4 parenting styles

There are four main parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and neglectful. You don’t have to commit to one style. It’s natural to use different styles in different situations. When safety is at stake, a parent might use a firm authoritarian style that leaves no room for negotiation. But a parent might put consequences on hold and lean into a permissive approach to encourage a teenager to call for help if they put themselves in a dangerous situation.

“As parents, we are all doing the best we can each day,” Mulholland says. “Our intentions are always good, but we struggle to execute depending on our own capacity in the moment. Give yourself a break as a parent and recognize your own limits. All of the advice in this article is for when you are your very best self, not necessarily something you can implement all the time.”

Here’s a look at each of the four styles.

Authoritative parenting style

Authoritative parenting is often considered the ideal style for its combination of warmth and flexibility while still making it clear that the parents are in charge. (3) Children of authoritative parents know what is expected of them. Their parents explain reasons for the rules and consequences for breaking them. Parents also listen to their child’s opinions, but the parent remains the ultimate decision maker.

Authoritative parents develop close, nurturing relationships with their children. Children with authoritative parents tend to grow up confident, responsible and capable of managing their emotions. They are also friendly, curious and achievement-oriented.

What is an example of authoritative parenting style?

One place where parenting style shows is at mealtimes. Authoritative parents have more family meals where the parents model eating behaviors — rather than imposing strict restrictions. The parents will include the children in meal preparation. Perhaps the child will choose what’s for dinner one night a week or choose the side dish. Research shows that children of authoritative mothers have a high quality of diet and eat more fruit than children from different parenting styles.

Permissive parenting style

Permissive parents might pride themselves on being their child’s best friend. These parents are warm and nurturing with open communication. They are actively involved in their children’s emotional well-being. They also have low expectations and use discipline sparingly. Permissive parents let children make their own choices, but also bail them out if it doesn’t go well.

Children of permissive parents have the freedom to make decisions like what to eat, when to go to bed and whether to do their homework. These children tend to have good self-esteem and social skills. But they can be impulsive, demanding and lack the ability to self-regulate. (1) Permissive parents often try to control their child’s environment, so the child doesn’t have to experience rejection or failure. This means the child might enter adulthood unprepared.

What is an example of permissive parenting style?

When it comes to food, permissive parents might have lax rules. They allow the children to choose what they want, even if that means the parents make a special meal. This could lead to picky eating and unhealthy diet choices. Permissive parenting is associated with lower fruit and vegetable intake. It may also result in inexperience in trying new things or going with the flow and difficulty in social settings involving food.

Authoritarian parenting style

Authoritarian parenting uses strict rules, high standards and punishment to regulate the child’s behavior. Authoritarian parents have high expectations and are not flexible on them. The children might not even know a rule is in place until they’re punished for breaking it.

Children of authoritarian parents are good at following instructions and behave well. However, these children might grow up with a fear of punishment and lack experience making their own decisions. As a result, some might become aggressively rebellious, lack social skills and may have difficulty making sound decisions on their own.

What is an example of authoritarian parenting style? 

At mealtimes, authoritarian parents might enforce rules, such as the children eat the same meal as everyone else or finish everything on their plate. However, the family is unlikely to discuss why they eat certain foods and how they fit into their culture or affect a child’s health.

Neglectful parenting style

Neglectful parents fulfill the child’s basic needs, but then pay little attention to the child. These parents tend to offer minimal nurturing and have few expectations or limitations for their child. It’s not always a conscious choice parents make, but can be forced by circumstance, such as the need to work late shifts, single parenting, mental health concerns or overall family troubles.

Children of neglectful parents usually grow up to be resilient and self-sufficient out of necessity. They might have trouble controlling emotions, don’t develop effective coping strategies and they have difficulty maintaining social relationships. They tend to have low self-esteem and might seek out inappropriate role models.

What is an example of neglectful parenting style?

Parents who are uninvolved might not buy groceries or plan meals consistently. That could leave the child concerned about when they will next eat. It can lead them to become preoccupied with food. Children who had neglectful parents often overeat when food is available and may become overweight. But these children often have an easier time leaving home when it’s time.

How do I make sure I don’t mess up my child?

There’s no parenting style that is guaranteed to produce perfectly adjusted children. Nobody’s child is going to go through life universally liked and immune to failure or disappointment. Mulholland says everyone experiences difficulties. “It’s just unrealistic to say that a parenting decision is the reason for that.”

Since children will inevitably go through difficult moments, it’s best to equip them with the ability to bounce back. It helps if kids have had some practice from being allowed to try and fail in a safe environment.

For example, if a child played video games instead of studying, they might do poorly on the test. That’s how they learn that they need to manage their time better. But if you let them stay home “sick” to get an extra day to study, they won’t have learned a lesson.

A lot of parents see their child’s successes or failures as a reflection of themselves as a parent. But it’s the parent’s job to give the child the tools they need, not to control the situation.

“I’m always reminding parents that those aren’t your grades,” Mulholland says. “That’s not your college that they end up going to. That’s on them. You shouldn’t measure your worth as a parent on how successful your children are.”

How can parents change their parenting style?

If you find that your child is having some behavior issues, you might decide you need to adjust your parenting style. Behavior change can be as difficult for parents as it is for kids.

Mulholland recommends thinking back to your own childhood and what worked for you and what didn’t. Some people had parents who were very strict. The child wasn’t allowed to talk at the table and was punished severely. As a result, when they became a parent, they went the other way and became permissive. But perhaps a middle ground would work better. As you reflect on your own parenting, think about why you react the way you do.

If you want to change your parenting style, look into parenting workshops. Many schools or early childhood centers offer classes or can refer you to one. Mulholland also recommends the book, How to Talk So Kids Will Listen & Listen So Kids Will Talk . A mental health therapist can also help you work through issues from your own childhood and find a parenting approach that will work for your family.

Which parenting style is most encouraged?

Authoritative parenting is the most recommended parenting style . The combination of clear communication and age-appropriate standards can lead to emotionally stable adults who can handle themselves in social situations and set goals for themselves.

To take an authoritative approach, parents can:

• Set clear boundaries and communicate them to children.
• Offer children choices and have discussions about what’s appropriate. For example, you can choose which pajamas you want to wear to bed. You cannot wear your winter coat to bed because it will be too warm.
• Listen to and explore their children’s emotional health concerns.
• Frequently express love and affection.

A helpful approach can be to use praise and positive reinforcement to encourage desired behavior. Ignore annoying, but not dangerous, attempts at getting attention, such as banging on a wall or whining. You also can tell children, “I’ll wait and respond to you when you stop whining.”

Another approach is to reward children with something they want. For example, instead of taking away their tablet until they do their homework, use it as a reward. “I’m going to give you your tablet as soon as you’re done with your homework.” That way the tablet is a reinforcer instead of a consequence.

How to set limits for children

A big part of parenting is setting rules and limits for your children. A metaphor from Russell A. Barkley, Ph.D. , suggests thinking of parenting like enclosing a pasture for your sheep. You build a fence and put things the sheep need in the pasture — plus some fun things to play with. Then let the sheep roam around within their limits.

“You don’t tell the sheep ‘You need to only be in this corner.’ Or ‘You need to only eat that type of flower,'” Mulholland explains. “They’re likely to run into the good flowers and eat the good stuff. But you’re also going to have the fence around them. So there’s a limit as to how far they can go.”

The same with children. As the parents, you set the limits and provide children with food to eat and toys to play with. As the children show they’re being responsible and can handle more, you can expand their boundaries.

Setting limits together

As much as you can, decide with your child what your limits are ahead of time. For example, before the start of a new school year, decide on your limits for weekday screen time, after-school snacks or homework rules.

If you’re trying to make rules on the fly, you’re more likely to be inconsistent from day to day. If you decide that the kids get 90 minutes of screen time on a school night, then you can always hold to that, and the kids know what to expect.

If you have a spouse or co-parent, discuss limits together. It’s common for two parents to have different ideas of what’s appropriate, so it’s helpful to set the boundaries together. And whether you live in the same house or not, try to maintain the same basic limits.

“The most important thing is — in front of the child — you 100% have your partner’s back, even if you disagree wholeheartedly with how they approached it. In front of the child, you have to have their back,” Mulholland says. “In the moment you say, ‘Yep. Dad said eat your broccoli. ‘” If you would have done things differently, talk to your partner about it away from the kids.

Your relationship with a grown child

Parenting style also plays a role in the relationship between parents and their children when they become adults. Kids who had strict, inflexible parents might not have a close relationship as adults. Kids of permissive parents might come back for help frequently when they are in a bind. Kids who grew up with encouraging, supportive parents tend to have close relationships with their parents. They will be independent, but still go to their parents for advice.

“The best-case scenario is they’re still keeping you involved in their life,” Mulholland says. “They’re telling you about the hardships and maybe even seeking advice, but they’re also not expecting you to fix everything.”

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287 Parenting Essay Topics & Creative Research Titles + Examples

🔝 top 10 parenting topics to write about in 2024, 🏆 best essay topics on parenting, 👍 good parenting research topics & essay examples, 🌶️ hot parenting ideas to write about, 🎓 most interesting parenting research titles, 📌 easy parenting essay topics, ✍️ parenting essay topics for college, ❓ research questions about parenting, 📝 parenting argumentative essay topics.

Are you looking for the most important parenting topics for discussion? You’ve come to the right place! StudyCorgi has prepared a list of current and controversial ideas to write about. On this page, you’ll find:

• Should Parents Be Responsible for Children’s Crimes?
• Teenage Parenting: Problems of Children and Parent
• Why Filipino Parents Choose Their Children’s Careers
• Women Are Better Parents Then Men
• Parents Should Limit the Usage of Screen Time for Their Children
• A Good Parent: Definition and Traits
• Teenage Rebellion Against Parents
• Children’s Education and Role of Parents
• Parenting Styles’ Impact on Child’s Development
• Divorce and Single-Parent Families
• Parenting Styles: Indifferent, Indulgent, Authoritarian, and Authoritative The paper will analyze four main styles, namely indifferent, indulgent, authoritarian, and authoritative parenting styles.
• Childhood Obesity: The Parents’ Responsibility Childhood obesity is a complex disease characterized by exceeding the age-growth norm of a child’s body weight. It is the fault of undemanding and irresponsible parents.
• Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: Pros and Cons In this presentation, attention will be paid to the benefits and shortages of parental involvement in children’s education.
• Role Played by Parents in Education This paper looks at the way parents are involved in education and gives a lengthy argument on the contribution of the letter to the overall education success.
• Non-Parental Child Care This paper focuses on the types of non-parent childcare and its effects on the child’s development in psychological, social and cognitive development.
• Types of Parenting Styles in a “Parenthood” by Howard The plot of the film is a small live segment of one huge family, which includes five generations. The filmmakers tried to give us a simple recipe for a happy life.
• Parenting Styles – Case Study Analysis This work contains several examples from the lives of children and parents, situations that are described. For each of the cases, explain what this parenting style is and why.
• Juvenile Delinquents and Parental Divorce: What Is the Connection? Reasons that cause the increase in the number of juvenile delinquents. Connection with the rise in the number of juvenile delinquents and the increase in the number of divorce rates.
• Personal Experience of Child: Parenting Styles The current essay reflects my own childhood experience regarding the parenting style my parents tend to follow, how it affected me.
• Parent-Child Conflict Resolution: Communication Problem The psychological view upon the problem of the parent-child conflict covers many aspects explaining the nature of generations’ contradictions.
• Should Parents Have the Right to Choose Their Children Based on Genetics? The right to intervene in the human genome must be reviewed from multiple perspectives, as the future of parenthood and social institutions will depend highly on agreements.
• Overindulgent Parenting Style and Its Harm to Children This paper researches on the impacts of overindulgent parenting on children and concludes by stating that parents should consider adopting the authoritative parenting style.
• Parent-Child Relationship and Its Effect on Adolescents The importance of parent-child relationships stems from an incredible level of interdependence that many families display when it comes to addressing family needs.
• Parents Are to Blame for Youth Violence Violence among youth has drastically increased in recent times. This problem of violence has become a global phenomenon whereby youth from all walks of life are engaged in violence.
• Gadgets’ Impact on Parent-Child Relationships This paper considers studies that analyze gadgets’ impact on relations between parents and children and factors that affect the time children spend using their devices.
• Single Parenting Benefits and Disadvantages There are not only drawbacks but also some benefits for mothers who live without husbands and raise their children themselves.
• Why Parents Should Vaccinate Their Children Modern vaccines are complex, and a few antigens administered to children spur the production of antibodies that prevent future infections.
• Adult Children Should Support Elderly Parents Taking care of the parents by the children remains the best as compared to institutionalizing them. The parents are denied the family bonds they have always enjoyed in the family.
• Effects of Single Parenting on Children Children have a right of being brought up by both parents. Kids who grew up seeing a father and mother have higher chances of becoming more stable in life.
• Views on Raising Children: Tasks of Parents The most challenging task of parents is to make the right decisions. It requires analyzing the behavior of children and finding their personalities.
• Single Parenting: Difficulties and Challenges Studies show that single motherhood is normally linked with a lot of unconstructive social, behavioral and psychological impacts on the child being brought up.
• American and British Parenting Styles In this paper, parenting from the point of view of Americans and Britons will be evaluated to show their differences or similarities.
• Deontological Ethics and Principles for Parenting Deontology is an ethical science based on the teaching of moral issues. The focus of deontological ethics is on duties and obligations to be followed.
• Problems Experienced by Children Raised by Homo Parents The intention to write this paper is to throw the light on the affects of homosexual parents on their children.
• The Challenges of Being a Parent Parenting is a wonderful but complex social role. The main point is to create an open environment for dialogue and not to be afraid of mistakes.
• The Uninvolved Parenting Style and Its Effect on the Psychological Development of a Child Approaches to parenting and child care can vary significantly based on the parents’ characteristics and their preferred style.
• Parental Divorce and Consequences for Children Divorces are a common occurrence in the modern world, and most people are accustomed to the idea of a separated family.
• Single-Parent Family Health Assessment The current family development stage is ‘a family with school-aged children’, and the family managed to accomplish the tasks of previous stages rather well.
• Parenting in Modern Society: Key Challenges Today, to be a good parent, not only are parenting traditions, feelings, and intuition needed, but also planning careful preparation and thinking through the educational process.
• Proximal and Distal Parenting Proximal parenting implies close body contact and stimulation, while the distal parenting style is characterized by communication through the distant senses.
• Raising Children in Single Families: Single-Parent Families’ Problems The paper considers single-parent families’ economic problems, balancing work and life, behavioral changes, effects of conflict between parents, new relationships of parents.
• Parent-Child Relationships in the Novels “Lolita” by Vladimir Nabokov and “Sula” by Toni Morrison The problem of parent-child relationships is one of the most examined and actual eternal questions. This question concerns the problems of love and hatred.
• Parents Are Not to Blame for Obesity in Children This paper discusses the issue of childhood and adolescent obesity and argues that parents should not be blamed for this problem.
• The Problem-Solving Process in Parenting The problem-solving process on teaching the child responsibility by letting him complete his school assignments in his own way and stating borders of parent’s help.
• Lack of Parental Support Forces Teenagers ‘Run Away’ From Home This paper describes how lack of attention and inability of parents to understand the problems faced by their teenage children results in “run away” from home.
• The Role of Parents in Acts of Theft and Vandalism by Minor Children Parents are to blame for their children’s acts of crime such as theft or vandalism, except when the children are suffering from mental health issues.
• Parental Stress and Its Effects on Children In the current paper, the author analyses literature dedicated to parental stress and child development and behavior and tests the previously mentioned hypothesis.
• “Not Under My Roof: Parents, Teens, and the Culture of Sex” by Schalet The purpose of the paper is to provide a summary of the book and present its analysis and valuation of its weak and strong points.
• Intelligence: Are We Smarter Than Our Parents? The Flynn effect states that the levels of intelligence quotient (IQ) have been rising over time and increasing among the consequent generations.
• Parents’ Role in Young Adult Literature David Levithan’s Boy Meets Boy, James Janeway’s A Token for Children, and Catherine Sinclair’s Holiday House exemplify young adult literature from different periods.
• Role of Parental Involvement in the Modern Era Recent research revealed that students are affected by a myriad of factors that can be subdivided into four categories: academic, social, cultural, and financial.
• Most Typical Problems Parents Face There are many problems that parents face today. It is sometimes difficult to deal with children who forget very fast.
• Gay and Single-Parent Families: Functionalist View The application of the functionalist perspective helps to resolve some problems by outlining the importance of issues and their contribution to the evolution of communities.
• Impact of Single Parent Culture on Students’ Behavior Many scholars in education agree that a student’s performance is not dependent on intellectual ability alone but also in other factors such as behavior.
• Good and Bad Parenting’s Impact on Children Bad parenting is the parent’s fault, and parents must ensure good parenting for the overall development of their children and their future.
• Aspects of Parenting and Gender Roles For children to develop a healthy understanding of gender roles, it is essential that parents choose the right approach to their formation.
• Impact of Parenting on Child Learning The complexity of child development as a multi-dimensional process makes it complicated to suggest for sure that parenting styles influence learning.
• Self-Control Theory: Are Our Parents to Blame? The role of the community is very important. It is for this reason that people gather together and live as a community in order that they may reap the rewards of cooperation.
• Migrating Parents’ Motives and Impact on Children One aspect that often lacks proper attention from the authorities and the general public is the children of immigrants who are left in their home countries.
• The Film “We Bought a Zoo” and Single Parenting Issues We Bought a Zoo is a 2011 comedy-drama film that follows the life of a single-parent family aiming to start a new life after the passing of the mother.
• Benefits of Good Parent-Child Relationships The benefits of productive parent-child relationships are mutual – children affect their parents almost as much as their parents affect them.
• Alcoholic Parents’ Effect on Adult Children While effects of being raised by alcoholics in adult children may vary, fear of failure, desire to control, and developing compulsive behaviors are prevalent characteristics.
• Being a Mother: Challenges Facing Parents With Young Children A mother is a social or biological parent. In mammals like human beings, biological mother is one that gestates fertilized ovum called an embryo at the beginning which later becomes fetus.
• Child Behavior in Relation to Parenting Although parenting influences all affiliations within a family, its impact on parent-children relationships is vital as it may affect the children’s future negatively.
• Parental Positive and Negative Behaviors The paper aims to investigate parental positive and negative behaviors. It describes the effects of parent’s behavior on the life of their children.
• Parenting Styles Overview and Analysis This essay aims to describe parenting styles, reflect on the impact of my family’s upbringing approaches, and discuss how I plan to raise my children.
• Bullying and Parenting Styles There are many positive and negative outcomes of parenting on children. This paper aims at investigating the connection between several types of parenting and bullying behaviors.
• Some of the Problems that Parents Face Today Contemporary parenting is even more challenging owing to the changing civilization alongside the new emerging trends on family values and practices.
• The Issues of Gay Parents Scholars have noted a few differences in the characters of children brought up in same sex- marriages and those brought up in conventional ones.
• Should Parents Spank Their Children? Spanking or striking children as a method to correct bad behavior has been widely used by parents in many cultures as a primary means of discipline.
• Gender Stereotypes in Families: Parental Influence on an Adolescent’s Career Choice Gender stereotypes are still persistent in societies that often seem to be egalitarian. These stereotypes are transmitted to younger generations that copy their parents’ role models.
• Families: Single Parent Controversy This paper explores single parenting and bases on the article “The single parent controversy: Does family research stigmatize single mothers and their children?”.
• Impact of Generalized Anxiety Disorder on Single Parents This paper focuses on the impact of generalized anxiety disorder on single parents and the most significant aspects of their lives.
• Single African American Parents: Literature Review Parenting among single African American women poses serious challenges. This paper reviews existing literature to understand what other scholars have found out in this field.
• Parental Refusal of Medical Treatment for Children Refusing medical treatment for children by parents undermines the functioning of the healthcare system and the relations between patients and caregivers.
• Homeschooling Disadvantages for Students and Parents The essay explores whether homeschooling is a better option for parents and their children compared with classroom establishment.
• Perfect Family Myths on Divorce and Parenting This paper discussed four myths about family. These myths target the issue of divorce, family structure, and the responsibilities of parents.
• Theology of Family Life, Marriage and Parenting Religious marriage is possible when a ceremony is conducted (simultaneously or separately, depending on religion) with the couple being wed in the eyes of God.
• Parental Involvement in Education One of the main purposes of society nowadays is to guarantee stable development for children and make education affordable and efficient.
• Parenting and Choice of Child-Rearing Style The child-rearing style applied to a child has an impact on the child’s growth and development. The style employed by the parents can predict the future character of the child.
• Systematic Training for Effective Parenting The growing interests of parents in the nurturing of their children in the recent decades reflect the challenges faced by the same due to societal behavioral change.
• The Parent-Child Relationships Theories Duties that a child has to his or her parents are unique. When it comes to parents, an individual is expected to do things that he or she will not do for other people.
• Parenting Styles’ Impact on Children Parenting style plays a significant role in a child’s life. Each selected technique may have predetermined outcomes.
• The Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Parenting The influence of Confucianism led to the establishment of distinct approaches to parenting styles, notably high parental expectations in the academic field.
• Should Parents with Children under 12 Have Dogs as Pets Even though dogs can be great protectors, kids can be overly aggressive with dogs; children are more vulnerable to diseases carried by dogs, etc.
• Parenting: The Family Resource Guide The guide in the current paper will help parents understand their role in their child’s development and help them in different situations.
• Parenting Assessment and Interventions The purpose of this assessment is to evaluate the effect of parenting styles on decisions and children’s behavior. In particular, it focuses on difficulties.
• “Fall or Fly”: Parents’ Problems in Foster Care One of the issues that foster parents will have to contend with is the wide range of parenting styles, environments, and circumstances that they are exposed to.
• Parenting Styles and Aggressive Adolescents Researchers have identified parenting styles that influence children’s growth and development. Parenting styles include authoritative, permissive, negligent, and authoritarian.
• Parenting in Lapine’s Play Into the Wood The central object of research in this work is the play Into the Wood by James Lapine, which assesses the quality of parenting in the context of character development.
• Authoritarian Parenting Impact on Children’s Health Parents who deploy an authoritarian approach to raising their children are presented as contributing hugely to their destruction rather than molding them into reliable citizens.
• Parental Engagement in Special Education While the teaching methods must vary among students with special needs, parents should also engage in an educational process to give children an understanding of its importance.
• Parenting Styles by Diana Baumrind This paper describes advantages and disadvantages of parenting styles generated by Diana Baumrind and its characteristics as well as the consequences for children.
• Parents Need Help: Restricting Access to Video Games Parents who fear instilling discipline in their kids for fear of hatred from their kids have no one to blame but themselves.
• Single-Parent College Students Struggling to Graduate The rise of single-student parents in colleges presents an opportunity to learn about the experiences of such students and compare them with other regular nonparent learners.
• Parenting Experience of a Mother of Two Children Although being a parent is a privilege that most adults look forward to, without proper planning, it can become a burden that leaves a person feeling caged and insufficient.
• Parental Involvement in Schools When parents are not invested in their children’s future and education, their offspring may experience poor student achievements and growth in various ways.
• Parental Substance Abuse: Negative Impact on Child Development The researchers focus on the negative impact of parental substance abuse on child development, leading to addiction problems when these children become teenagers or young adults.
• Different Perceptions of the Responsibility of Children to Their Parents A family is a place where a special bond is established between relatives and an ideal relationship model has no room for anger, aggression, or other negative feelings.
• Issues We Face While Taking Care of Aging Parents The trend of adult children becoming caregivers for their parents is one of the most widespread in American society.
• Parenting Advice and Its Quality While most parenting advice is likely to be well-meaning, a number of online recommendations offered to parents are highly questionable due to their subjectivity.
• Differences in Parenting Styles in the East (China) and the West (America) The article discusses introduction in the essay “Differences in parenting styles in the East (China) and the West (America)” and argues that is short and straightforward.
• Childhood Attachment and Parenting Styles In social sciences and psychology, the term emotional attachment may refer to the process of understanding the expressive closeness.
• Parental Deployment: Action Plan The current case study involves a child with emotional issues who is six years old from a middle-class socioeconomic status background.
• Study of a Parent-Child Relationship The study of a parent-child relationship is a sophisticated endeavor focused on the peculiarities of a socioemotional environment of the upbringing process
• Caregiver Burden for Adult Children Whose Parent Has Alzheimer’s Disease The purpose of the proposed study is to critically explore the relationship between caregiver burden and social stigma for adult children whose parents have AD.
• Child Abuse or a Parental Discipline According to the state laws within the United States, physical discipline is recommended if it is solely for discipline and does not lead to the injury of a child.
• Parenting Styles Exemplified by the Molly Family In the current essay, the abovementioned four parenting styles will be considered, and four various answers on Molly’s desired behavior will be provided.
• Parent Monitoring of Children in Public Places Parents-children relations may be characterized as the complex interconnection of different issues, which are the main patterns in the upbringing process.
• Parenting Styles in Situational Examples This paper examines different situational examples related to child-parent and assesses the parenting style of each of these situations.
• Parenting Styles: Infancy and Early Childhood Generally, a child’s behavior is directly linked to the parenting approach being used by the respective parent. Each technique used has a corresponding impact on the well-being.
• Psychology of Children with Incarcerated Parents The relationship between the risks of the development of psychological problems among children and the incarcerated parent status is direct.
• Parenting and Harm of Unrealistic Expectations Parenting should be based on realistic expectations that are connected with the specific child, but not on the illusion that upbringing can change the child’s behavior.
• Parental Alcohol Abuse as a Family Issue Parental alcohol abuse is a serious problem in the community that impacts not only one individual but spreads to different social units.
• Should Parents Be Held Accountable if Their Children Misbehave? This paper discusses whether parents should be held accountable if their children misbehave, commit crimes, or generally turn out to be a “bad seed”.
• The Effects of Homelessness on Single-Parent Families in Black Community The paper states that single-parent families can be adversely impacted by homelessness, especially during the current COVID-19 pandemic.
• Parents Music Resource Center in the United States Parents Music Resource Center was a group created by four women in 1985. The aim of this group was to control the music that was released.
• The Relationship Between Parenting Styles This paper provides an analysis of data pertaining to the relationship between parenting styles employed by a child’s parent.
• Parental Influence on a Child’s Life Outcomes The environment, especially the close ones, such as the family, decisions made, and various events, forms a particular path-dependency of one’s life with a corresponding outcome.
• Adolescent Adjustment to Parental Divorce The primary research question is what factors determine adolescents’ adjustment after they experience divorce and how it affects their socio-emotional skills.
• Effect of Parenting on Child’s Health Development The current paper discusses that good parenting gives the perfect setting for the sustaining and security of youngsters as they grow.
• Single-Parent Families: Source Analysis Single-parent families have been a controversial topic for an extended period of time. The family variation became prevalent and gained the attention of a wide variety of people.
• Parents, Children, and Guns In this article, the author expresses his opinion on the prosecution of parents whose children have gained access to weapons.
• Helping and Supporting Single-Parent Families Important to provide additional financial and social aid to help them adjust to new realities, as well as prevent divorces at a larger scale.
• The Influence of Parents in the Development of the Baby The influence of parents and their upbringing plays a huge role in the development of the baby even in the first months of life.
• Native American Women and Parenting The purpose of this research study is to review the plight of Native American mothers as well as other marginalized women populations.
• Single Parent Culture and Student Behavior Some researchers have argued that shortcomings or low earnings in father-lacking families explain the effects of one-parent families.
• Grand Parents Custody Rights Analysis This essay focuses on custodial rights in relation to grandparents who can be regarded as non-parents and are now being granted visitation and custodial rights as well.
• Parenting Style and Bullying Among Children The investigation of parenting styles is highly essential to understand how they affect the bullying behavior of children to prevent it.
• Childhood Obesity and Parent Education: Ethical Issues The proposed research reveals important insights about obesity among children and infants. Apart from the positive intentions of the research, different ethical considerations have to be described.
• Positive Parenting and Child Externalizing Behavior The article shows how mothering styles can affect child behaviors, and the latter appears likely to impact mother-son relationships.
• Psychology Issues: Childhood Development and Positive Parenting Each stage of an individual’s development is important. However, childhood can be regarded as one of the most important periods in a person’s life.
• Parental Divorce: Influence on Children Divorce may affect a child’s development by making them engage in risk-taking behaviors, experience divorce-related stress, and significantly lower their self-esteem.
• The Worth of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education Today, much attention is paid to improving the quality of childhood education, and the worth of parental involvement is currently discussed and recommended.
• Kids of Helicopter Parents Are Sputtering Out by Lythcott-Haims In the article “Kids of Helicopter Parents Are Sputtering Out,” Julie Lythcott-Haims talks about how parents instruct their children on what to do.
• Parents With Pediatric Terminal Patients: Stress Management Certain family-centered care principles should be used by healthcare providers in order to mitigate parental stress in the situations where their child battles terminal illness.
• Latino Culture: The Social Interaction Between Children and Parents The main focus is the social interaction between children and parents and its specificity in the context of Latino culture.
• Parenting: Influences and Standards This article is important because it supports the idea that parents should raise their children in a way that fits their child’s personalities.
• Liability of Bullies’ Parents for Children’s Activities Parents of bullies should be liable for their children’s activities because besides being highly influential, they possess the power to prevent bullying.
• Effects of Parent-Based Teaching of Alcohol Use The approach significantly impacts the struggle to prevent alcohol abuse but requires being informed on the appropriate mechanisms to employ.
• Parenting in a Pandemic: Tips to Keep the Calm at Home The article ​“Parenting in a Pandemic: Tips to Keep the Calm at Home” provides a set of recommendations for parents regarding managing children’s behaviors during the pandemic.
• Meetings between Parents and Teachers: Ted Talk Discussion When building a good relationship between both parties, sharing contacts like e-mail, mobile numbers, or messenger profiles can have a positive effect.
• Financial Implications of Single Parenting The paper states that in the modern world when everything is getting more expensive each day, it is challenging to manage to be a single parent.
• The Parent-Teacher-Youth Mediation Program The Parent-Teacher-Youth Mediation Program is designed to build relationships between family members from different generations.
• Operant Conditioning in Learning and Parenting Operant conditioning relies on a relatively simple premise – actions followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and thus are more probable to be repeated in the future.
• How Parental Involvement Influences the Life of the Individual The paper demonstrates how parental involvement influences the academic and social life of the individual from the perspective of several theoretical notions.
• Parenting Peculiarities in Queer (LGBT) Families An examination of LGBT marriages has shown that same-sex partners have varied parenting desires, intentions, and child-rearing experiences.
• Parental Divorce’s Negative Impact on Children Children from divorced families have more behavioral problems, and marital upheavals leading up to parental divorce threaten future learning ability.
• Mental Health of Children of Incarcerated Parents This paper aims to discuss the impact of parental incarceration on children’s mental health and the risk of adverse childhood experiences.
• Nature vs. Nurture Parenting Styles in Psychology This research analyzes the nature vs. nurture parenting styles and recommends the best style that must be applied to ensure children grow to be responsible adults.
• The Parent-Child Relationship in Sports The promotion of a parent-child relationship in sports is similar to the coordination of individuals within a group.
• Youth Self-Reported Health and Their Experience of Parental Incarceration The study utilizes data from the Minnesota Student Survey, which was conducted every three years and included questions on health behaviors, dietary habits, and sleep patterns.
• Evaluation of Training Program for Incoming Foster Parents A training program has been proposed which will instill vital skills in foster parents through a six-session program, each one lasting at least three hours.
• Surviving the Death of a Parent “The Death of a Parent Affects Even Grown Children Psychologically and Physically,” explains how parental loss affects adults.
• Two Parenting Approaches: Authoritative and Authoritarian This paper considers two parenting approaches: authoritative and authoritarian. The authoritative parenting style is one of the best, while the authoritarian is one of the worst.
• Parenting Styles and Children’s Social Competence The social competence of children is usually associated with authoritative parenting of all parenting styles, in which parents balance the demands of the child and responsiveness.
• Single-Parent Households Issues In preindustrial societies, kinship systems were the main form of social organization that provided members cooperated by marriage.
• Parental Caregiving Assumptions and Best Practices The right start and the proper introduction and guidance to the appeared challenges contribute in a positive way to providing parents with the proper care.
• Parenting Styles by Diana Baumrind Children exhibit behavioural characteristics depending on their upbringing. Diana Baumrind developed four parenting styles explaining children’s behaviour in specific situations.
• “Parenting and SES: Relative Values or Enduring Principles?” by Roubinov Parenting is one of the most critical aspects of social dynamics, where children’s development and growth are affected by the choices their parents make along the given process.
• Bullying: A Guide for the Parents The first way for parents to assist the kid in coming up with bullies is to teach them a set of responses, which they can use in case someone is picking on them.
• Parental Listening, Encouraging, and Trusting Parents who know how to listen, encourage, and trust their kids can positively influence their children’s emotional stability and social success.
• Parental Incarceration’s Impact on a Child Parental incarceration is a significant issue, and though it is addressed on multiple levels, there are still some related imperfections that complicate children’s lives.
• The Gender-Neutral Conceptualization of Parenting Society should apply gender-neutral conceptualization of parenting because a parent’s gender was found to have little impact on the child’s development.
• Tort of Negligence and Parents-Drivers’ Responsibility The negligence lawsuit is an important part of the law system that considers crimes that are committed by persons who failed to use reasonable vigilance and caution.
• Parenting Philosophy in “Where the Wild Things Are” Parenting philosophy described in the story “Where the Wild Things Are” is an uninvolved parenting style with an emotionally unavailable mother.
• Parents and Children’s E-Safety Education During the Pandemic When it comes to children’s education from a Constructivist perspective, parents are to engage with the children’s activities online to make sense of the Internet knowledge.
• Ethical Principles: Parents’ Vaccination Concerns This case study reviews the ethical and moral choices of doctors who aim to convince parents to vaccinate their children.
• A Parent’s Right on Their Child Medication The rights of parents towards their children are spelled out in different acts of parliament regarding the lawful authority they have in given areas.
• Theoretical Approaches to Child Parenting Parenting is a discipline that includes branches from theories of the early stages of a child’s awareness of reality to future place in the world.
• Pride: Parents Who Teach Their Kids About Self-Worth
• Parenting Techniques Analysis
• Remarriages and Step-Parenting
• Tax Research Problem Parent Corporation
• Family Law: Parent’s Right to Travel
• Efficacy of Punishment and Reinforcement In Parenting
• Types of Parenting Styles Analysis
• The Lived Experiences of Native American Women Parenting on and off Reservations
• Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy in Parents
• Parent’s Education and Child’s Dental Health
• Adoption: Can Same-Sex Parents Nurture a Stable Child?
• The Article: “Parental Perception of Child Weight: a Concept Analysis”
• Program to Build Parenting Skills in Teenage Parents
• Parent and Child Perspectives on Adaptation to Childhood Chronic Illness
• Liberal Stance on Child Care for Working Parents
• Dominant Parenting Styles: Gender-Differentiated Parenting Revisited
• Reasons to Become Parents in Middle Adulthood
• The Adaptation to Childhood Chronic Illnesses: Parental and Child Perspectives
• Parents’ Experiences of Caring for a Child with ASD Literature Review
• Romantic Relationships and Parenting
• New Parent Guide: Breastfeeding and Attachment
• Negative Media Effects Mitigation: Parents’ Role
• Infant’s Temperament Influences on the Parents Treat
• Understanding of Motherhood and Parenting Role
• Baby Care Class for Expectant Parents
• The Five Biggest Ideas in Parenting
• “Superpowers for Parents” by Dr. Stephen Briers
• Substance Use by Parents and the Effect on Kids
• How Can Parents Produce Important Behaviors in Disabled Family Members?
• Problems Experienced by Children That Are Reared by Heterosexual Parents
• The Impact of Absent Parents Gears More Towards Absent Fathers
• The Role of Parents Within the Education System
• Why Do Parents Abuse Their Children: Discussion
• Sociological Research Evaluation: Effects of Parental Imprisonment on Children’s Social and Moral Aspects
• Parents’ Responsibilities: Child Support Obligations
• Critique of Articles on Parenting, ADHD, Child Psychology, and Development
• Parental Involvement in Urban School District
• The Impact of Parent’s Educational Level on College Students
• Applied Ethics: Moral Standards of Alcoholic Parents
• Medical and Christian Ethics: Ill Child and Parents
• When Parents Refuse to Give Up: Yusef Camp’s Case
• Childhood Obesity: Medication and Parent Education
• Postsecondary Enrolment and Parental Income
• Counseling for Healthy Relationships With Parents
• Parents Shape Early Adolescents’ Eating Behaviors
• Are Parents Responsible for Their Children’s Crimes?
• The Issues of Childhood Obesity: Overweight and Parent Education
• Attachment Theories in Child-Parent Relationships
• Authoritative Parenting in Comparison to Other Styles
• Children’s Early Literacy Achievement and Parents’ Role
• Same-Sex Parenting Impact on Children’s Behavior
• Childhood Obesity, Medical and Parental Education
• Parenting Styles: Values and Standards Transmission
• Adolescent Obesity and Parental Education Study
• Single Afro-Americans Parenting Their Adolescents
• Parents’ Incomes and Children’s Camp Expenses
• Childhood Obesity: Parental Education vs. Medicaments
• Childhood Obesity: The Relationships Between Overweight and Parental Education
• Violence: Community Center for Children and Parents
• Air Pollution Threats: Parent Education
• Gender Stereotypes in Families: Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
• Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
• Parenting Styles Researching: Analytical Techniques
• Children With Asthma: Risks Created by Smoking Parents
• Diagnosis Disclosure and Child-Parent Relationship
• Eight Steps of Effective Parent Participation
• Parents’ Education in Childhood Obesity Prevention
• Parenting: Open Versus Closed Adoption
• Childhood Obesity and Independent Variable in Parents
• Childhood Obesity and Parent Education
• Family-Based Childhood Obesity and Parental Weight
• Parenting Style Comparison: Positive and Negative Impacts
• The Father’s Role in Parenting
• The Impact of Relationships With Parents on the Future
• Parental Exposure and Underage Drinking – Psychology
• Parental Education for Preventing Pneumonia in Children
• Te Single-Parent Homes Problems
• Developmental Psychology: Aggression Between Parents
• Parents Bear Responsibility for the Recreational Rioter – Psychology
• Corporal Punishment and Parents Position
• School Communication and Involvement of Parents in the School Activities
• Vaccines: Should Parents Avoid Vaccinating Their Children?
• What Are the Differences Between Chinese and Western Parenting Styles?
• Does Homosexual Parenting Have Negative Effects?
• Does Strength-Based Parenting Predict Academic Achievement?
• What Is an Example of Cultural Bias as It Relates to Parenting?
• What Is the Relationship Between Mothers’ and Fathers’ Parenting Practices?
• How Does Gender or Sexuality Condition Influence Parenting?
• How Parenting Styles Changed for Indian Immigrants?
• What Is Measure of Parenting Satisfaction and Efficacy?
• What Links Between Parenting and Social Competence in Children Are There?
• What Is the Relationship Between Parenting Style and Math Self-Efficacy?
• What Are the Multiple Determinants of Parenting?
• How Opioids Can Interfere With Parenting Instincts?
• What Is Developmental Contextual Perspective on Parenting?
• What Is the Relationship Between Parenting and Poverty?
• How Equally Shared Parenting Works?
• What Factors Are Related to Parenting Practices in Taiwan?
• What Are the Consequences of Parenting on Adolescent Outcomes?
• What Does the Term Systematic Training in Effective Parenting Mean?
• What Is Development of a Parenting Alliance Inventory and How Does It Help?
• What Are the Differences Between Collectivist and Individualist Parenting Styles?
• What Are the Protective Effects of Good Parenting on Adolescents?
• What Behavioral Observations of Parenting in Battered Women Are There?
• What Is the Changing Nature of Parenting in America and Why Is It Not Permanent?
• How to Overcome Parenting Stress in Raising Autistic Children?
• What Is the Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting?
• Should people be legally obliged to take parenting courses before having children?
• Does helicopter parenting hinder a child’s development?
• Should parents share equal responsibilities in childrearing?
• Is it ethical for parents to share the photos of their children without their consent?
• Should parents enforce strict limits on screen time for their children?
• Does co-sleeping harm a child’s sleep patterns and independence?
• Should parents allow teenagers to make vital decisions like getting tattoos?
• Is it ethical for parents to choose a child’s career path for them?
• Should parents be liable for their children’s cyberbullying behaviors?
• Should parents be allowed to choose not to vaccinate their children?

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StudyCorgi. (2022, January 16). 287 Parenting Essay Topics & Creative Research Titles + Examples. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/parenting-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "287 Parenting Essay Topics & Creative Research Titles + Examples." January 16, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/parenting-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "287 Parenting Essay Topics & Creative Research Titles + Examples." January 16, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/parenting-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Parenting were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 8, 2024 .

439 Parenting Essay Topics & Examples

Get a good parenting topic for any assignment – from essays to speeches – on this page.

🔮 Top 10 Parenting Topics to Write about

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Sometimes, finding the right idea is half the battle. It can be the case when it comes to writing about parenting. Topics on this subject can cover anything from parent-child relationships to children’s behavior and parenting styles. Thus, picking one good title to discuss, research, and write about can be essential. That’s why our experts have gathered this list of topics on parenting. Find your perfect idea on this page!

• Discussing Boundaries with Kids.
• Link Between Marriage and Children.
• Choosing a Parenting Style.
• When You Realize Yourself as a Parent.
• Explaining Divorce to Children.
• Important Aspects of Family.
• How to Influence Your Teens.
• Improving Parent-Child Relationships.
• Steps to Adulthood.
• Loveless Marriage vs. Single Parenthood.
• Are Parents Responsible for Their Children’s Behavior? Consequently, parents should create time for their children in order to establish a close relationship that can have a long influence on the child’s behavior.
• Are Women Better Parents Than Men? Essay Another reason why women are better parents is that they are more conscious and conscientious to the needs of their children than men.
• Comparison Parenting Between Asian Parents and Western Parents Concerning authoritarian parenting, children are expected to be submissive to their parents and the demands of their parents; in this regard, the parents are supposed to be strict and emotionally detached.
• Parents’ Influence on a Child Essay: How Parents Affect Behavior and Development Education level of the parents If the parents are well educated, they ought to understand the importance of education and will encourage their child to study better and up to high levels.
• Communication Between Parents and Teenagers Communication between parents and their children, especially teenagers, is an ongoing process that can be developed and modified in order to create a sense of openness and support that will become a basis for the […]
• Single-Parent Families The chief materials that are to be used in the proposed experiment are the measurement scale to evaluate changes in adolescents’ attitudes towards single-parent families and the source of information about single-parent households.
• How Does Society View Single Parents? A single parent refers to one who cares for one or more children without the help of one of the biological parents of the child or children. It is therefore important to note that society […]
• The Three Parenting Styles This style of parenting is where the parents let their children to make decisions on their own. The good thing about this style is the fact that communication is always open and parents are able […]
• Are Peers More Important Than Parents During the Process of Development? On the other hand, children need to understand that they are under the authority of the parents. In the life of a human being, most of his/her time is spent with peers and not the […]
• Spoiled Children and Parenting Mistakes However, in order to bring a child who will earn the respect of the society at present and in the future, it is important for the parents to reverse this trend in spoiled brats by […]
• Why I Am a Good Son to My Parents The third reason why I believe I am a good son to both my parents is grounded on the fact that I have been, and will always be, a shining star in academics and extra-curricular […]
• Parental Hopes and Standards for Sons and Daughters However, even in a contemporary society characterized by the evolution of tolerance and equality, families have different standards for their sons and daughters that are preconditioned by the power of some stereotypical representations about female […]
• How Do Teenagers Deal With Problems and Consequence Without Parent’s Support? This is because the parents are not in a position to be of good guidance during the period of the problems and they are not reliable and therefore teenagers tend to rely on themselves.
• Parents Should Spank Their Children While some parents uphold spanking as the most appropriate mode of disciplining their children, others argue that inflicting physical pain to the child can lead to negative consequences in the future. The parents should be […]
• Cybernetics and Parenting Styles in Family Therapy This concept will be very helpful in my future work since I will be able to notice negative behavior in children that is the result of the parenting style adopted by the parents.
• The Teacher Speech With Parents These instances are broadly meant to ensure that the parents get the best understanding of the information concerning the school and more importantly enable them to fully participate in the education of their children.
• Parenting Styles: Advantages and Disadvantages Kids do what they are made to do because they want to escape the punishment. As parents support children, they become independent and strong-willed.
• Parental Rejection and Its Severe Consequences Parental rejection can either be from a mother, a father, or a guardian. However, rejection from a mother seems to have more severe consequences of the three categories.
• Role of Parents in Physical Education and Sport The involvement of parents in physical education and sports is viewed differently in regard to how it affects the child’s participation in sports even later in life.
• Parental Responsibility for Crimes of Children Parents should be held responsible for the crime of their children because in most cases criminal involvement of children is the result of lack of parental control.
• Importance of Parenting Concepts In this case, the child is aware of the conflict transpiring between parents and may be torn between whom to follow and who not to.
• Good Parent-Children Relationship Characteristics of the children compared to those of the parents can also influence the relationships between the parents and the children.
• What Is a Parent? In the cases wherein the egg and sperm do not come from the couple, and a surrogate is used to carry the child, who is the real parent of the child?
• Parental Differential Treatment and Favoritism As such, parents embrace differential treatment and favoritism of children based on age of the child, gender of the child, the personality of the child, or order of birth.
• The Struggles of Single Parenting The associated unavailability of proper housing, insecurity and abuse increase the influence of single-parenthood to development of a child in spite of the fact that wealth is no guarantee of positive outcome in character of […]
• Parental Involvement in Teenage Relationships Parents can monitor their child’s academic progress, engage them in conversations about romance and relationships, and give them career advice and guidance. Parental involvement in their children’s academic and social lives helps parents to understand […]
• Marital and Parental Subsystems in Family In a conventional family system, these members include the husband and wife, the siblings, and the relatives who make up the extended family.
• Parents’ Involvement in Schoolwork Parent involvement is important in improving academic performance as students have to prove to teachers and parents that they are working hard at school.
• Personal Reflection on Parenting It is important for the parents to ensure that they are open-minded to their children. Therefore, it is important for the parents to ensure that they do not dictate everything to their children.
• Why Are Young People Living Longer With Their Parents? When referring to a young adult, who is “living at home with their parents,” “living at parental home,” “stays with parents,” the research means that the mentioned adult is a child or a stepchild of […]
• Parent-Child Relationships in “Everyday Use” by Alice Walker The more distant and fractious relationship is between the narrator and Dee. The narrator is referred to as “Mama,” and a mama she is.
• Parental Non-Involvement in Children’s Education The articles under consideration reveal the problem of the involvement of parents in children’s education. The second part of the article is devoted to the ways of parents’ involvement.
• Parenting Education Programs: Pros and Cons To ensure that new pregnant couples are prepared to handle the responsibilities associated with raising kids and with helping alleviate stress and support families, it is essential that parents take parenting education programs.
• Parents’ Role in Children-Technology Relations The aim of pilot study was to apply Day in the Life as method of research to understand how young children use technology in their daily lives.
• Nuclear Family vs. Single Parenting Effects on Child The family is the main environment that contributes to the behavior of a person. The family environment in which these individuals are is the key contributor to the character and behavior of individuals.
• How Ineffective Parenting Affects a Child’s Future In addition to impairing a child’s social skills, ineffective parenting may result in a codependent relationship between a parent and their child.
• Child Obesity and Parental Negligence Purpose of the study The proposed study is aimed at establishing the influence of neglect on the part of the parents to childhood obesity.
• Four Styles of Parenting The authors continue to explain that parenting styles are affected by children’s and parents’ dispositions and mainly based on the influence of one’s culture, traditions and origins. The four types of parenting styles include Authoritarian […]
• How Parents in Different Cultures Scaffold Their Children’s Learning Playing with the children is one of the most significant foundation for learning among young children, where learning of the child basically takes place through observations and associations with vastly skilled and highly developed members […]
• Parental Involvement in Education From the analysis of the positive relation, research studies make of two-parent families and student achievement, it is correct to note that parental involvement in two-parent family setups is more preferred to single-parent family setups.
• Respect, Honor, & Love Children for Their Parents They should never disrespect them or talk to them rudely and calmly listen to whatever they say. Children must always accompany their parents to the temples and worship wholeheartedly in front of the Gods.
• Parenting Style in Japan and USA Parenting encompasses the growth ecology of a growing up child, and hence it is very important in shaping up the behavior of the child and in their physical survival, social growth, cognitive development, and emotional […]
• The Relationship Between Parental Influence and Juvenile Delinquency Parents that do not allow their children to play with their neighbors, or discourage their children from associating with particular families lead to the children developing a negative attitude towards the families.
• Parental Care and Responsibilities In such a case, it is only logical for both parties to be involved in fending for, and taking care of the family.
• Conditioning in Parenting: Getting Kids to Do Chores One of those is an attempt to teach the child the love to the core and develop the initiative of helping with the housekeeping duties.
• Parental Responsibility for Childhood Obesity It is widely known and proven by numerous studies that parents have the most significant influence on their children’s lifestyles, especially their eating habits; in addition to the fact that children copy everything their parents […]
• Collectivist and Individualist Parents The grandparent’s role in a collectivist family would be similar to that of parents, and they would be expected to help with the upbringing, and children would need to bey them.
• Relationship Between Parents and Children The book is based on the story of a farmer and his family, who, due to the problematic nature of the head of the family, are forced to change their place of residence: “None of […]
• Single Parent and Child Language Development The first-born child in a family is more likely to have a higher chance of better language development than the remaining children that follow him.
• Parenting Styles: China vs. North America Since Chinese parenting styles pay critical emphasis on the role of parents in shaping their children’s outcomes, it may be viewed as better compared to the North American style that only focuses much on self-esteem.
• Parent–Child and Sibling Relationships In the literature on quality of sibling relationships, the focus has been made on studying psychological implications of sibling relationships, variations in sibling relationships in societies, and the implications of their successful and unsuccessful development.
• Should Parents Be Allowed to Choose the Characteristics of Their Children Through Genetic Manipulation? At the outset, genetic manipulation might be important to many parents as it trims down the prospects of grave infections in the newborn babies. The disadvantages of parents going for genetic manipulation seem to outweigh […]
• Parental Dietary Behaviors and Children’s Eating Habits The child forms eating behavior based on the parental example and the traditions adopted in the house. I think the article is based on the theory that children tend to adopt their parents’ patterns of […]
• Parenting Styles and Their Influence on Adulthood The family context is regarded as essential because it helps to establish the link between childhood and the relationships of a person with their parents with future behavior and performance.
• Parent Interview: Through the Generations I was wondering about her understanding of the roles of mothers and fathers in a family and society, as well as the changes modern parenting undergoes. The development of family relationships is a choice a […]
• Parenting Styles and Academic Motivation Lyengar and Brown conducted a study about the correlation between the academic achievements among the students and the parenting styles. This report paper tries to synthesize the literature review that surrounds the influence of parenting […]
• Self-Concept, Parental Labeling, and Delinquency The key objective is to point out broader determinants to specify the self and argue the dependence of appraisal from the standpoint of other people on delinquency.
• Different Parenting Styles The disadvantage of this style of parenting is that it over-estimates the value of discipline and forgets to highlight the importance of independence and self reliance, which is vital for maturity of an adolescent child.
• “Against the Grain: Couples, Gender, and the Reframing of Parenting” The soundness of this suggestion can be explored in regards to Gillian Ranson’s book Against the grain: couples, gender, and the reframing of parenting, concerned with exposing the actual motivations behind the process of parental […]
• Relations of Parents and Teenagers This is although the children may be extremely proud of their parents and would like to take grow up to be just like them.
• Group Therapy for Pregnant and Parenting Teenagers It is important for the girls to understand that life still has meaning in spite of their circumstances. If the girls are able to develop a positive perception of life, they will be motivated to […]
• The Role of Parents in Children’s Life The effect that was brought up in the life of Lopez is that of a person who became bitter with life and looked forward to developing the life that he would value.
• Low-Functioning Parents: Resolving the Issue The first is to put the child in the custody of foster care. The first option is likely to cause trauma to the child and parents.
• Parent-Teacher Conferences and Their Forms The picture is a great example of a successful parent-teacher conference as all factors presented in it can greatly contribute to the mutual understanding and further cooperation of parents and a teacher.
• Principles of Parenting in Psychology The ego is the component of the psyche that interfaces and coordinates the super-ego and the id in the harmonization of the conflicting sexual instincts and cultural sexual constrains in the process of psychosexual development.
• Parental Issues in A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Reading the Science of Law Into a Cautious Tale About the Return Into the Lapse of Nature When Literature Meets Jurisdiction: The Mother, the Father and the Child As it has been mentioned above, the play incorporates the elements of a moral dilemma concerning who the parent of a child should be […]
• Minors Seeking Treatment for Sexually Transmitted Diseases Without Parental Consent Due to the severity of sexually transmitted diseases, it is very important for doctors to provide minors with the necessary care.
• Parenting and Its Influence on Adult Children My parents have different views and character traits from my grandparents, and sometimes these contrasts cause difficulties in their relationships. Thus, love in the bonds between children and parents is essential, but it is sometimes […]
• What Every New Parent Should Know Undoubtedly, the issue of preparing for the baby is essential, and it touches almost every young couple, so the majority of people are familiar with it. For instance, the conflict between the parents and their […]
• Good Parents Traits and Raising Children – Psychology Some of the traits of a good parent include being a good listener, readiness to guide, self-discipline, setting time aside to spend with the children, and meeting the physical needs of children. In addition, good […]
• Helicopter Parents In the event of a problem, such parents are usually available to save the situation and ensure that the issue is solved amicably on behalf of the child.
• Why Chinese Parents Are Superior They deny their children many forms of popular leisure, are not shy to criticize them when they fail and drill them until they are perfect at whatever given task.’Western parents’ on the other hand, the […]
• Safety Promotion for Parents and Caregivers of Infants Recognizing and assessing the risk involved leads to the containment of the matter by identifying the plan required to promote infant safety.
• Technology and Parenting: Gaming and Social Media The current project is a social media campaign report targeted at addressing the increased use of social media and gaming among the growing generation.
• Single Parents in the Alcoholic Classification In this category, the single parent, either the father or the mother is a chronic alcoholic and heavily uses alcohol and other substances.
• Parental Care and Its Role in Poor Families The findings of this analysis will explain the protective factors that may minimize the effects of living in poverty on infant development.
• Parenting for Healthy Emotional Development The development of emotions gives one the ability to be empathetic to others, handle conflicts in the right way, and understand the importance of regulating emotions.
• Relationship Between Parental Involvement and Children’s Motivation Parent will respect the teachers, the profession, the school and the teacher will perceive parents as supporters and partners in the provision of education to the students.
• Parent Involvement Interview The teacher notes, “the Children’s daily report is effective means of communication between the class teacher and the parent because both parties must comment on a daily basis about the learner”.
• Parental Control as a Guarantee of Children’s Safety on the Internet Parents are liable for the safety of children on the Net and therefore are obliged to control and expand their knowledge in this field constantly.
• Parental Behavior in the Great Apes In contrast to chimpanzees, orangutan and gorilla newborns are less frequently separated from their mothers and have highly developed motor skills.
• Impact of Free Childcare on Working Parents At the same time, having a free caregiver can improve the financial situation of parents and the child, as they can return to work.
• Parenting Practices and Theories in Early Childhood While modern parenting practices and thoughts do not specify precisely how to interact with children through the ages of 6-11, they suggest that parents can develop knowledge about children’s development process.
• Parenting Behaviors and Their Impact on Children The final research paper on the effect of good and bad parenting is the most important part of the portfolio. The question regarding the effects of good and bad parenting appears provocative and uncertain, and […]
• Parenting: Plan for a Program Evaluation The purpose of the evaluation is to assess the changes to the parenting style of foster parents. The data collected at the end of the evaluation will provide the valuable information on the effectiveness of […]
• Understanding and Addressing Family Stress: Parental Responses and Impact on Children The spousal relationship, employment, a lack of structure in the household, and psychological suffering all contribute to stress. They are regarded as potent mediators, and therefore, offending elders indicates disrespecting the father and may lead […]
• Parenting: The Role of Socioeconomic Level and Discipline The influence of stress on discipline was modulated by the parent’s perceptions and thought functions such as concerns about the future of the child and the availability of alternative correctional tactics.
• Addressing Single Parents’ Needs in Professional Counseling In conclusion, after reading the article, I understood the need to reinforce the positive aspects of being a single parent while adequately addressing the adverse impact such a state has on one’s psyche.
• Parental Perception of Weight Management Barriers The study examined the parents’ perception on factors that contribute to childhood obesity and sort their suggestions on the possible ways of overcoming the barriers.
• Society and Parenting: Survey Results Among the participants, the age group category of 30-40 was the highest, followed by 40+ years, then the 20-30 years category, and finally, the below 20 years.
• Good Parenting and Strong Social Development As a result, it is debatable whether the idea of rewarding children does or does not lead to an increase in their pro-social conduct.
• Parental Knowledge, Attitudes, and Cultural Beliefs Regarding Oral Health A good understanding of parental knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and awareness regarding oral health is important for improving health promotion efforts focused on elevating the dental health of young children.
• The Role of Parental Involvement in School Life The expert states the pointlessness of the argument and the joint work of the institutions that are important in the education and life of the child.
• Parental Education on Overweight and Obese Children The search term used includes “Effect of parental education on BMI,” “the importance of parental Education in reducing Obesity,” and “BMI, parental education, and Bodyweight”.
• The Partnership With Parents and Community The relationship between parents and children is a complex system of relationships, the subject of the study of the psychology of parenthood, the purpose of which is to determine the mechanisms of the development of […]
• Old-Young and Parent-Child Relationships in Early Chinese Society It is possible to apply the same principle to the relationships of the parent and the child, where the child should always respect the parent and follow their orders and advice.
• “Black Parents Ask for a Second Look” by Adjei & Minka The authors claimed that the lack of understanding of the former often results in children of color being taken away from their families by Child and Family Services.
• Child-Parent Relationships in Contemporary International Cinema Understanding the quality of the relationships between parents and children plays an important role in modern society, and various methods are used to deliver the message and share opinions.
• Ethical Dilemma of Parental Refusal From Children’s Vaccination Kerry attempts to convince the Smiths of the relevance of vaccination in preventing infection by chronic diseases. Autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice are ethical principles applicable in resolving the moral issue of whether or not […]
• Epilepsy and Seizure Disorder: A Guide for Parents The use of electrodes is completely painless, and it allows the detection of the movement of neurons in the patient’s brain. First, a child is likely to experience challenges in learning due to seizures and […]
• Parental Role in Adolescents’ Phone Addiction In other words, the connection between the guardian and the teenagers is critical and should be maintained to allow children experience the love of their parents.
• Education for Parents of Children With Cancer The hospital was selected because I am have been working there for a long time, and the personnel is willing to help me with the implementation of the process.
• “Parental Characteristics and Offspring Mental Health” by Jami The title of the article is “Parental characteristics and offspring mental health and related outcomes: A systematic review of genetically informative literature”.
• Teachers-Parents Partnership and Children’s Literature The literature also allows children to learn and appreciate their differences with other kids and families, facilitating the establishment and maintenance of friendship.
• Parental Leaves for Both Parents in the US and Other Countries In the absence of federal paid leave policies in the U. As of 2018, in addition to the FMLA, four states had paid family leave laws in place, and three more were determined to pass […]
• The Four Basic Parenting Practices This type of parent listens to their children and provides love and comfort in conjunction with boundaries and reasonable chastisement. Children that have authoritarian parents are more personality and capable of thinking for themselves.
• Parental Differences in Eastern and Western Cultures The main finding of this study was that children of Chinese families were better equipped for school, when the family employed greater parental involvement combined with high authoritative parenting style.
• Should the Church Baptize Babies of Commited Christian Parents? One of the most common is the idea of the unity of the believers that surpass any genetic or race accessory.
• Adolescent Shoplifting: Infographics for Parents The consequences of unaddressed juvenile shoplifting are the involvement of teenagers in organized theft, other serious gang activities, and placement in a youth detention center.
• The Impact of Parental Incarceration and Foster Children to Delinquency It was proved that the causal relationship between events such as parental incarceration and foster care and the social phenomenon of juvenile delinquency truly exists.
• Case Study: Parental Dispute The threshold criteria are the evidence and facts that are to be proven by the social services in order for the court to consider making the Care and Supervision Order.
• A Generational Dance: How Parents and Kids Relate In summation, it is vital to note that the well-being and development of a child depend on the wholesome relations with their parents.
• How Does Having a Child With Autism Affects Parents’ Lifestyle? The creation of a system of psychological, pedagogical and social support can reduce the risk of a complete family life dedication to a child with autism.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Parenting Style On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being lowest and 10 being highest, how much do you believe that kids need to learn early who the boss is in the family?
• Parental Corporal Punishment of Young Children But did you know that the States is the only permanent and non-permanent member of the United Nations that is not a signatory to Article 19, which condemns and prohibits all forms of physical abuse […]
• Parenthub as Resource for Parent-Child Relationships Building Unfortunately, not all parents understand effective methods of upbringing, do not realize the value of a favorable environment for the child’s independence, and neglect the appearance of the youth’s emotional anticipation.
• How Parents of Color Transcend Nightmare of Racism Even after President Abraham Lincoln outlawed enslavement and won the American Civil War in 1965, prejudice toward black people remained engrained in both the northern and southern cultural structures of the United States.
• Parenting Counseling in the New York City Community Overall, Cap4Kids has developed a wide range of resources and opportunities for children and their parents, thus, addressing the parenting issues that New York City community members are likely to experience presently.
• The Relationships Between Parents and Children and Keys to Their Success The key points, which people frequently neglect, are the need for parents to be nurturers, never-ending personal development, and the risks with which the prevalence of emotional motives for parenthood is associated.
• Impact of Free Childcare on Parents Willingness to Go Back to Work or College The study is unique in that it assesses the impact of free childcare in aiding parents to get back to college and work, unlike existing literature that focuses on parental return to work only.
• Children and Parent’s Adjustment Process The adjustment process of new children and their parents can be challenging for them and the teacher. Inviting the parents to the classroom can help with the separation anxiety in both children and their parents.
• The Experience of Parents of Children With Disabilities Enhancing support for the mental well-being of parents of children with a disability: developing a resource based on the perspectives of parents and professionals.
• “Home, School, and Community Relations”: The Complex Role Nature of Parenting However, emphasizing work sometimes leads to a lack of attention to the educator’s role, which can also hurt a child. From my perspective, such behavior is a warning signal, which has to be taken seriously […]
• The Sandwich Generation: Impact on the Parent Caring for Children and Parents The person who has the role of taking care of both the small children and the elderly parents meets multiple challenges while managing all the responsibilities simultaneously.
• The Sandwich Generation: Caring for Children and Parents The definition indicates a person “sandwiched” between managing the responsibilities of a parent and a caring child at the same time.
• Raising the Standards for Children of Incarcerated Parents The sources of their hardships extend to social, economic, and emotional levels, and it is up to the community to recognize that and affect change by advocating for appropriate programs, policies, and practices.
• The Relationship Between Single-Parent Households and Poverty The given literature review will primarily focus on the theoretical and empirical aspects of the relationship between single-parent households and poverty, as well as the implications of the latter on mental health issues, such as […]
• Parental Intervention on Self-Management of an Adolescent With Diabetes Diabetes development and exposure are strongly tied to lifestyle, and the increasing incidents rate emphasizes the severity of the population’s health problem.
• The Difference in Parenting an Adolescent Similarly, the father, who appears to be a disconnected and distant parent, has to support the mother and the child psychologically bonded to their adolescent to improve parenting.
• Parenting Models in Modern Family Unit of Emigrants in the USA The fact is that the Lee family has three children, one of whom is just a baby, and the other two are studying at the moment in high school.
• Empathy in Parent-Child Relationships It is the responsibility of parents to explain to their children what is right and what is wrong so that they can form their own opinion and develop a sense of self-worth.
• Single, Low-Income, or Homeless Mothers’ Health and Parenting Problems To promote their wellbeing, health professionals may support homeless mothers in practices such as the use of strengths-anchored nursing, supporting ideas of good parenting, overcoming stigma, and discovering and eliminating the unsurmountable hindrances encountered within […]
• Parents Who Teach Their Kids About Self-Worth Teaching their kids to be proud is essential because it can give them the strength to stand up for what is right and evaluate the situations around them with a sense of pride and self-worth.
• A Quality All Parents Should Cultivate Parents should be able to show their love to their children since they are not able to express themselves when they need it most. Parents’ love for their children is unparalleled, and they need to […]
• Parent-Child Relationships in Later Life My mother, in turn, seeks to demonstrate that she is not a child anymore, and the patronage of that kind insults her.
• Parenting Styles and Overweight Status The authoritarian parenting style has a strict disciplinarian and a high expectation of the child’s self-control from the parent but a low sensitivity.
• Infantilization: Adult Children Living With Parents When the time comes to leave home, young people are petrified of the idea of living on their own and not having the same level of everyday care and support that they are used to.
• What Is a Concept Good Parent? Overall, a good parent is a parent who can offer one’s child love and affection which is important for his or her normal development as a dignified and contented person, and is also successful in […]
• Analysis of Bullying and Parenting Style Since the given topic usually refers to children and adolescents, it is evident that their parents hold a portion of responsibility because the adults affect the growth and development of young individuals.
• Parent’s Right to Travel Out of the Country This paper seeks to analyze the parent’s right to travel out of the country and outlines why traveling has been an issue for the courts In the US, the Supreme Court acknowledges that every citizen […]
• Parent Involvement and Student Achievement The purpose of the study is to investigate whether parental involvement plays a role in elementary school student achievement.
• Autism and Vaccination Refusal Management Among Somalian Parents Somalian parents in their community in Minnesota refuse from their children being vaccinated, as they believe that vaccination causes autism.
• Parents’ Immunization Decisions and Complex Issues in Toddlers The child and family health nurse can collaborate with diverse professionals, including the state’s immunization specialists, to improve the child’s health prospects while also empowering the mother to get updated information from national authorities in […]
• The Home Interaction Program for Parents and Youngsters Aarash said that children’s well-being is his priority and mentioned that the family needs proper food for Hamdiya and a washing machine and iron to ensure the children look neat.
• Parents’ Perception of Attending an ADHD Clinic The main principles of the clinic’s specialists should be an objective diagnosis of the neurological status of the child and the characteristics of his/her behavior, the selection of drug treatment only on the basis of […]
• Assessment and Communicating With Parents Technology allows for an accurate quantitative measurement of the students’ progress. Technology helps compare and contrast the results of two assessments.
• Childhood Obesity and Parental Education The thesis is as follows: parents should cooperate with local organizations to receive and provide their children with education on healthy living and the dangers of obesity because they are responsible for their children’s diet.
• The Importance of Parenting Aspects First, it is essential to note the critical periods of prenatal development, when the mother and the baby are the most vulnerable.
• Success: How to Parent? Therefore, it is crucial to choose a competent approach to raising a child to not injure them in this way. This will help in choosing a profession and the entire path of life.
• Parent-School Communication The current paper includes an interview with the school’s principal regarding the opportunities for parent-school partnership.
• Positive Parenting Tips for Young Child’s Safety So to keep your child healthy and safe, the first two years of a child’s growth are very important and hence should be taken care of cautiously.
• Adverse Childhood Experiences With Incarcerated Parents The Method of Data Collection: Mixed: survey and secondary data will both be utilized. The Research Design: First, there will be a survey of families in which there are incarcerated parents.
• Jennifer Morse: Parents or Prisons Among the many reasons cited to have led to high the number of cases of juvenile offending is divorce and single parenthood.
• Teen Pregnancy and Early Parental Care The scholars established the high value of prenatal care for the teenage mothers that was likely to save thousands of dollars invested in the newborn care and support of the pregnancies.
• Parental Consent in Minors’ Abortions Thus, the parents or guardians of the teenage girl ought to be aware of the planned abortion and explain the possible consequences of abortion to the girl.
• Vicarious Liability of Parents for Their Children Vicarious liability is a term used to refer to situations where parents are punished because of the offenses committed by their children.
• Parenting Styles Concept Comprehensive Study The differentiation between the main parenting styles depends upon the cultural context and the personal perceptions of the parenting strategies. The choice of the most appropriate parenting style can have a significant impact on the […]
• Music in Parental Participation in Pediatric Laceration The check list forms facilitate the giving out of answers by the subjects while the tables allow for easy recording of the numerical data collection from the recorded forms, and this would translate to lessening […]
• Conjugal Visits: Programs for Inmate Parents These visits are offered to inmates with the supervision of correctional officers in the prisons, “they are private meeting between inmates and their wife and during those meeting they are allowed to engage in anything […]
• Care Needs of Children Whose Parents Have Incurable Cancer One of the common themes raised in the articles under consideration is anticipatory grief or the effect of forewarning of death on the children’s perception of one of their parents’ death.
• Disability Equality of a Disabled Lone Parent
• Parental Agony in Natal Alienation in Chesnutt’s The Sheriff’s Children & Harper’s The Slave Mother
• The Challenges of Teen Parenting: Socioeconomic Consequences and Child Development Risks
• Ethical Dilemma: Parental Notification
• Teens Talking With Their Partners About Sex: The Role of Parent Communication
• Parent-Teacher-Youth Mediation Program Analysis
• “Gender Differences in Work-Family Guilt in Parents of Young Children”: Quantitative Research Critique
• The Parent-Involvement Research
• Toddlers and Tiaras: Have Parents Gone Too Far
• “When Couples Become Parents” by Bonnie Fox
• Family Systems Theory: Parenting and Family Diversity Issues
• College Planning Brochure for Parents
• Incarceration of a Parent or a Guardian of Recidivist
• The Influence of Parents on Schoolchildren and Students
• Parenting in Battered Women: The Effects of Domestic Violence
• Lone Parents: Social Work and Exclusion
• Gender-Schema and Social Cognitive Theory in Parenting Styles
• Concern-Based Adoption Model in the Learning Process
• Parents’ Duty to Monitor Children’s Online Activities
• Behavioral Parenting Training to Treat Children With ADHD
• The Issue of Parents’ Censorship
• Why Single Parents Should Stop Working?
• “Blood Wedding” by F. G. Lorca and “The Metamorphosis” by F. Kafka: The Impact of Roles of Parents
• Should Parents Use Monitoring Software?
• Parenting Training Classes: A Psychology Experiment
• Pilgrims and Puritanism Parenting
• Teaching Parents of Schoolchildren on Sex and Sexuality
• “Home, School and Playroom” by Claire Etaugh: The Combined Effects and Interactions Among Parental Child-Rearing Practices
• Why Spanking Is Acceptable in Parenting
• Parental Rights Terminating: Reasons and Procedures
• Parental Rejection Effects on Homosexuals
• Hamlet’s Parental Relationships
• Parents Influence Sexuality, Based on Two Novels
• Parental Intervention for Abnormal Pubescence
• The Relationships Between Physiotherapists and Educators, Parents, and Service Providers
• Communication Plan for Students, Teachers and Parents
• Fine and Lee on Psychoeducational Program for Parents
• Male and Female Parents: Is There a Difference?
• The Idea of Gay Parenting
• Critical Issues in Education: Parenting and Its Implication on Student’s Achievement
• Parenting a Child with a Disability Study Books Used in Class
• A Critical Review of Corporal Punishment as a Form of Parental Discipline
• Problems of Learning and Mutual Understanding of Students, Teachers and Parents
• African-American Community: Parental Involvement
• Parental Roles and Changes in the Last 50 Years
• Parent-Child Relations in Poetry
• Parent Involvement in the Elementary School Setting
• Parent-School Online Communication Platforms
• Antibiotic and Analgesic Self-Medication Practices Among Parents for Childhood Problems
• Parenting in “Hey, Kiddo” by Jarrett J. Krosoczka
• Parental Beliefs’ Impact on Children’s Therapy
• Parental Refusal of Treatment: Ethical Decision-Making
• Parents’ Role in Youth Probation Outcomes
• Parental Divorce and Its Impact on Teenagers
• Parental Report of Vaccine Receipt in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Discharging Minors in a Psychiatric Facility While Parents Feel Unsafe
• Schools and Parents’ Fight Against Cyberbullying
• Parenting Topic in Developmental Psychology
• Parental Disclosure of Artificial Conception
• Mental Illness in Children and Its Effects on Parents
• Parental Responsibilities and Related Conflicts
• Parenting, Child Development, and Socialization
• Family, Marriage, and Parenting Concepts Nowadays
• Children With Disabilities and Parental Mistreatment
• Rights of Parents of Students With Disabilities
• Parent Education and Discipline-Training Programs
• Parenting Behaviors Throughout Child’s Life
• Abbreviated Plans: Parent or Guardian Incarceration
• The Importance of Right Parenting in America
• Developing an Effective Parenting
• Productive Communication With Parents
• Parenting Strategies for Early Childhood Development
• Parents as Teachers Program From Educator’s View
• Parent Volunteering in the Early Education Centers
• Disabled Child Guidance Through the Parents’ Eyes
• “The Economic Benefits of Paid Parental Leave” by C. Miller
• Parental Uninvolvement in Personality Development
• Education Effect on Cultural Practices of Parents
• Parent-Child Perceptions: Sexual Discussions
• Being a Father: Parenting Roles and Experiences
• Parenting Styles and Authority Problems
• Poverty in American Single-Parent Families
• Grandparents as Parental Figures in Modern Families
• Group Counseling for Children of Addicted Parents
• Child Counseling and Parenting Problems
• Sources of Conflict Between Parents and Teenagers
• Infant-Parent Attachment: Secure or Insecure?
• The Physiological Impact of Autism on Children and Parents
• Saudi Parents’ Perceptions of Early Intervention
• School Communication and Interaction With Parents
• Vegan Parents’ Influence on Their Children’s Diet
• Children’s Right to Be Parented by the Best Parent
• Parenting Style and the Development
• Computer Literacy: Parents and Guardians Role
• Parental Investment Theory
• Children’s Success Requirements in Parents’ Views
• Authoritarian vs. Permissive Parenting Styles
• Parenting Children With Learning Disabilities
• Child Parenting Guide and Challenges
• Teacher-Parent Collaboration in Special Education
• Parent-Child Relationship in Early Modern England
• Parental Control and Young Adult Criminal Behavior
• Young Adults Increasingly Moving in With Parents
• Parental Narcissism and Adolescent Development
• Parents’ Participation in Cultural Activities
• Teaching Project: The Tube-Fed Children’s Parents
• Why Young People Live Longer With Their Parents
• Adolescents’ Decision-Making and Parenting Concerns
• Parenting, Divorce, Dating in the Dear Abby Letter
• Parental Participation in Educational Activities
• Parents’ Reasons Allowing Their Newborns to Die
• Parental Involvement and Children’s Aspirations
• Emotions in Parent of a Child With Special Needs
• Aljoudah School: Teachers and Students’ Parents Experiences
• Adolescent Self-Perception and Parental Care
• Parents and Community Involvement
• Parent-Teen Relations in the United States and Denmark
• Parents Challenges: Raising Bilingual Children
• “Parental Choice” of Son-In-Law or Daughter-In-Law
• Children Reading Skills: Parents and Babysitters Effect
• Parental Involvement in School-To-Work Transition
• Parents’ Education and Children’s Achievement
• Parenting Styles of Young Adults
• Cartoons, Young Children, and Parental Involvement
• Parenting: Learning That an Adolescent Is Gay or Lesbian
• Association of Parenting Factors With Bullying
• Aspects of Parenting Infants and Toddlers
• Parenting Methods: Pros and Challenges
• Parent-Teacher Interaction Strategies
• Parent Interview and Infant Observation
• Parents’ Depression and Toddler Behaviors
• Children Mental Illness and Its Effects on Parents
• Parenting and Its Major Styles
• Styles of Parenting as a Psychological Strategies
• Cross-Cultural Study: Parenting and Psychological Disorders in Adolescents
• Parents Impact on Children Obesity – Nutrition
• Children Learning Activities and Parental Involvement
• Parents Need Help on Snow Days
• Chinese Parenting Style in Raising Successful Children
• Academic Performance and Parental Influence
• Parents Conferences Role in Education
• Parenting Behavior Supporting Obesity in School-Aged Children
• Children Obesity Issues and Role of Parents in It
• The Lived Experiences of Native American Indian Women Parenting off the Reservation
• Parents’ Involvement and Factors Important for Children’s Growth and Development
• Suggestions for Future Strategies in Analysis of Parental Involvement in School Administration
• Parenting Variables in Antenatal Education
• Single Parents Raise Kids
• Effective Responses to Challenging Parental Behaviors
• “Dating and the Single Parent” by Ron Deal
• “Dating and the Single Parent” by Deal
• Designing Educational Spaces: A Birth-To-Eighteen-Year-Old Training for a Rich Parent
• First Time Parenting
• Abortion and Parental Consent
• The Effects of Parental Involvement on Student Achievement
• Teach Your Parents Well
• How Children of Incarcerated Parents Are Affected
• Parental Involvement in Adolescent’s Life: Contributing to Identity Formation
• Role of Parents in the Education of Young Children
• Does Parental Involvement and Poverty Affect Children’s Education and Their Overall Performance?
• Problems Experienced by Children of Homosexual Parents
• When Couples Become Parents
• Analysis of Psychoeducational Program for Parents of Dysfunctional Backgrounds
• Reflective Entry of “Trauma Through a Child’s Eyes: Awakening the Ordinary Miracle of Healing Children, Parenting and the Family Series” and “Udaan”
• Gay Marriage, Same-Sex Parenting, And America’s Children
• Parents and Families as Partners
• Parenting: Managing and Controlling Behavior of a Child
• Families and Young Children: What Constitutes Effective Parental Discipline?
• Plans for Caring for Elderly Parents
• The Development Psychology: Parents’ Probability of Having Another Children
• Milwaukee Parental Choice Program
• Parents Attitude Towards the Importance of Childhood Nutrition
• Psychology: Parents’ Decisions on Having the Second Child
• Parents Need Help: Restricting Access to Video Games
• The Mothers Who Are Not Single: Striving to Avoid Poverty in Single-Parent Families
• The Relationship Between Shin and His Parents. Escape From Camp 14
• What Defines Parental Techniques and Strategies: The Case of Soccer Moms
• Chinese Mothers and Their Incredible Parenting
• How Does the Gender of Parent Matters?
• A Dysfunctional Behavior Involving a Drunkard Parent
• Effects of Parental Promotion of the Santa Myth
• Freakonomics and Parenting: A Position Paper
• Social Network and Personal Loss Among Young Adults With Mental Illness and Their Parents: A Family Perspective
• Parents’ Influence on the Life of the Main Characters
• Harsh Parenting in Relation to Child Emotion Regulation and Aggression.
• Harsh Parenting: Emotion Regulation and Aggression
• Should Justin Ellsworth’s Parents Have Been Given Access to His Email?
• Parent Involvement and Educational Outcomes
• Gay Marriage and Parenting
• Cooperation Between Teachers and Parents
• How Divorce and Single Parenting Affects Children
• Effects of a Parental Death on Younger Children
• Adopted Children With Gay Parents Have Better Chances of Succeeding
• The Impact of Media on Adolescents, and the Roles Played by School and Parents
• Family Issues: Parents Should Stay at Home When They Have Babies
• Parents as Failed Role Models: A Doll’s House and Fight Club
• Parenting’s Skills, Values and Styles
• Psychological Effects of Parental Employment and Early Childcare
• Teenage Alcoholism: Parental Influence and How to Get Rid of Vice
• Gay Parenting and the Issue of Adoption
• Western and Eastern Parenting Styles
• Foster Parenting Together: Foster Parent Couples
• The Five Major Parenting Modes and the Most Effective Parenting Style
• Parenting Techniques and Their Influences on Their Child’s Behavior and Habits
• Family, Parenting and Child Conduct Problems
• Social and Legal Obstacles of Gay and Lesbian Parenting
• Work-Family Conflict and Mindful Parenting: The Mediating Role of Parental Psychopathology Symptoms and Parenting Stress in a Sample of Employed Parents
• Parenting and Family: What’s Intergenerational Transmission
• Valuable Strategies for Parenting an Impulsive Child
• The Correlation Between Cyberbullying and Parenting Style, the Gender Differences in Cyberbullying
• Same-Sex Couples, Adoption, and Parenting
• Gender Equality and Inequality in Parenting Other Chapter
• Parenting Styles According to Social Class
• Authoritarian Parenting- Negative Effects of Authoritarian Parenting
• The Relationship Between Teen Pregnancy and Parenting
• Health and Social Services for Pregnant and High-Risk Parenting Teens
• Socioeconomic Status and Parenting Styles
• Different Parenting Styles and Their Effect on Children’s Behavior
• Economic Deprivation, Maternal Depression, Parenting and Children’s Cognitive and Emotional Development in Early Childhood
• Single Parenting Versus Double Parenting
• Low-Income Single Mothers’ Community Violence Exposure and Aggressive Parenting Practices
• Parenting Stress and Emotional or Behavioral Problems in Adolescents
• Relationships Between Parenting Style and Self Reliance
• Homeownership and Parenting Practices: Evidence From the Community Advantage Panel
• Parenting Styles: Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive, and Uninvolved
• Parenting and Education During Early Childhood
• Effective Parenting-Early Development, Various Parenting Styles and Discipline
• Implementing Parenting Programmes Across Cultural Contexts: A Perspective on the Deficit Narrative
• The Social Norm for Parenting and the Three Classic Parenting Patterns
• Family Income, Parenting Styles, and Child Behavioral-Emotional Outcomes
• Parenting Stress Among Child Welfare Involved Families: Differences by Child Placement
• Bidirectional Longitudinal Relations Between Parent and Grandparent and Co-parenting Relationships
• Relationship Between Parenting Styles and Anxiety Sensitivity
• Attachment Theory and Maternal Drug Addiction: The Contribution to Parenting Interventions
• Ideal Family and Parenting Configurations
• Social Behavior, Crime, and Poor Parenting
• The Psychosocial Variables Associated With the Parenting a Child Having Special Needs
• Attachment and Parental Reflective Functioning Features in ADHD: Enhancing the Knowledge on Parenting Characteristics
• Adoptive Parenting and Attachment: Association of the Internal Working Models Between Adoptive Mothers and Their Late-Adopted Children During Adolescence
• Does Strength-Based Parenting Predict Academic Achievement?
• What Are the Different Parenting Types Used by Families?
• How Does Social Class Influence Parenting and Child Development?
• How Has Parenting Changed Over the Generations?
• What Challenges Do Parents Face by Their Gender or Sexual Identities?
• Are the Major Causes of Juvenile Crime Lack of Parenting?
• How Does Culture Affect Parenting Styles?
• What Are the Effect of Bad Parenting?
• What Unites All Parenting Styles?
• Are Testosterone Levels and Depression Risk Linked Based on Partnering and Parenting?
• How Parenting Styles Around With How Culture and Religion?
• When Children Rule: Parenting in Modern Families?
• How Has Technology Impacted Parenting?
• When Behavioral Barriers Are Too High or Low – How Timing Matters for Parenting Interventions?
• Does Parenting Style Matter?
• Does Mothers Self-Construal Contribute to Parenting Beyond Socioeconomic Status and Maternal Efficacy?
• Who Helps With Homework? Parenting Inequality and Relationship Quality Among Employed Mothers and Fathers?
• How Does Parenting Styles Influence a Child’s Development?
• Does Parenting Affect Children’s Eating and Weight Status?
• How Parenting Styles Affect the Psychological Growth of a Child?
• Does Homosexual Parenting Have Adverse Effects?
• How Different Parenting Styles Affect Children?
• When Parenting Fails: Alexithymia and Attachment States of Mind in Mothers of Female Patients With Eating Disorders?
• Does Authoritative Parenting Impact Juvenile Delinquency?
• Why Doesn’t Single Parenting Always Mean Tough Life for Children?
• Are Our Parenting Classes Needed?
• Why Has Parenting Gotten More Difficult?
• How Is Parenting Role and Parental Status Influence on Impatience?
• What Are Parenting Styles?
• How Does Gender and Sexuality Condition Influence Parenting?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Which Parenting Style Do You Have?

T here’s no task more challenging yet equally rewarding than becoming a parent. With parenting, there are different styles that can significantly influence a child’s development, affecting their psychological growth, emotional understanding, and social skills. While personality, personal experience, and cultural background are all factors that lead parents to develop a unique blend of different styles, there are four core parenting styles that psychologists have recognized and researched. Today, let’s have a little fun and explore these four types of parenting styles, taking a closer look to see how each one shapes our children.

Authoritarian Parenting

Often viewed as the “strict” parenting style, authoritarian parenting is characterized by high expectations and rigid rules. These are the types of parents who demand obedience and tend to use punishment rather than discipline. Authoritarian parents also expect their children to follow their rules at all times without asking any questions or having any complaints. 

While this style of parenting might instill a strong sense of discipline and responsibility in children, it can also have several negative impacts. These children are likely to develop lower self-esteem, difficulty in social situations, and a higher risk of mental health issues. In short, parents of this type appear too unapproachable to their kids, making it difficult for them to reach out. Children from authoritarian homes may also become either overly aggressive or overly submissive in their future relationships with others. While it’s important for children to understand that misbehaviour comes with consequences, authoritarian parenting can certainly take a toll on nurturing a child’s independence and creativity.

Permissive Parenting

On the other end of the spectrum, we have permissive parents who are often seen as too “lenient” or too “friend-like”. These types of parents provide very few guidelines or rules for their children in order to avoid confrontation. However, permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative, often taking on more of a friend role rather than a parental figure.

While this parenting style can lead to a strong emotional bond between parent and child, the lack of rules and discipline can result in children becoming self-centered, resistant to authority, and struggling with self-control. Not used to being managed, these children may also have difficulty following orders, managing their time, and working towards achieving goals. While it’s definitely crucial that parents develop a friendly and deep relationship with their children, it’s important that they aim to maintain a good balance between strictness and understanding. After all, discipline is key to developing a well-rounded individual.

Neglectful Parenting

Neglectful parenting can almost be seen as a much more extreme form of permissive parenting – this style is characterized by a complete lack of responsiveness to a child’s needs. Neglectful parents don’t invest time into fulfilling their child’s basic needs, showing them little to no emotional involvement. This parenting style can often stem from parents being too overwhelmed by their own personal problems, which in turn, leads them to neglect their child’s needs. 

There are a wide array of problems that come with this parenting style. Children raised in such poor environments tend to struggle with self-esteem issues, perform poorly in school, and exhibit frequent behavioural problems. They likely feel neglected and struggle with feelings of abandonment, leading to future mental health issues. Although parents are surely dealing with their own set of struggles, it’s essential that you remain focused on prioritizing the emotional, psychological, and physical well-being of their child. It’s their responsibility to provide for someone who completely relies on them.

Authoritative Parenting

Containing both the best qualities of permissive and authoritarian parenting, authoritative parenting is often seen as the most balanced approach. While parents will set clear rules and guidelines for their children to follow, they also respect their independence. Although high expectations are set, authoritative parents will provide all the resources and support their children will need to succeed.

Children who are raised in this positive environment tend to grow up to be confident, successful, and socially adept. They are likely to have better emotional control, good problem-solving skills, and higher self-esteem. Furthermore, they often perform well academically and are comfortable with expressing their inner thoughts and feelings. Thanks to the balancing of discipline and warmth, authoritative parenting focuses on nurturing a child’s individuality all while maintaining the role of an effective parent.

As you can see, parenting styles can be very different from person to person, all leading to different outcomes for their children. For many parents, you may not just follow one type of parenting, but a combination of a few. At the end of the day, as parents, we have an immense responsibility of providing a nurturing and supportive environment for our children to grow up in. Always strive to find the perfect balance that works for your household, adjusting your approach depending on your child’s unique needs and personality.