reflective essay on leadership competencies

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The Importance of Reflective Leadership in Business

• 05 Sep 2023

Effective leadership is essential to business success. As an organizational leader , you not only guide decision-making but create your company’s culture, retain its talent, and move it toward bigger, better things.

Your leadership style —the behavioral patterns consistent across your decision-making—influences your impact on your organization and team. One of the most beneficial styles to adopt is reflective leadership.

If you want to learn more about reflective leadership’s role in business, here’s an overview of its components, why it’s effective, and how to become a reflective leader.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is Reflective Leadership?

Reflective leadership involves self-awareness, introspection, and continuous learning and growth to make better decisions, enhance leadership skills , and improve team performance .

“Reflective leadership requires the continuous practice of reflection over time,” says Harvard Business School Professor Nien-hê Hsieh in the online course Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . “This allows you to regularly examine and re-evaluate your decisions and responsibilities to practice, broaden, and deepen your skills, and to apply this knowledge when analyzing present situations.”

Reflective leadership also enables you to help your team grow.

“Reflective leadership is about helping others on your team or in your organization,” Hsieh says. “It’s about helping them develop their own skills in awareness, judgment, and action.”

In Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability , Hsieh delves into the reflective leadership model , a framework for conceptualizing your responsibilities as an ethical leader.

The model has four components:

• Awareness: Recognize your legal, economic, and ethical responsibilities to stakeholders.
• Judgment: Consider biases and shared concepts that influence your decision-making.
• Action: Act on your decisions in an accountable, consistent way.
• Reflection: Reflect on all three components throughout the process to learn from past experiences.

“The reflective leadership model involves not only reflection on business decisions but also continuous reflection on your own personal beliefs, goals, and commitments,” Hsieh says in the course. “These aspects of self are often significant influences on your decisions and internal guides when navigating difficult situations.”

The Importance of Reflective Leadership

Before diving into the importance of reflective leadership, it’s critical to note the pitfalls of being an inadequate leader.

According to recruitment services company Zippia , 79 percent of employees leave their companies because they don’t feel appreciated by leaders, and upwards of 69 percent believe they’d work harder if recognized. In addition, only 33 percent report feeling engaged in the workplace.

Companies also lack focus on leadership development. Zippia reports that 77 percent struggle to find and develop leaders, and only five percent implement leadership development at all levels.

Since reflective leadership focuses on continuously improving and developing, it’s one of the more effective leadership styles. By regularly reflecting on your beliefs and values and incorporating them into your actions, you can make ethical decisions and enable your company to be more purpose-driven .

“Along with responsibility, leadership brings opportunities,” Hsieh explains in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . “These include opportunities to make ethical decisions where someone else wouldn’t, to influence others to do the right thing, and to make a positive impact on the world.”

Reflective leadership also helps you build authentic, supportive relationships with team members and create a workplace of ethics and accountability .

If you want to adopt a reflective leadership style, here are the competencies to develop.

How to Become a Reflective Leader

Be self-reflective.

Self-reflection is at reflective leadership’s core. According to Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability , you can practice self-reflection by:

• Reviewing, analyzing, and evaluating your decisions—in the moment and over time.
• Continuously deepening your awareness and self-knowledge.
• Developing a general framework for judgment.
• Improving your capacity for action and leadership.

Leading with self-reflection won’t just help you learn from past experiences but also encourage and enable your team members to adopt reflective mentalities.

Identify Your Commitments

Knowing your commitments is also essential to effective leadership.

“It’s important to identify and define your own commitments,” Hsieh says in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability , “both to set a baseline for what you will and won’t do and to evaluate and clarify your thoughts, opinions, and feelings when making decisions.”

To create that baseline, Hsieh recommends asking the following questions:

• What’s core to my identity?
• What lines or boundaries won’t I cross?
• What kind of life do I want to live?
• What kind of leader do I want to be?

By identifying your commitments, you can better guide yourself and your team.

Consider Your Accountability

Becoming a reflective leader also requires accountability to successfully execute on your values and implement them into action plans.

This refers to the reflective leadership model’s “action” step—putting your decisions into practice in a way that’s accountable and consistent with your responsibilities.

“When leading reflectively, straightforward action planning may not be enough,” Hsieh says in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . “An accountable leader will go beyond just answering ‘How will we do it?’ to ask ‘How can I do it accountably?’”

Reflective Leadership Training for Businesses

By incorporating your values into your leadership style, you can learn from your experiences on a deeper level and develop into a better leader.

One way to gain the skills and frameworks to succeed long term is by taking an online course, such as Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . Through a dynamic, interactive learning experience, the course provides the opportunity to apply the reflective leadership model to real-world business ethics challenges.

Are you ready to become a reflective leader? Enroll in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability —one of our online leadership and management courses —and download our free e-book on effective leadership.

About the Author

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Young African Leaders Initiative

A guest post from Sadhana Hall , an instructor for the YALI Network Online Courses , including lessons on “ Networking to Get Ahead ,” “ Creating and Managing a Team ” and “ Setting and Achieving Goals .”

I am fortunate to reflect on leadership and management concepts regularly, but not because these ideas are necessarily “new.” Many leadership concepts may be simple, but they are not just “common sense”; if that were the case, why don’t we see them being practiced more frequently? In my experience, I’ve found that great leadership requires intentional reflection on key concepts; here are a few that are important to me.

Effective management and leadership begins with being self-aware . This simply means that you need to work hard to intimately understand your strengths and weaknesses, model ways in which your values are congruent with your behavior, and develop a culture of respect for yourself and for others on your team. Recently, a new employee said to me: “Although I already had a strong sense of my core values before joining this organization, working here has pushed me to practice a higher level of professionalism. Our organization’s culture doesn’t just teach leadership to our students, but expects faculty and staff to model what leadership actually looks like on a daily basis. We are responsible for an array of excellent courses, effective programs, and skill-building events, but the most personally rewarding aspect of my work is participating in an internal culture that is congruent with our external message.” Explicit and implicit in this employee’s observation is the way in which our team practices shared management and leadership with awareness and authenticity.

Consider also what integrity means to you as a manager or a leader and why it matters. Integrity has been defined and described in many ways, but there is one idea that has stuck with me: A person’s integrity is a matter of the value of his or her word, nothing more and nothing less. If you keep your word for every task, large or small, people will naturally trust you with more complex responsibilities. Responsibility and trust create credibility, which then makes the conditions ripe for leading people towards achieving common goals. This is how your organization and your role within it can grow. So consider developing a habit of keeping your word — to yourself and to others. I know from personal experience that this is not an easy thing to do all the time. If you break your word — to yourself or to another person — apologize and figure out a way to fix the problem you might have created by breaking your word.

Finally, as a leader, pay attention to self-care . Taking care of your team starts with taking care of yourself. Understand your limits and what you can reasonably accomplish in a finite period of time. Identify tasks only you can accomplish and delegate other tasks in ways that will engage your team members and encourage their development.

These are my reflections on self-awareness, integrity, and self-care. What do these concepts mean to you?

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Reflective Practice in Leadership Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Self –examination through exchange and interaction, outcomes of reflexivity and internal processes of learning, leadership, strategic learning and change interventions, strategic and experiential learning, personal meanings and mental models, diagnostic work and critical feedback from others, action plan.

Reflective practice is an essential part of human personality that enables a person to self-discover his inner qualities. This concept is meaningful to my professional and career destiny because it enables me to understand my talents and abilities. Therefore, I have gained insights my behavioural instincts and how they either favour or weaken my ability to excel in various leadership roles. More importantly, the reflective process allows me to use my intellect to set higher standards for myself in different engagements I am pursuing (Mackoff & Wenet 2001, p. 96).

As an aspiring leader, the reflective practice models I have been exposed to have made me understand the importance of behavioural as well as situational factors that make me a better professional. Moreover, I have acquired beneficial traits that allow me to motivate myself and other people I work with to enable them to actualise their true potential.

Experiential learning models have helped me to familiarise myself with relevant tools that provide benchmarks for leadership success and performance in various organisational environments. Therefore, through reflective practice, I am able to understand values which are meaningful to people that I am required to lead and how I need to adapt to make a positive impact (Donaldson 2008, p. 312).

Reflective practice allows a leader to use critical thinking skills to make a positive impression on people that work under him to encourage them to change their attitudes towards work processes. I have also learnt that organisational culture influences roles and relationships between various stakeholders in a firm. Moreover, the prevailing organisational culture in a firm directly determines the quality of performance a firm achieves from different processes. As an aspiring leader, the reflective process I have undertaken has made me realise that major organisational functions are directly influenced by a leader’s vision.

Exchange and interaction are important factors that influence the manner in which a leader executes his responsibilities in a particular organisation. I have examined my personal behaviour and attitudes and realised that I do not share my thought and opinions with other people. According to Bass’ theory, behavioural and environmental factors allow a leader to exhibit positive qualities that inspire people working under him to register good performance.

He insists that personal traits make some people natural leaders and they are able to stand out in the way they organise different functions and resources in organisations they lead (Jones 2001, p. 56). In addition, he insists that other people exhibit leadership qualities during times of crisis. Lastly, he insists that people may choose to become leaders after acquiring different skills that make them capable of executing their responsibilities.

I believe that the transformational leadership theory applies to my personal as well as professional character and I intend to utilise it in my interactions with other workers I am required to lead. Janssen and Yperen (2004, p. 368) insist that employees’ goals influence the relationship they have with their superiors in an organisation. The leader-member exchange theory asserts that perceptions of an employee towards his superiors are influenced by benefits he gets out of the relationship.

This model has made me understand that I need to orient myself to the organisational culture and values cherished by my subordinates to enable me to have beneficial exchanges with my subordinates. Consequently, this will allow me to have better relationships with employees I work with because I will undertake various actions at the workplace which will increase their job satisfaction.

My own process of leadership will focus on mutual benefits that can be obtained from exchanges and interactions I have with my subordinates. This approach will allow me to come up with more effective strategies that improve employees’ competence to make them more effective in their duties.

I will use both mastery and performance orientation parameters to ensure all employees are responsible for their own performance using flexible work procedures (Bauer & Green 1996, p.1548). This will serve as an incentive offered to employees to make them more willing to take on more challenging tasks that help them increase their knowledge and capabilities. Therefore, employees will be able to cope with different challenges they face in their duties easily to help them succeed.

Reflexivity and internal processes of learning enable a leader to understand his inner qualities easily. I believe that having an open mind will prove crucial to my understanding because I will be able to learn about various factors in the environment I am working in to understand how they impact on performance. I have realised that I need to understand dynamics that directly influence organisational functioning to set higher performance standards without antagonising workers.

A participative approach will make it possible for workers to accept gradual changes in the organisation. I now understand that a leader needs to consult important stakeholders before effecting operational changes to make it easy for them to adapt. Therefore, in my personal reflections, I found out that interpersonal collaborations will be one of the main methods I will use to achieve positive results (Podsakoff & MacKenzie 1996, p. 265).

Internal processes of learning have allowed me to think more clearly about the goals I intend to achieve and their long term benefits to my career. They have made me understand the importance of setting different types of personal and professional priorities which guide me whenever I undertake different activities. The functional leadership theory has made me understand how to build and strengthen relationships with employees that I am working with (Zaccaro, Rittman & Marks 2001, p. 457).

This theory reveals the value of team management and collaboration and these concepts enable an organisation to achieve positive outcomes. As a leader, understand that my main responsibility is to assign employees’ tasks that allow them to use their creative instincts to enable them to discover their inner talents and skills. Therefore, this approach will encourage me to nurture and utilise the talents of various employees working under me to improve overall results.

A leadership approach that encourages interaction, exchange and learning creates a cohesive organisational culture that motivates people to work harder to improve their personal as well organisational performance. As a result, I understand that a leader needs to share his vision with all employees to influence them positively as they perform roles assigned to them.

More importantly, I have also learnt about the four main processes of team effectiveness which include; cognitive, motivational, affective and coordination functions. I have a better understanding on different workplace factors that impact on team performance. As a result, I know how to exercise leadership authority positively by planning specific outcomes that can be achieved through team work (Tesluk & Mathieu 1999, p. 210).

I have come to appreciate that for a person to become an effective leader, he needs to have followers that share the vision he seeks to execute. Since leadership is a concept that has multiple paradigms, I have realised that it is important to rely on evidence based practices to make important decisions. Evidence based practices help me to design and implement appropriate programs that are responsive to organisational needs. In effect, it has become important for me as a leader to take note of different stakeholders’ interests in the organisation and how they are likely to impact on long term performance. Yukl (2006, p. 207) insists that a leader needs to have self awareness by understanding how his skills and weaknesses either benefit him or weaken his abilities to lead.

Strategic learning processes allow a leader to take note of environmental factors that directly impact on performance in the organisation. In my reflective practices, it is important for me to process the information I receive more analytically using various meta-cognitive processes. Therefore, this has made me to realise the importance of organisational planning, coaching and problem solving to strengthen organisational performance.

Therefore, I have managed to encourage the employees I work with to use more than one approach to solve problems they are facing in their work stations to attain good outcomes. A participative approach makes it possible for all employees to propose generate new ideas which guide actions they are ready to undertake to attain good performance (Riggio 2002, p. 67).

The research I have done has made me realise that employees and other stakeholders are likely to resist change in a situation where they do not have adequate information about the vision and objectives a leader wants to achieve. I have realised that I need to constantly monitor all crucial organisational functions that need to change to bring about a strategic restructuring of all working systems to achieve better results.

Using the path-goal theory, I have realised a leader needs to set an environment where performance excellence is appreciated to ensure employees satisfy high expectations as they perform their duties in their respective workstations (Northouse 2004, p. 130). Consequently, this has made me understand that effective organisational change should focus more on people and not processes to encourage all stakeholders to align their personal goals to collective goals set by the organisation.

Strategic learning processes that I have learnt about focus more on creative problem solving and critical thinking. By reflecting on creative problem solving tools, I have realised that leadership entails empowering subordinates to enable them see the advantage of working with their colleague to attain positive performance. More importantly, creative problem solving techniques should focus on people’s personalities, duties they perform and specific outcomes they are expected to achieve.

In my own assessments, I have discovered that creative problem solving works well in an environment where work support systems are well defined. This encourages all stakeholders to engage in positive thinking. Carnelli, Gelbard and Reiter –Palmon (2013, p. 102) insist that leaders should encourage their employees to share knowledge and information to enable them attain good performance in their workstations.

Organisational complexities require a leader to come up with more elaborate strategies which are appropriate for the environment an organisation operates in. Critical thinking skills combine theoretical and practical skills which are used to improve the performance of a particular organisation. In my own reflective assessments, I have been able to think about how critical thinking equips me with the skills I need to execute strategies I have set.

Therefore, it has made me think more about myself in relation to people and systems that surround me. Using the thinking skills model, I now understand the importance of formulating strategies, understanding challenges and exploring practical solutions to solve various personal and professional challenges I am facing (Puccio, Mance & Muddock 2010, p. 47). More importantly, the thinking skills model asserts that openness to new ideas allows a leader to explore alternative actions that can be used to attain positive outcomes.

Creative problem solving and critical thinking skills make a leader understand the need to assess a situation more accurately before making any conclusions. I know that a leader must take time to understand how change interventions proposed in an organisation will transform behavioural and operational systems that exist (Korsgaard, Schweiger & Sapienza1995, p. 71).

Additionally, my reflective assessments have made me realise that change processes work more effectively in an environment where workers are equipped with appropriate technical and analytical skills. These skills allow them to think use their creative instincts to analyse various situations they are facing in their workstations. Therefore, an effective strategic learning and change intervention model encourages all stakeholders in an organisation to use consultative techniques to solve different types of problems they face.

The reflection processes I have undertaken have made me to appreciate the benefits of critical thinking, creative problem solving, strategic learning and external support systems in leadership. These personal meanings have given me better insights on various leadership models and how they equip leaders with vital skills they need to execute their duties more effectively.

However at times, I have realised that creative thinking processes without a clear action plan make it difficult for a leader to attain the desired goals and objectives. A leader needs to influence those who work under him to share the same vision he has to enable them to attain positive results in the long run (Danzig 2000, p. 73). In some instances, establishing joint meaning out of various factors that impact on organisational stability is problematic.

Additionally, I have realised that managing personal and organisational dilemmas is a very challenging issue for many leaders. Using the five step dialectical solutions method, I have been able to acquire a clearer insight on how to come up with proactive solutions that address different types of challenges I might face in my work. This has helped to improve my analytical skills because I am able to prioritise specific actions I need to undertake to achieve positive results.

In essence, I now know that organisational systems may either support or hinder change management initiatives that a leader introduces (Jain 2005, p. 57). Therefore, I have developed a mental model that allows me to see various problems as potential opportunities which need to be harnessed to guarantee good results and outcomes in the organisation.

In my constant reflections, I have found out that a positive approach allows a leader to understand specific processes that encourage his subordinates to be open to change. More importantly, I have understood that people need to be challenged to take initiative for their own performance because this leads to self-discovery. It is important for a leader to use resources at his disposal more efficiently to organise various tasks for workers to perform.

All processes in an organisation should be designed in a manner that allows leaders to coordinate performance in different departments (Salas & Fiore 2004, p. 56). Ultimately, I have understood that open channels of communication serve as a crucial factor that encourages employees to propose innovative ideas to a leader which in turn improves organisational performance.

As a leader, diagnostic work allows me to find out factors and situations that need to be addressed to improve overall organisational performance. Lazzarini, Islam and Mesquita (2012, p. 211) insist that managerial attitudes have an impact on organisational performance. The diagnostic reflective process I have undertaken has given me an insight on managers’ self-interest and how this affects employees’ dedication in the workplace.

Therefore, this has made me to conclude that micro-management techniques have a negative impact in improving long term performance in the organisation. Leaders who fail to delegate responsibilities waste a lot of time on processes that are not beneficial to the long term stability of their organisations. In effect, this denies their employees a chance to exploit their talents in their workstations and this leads to negative results out of various tasks they are performing.

Strategic learning requires a leader to observe keenly various internal and external factors that are likely to impact on performance. Open and constant interactions between a leader and his subordinates encourage both parties to improve their understanding about wage structures, incentives and work systems. As a result, a leader can establish how these factors motivate employees to perform their duties.

Additionally, leaders need to listen more to the concerns of those working under them to find out various issues that affect organisational performance. Moreover, leaders need to rely on information they have collected from workers and other stakeholders to make good decisions that bring about positive performance in the long run (Western 2013, p. 76). Therefore, information sharing and open channels of communication make it possible for a leader to acquire new insights into various functions to find out how they benefit his organisation.

Another critical area that needs more understanding is integrity and ethical responsibility by leaders. Through feedback and establishing closer collaborations with subordinates, I have found out that leaders need to be more flexible to eliminate different barriers that hinder organisational success.

Additionally, I have realised that a corporate culture that emphasises on honesty, integrity and ethical behaviour establishes high standards of excellence which all workers are expected to abide by. As a result, a leader needs to encourage high standards of practice at work by motivating all employees to do more to achieve positive outcomes in their duties (Smith 2000, p. 122). This ensures that a leader removes all barriers that hinder an organisation from developing its strengths to enable it to take advantage of various opportunities in the industry.

My action plan focuses mostly on personal as well as professional factors that are likely to impact on learning. Therefore, I need to reflect on my personal goals to understand if they are closely aligned with broad organisational objectives (Densten & Grey 2001, p. 120). This approach will allow me to consider the interests of other stakeholders by responding to their needs to make them feel that the organisation values them. More importantly, I have realised that processes of interaction and exchange allow a leader to deal with various challenges that impact on organisational performance. This enables a leader to set priorities that define how various organisational functions will be performed.

I have also understood how to rely on creative problem solving and critical thinking skills to come up with proactive measures that address different challenges I am facing. Through knowledge sharing and team collaborations, I have discovered that as a leader, I need to inspire those working under me by encouraging them to share ideas so that they are more responsible for their own success. Moreover, I have also discovered that I need to understand how to assign appropriate responsibilities to employees who are directly under my supervision.

This approach allows employees to exploit their talents fully so that they register positive results in their duties. All these processes can only succeed in an environment that places stronger emphasis on learning, integrity and discipline to bring about positive changes (Phillips & Gully 2011, p. 81). Therefore, this reflective task has made understand the benefits of change processes in an organisation and how they encourage managers and employees to change their attitudes towards each other.

Bauer, TN & Green, SG 1996, ‘Development of leader-member exchange: a longitudinal test’, Academy of Management Journal , vol. 39 no.6, pp.1538-1567.

Carmeli, A, Gelbard, R, Reiter-Palmon, R 2013, ‘Leadership, creative problem-solving capacity, and creative performance: the importance of knowledge sharing’, Human Resource Management, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 95-121.

Danzig, RJ 2000, The leader within you , Frederick Fell, Miami.

Densten, I & Grey, J 2001, ‘Leadership development and reflection: what is the connection?’, International Journal of Educational Management , vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 119- 125.

Donaldson, L 2008, ‘Ethics problems and problems with ethics: toward a pro-management theory’, Journal of Business Ethics , vol. 78 no.3, pp.299-311.

Jain, NK 2005, Organizational behavior, Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New York.

Janssen, O & Van Yperen, NW 2004, ‘Employees’ goal orientations, the quality of leader-member exchange, and the outcomes of job performance and job satisfaction’, Academy of Management Journal , vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 368–384.

Jones, GR 2001, Organizational theory: text and cases . Addison-Wesley, Reading.

Korsgaard, MA, Schweiger, DM & Sapienza, HJ 1995, ‘Building commitment, attachment, and trust in strategic decision-making teams: the role of procedural justice’, Academy of Management Journal , vol. 38, pp. 60-85.

Lazzarini, S, Islam, G & Mesquita, L 2012, ‘Bad for practice?: reconciling alternative views on managerial attitudes and their impact on organizational performance’, Management Research: The Journal of the Iberoamerican Academy of Management , vol. 10, no. 3, pp.208 – 225.

Mackoff, B & Wenet, G 2001, The inner work of leaders: leadership as a habit of mind , Amacom, New York.

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Tesluk, PE & Mathieu, JE 1999, ‘Overcoming roadblocks to effectiveness: incorporating management of performance barriers into models of work group effectiveness’, Journal of Applied Psychology , vol. 84, pp. 200–217.

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Self-reflection in leadership – Part 1: Ambitions, Values and Personality

by Palena Neale | 19 Feb 2019 | Leadership

Self-reflection in leadership

Self-reflection at its simplest means taking time to think, contemplate, examine and review yourself as part of increasing your self-awareness . Self-reflection in leadership means carving out time to review yourself as a leader and is critical for your leadership development. It involves examining your current level of skills, your strengths, weaknesses, behavioural patterns and how you seek to influence others. It is also about interrogating your values, goals and ambitions. All this serves to increase your self-knowledge, alignment, authenticity, and learning and growth. Self-reflection also accelerates improvement in your leadership skills and practice – and enables you to better understand others.

“By three methods we may learn wisdom: First, by reflection, which is noblest; Second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the bitterest.” – Confucius

Why self-reflection in leadership development?

However, according to consultant Peter Miller, once Associate Professor in Management  at  Southern  Cross University  Business  School,  Australia in Self-reflection: the key to effective leadership :

‘Most authorities on leadership development understand the importance of assisting managers and leaders to engage in self-discovery and self-reflection. Recorded statements from philosophers about the need for self-awareness and reflection for those in leadership positions goes back thousands of years to ancient philosophers and teachers like Confucius, Socrates, Plato, Jesus and Mohammed. However, research has shown that self-reflection is possibly a manager’s least favourite activity.’   

So why is self-reflection so difficult for some people? Apart from actually making time for it?

Jennifer Porter talks about the benefits of self-reflection to improve performance through assimilating lessons learned. And a recent study by Lanaj et al highlights the fact that self-reflection can motivate leaders to engage in energy-generating activities. Heightening their engagement and energising leaders also makes them more influential.

We know that self-reflection is an important process in leadership development – not only for new leaders, but for all leaders – especially those who operate in constantly changing environments.

Areas for self-reflection

Self-reflection can and should take place all throughout your leadership journey, and across all aspects of your leadership role. Let’s break down those different areas of self-knowledge:

• Personal ambitions, passions, intentions, goals
• Individual and organisational values

Personality types

• Thinking styles
• Emotional Intelligence
• Reflective learning – what to do and how to do it

In this Part 1, I’ll talk about the first 3 areas of self-reflection in leadership. Look out for Part 2 of this article , next time.

Image: Shutterstock

Ambitions, passions, goals 

In my coaching practice, I still see too many women who are reticent about their ambitions, and overly modest about their experience and achievements. It’s time to step up, speak out and be proud. Ask yourself, now:

• Desire – what do you really want?
• Passion – what lights your fire, and fills you with passion?
• Goals – what are your primary goals?

Self-reflection and self-knowledge mean exploring who you are and what you want – and specifically, identifying what you want your leadership to look like. This takes into consideration not only your values and passions, but also involves recognising your strengths and acknowledging your skills and experiences.

• What kind of leader do you want to be?
• Who do you need to be, to lead on your own terms?

Personal and organisational values

When was the last time you articulated, reviewed, or reflected on your personal values? Take time to add this activity to your agenda. Reflect on the following questions and/or Google ‘personal values test’.

Understanding your personal values is the first step to self-awareness and is an important area of self-reflection in leadership. That said, we  we often develop our most important values unconsciously. Let’s bring them to consciousness.

• A leader you admire – think of the person you most admire. Which three words or phrases describe the qualities you admire in them?
• Your legacy – what do you want to be remembered for?
• Core values – what are your values? Which things, people and qualities are most important to you?

Values-based leadership sets the tone for the organisation, from the top. Our values drive our behaviour, impacting on how we respond to the issues we encounter. They also serve as an example for others in the organisation. ‘Values-driven leadership’ has become even more important over the last decade and as Miller says, ‘the leader’s personal values may be one of the most important determinants of how the leader’s power is exercised or constrained’ in an organisation.

It is equally important to look at how your personal values align (or don’t align) with the values of the organisation you are working in.

• What are your organisation’s values?
• How do your personal values align with those of your organisation?
• How do your leadership values align with your organisation’s leadership values?
• Remember, values are not static – they can change over time – and they do not exist in isolation.

As part of self-reflection in leadership, specifically the process of gaining self-awareness, leaders should also seek to understand their own personality type. For example, are you introverted or extroverted? Intuitive or analytical? What are your strengths? How do you self-sabotage? How does this impact on your work and relationships – and on your leadership style?

There are hundreds of personality type tests (like Myers Briggs, Hogan, DISC, Birkman) and instruments that are available free, online. Just type ‘big five personality test’ into your search engine – and find out what makes you tick. Or you might also want to try Shirzad Chamine’s positive intelligence test to identify your saboteurs. Once you understand your own personality type and appreciate its implications for yourself, your work, and your team, you can ‘work yourself’ better – you’ll know how to motivate yourself, and how to improve and enhance your performance.

Then, seek to understand the personality types of your managers and followers. This enables you to predict their individual behaviour and performance, and to act in ways relevant to people’s diverse personality types. This increases the effectiveness of your communication – and achieves better outcomes.

• Self-learning: What have you learned about yourself, recently?
• Descriptions: What three words or phrases most clearly define your personality?
• Ideal: Who is your ideal self?  

In summary…

You can be a really effective leader, through self-reflection. Be self-aware and know how you respond to various situations. And remember –

• Schedule time for self-reflection in your day and/or week
• Look at both what is going well and not so well, or find a balance between the positive and the negative
• Find a way of reflecting that works for you

Next time, in Part 2, we’ll look at Self-reflection in leadership: Thinking styles, Emotional Intelligence, and Making it happen, for some practical tips to integrate self-reflection into your life.

If you feel that you or your organisation would benefit from help with self-reflection, coaching or mentoring as part of your leadership development, please get in touch to explore the possibilities open to you. I look forward to hearing from you!

Please feel free to download my new resource Designing Your Leadership Self-Reflection Practice – Guided Writing Prompts – packed with tips, tools, and guided prompts to launch your leadership self-reflection practice as you continue to strengthen your leadership.

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Home > Books > Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Reflective Leadership: Learning to Manage and Lead Human Organizations

Submitted: 02 July 2016 Reviewed: 20 July 2016 Published: 01 February 2017

DOI: 10.5772/64968

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This chapter mainly focuses on the concept of reflection as a process, both individual and collaborative, involving experience and uncertainty under the theme of reflective leadership. This type of leadership basically means learning to manage and lead human organizations. It originates from the concept of reflection defining leadership roles and responsibilities in all types of organizations. Focusing on reflection for learning in an effort to create reflective learning communities for all stakeholders taking part in both administrative and executive positions in organizations, this chapter is expected to contribute to leadership theories, to link theory and practice in concrete terms describing new leadership roles and responsibilities under the reflective thought considering its unique impact on organizational functioning.

• reflective practice
• organizations
• reflective learning

Author Information

Süleyman davut göker *.

• Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Education, Artvin Çoruh University, Turkey

Kıvanç Bozkuş

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

In the literature, leadership is defined by many theories that try to explain what leadership is, in terms of different standpoints. However, the real world is very complicated that cannot be prescribed in some given patterns. This is the very first fact that leaders realize once they enter into professional practice. This is when prescribed theories do not meet the requirements of real practice. How can leaders be effective in an environment that is so distinct from those portrayed on paper? The answer is the grail that many if not all practising leaders had committed him-/herself to following of it. Reflective leadership goes to bat for anyone in the realm of leadership which is not mapped yet.

We start to explore reflective leadership by discussing what reflection is and then its role in creating reflective learning communities in organizations. The route to leadership through reflective thinking is the next topic we will address. Finally, we conclude with reflective practice which is the essence of reflective leadership and its models of implementation.

2. Reflection

Reflection is not only a personal process but also a collaborative one, which involves uncertainty along with experience, and consists of specifying inquiries and essential components of a thing that came out as important, later taking a person’s thoughts into dialogue with himself or herself and with other people. Individuals evaluate insights developed from that process in regard to additional perspectives, values, experiences, beliefs and the larger context within which the questions are raised. Through reflection, new-found clarity to base changes in action or disposition is achieved. New questions naturally arise, and the process spirals onwards [ 1 ].

Within this context, we argue that reflection is a vital component of leaders’ daily life, not a detached or disconnected action but primal, promoted by the culture and structures of an organization, which affects choices, policies and decisions together with the emotions and politics related to them. Considered from this angle, to be reflective should not be considered as a method, which has been acquired and occasionally used, but an inherent component of what to manage or lead means.

2.1. Dewey: father of reflection

Thinking includes all of these steps, - the sense of a problem, the observation of conditions, the formation and rational elaboration of a suggested conclusion, and the active experimental testing. [ 2 ]

For him, reflection is a deliberate and cognitive process triggered by a state of doubt, mental difficulty and hesitation. He sees reflection as a process of researching, clarifying and finding the right way that eliminates the doubt and difficulties. The mental process of reflection is activated by a problem, unstructured ideas and complicated situations to find a solution.

Forestalling something of the spirit of the progresses we maintain in this chapter, Dewey conceptualized this aspect of learning as more important than a problem-solving process. Dewey’s vision was of an educational process which had reflection and action linked at its core and was the means by which individuals gained ‘a personal interest in social relationships and control’—a platform for social change to a more democratic social order and preparation for membership of it [ 2 ].

2.2. Schön: reflection in action

Schön sees reflection as closely related to action and personal experience. The reflective practitioner engages in thinking along with the effect of action. Thus, Schön classified reflection into two types: reflection in action and reflection on action. Reflection in action is conscious thinking and modification while on the job [ 3 ]. The reflective practitioner immediately reflects on the action upon confronting it. Reflection on action is the reflection done after experiencing the action. The practitioner evaluates to understand whether the activity was successful or not by making judgements.

On-the-spot surfacing, criticizing, restructuring, and testing of intuitive understanding of experienced phenomena; often it takes the form of a reflective conversation with the situation. [ 4 ]

… on the feeling for a situation which has led him to adopt a particular course of action, on the way he has framed the problem he is trying to solve, or on the role he has constructed for himself within a larger institutional ‘context.’ [ 4 ]

As discussed above, this included ‘reflection on action’ and ‘reflection in action’ in practical terms. Human beings always tend to take shelter in experienced and accustomed forms of working and in practised processes or similar methods. That is to say, all endeavours to see the unknown in everyday life let people confront routines and connections and to alter those sides of working thought and practice taken for granted. For example, the capacity to make use of certain images, emotions, metaphors, to engage both rationally and aesthetically and to look at relational dynamics considering settings allows for the production of discrete styles of practising and thinking.

2.3. Reflection for learning: creating reflective learning communities in organizations

Ultimately, the outcome of reflection is learning [ 6 ]. It widens our perspective on a problem (broadens knowledge). It helps us develop strategies for dealing with it (develop skills). It helps us acquire new insights into our behaviour (changes attitudes).

Learning is not an individual behavioural attribute or capability but a ‘double-loop’ cognitive learning process that can be shared, and if everyone can participate in shared learning, then, in principle, everyone is capable of leading [ 7 ]. Within this context, the learning organization assures whatever the classical human-centred view about learning treasured at all times that commitment to learning will rescue us from obedience in blind authority in the end.

Even though learning itself as an action could seem self-evident, it is concerned with many issues in determining in what ways learning individually could be ‘effective’ or ‘rational’ against ‘self-deception’ and ‘defence reasoning’ [ 8 ]. As the difference between reflexivity and learning is hard to understand, in all attempts to understand that difference, reflexivity in the organizational development tradition has often been problematic [ 4 , 9 , 10 ]. The question is so clear: is it a neutral and instrumental expression of expert knowledge and control, or is it a methodology of feedback and diagnostic practice that pursues to develop really inclusive forms of distributed knowledge and learning [ 11 ]. The former position treats self-reflection as ‘I think’, whereas the latter tends to treat it as an expression of ‘I do’ [ 12 – 14 ]. What can be said here is that these two conflicting positions usually finish up as remedial approaches to learning. Learning could be thought as a deliberate way of ‘reflexive thinking’, allowing us to keep our distance from existent actions or behaviours and alter them. In contrast, learning as doing is bound by pre-reflective practices, so it is difficult to retrospectively translate or transmit learning or knowing in practice into intentional actions designed to change behaviour [ 13 ].

Leading for learning is an essential aim in creating reflective learning communities, which aim to create strong and fair opportunities of learning for all in an organization and encourage them to benefit from these opportunities. Leaders can accomplish this by committing themselves to the following areas of action: establishing a focus on learning, building professional communities that value learning, engaging external environments that matter for learning, acting strategically and creating coherence [ 15 , 16 ]. The perception suggested centres on supplying each learner, no matter what problems they confront, the ways to overcome intriguing skills and to advance habits of mind for additional and autonomous learning.

‘Let’s try it out and see how it works’ is an active learner’s phrase; ‘Let’s think it through first’ is the reflective learner’s response in a reflective learning community [ 17 ]. Leaders’ learning incorporates skills, the knowledge and standpoints, which they obtain while getting ready for and regenerating their practice. Interacting with other professionals who offer moral support, critique, ideas and inspiration for the renewal process will also promote opportunities for effective professional development.

Nearly all managers wish to create more powerful and equitable learning opportunities when they are given time to reflect. Nevertheless, their abilities depend on how they perceive the existent and prospective links between learning and leading in their own context. Managers can use reflective tools like optimizing video as a self-assessment tool, strengthening electronic portfolios with reflective journal writing, making use of associated resources on the Internet, taking advantage of on-line peer mentoring and stimulating reflection via learning communities as part of professional development.

Creating such a reflective learning community requires building professional communities that value learning, acting strategically and sharing leadership and engaging external environments that matter for learning. This type of reflective learning also fosters system learning, in which opportunities come up by means of evaluation of policies, programmes and resource use, strategic planning endeavours, action research focused on system-wide issues and application of indicators to measure progress towards goals defined. Leaders will be able to support system learning through inquiry into how an organization performs.

2.4. The route to leadership through reflective thinking

Reflective thinking is not only an internal process but an external one promoting improved critical thinking skills together with self-understanding as an essential way of inner work which emerges in the energy for employing in outer work. This type of thinking is required for understanding what it means to be significant for oneself and in one’s organization or practice. Being aware of one’s thinking is essential to make informed and logical decisions while working with others. In other words, taking to heart the feelings, thoughts and behaviours of other people also eases improvement in accomplishing organizational and professional objectives. In this chapter, we keep focusing on becoming a reflective thinker as a means to becoming a reflective leader. Therefore, we believe that managers can raise their awareness on their potential capacity for leadership.

Reflective leaders regard learning as a lifelong process, and they tend to equilibrate the practice ‘telling’ with ‘asking’ and frequently depend on the collective intelligence capacity of the teams formed in their organizations. Rather than being ‘in judgement’, these leaders ‘use judgement’ in handing down significant decisions. They regularly tend to step out of their routine and accustomed settings to think, explore and learn. Because the business environment has grown more complex, volatile and fast paced, leaders are more and more willing to adopt a ‘bias for action’, but effective leaders reflect on their past experiences and search for relevant, different insights before decision-making process.

What have I learnt?

What were my feelings and thoughts as it was happening?

How could I explain my experience?

How could I make use of learning for my future actions?

What is your opinion of way I felt and acted?

How have I reacted and behaved?

Based on the answers to the questions asked above, reflective leadership can be considered as a way of approaching the work of being a leader by leading one’s life with presence and personal mastery. In other words, it requires learning to be present, to be aware and attentive to our experience with people in our daily life, and it regards leadership from the standpoint of human experience. Taking the science of phenomenology into consideration, self-awareness and reflection on one’s own experience together with the experience of other people are the starting point for the process of reflective leadership, which ultimately aim to achieve improved communication changing leadership practice.

We have developed further questions and possible responses to encourage managers to become reflective leaders. Through these six questions and responses, we aim to create awareness on how to become a reflective leader in practice:

2.4.1. In what ways can reflection evoke my self-interests?

People’s self-interests can be met if they reflect on how their work has affected their learning and lives. These effects entail their progress and apprehension in some fields like career search, development of leadership, social justice, civic responsibility and consciousness, intellectual interests and self-actualization. People tend to concentrate on self-learning on particular occasions. They also consider issues related to career search when they finish university. For example, people remember their civic responsibilities only when they vote. The forms of reflection we have been discussing are drawn up to link people’s work experiences to personal development.

2.4.2. How should I proceed to be a reflective thinker?

A reflective thinking model illustrating the process of reflective thinking was developed by Taggart and Wilson [ 18 ]. To identify a problem, dilemma or challenge could be one of the initial efforts. As the next step, you should draw back from the problem concerned for a while and use an outsider perspective to re-evaluate that problem. Within this process you can employ ways of observation, data collection and reflection. They will help you obtain a cognitive picture about the way you think for the sake of defining the setting of that circumstance. This position may be integrated with a similar event in the past to lead you to get probable ways to attempt to solve the problem. You should ask a question at this stage: How have I dealt with the almost identical situation in the past and what makes the present situation different from the one in the past? You will naturally remember your experiences and make predictions and create different approaches. Doing so, you will also have tested the approaches used systematically. Finally, you will review the actions you have taken together with the consequences, and that process will provide you with a new opportunity to reframe the situation concerned.

2.4.3. What do I understand by reflective leadership?

As discussed earlier, a dedication to the continuous process of maintained critical self-awareness and development is essential in reflective leadership. How can you do that? If you are determined to become a reflective leader, you should exchange reflective thoughts of yours with those of others establishing new relationships and ask them to see the situation. We tend to make use of feelings that we highly value, let ourselves experience them and pass along them whenever available. This sort of approach, which is genuine, will certainly give us a space where we will be able to value the contributions of others. This is how we support other people by means of our own reflective practice.

Learning from others basically requires listening to them within the framework of reflective leadership, which will require receptivity to other people. Listening attentively is both an art and a skill to be practised. Effective leaders must listen to cases and stories from all workers to reflect on in what ways they could enrich and change practices. Within this context, those stories providing data about what does work or what does not will tell us to look for significance. Any discussion and reflection on those stories will enrich, change and provide us with opportunities to install any possible changes into practice.

2.4.4. What types of strategies, resources and tools do I need to be more reflective and self-aware?

Awareness is created through communication. To achieve a high level of communication, awareness on what you have been thinking is necessary. In other words, it will enable you a tool to discover yourself and become more self-aware. To do so, any sort of conflict should be seen as an opportunity to understand more of your true self as well as other people. The questions and answers to what you are sensing, thinking, feeling and willing or not willing to do will take time to get. So, you should go on asking them till you could past strong emotions like resentment and anger, because those emotions play a key role in guiding you to what you have been thinking. After reflecting on genuine answers, you can share them with other people directly. Whatever language you use in answering to those questions will encourage ownership, thus enhancing connection. Through this process, you could get a tool to monitor your awareness, expand your opinions and listen to others attentively to resolve problem.

Another efficient approach to work with other people effectively is to be aware of your natural talents. This is something to do with exploration of your strengths. Identifying your talents will naturally provide you with many strategies to build them into your strengths. Knowing what gifts and talents you possess will help you see your weaknesses and align your goals and job with your own talents.

2.4.5. In what ways do reflective leaders affect leadership practice positively and create reflective leaders to be?

Reflective thinking lets you both share your concerns and reveal the concealed issues for you and other people concerned. This process will create an opportunity for you and other people to reflect on your and their point of view, thus providing a sort of catharsis. Doing so will help you develop a wider viewpoint, a new appreciation for everybody and deeper understanding.

As reflective practice is seen as a transformative process, you and the other people around could proceed in a more interconnected way. So, you could define common objectives and goals together with guidelines to avoid possible conflicts in the future. In creating open channels of communication, this environment will bring informal and regular meetings to allow reflective practices supporting reflective leadership. These types of meetings are highly valued by reflective leaders as they see them as productive environments to provide collaborative work supporting the greater sense of collegiality.

Being open and letting testing of propositions and inquiring about one’s strength are another significant task for reflective leaders. It could be necessary for you to face problems like defensiveness of yours and that of other people and the inefficiency of your team for the sake of ensuring the impact of approach you use. So, a reflective learning community, in which reflection is an ideal way of support and learning, should be created by reflective leaders. In such a community, you provide a safe environment for self-expression, identify objectives, give feedback and stimulate self-observation. In defining the strengths of the individuals, you offer other people optional approaches to be successful in their work.

2.4.6. Which leadership processes enhance reflective leaders’ powers and achieve success in other people?

First of all, peer reflection, which helps question assumptions, is one of the main means for reflective leaders to carry out with other reflective leaders. Peers are of paramount importance in clarifying our values. This process helps us build our and peers’ strengths, compensate weaknesses and search for better problem-solving approaches [ 19 ].

To be able to achieve the task, effective leaders should form and maintain the teams in developing individuals. The aspirations can best be achieved if leaders can function in a collegial and collaborative ways by means of reflective practices, which initiate the process of perspective transformation. In other words, reflective leadership is considered to be transformative as long as it builds success in other people by reducing barriers while implementing leadership behaviours. Barriers, to a certain extent, are determined by means of reflection. They are regarded to be intrinsic to our human ego—strivings to achieve, to manage our situation and to compensate for our lack of confidence. The barriers can be reduced by deliberately reacting to what challenges us as a leader under different circumstances. Reflective leaders do that by having a deeper awareness of what sort of leader he/she wished to be, what sort human being is required and what sort of legacy is left by them. These choices direct leaders in how they take up daily leadership. That is to say that the way how leaders go about their day will determine ultimately whether they feel successful and rest with integrity and peace of mind or not.

The rapid rate of changes in our age seems to be one of the biggest demands for leaders. The other striking demand is the need for new frameworks for leadership skills. Leaders can cope with those challenges as long as they can bring each individual to the table to model the future with strong collective dialogues and cooperative actions. Among the other reflective leadership skills, they should be able to manage conflicts, model an adaptive capacity and be efficient in establishing and maintaining relationships. As they are expected to be the cocreators of change, they should accept that any individual or circumstance cannot move out their individual peace or competency. Viewed in this light, they should be able to communicate those feelings to other people in a way that will encourage and enable them to clasp the future and partake in its formation. Ultimately, they should be able to act as a model for other people in their exploration of the value and meaning of whatever they do. They can exhibit behaviours of personal growth and self-awareness if they have a commitment to the ongoing reflective practice.

To conclude, being a reflective leader is initiated through reflective practice. You can begin by being more fully present in every task in your daily life. This requires attending to verbal and nonverbal communication in your interaction with others, often inquiring and clearing up worries and being an attentive listener. You should further take your own experience into consideration together with the experience of other people and each assumption before making decisions. Only after these reflective practices can you establish a sense of mutual respect and sound relationships and see that other people are drawn to you and search for your compassionate consideration about any problem encountered. This transformative process followed will make advance on the way to becoming a reflective leader.

3. Reflective practice

Managers and leaders focus upon events through an intellectual exercise in order to determine in what ways individual assumptions and beliefs together with their experiences and background impact organizational functioning. This is what we call reflective practice that inculcates the intellectual discipline needed to discern ‘what is’ in practice episodes as well as to engage in the self-growth necessary if one is to manage and lead others.

The success of reflective practice depends on learning. For reflective leaders, doing immerses learning. Being aware of what we have been doing does not always create learning as it is a purposeful endeavour. Approached from this angle, realizing the required role of reflection in taking out learning from experience and being aware of the essential principles of a reflective practice will let leaders begin to act on the conception that knowledge is planted in their experience and understand the significance of that knowledge in fostering their practice.

Through learning from experience, reflective practice aims to create a structure, habit or routine. So, a reflective practice can differentiate with regard to how much, how often and why reflection is carried out. Carrying out a reflective practice requires not only clearing the aims it needs to serve but also creating opportunities to install reflection into our activity that are down to earth and yet come about at the right intervals and with adequate depth to be meaningful. However, it is structured; sustaining a reflective practice will transform the probability of learning from our practice into an actuality.

Sergiovanni [ 20 ] classifies three distinct knowledge of leadership conceptions regarding the relationship between theory and practice: (1) there is no relation, (2) theory is superordinate to practice, and (3) practice is superordinate to theory (p. 7). People who adopt the first conception believe that professional practice in leadership relies solely on intuitive feelings disconnected from theory and research. People who put special emphasis on theory feel that leadership is an ‘applied science’ which can be prescribed by theoretical concepts, strategies and depictions. Believers of the last conception see leadership as a ‘craft-like science’ consisting of reflective practice not prescribed but informed by theory.

Since the first conception claims no relation between theory and practice, implication of leadership as no science makes no sense to many, and thus it did not find enough grounds to permeate. Unlikely, the theory-oriented conception of leadership as an applied science pervades throughout the literature on leadership. Its clear-cut linear fashion simplifies every decision to be made into steps and processes predefined in literature. When one has to end organizational conflicts, then there are models of conflict management. When some important decisions have to be made, there are decision-making processes that explain every step in detail. This tool-based approach to leadership has long lived for its feasibility, but when it was realized that the real life is more complicated that it cannot be predetermined to a degree which enables theory to make tools for every situation in leadership, then reflective practice seemed a more realistic way of generating professional knowledge that is different from scientific knowledge. It is different because professionals create it by crafting their intuitions once they encounter situations not defined by scientific knowledge unlike ones in applied science conception. Thus, the craft-like science conception distinguishes professional knowledge from scientific knowledge; the former is created on demand, while the latter is predetermined as a contingency. Reflective practice is about professional knowledge creation by ‘deciding what to do. What purposes should be pursued? What strategies and practice should be used? What should be emphasized and when? In what ways should resources be deployed? How will we know we are on track, and so on’ [ 20 ].

Another distinction implicit in our understanding is that scientific knowledge is prescribed by theory, while professional knowledge is informed by theory. It is informed by interacting elements of reflective practice: practice episodes, theories of practice and antecedents (p. 15). Practice episodes consist of intentions, actions and realities. Leader’s priorities, preferences, strategies and decisions determine his or her intentions that impel actions in the form of leadership and management tactics and behaviours. After actions are performed, realities occur as results, outcomes and consequences. The realities further affect intentions and then actions in a loop which never ends ( Figure 1 ). This infinite loop of practice episodes affects and is affected by theories of practice and leadership antecedents. Theories of practice are mental scenes of a leader’s beliefs and assumptions about how things work in the real world. These are greatly affected by leadership antecedents especially by the theoretical knowledge antecedent. These mental images perform as mindscapes that govern leadership actions both consciously and unconsciously. ‘A reflective mindscape is a perspective in which purposeful activity…is always subject to disciplined examination and re-examination using whatever resources are helpful’ [ 21 ]. Theories of practice may arise from social interactions between leader and others or even from myths on how organizations work. ‘The bundles of beliefs and assumptions about how organizations work, the role of power, authority, management, and leadership, the organization’s purposes, the role of competition, and the nature of human nature’ may evolve into theories [ 20 ]. Workplace is where leaders can best learn about their theories of practice. Therefore, a detailed explanation of these implicit theories cannot be made.

Figure 1.

Elements of reflective practice [ 20 ].

At this point, we will focus on five key leadership antecedents, which play an essential key role in understanding the reflective practice. They are cultural milieu, theoretical knowledge, craft knowledge, self-knowledge and critical knowledge.

3.1. Cultural milieu

As reflective practice is expected to be contextualized in work, it should not be considered separately from the cultural milieu together with the setting and purposes of organization. The cultural milieu includes the elements of educational background, social background, religious background, economic background and historical background, which plays a key role in shaping in what ways a person sees and interprets the outer world. This means that reflective practices will differentiate from individual to individual and from organization to organization and that companies will form different reflective practices that emerge from and further inform their backgrounds mentioned above.

On the other hand, reflective practice can occur through a visioning process or a bigger process of culture change or organizational change. Tucker and Russell [ 22 ] concluded that transformational leaders can have a major influence on organizational culture and change. As culture is a medium by means of which leadership travels and affects performance of the organization, reflective leaders play a key role in transmitting the culture that they believe will most augment organizational functioning.

3.2. Theoretical knowledge

The second antecedent of leadership is the theoretical knowledge, which consists of technical, cognitive and rational knowledge. It means that theoretical knowledge is factual in nature, based in scientific rationality. Reflective approach to leadership is important to the integration of theoretical knowledge, skill development and individualized contexts. The learning organization was often based on a systems theory that handled practice as a result of theoretical knowledge [ 23 ]. Professional learning communities, the name given to leaders’ collaborative professional learning, have become so overused that the term’s meaning is often lost. Only when leaders reflect on their practice based on their theoretical knowledge, consider the impact leadership has on workers and implement insights gained from a meeting to improve their leadership performance can this process be called a professional learning community.

3.3. Craft knowledge

Craft knowledge is believed to be implicit in practitioner; it provides the ‘feel for’ what one does [ 24 ] and manifests itself in the refined ability to interpret what is and to discern what ought to be and what one should do to get there. According to Kluge [ 25 ], knowledge management shows unique leadership challenges. ‘From a leadership perspective, knowledge management has been viewed more like a craft and less like a science. Because of the very nature of knowledge, it is difficult for managers to predict what measures can really improve performance, and how to encourage and guide knowledge flows within an organization’ [ 25 ]. The leaders, according to them, should presume the function of advancing leadership and knowledge in the organization. They should set the tone for the organization and demonstrate that knowledge together with its administration are carefully taken into consideration.

Leaders, from this standpoint of view, should signal a shift in tone when they ask their team to reflect on their learning. Reflective leaders help them realize that they can now look back rather than move forwards. They will take a break from what they have been doing, step away from their work and ask themselves, ‘What have I (or we) learned from doing this activity?’ Some leaders could use music to signal the change in thinking.

In the reflective settings, leaders could invite the teams to learn from their experiences orally or in written form. They ask them to reflect on their learning, to evaluate their metacognitive strategies, to compare intended with actual outcomes, to analyze and draw causal relationships and to synthesize meanings and use their learning in different and future events. Members of the team realize that they will not ‘fail’ or make a ‘mistake’, because these terms are broadly described. Nonetheless, reflective teams realize that they can learn from all their experiences and develop personal insight.

3.4. Self-knowledge

Self-knowledge, even though it is often neglected, enables a vital lens through which leaders could better understand, realize and interpret organizational reality and their position in it. It mainly includes self-awareness, self-understanding and self-management. Without self-knowledge, it is hard for the leaders to understand their weakness and strengths together with their super powers. It lets the best business builders walk the tightrope of leadership: projecting conviction while at the same time staying humble enough to be open to different ideas and opposite thoughts since it is an essential element for organizational functioning. To improve self-knowledge, we highly recommend reflective leaders to (1) observe yourself to learn, (2) keep testing and knowing yourself better and (3) be conscious of other people as well.

While building a team, self-knowledge is also a crucial factor as being aware of one’s weaknesses together with strengths makes them a better recruiter and allocator of talent. In the meantime, you should also be an acute observer of others’ weaknesses and strengths. Reflective teams consist of people who both understand and complement each other. Whenever you notice people developing a common goal by pursuing different ways, there is an implied feedback loop based on peers and systemic learning in that observation itself. Should you have the right complement of people as well as a supportive learning organization, it lets you look at yourself and other people.

That is called the leash of self-awareness: know, improve and complement thyself. They are the common sense principles even though they are not generally practised. In other words, people do not often commit to stand in the face of truth. Rigorous commitment, intellectual honesty and active truth seeking are sine qua non to any process of self-awareness.

3.5. Critical knowledge

The final antecedent of reflective practice is critical knowledge, which includes assumptions, beliefs and values. In other words, critical knowledge (sometimes called ‘philosophical’ or ‘ethical’ knowledge) is a conscious awareness of that which is of transcendent or ultimate value and which perjures beyond the individual. Reflective practice creates an opportunity for development for people holding leadership positions. If you want to manage a team, you should have a clear balance between technical expertise and people skills because this type of role is hard to play. Reflective practice gives an opportunity to leaders to re-evaluate what has been achieved and what improvements could be made.

As discussed earlier, reflection is the conscious and intentional examination of one’s behaviour. Through this process, new understandings and appreciations may be acquired. Leaders should be an active reflector keeping their personal journals. When a difficult event takes place, they can often scribble in their journal to decanter their emotions and thoughts. Schön [ 4 ] described three processes to reflection—awareness of uncomfortable feelings or thoughts, followed by a critical analysis of experience, leading to the development of new perspectives. The phases are not necessarily linear and can involve both looking forwards and looking back.

Asking open and curious questions: let yourself practise asking genius-level questions, which only other people can answer, and about which you should not have any possible theory. For example, you could ask your colleagues about what they are genuinely excited in their work or what their biggest worries are.

Reflecting on the iceberg: doing so takes us back from repairing symptoms and being sensitive to what is going on around us. For example, you can think of a certain event and detail whatever you saw at the level of any event or action. You can then note the different patterns of behaviour seeming to contribute to that action. Detail on different organizational structures and cultural milieu, which created those behaviours.

Using visual art: this is basically a practice for shifting out of words. You could use newsprint or flipchart material with large coloured magic markers and start scrawling, drawing, scribbling or sketching whatever you think. Do not use any words till you feel that you are tired and leave the ‘artwork’ overnight. Look at it for a few minutes, give a name and date it the following day.

Journal writing: to give a chance to what our own inner wisdom says and listen. Doing so, you could learn from your own lives. This sort of practice helps create a greater awareness of your processes of thought. Give yourself some time every day to write in a free way with no prejudice. This process of writing might reflect the sense you possess about tomorrow or what now breaks for you about yesterday.

Role models: without any prejudice, you could observe a leader having a different approach different from that of ours. This practice will help you identify leaders whom you admire. To shadow those leaders, give yourself a day and observe them. Try to have a short interview with any of them asking how they think about leadership and handle the change.

Tackling creative endeavour: spend some time each day for some creative capacity such as writing poems, cooking, playing music, painting or sketching. These can rest our mind placing you in a flow state and enable significant perspectives to understand the world in different ways.

Reaching physical wisdom: to have a better reflection, you should devote to attempt in processes creating different understanding in your body. You may spend some time for some activities like playing golf, jogging, taking up skiing, woodworking or gardening courses.

Discovering people who draw the best out of you: identify who in your life draws your best energies and in whose presence you are the one who you would like to be. Also identify what you have in common. Spend more time with those people who give you best energies.

Through these processes, it will be much easier to learn from colleagues; write downshifts in your awareness and in your sense of purpose. Ask yourself whether you are aware of things you have not noticed earlier, by virtue of any of these processes or practices. The possible responses you will have will contribute to your effectiveness as a leader; increase the capacity to lead change. When people are asked about the most effective leaders, they will talk about the extraordinary capacity of leader to listen. Listening is an essential cognitive skill for a leader. One might conclude from this that reflective practice begins within yourself, and it is a significant transformational leadership skill, which will help you notice and change the profound processes of thought.

3.6. The models of reflective practice

To make reflective practice more concrete, there are some models offered to leaders. A useful model that explains reflective practice is the ALACT model of Korthagen [ 26 ]. The model has continuous phases of action, looking back on the action, awareness of essential aspects, creating alternative methods of action and trial ( Figure 2 ). A leader or manager does an action; judges how well he or she did the action; considers elements that attributed to success of the action or prevented the action to be successful, based on that judgement develops better ways of doing action; and finally tries the action in a better way. Note that the first and the last phases are the same. A sample implementation of this approach would be like this one [ 26 ]:

A: A mathematics lesson was given.

L: This lesson went fine. They were a bit noisier than usual, but I could control them all the same.

A: Ronnie was not present; that may have been a cause of the extra noise. In my opinion he is a kind of ‘leader’, and because he was always cooperative, the others cooperated too. Now that he wasn’t there, the others didn’t know how to behave. Yet they all worked well. Another cause may be that we started at 8:30, which is earlier than usual. The children hadn’t blown off steam yet, but I wanted to start quickly all the same, for I had only 1 h.

Figure 2.

The ALACT model of reflection [ 26 ].

C: The next time I will take more time.

Reflective questioning is another way of performing reflective practice. This model offers questions to be asked by reflective practitioners in three levels of reflective practice, which are descriptive, that is, theory-building, knowledge-building and action-oriented levels of reflection ( Table 1 ). The levels are a type of reflection in action. Reflective leaders first describe the situation they are in and then move to scrutinize the situation to construct knowledge to be used in the action-oriented level of reflection. In this final level, questions to improve the consequences of the action are asked by the reflective leaders.

Table 1.

Reflective questioning [ 27 ].

Gibbs’ model of reflective cycle takes feelings into account when reflecting on and learning from experience. It starts with a brief description of an event and then feelings about the event are expressed ( Figure 3 ). In the evaluation stage, value judgements are made for further analysis in the next stage to draw a personal understanding of the event. In the conclusion stage, insights into how behaviour affected the outcome of the event are developed. Finally, an action plan is developed to be used when encountered the same or similar event. The plan should constitute learned intuition of what a leader would do differently in the next time. This model is a type of reflection on action. A very good example reflection done by a leader using Gibbs’ model can be read at [ 29 ]. Instructions about how to implement each stage are further detailed in Table 2 .

Figure 3.

Reflective cycle [ 28 ].

Table 2.

Stages of reflective cycle [ 28 ].

Kolb’s reflective model presents another circular approach to reflective practice ( Figure 4 ). New knowledge is generated upon experience building on prior experiences and knowledge. The cycle starts with a concrete experience in which a person is actively involved. In the reflective observation stage, reviewing of what has been done and experienced takes place. The next stage is called abstract conceptualization that involves making sense of what happened by interpreting relations between events. The final stage of active experimentation is about testing implications of concepts, which are developed in the previous stage, in new situations.

Figure 4.

Kolb’s reflective model [ 30 ].

Experience needs to be seen as constructed, shaped and contained by social power relations.

Complex and unequal relations around knowledge are constructed between people as an integral part of the learning process.

There is a need to focus on the here-and-now experience and the mirroring process between the people within the education environment and the organizations they represent.

Finding ways of working with underlying and unconscious processes, particularly defence mechanisms, is necessary.

Second-order or metaprocesses relating to each aspect of the cycle are included.

4. Conclusions

Leadership is so complex that everything about it cannot be written in a handbook nor can be prescribed in the literature on leadership. So, how can new knowledge about leadership be generated when it is needed but not available at hand? Reflective leadership fills the gap between theory and practice by enabling leaders to construct their own theories of practice during, after and even before their actions. It teaches leaders how to catch fish instead of giving them fishes. It is a self-development tool and requires little mastery to use. We believe that this chapter is a good starting point for all leaders to acquire this mastery that paves the way for growing as reflective leaders who are self-efficient in creating and updating their own practice of leadership.

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© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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8 Essential Qualities of Successful Leaders

• Rebecca Knight

And how to cultivate them.

Becoming a great leader is a journey of continuous learning and growth. It’s a process — one that thrives on embracing challenges, seeking feedback, fostering connections, and cultivating understanding. In this article, the author outlines the eight most essential leadership qualities, according to Harvard Business School professor Linda Hill, one of the world’s top experts on leadership. Star leaders aren’t born with superhuman capabilities, Linda explains. Rather, they tend to have intentionally put themselves in situations where they have to learn, adapt, and grow — a crucible for developing the tenacity and fortitude to motivate and guide others.

Do you have what it takes to be a great leader ?

• RK Rebecca Knight is a journalist who writes about all things related to the changing nature of careers and the workplace. Her essays and reported stories have been featured in The Boston Globe, Business Insider, The New York Times, BBC, and The Christian Science Monitor. She was shortlisted as a Reuters Institute Fellow at Oxford University in 2023. Earlier in her career, she spent a decade as an editor and reporter at the Financial Times in New York, London, and Boston.

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An integrative review of leadership competencies and attributes in advanced nursing practice

Maud heinen.

1 Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Scientific Institute for Quality of Healthcare, Nijmegen The Netherlands

Catharina van Oostveen

2 Spaarne Gasthuis Hospital, Spaarne Gasthuis Academy, Haarlem The Netherlands

3 Erasmus School of Health Policy & Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam The Netherlands

Jeroen Peters

4 Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, HAN University of Applied Sciences, Nijmegen The Netherlands

Hester Vermeulen

5 HAN University of Applied Sciences, Nijmegen The Netherlands

Associated Data

To establish what leadership competencies are expected of master level‐educated nurses like the Advanced Practice Nurses and the Clinical Nurse Leaders as described in the international literature.

Developments in health care ask for well‐trained nurse leaders. Advanced Practice Nurses and Clinical Nurse Leaders are ideally positioned to lead healthcare reform in nursing. Nurses should be adequately equipped for this role based on internationally defined leadership competencies. Therefore, identifying leadership competencies and related attributes internationally is needed.

Integrative review.

Embase, Medline and CINAHL databases were searched (January 2005–December 2018). Also, websites of international professional nursing organizations were searched for frameworks on leadership competencies. Study and framework selection, identification of competencies, quality appraisal of included studies and analysis of data were independently conducted by two researchers.

Fifteen studies and seven competency frameworks were included. Synthesis of 150 identified competencies led to a set of 30 core competencies in the clinical, professional, health systems. and health policy leadership domains. Most competencies fitted in one single domain the health policy domain contained the least competencies.

Conclusions

This synthesis of 30 core competencies within four leadership domains can be used for further development of evidence‐based curricula on leadership. Next steps include further refining of competencies, addressing gaps, and the linking of knowledge, skills, and attributes.

These findings contribute to leadership development for Advanced Practice Nurses and Clinical Nurse Leaders while aiming at improved health service delivery and guiding of health policies and reforms.

1. INTRODUCTION

Developments in health care, like a growing number of patients with chronic diseases, an increased complexity of patients, a stronger focus on person‐centred care and a demand for less institutionalized care ask for well‐trained master level‐educated nurses operating as partners in integrated care teams, with leadership qualities at all levels of the healthcare system. Changes in health care are also underlined by a definition of health as proposed by Huber et al. (Huber et al., 2011 ) where health is defined as ‘the ability to adapt and self manage in the face of social, physical and emotional challenges’ as a refinement of the World Health Organization (WHO) definition where health is ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well being’ (WHO, 1948 ). This stipulates the de‐medicalization of health care and society and emphasizes the need for change in the way health care is organized. Also the Institute of Medicine with their report on ‘The Future of Nursing’ supports the urge for nurses to take their roles to address changes in health care (IOM, 2011 ). However leading change is a complex and not yet well understood process (Nelson‐Brantley & Ford, 2017 ). Therefore, especially master level‐educated nurses have to be trained in leadership based on internationally established leadership competencies. This review investigates what leadership competencies are expected from and can be identified for master educated nurses from an international perspective.

1.1. Background

Clinical nurses who are trained at master's level, for example, Advanced Practice Nurses (APNs) and Clinical Nurse Leaders (CNLs), are in a unique position to take a leadership role, in collaboration with other healthcare professionals, to shape healthcare reform, as they use extended and expanded skills and are trained to focus on improved patient outcomes, the application of evidence‐based practice and assessing cost‐effectiveness of care (Stanley et al., 2008 ). The focus of this review is on APNs and CNLs, where APN is regarded as a general designation for all nurses with an advanced degree in a nursing program, that is, Certified Nurse Practitioner (NP), Certified Registered Nurse Anaesthetist, Certified Nurse Midwife and Clinical Nurse Specialist (CNS) (APRN Joint Dialogue Group, 2008 ) . APNs are prepared with specialized education in a defined clinical area of practice. With APN in this review, we refer to the NP and the CNS. The CNL is educated to improve the quality of care and coordinate care in general through collaboration at the microsystems level in the entire healthcare team (APRN Joint Dialogue Group, 2007 ). Both groups of professionals are trained to integrate science in practice and education, have increased degrees of autonomy in judgments and clinical interventions and are expected to be engaged in collaborative and inter professional practices to achieve the best outcomes for patients, personnel and organization (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2011 ). They are also expected to substantially contribute to clinical outcomes through, that is, continuous quality improvement in patient care and creating a supportive environment for their colleagues, and to contribute to the development of their profession, healthcare systems and healthcare policy. (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2004 ; Bender, Williams, & Su, 2016 ; Hamric, Hanson, Tracy, & O'Grady, 2014 ). Therefore developing leadership competencies is an essential prerequisite for these master educated nurses, APNs however appear to experience a lot of difficulties in enacting their leadership role (Begley, Murphy, Higgins, & Cooney, 2014 ; Elliott, Begley, Sheaf, & Higgins, 2016a ).

Leadership is subject of many discussions can be regarded from different perspectives and is mostly related to specific contexts. Hence, there is no single definition applicable to all settings and professions. Leadership is mostly regarded in relation to managing a team or organization (Gosling & Mintzberg, 2003 ) but can also be defined as a set of personal skills or traits, or focussing on the relation between leaders and followers (Alimo‐Metcalfe & Alban‐Metcalfe, 2004 ; Bolden, 2004 ). Transformational and situational leadership are also commonly used concepts where transformational leadership is regarded as the process of leading and inspiring a group to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2014 ) and situational leadership is focusing on the interaction between individual leadership styles and the features of the environment or situation where the leader is operating. (Fiedler, 1967 ; Hamric et al., 2014 ; Lynch, McCormack, & McCance, 2011 ). In this review, leadership is regarded as a process where nurses can develop observable leadership competencies and attributes needed to improve patient outcomes, and personnel and organizational outcomes (Kouzes & Posner, 2012 ). This implies that leadership competencies can be viewed as intended and defined outcomes of learning and that leadership and leadership competencies are not restricted to one single theory. A competency can be defined as ‘an expected level of performance that results from an integration of knowledge, skills, abilities and judgment’ (American Nurses Association, 2013 ).

The lack of an unambiguous definition of leadership in clinical practice, including clearly defined leadership competencies in nursing, is reflected in education. For most training programs and curricula, it is unclear whether the profiles used in education are up‐to‐date and aiming` at internationally accepted leadership competencies with evidence‐based methods to achieve these competencies. To enhance leadership qualities in master educated nurses, it is necessary to explicitly define what leadership competencies are expected from APNs and CNLs (Delamaire & Lafortune, 2010 ). Identifying and establishing internationally agreed on leadership competencies in master educated nurses is a first step to developing evidence‐based curricula on leadership (Falk‐Rafael, 2005 ; Vance & Larson, 2002 ). Such a curriculum facilitates APN and CNL students to not only become competent clinical and professional leaders but also well‐prepared for organizational systems and political leadership (Hamric et al., 2014 ). As such, it enables them to have a positive and significant impact on patient, personnel and organizational level outcomes. Accordingly, this review aims to identify and integrate leadership competencies of the master level‐educated nurse (APN and CNL) from an international perspective.

2. THE REVIEW

Based on the decision flowchart developed by Flemming et al. (Flemming, Booth, Hannes, Cargo, & Noyes, 2018 ), this review was reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses statement (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman, 2009 ) and the Enhancing transparency in reporting the synthesis of qualitative research statement (Tong, Flemming, McInnes, Oliver, & Craig, 2012 ).

To identify and integrate leadership competencies of the master level‐educated nurse (APN and CNL) from an international perspective.

2.2. Design

An integrative review design was used, which allows for the combination of various study designs and data sources to be included. In using this methodology, a rigorous and systematic approach is ensured (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005 ). We followed the five stage methodology by Whittemore and Knafl (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005 ), however for the data synthesis phase, we used the four leadership domains of Hamric et al (Hamric et al., 2014 ; Hamric, Spross, & Hanson, 2009 ) as an a priori framework to integrate the extracted data.

The APN Leadership competency is conceptualized by Hamric et al. (Hamric et al., 2014 ) as occurring in four primary domains; in clinical practice with patients and staff, in professional organizations, in healthcare systems and in health policy‐making arenas. As stated above, this review focuses on the leadership competencies of APNs and CNLs. Additionally, knowledge, skills and attributes (KSA) needed to develop leadership competencies were topic of interest, where knowledge is regarded as being acquired through cognitive learning, skills through practice and attributes as behaviours that are learned over time (Koolen, 2016 ). We would like to add a reference to support this one, the full reference is added to the remark concerning Koolen in the reference list. The reference that needs to be added here is; ​Guillén and Saris ( 2013 )

2.3. Search methods

First, MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL databases were searched from January 2005 ‐ December 2018 to identify articles concerning leadership in APNs and CNLs. To find all literature fitting our scope, we used the words attitude* role* attribute* next to leadership and competenc*. The search strategy was designed and conducted with the help of a clinical librarian (Data S1 ).

Articles were eligible if they explicitly described leadership competencies or related knowledge, skills or attributes in: (a) studies reporting on theory or theoretical leadership models; (b) developmental studies on leadership programmes (c) studies reporting on the effects of leadership programmes. No restrictions on study designs were applied. Studies were excluded when they concerned managerial leadership, if they did not concern APNs or CNLs (i.e., bachelor nurses and/or undergraduate nurses); or described leadership styles in general. Box gives an overview of in and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Secondly, the websites of international professional nursing organizations were searched for documents on leadership competencies in NPs, CNSs, and CNLs. Worldwide, there are more than 100 nursing organizations, usually part of one umbrella association or council. Therefore, this review focused on frameworks of umbrella organizations in Australia, Europe, and North America and international nursing councils. Frameworks had to describe nursing leadership and related competencies in NPs, CNSs, or CNLs.

Eligible articles and frameworks were independently selected by three reviewers (MH, AH, CvO) based on the relevance of their titles and abstracts, as retrieved by the search. If articles met the inclusion criteria, full‐text versions of the articles were obtained and further scrutinized for eligibility by (MH, AH, CvO). HV was involved in any cases of disagreement, where consensus was reached through discussion. The reference lists of included articles were checked to detect any potential additional studies.

2.4. Search outcome

The search strategy in PUBMED, CINAHL, and EMBASE resulted initially in 4,220 records. After removing duplicates, the remaining 2,839 articles were screened on title and abstract. As a result, 168 articles and nine additional articles, added through reference checking, were included for full‐text assessment. Twenty‐four articles were not available in full text. Fifteen articles were eventually included in this review. The flow diagram (Figure ​ (Figure1) 1 ) gives an overview of the inclusion process.

Flow diagram (PRISMA 2009) [Colour figure can be viewed at http://www.wileyonlinelibrary.com/ ]

2.5. Quality appraisal

A quality appraisal (Data S2 ) was conducted by two researchers (MH, AH) on all 15 studies. Quality appraisal of the included studies was conducted using the Mixed methods Appraisal Tool MMAT (Hong, Gonzalez‐Reyes, & Pluye, 2018 ). The MMAT is a critical appraisal tool that is designed for the appraisal stage of systematic mixed studies reviews. It permits to appraise the methodological quality of five categories studies. The MMAT starts with two screening questions to determine whether the study is an empirical study and the tool can be used. For each category, five criteria are defined to rate the quality of the studies. It is advised not to calculate an overall score from the ratings of each criterion and excluding studies with low methodological quality is discouraged. Quality was therefore not used to include or exclude studies from the review, also because of the difficulties in comparing quality of studies using different designs (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005 ). The goal of the quality appraisal was to evaluate the quality of studies and the degree of evidence in an unbiased and transparent way. A quality appraisal of included frameworks was not conducted.

2.6. Data extraction

Data extraction was performed using a pre‐defined, structured data extraction sheet and was double‐checked by three researchers (MH, AH, CvO). The following data were extracted: author, year of publication, title, methodology, country and setting, master's APNs or CNLs. Competencies and KSA were derived from the frameworks and studies, by the same three researchers (MH, AH, CvO). Involvement of three independent researchers was used to ensure rigour of data extraction (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005 ).

2.7. Synthesis

Competencies described in the original studies subsequently were designated to the leadership domains described by Hamric et al. (Hamric et al., 2014 ) by three researchers (MH, AH, CvO). In cases of discrepancy, the selected domains were discussed until consensus was reached. The next step consisted of clustering of overlapping competencies by two researchers (MH, AH), which were checked by a third researcher (CvO). The competency from the overlapping items that best described the content was chosen for the final overview of competencies, sometimes with a minor adaptation to fully grasp the essence of this competency. The same process was followed for the KSA‐items.

3.1. Individual studies

One out of 15 articles concerned both the NP and the CNS, seven were about the NP, three were about the CNS and four articles focused on the CNL. Most articles (9/15) originated from the United States of America (USA), three from Australia and three articles originated from Canada, the UK, and Finland respectively. Two articles published different aspects of the same research (Carryer, Gardner, Dunn, & Gardner, 2007 ; Gardner, Carryer, Gardner, & Dunn, 2006 ) (Table ​ (Table1 1 ).

Overview of included studies (15) and frameworks (7)

Abbreviation: NA, Not Applicable.

Sample sizes were relatively small, ranging from 6‐50 respondents and consisted of nurse leaders (Bahouth et al., 2013 ; Goldberg et al., 2016 ; O'Rourke & Higuchi, 2016 ), experienced nurses (Bender, Williams, Su, & Hites, 2017 ; Carryer et al., 2007 ; Gardner et al., 2006 ; Kalb et al., 2006 ; Leggat, Balding, & Schiftan, 2015 ; Nieminen, Mannevaara, & Fagerström, 2011 ) and APN or CNL students (Ailey, Lamb, Friese, & Christopher, 2015 ; Gerard, Grossman, & Godfrey, 2012 ; Leggat et al., 2015 ; Nieminen et al., 2011 ; Sievers & Wolf, 2006 ).

Multiple research designs were used. These included surveys, interviews, and focus groups to describe experiences on integrating NPs and CNSs into hospitals (Bahouth et al., 2013 ; O'Rourke & Higuchi, 2016 ; Sievers & Wolf, 2006 ) and expressed clinical competences (Nieminen et al., 2011 ), a case study on an education program for CNLs (Ailey et al., 2015 ), exploring the effect of a mentor program of NP students on developing leadership competencies (Leggat et al., 2015 ), piloting an assessment for performance review of NPs and CNSs (Kalb et al., 2006 ) and multi‐method research to develop shared competencies and educational standards for APNs (Bender et al., 2017 ; Carryer et al., 2007 ; Gardner et al., 2006 ; Goldberg et al., 2016 ). Eight were descriptive studies on (experiences with) educational programs for CNLs or CNSs (Ailey et al., 2015 ; Baernholdt & Cottingham, 2011 ; Gerard et al., 2012 ; Goldberg et al., 2016 ; Leggat et al., 2015 ; Maag, Buccheri, Capella, & Jennings, 2006 ; Sievers & Wolf, 2006 ; Thompson & Nelson‐Marten, 2011 ) Baernholdt and Cottingham (Baernholdt & Cottingham, 2011 ) also reported on the development of the CNL role in practice. Six studies explicitly described leadership competencies (Bender et al., 2017 ; Gardner et al., 2006 ; Gerard et al., 2012 ; Goldberg et al., 2016 ; Kalb et al., 2006 ; Nieminen et al., 2011 ). Furthermore, studies focused on knowledge (Ailey et al., 2015 ; Carryer et al., 2007 ), leadership skills (Baernholdt & Cottingham, 2011 ; Maag et al., 2006 ; Thompson & Nelson‐Marten, 2011 ) and leadership attributes (Bahouth et al., 2013 ; Sievers & Wolf, 2006 ).

For eight out of 15 studies, quality could not be determined on the basis of quality appraisal tools for research (Data S2 ), five studies scored positive on all five MMET domains (Bender et al., 2017 ; Carryer et al., 2007 ; Goldberg et al., 2016 ; Nieminen et al., 2011 ; O'Rourke & Higuchi, 2016 ), one study scored positive on four out of five domains (Leggat et al., 2015 ) and one study scored positive on one domain (Bahouth et al., 2013 ).

3.2. Frameworks

Seven competency frameworks, including leadership competencies, were identified. The frameworks were developed between 2006 and 2014 and originated internationally in Europe (1/7) (ICN, 2015 ), the USA (4/7) (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2006 , 2013 ; The National Organization of Nurse Practotioner Faculties, 2014 ), Canada (1/7) (The Canadian Nurses Association, 2010 ) and Australia (1/7) (Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia, 2014 ). All frameworks describe leadership competencies for the NP, CNS, or CNL but the extent to which the four leadership domains (i.e., clinical‐, professional‐, system‐, and health policy leadership) are covered differed (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). In Australia, leadership is linked to four defined practice standards in the nursing process. Additionally, leadership is defined as the ability to lead care teams where the NP supports other professionals through clinical supervision and mentoring (Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia, 2014 ). The Canadian Nurse Practitioner Core Competencies Framework identifies leadership as a core competence for the NP that should be reflected in excellent clinical practice and by mentoring colleagues and students. Leadership activities should not be limited to the NPs' own practice or institution but should focus on the entire care continuum, also including the political field of health care (The Canadian Nurses Association, 2010 ). The NONPF‐USA defines nursing leadership as the ability to change care systems, create partnerships, establish adequate communication and to participate in professional organizations (The National Organization of Nurse Practotioner Faculties, 2014 ). The Clinical Nurse Specialist Core Competencies Framework has assigned leadership competencies mainly to the heading ‘System leadership’ and describes specific leadership behaviour and associated sphere of influence and nurse characteristics needed (The National Organization of Clinical Nurse Specialists, 2010 ). The Essentials of Doctoral Education for Advanced Nursing Practice (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2006 ) is designed to prepare nurses for the highest level of leadership in practice and scientific inquiry.

Leadership competencies mainly refer to the category ‘Organizational and system leadership for quality improvement and systems thinking’. Leadership competencies are applied in clinical practice, as well in the entire field of health care. The ‘Master's Essentials and Clinical Nurse Leader Competencies’ outlined in the ‘Competencies and Curricular Expectations for Clinical Nurse Leader Education and Practice’ (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2013 ) describes the CNL as ‘a leader in the healthcare delivery system in all settings where healthcare is delivered’ (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2013 , p. 4). The leader competencies are embedded in nine categories, with the core leadership competencies mainly described in ‘Essential 2: Organisational and Systems Leadership’. Finally, the International Council of Nurses Leadership for Change™ (LFC) program is developed to prepare nurses to take a leadership role during health sector change and reform and enhance their contribution to health services (ICN, 2015 ). Leadership competencies are mainly focused on a system‐ and health policy leadership. Four frameworks provide suggestions for curriculum development concerning required KSA or performance indicators (ICN, 2015 ).

3.3. Data synthesis

The 150 competencies derived from the literature are displayed in Data S3 . Table ​ Table2 2 shows the final synthesis of the extracted competencies which resulted in the identification of 30 core leadership competencies, assigned to the four leadership domains of Hamric et al. (Hamric et al., 2014 ). The highest number of competencies ( n  = 8) was designated to the clinical and to the systems leadership domains, six to the professional and two to the health policy leadership domains. Six competencies fitted more than one domain, of which one competency related to three domains, the clinical, the health systems, and the health policy domains and four competencies were linked to the clinical, and to the health systems leadership domains. One competency was designated to the professional and the health systems leadership domains. The model in Figure ​ Figure2 2 presents this synthesis of competencies.

Final 30 leadership Core competencies within (four) leadership domains

Model competencies [Colour figure can be viewed at http://www.wileyonlinelibrary.com/ ]

Seven studies and two frameworks reported on knowledge (Ailey et al., 2015 ; Bahouth et al., 2013 ; Carryer et al., 2007 ; The National Organization of Nurse Practotioner Faculties, 2014 ), skills (Ailey et al., 2015 ; Baernholdt & Cottingham, 2011 ; Maag et al., 2006 ; The National Organization of Clinical Nurse Specialists, 2010 ; The National Organization of Nurse Practotioner Faculties, 2014 ; Thompson & Nelson‐Marten, 2011 ) and attributes (Ailey et al., 2015 ; Bahouth et al., 2013 ). Both Ailey et al. (Ailey et al., 2015 ; Sievers & Wolf, 2006 ) and the NONPF (The National Organization of Nurse Practotioner Faculties, 2014 ) described skills and knowledge in terms of explicit curricula content for APNs. Other studies reported broadly formulated KSA. Eleven knowledge items, 21 skills and 21 attributes were identified (Table ​ (Table3) 3 ) and assigned to a leadership domain.

Overview of identified needs for knowledge, skills, and attributes

Abbreviations: CL, clinical; PR, professional; HS, health systems; HP, health policy.

4. DISCUSSION

The results of this integrative review lead to the synthesis of 30 leadership competencies for APNs and CNLs derived from international literature and official documents of international nursing organizations. Competencies were furthermore designated to the clinical, professional, health systems or the health policy leadership domains, according to Hamric et al. (Hamric et al., 2014 ). Six competencies were linked to more than one domain. The clinical, professional and the health systems domains dominated regarding the number of competencies.

In the clinical leadership domain, core competencies are focused on delivering excellent patient care and concern items like collaboration with professionals and other health agencies, implementation of innovations, and enhancing EBP. Although EBP is often viewed as a stand‐alone competency (Hamric et al., 2014 ), leadership and EBP are strongly connected (Sastre‐Fullana et al., 2017 ). Stetler et al. (Stetler, Ritchie, Rycroft‐Malone, & Charns, 2014 ) assume supportive leadership as a key driver for the successful institutionalization of EBP in an organization (Stetler et al., 2014 ).

Competencies on the professional leadership domain appear to be clearly formulated and provide for sufficient direction to further develop the nursing profession. This is important because hospital decision makers need to learn from professionals about their roles and a collaborative evidence‐based vision on APN (Carter et al., 2013 ) (Kilpatrick et al., 2014 ; Kleinpell, 2013 ).

The leadership competencies in the Health Systems domain are shifting from direct patient care to the strategic level. Influencing at the strategic level requires an in‐depth understanding of healthcare systems to create and share an organizational vision on quality improvement, leading to the implementation of changes and to evaluate their results. (Thompson & Nelson‐Marten, 2011 ; Walker, Cooke, Henderson, & Creedy, 2011 ). Health system leadership also means that APNs and CNLs articulate the nursing perspective by joining or chairing interdisciplinary committees and raise their voice in the boardroom. However, formal positions for APNs and CNLs at strategic level are not self‐evident. System leadership can therefore only be reinforced when supported by managers and administrators of the organization (Hanson, 2015 ; Higgins et al., 2014 ).

Competencies related to the health policy domain were minimally present. Identified core competencies in the health policy domain were the guiding and initiating of leadership in policy‐related activities, to practice influence in health care and the articulation of the value of nursing to key stakeholders and policymakers on the (inter)national level. These rather abstract competencies do not allow for a clear understanding of the content and nature of health policy leadership. Further specification and operationalization are needed to guide nurses to the political arena. For example, health policy competences should be focussing on in‐depth understanding of global trends in relevant health issues and the profession's involvement in healthcare policy decisions (Rains & Barton‐Kriese, 2001 ). Additionally, information technology including e‐health applications and ‘Big Data’ analytics are important issues on the health policy agenda and the nursing perspective should be part of decision‐making processes in this area.

Half of the studies and two frameworks reported on KSA (table ​ (table3) 3 ) needed for the development of leadership competencies. The distinction between KSA however, appeared somewhat unclear. Being knowledgeable about legal rules was described as an attribute in one study (Bahouth et al., 2013 ) and as knowledge in others (Ailey et al., 2015 ; Carryer et al., 2007 ). Although KSA are closely related to each other, a distinction is helpful to specify what is needed to achieve defined leadership competencies.

Acquiring leadership competencies and related KSA occurs over time and is comparable with Benner's continuum ‘from novice to expert’ (Benner, 1982 ). Both APNs and CNLs curricula and clinical learning programs should train and empower their students to become leaders. Evidenced‐based training programs for clinical, professional, and systems leadership are scarce (Elliott, Farnum, & Beauchesne, 2016b ). Training programs for political leadership are even scarcer, which is in line with the identified competency gap in the health policy domain. The model laid out in this paper could provide a useful base for evidence‐based curriculum development, although identified competencies need to be further refined and discussed and completed with KSA related to each competency. Educational programs which integrate course work and clinical learning seem promising in developing and improving leadership competencies in especially the clinical and systems domains (Ailey et al., 2015 ; Sievers & Wolf, 2006 ; Thompson & Nelson‐Marten, 2011 ). Ainslie (Ainslie, 2017 ) advocates that organizations should map leadership competences to observable milestones so that progress can be clearly determined. This competence‐based learning has similarities with the concept of Entrustable Professional Activity (EPA). EPAs are elements of professional practice, that is, tasks or responsibilities that are observable and measurable in their process and outcome (Ten Cate, 2013 ) and may also be useful in developing leadership in APNs and CNLs. An assessment determines the entry competency levels and point out a personalized leadership development path. An APN, for example, may test at the expert level for ‘promoting and performing EBP’ but test at the novice level for ‘leading inter professional healthcare teams’. Additionally, situated coaching and mentoring is considered an essential element in educational and clinical learning programs (Ailey et al., 2015 ; Elliott, 2017 ).

Positive results are found for the effects of hierarchical leadership in nursing on quality of care and, more specifically, on nursing‐sensitive patient outcomes (Vaismoradi, Griffiths, Turunen, & Jordan, 2016 ; Wong, Cummings, & Ducharme, 2013 ). However, further research is needed to establish the relationship between leadership practices of APNs and CNLs and nursing‐sensitive patient outcomes (Dubois et al., 2017 ; Kapu & Kleinpell, 2013 ).

A limitation of this review is the fact that 24 of the 177 literature articles included based on title and abstract were not available in full text and the final selection of only 15 studies consisted of varying study designs and quality. Furthermore, most studies originated from the United States and Australia which might be challenging the representativeness of this review from an international perspective. Nonetheless, this review represents an integrative overview including a gap analysis of leadership competencies for APNs and CNLs in the current literature and as established by international nursing organizations.

5. CONCLUSION

This review identified 30 core leadership competencies for APNs and CNLs in the clinical, professional, health systems, and health policy leadership domains. The next steps include: (a) discussing gaps in this overview of competencies with master level‐educated nurses and educational institutes and linking KSA to each of the established leadership core competencies; (b) translating these competencies and aligned KSA to curricula and clinical learning programs; and (c) evaluating the effect of leadership competencies on nurse sensitive outcomes. These steps should be part of a continuous process needed for continuous quality improvement, healthcare reform, and high‐reliability health care.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

MH, CvO, JP, HV, AH: made substantial contributions to conception and design, or acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; MH, CvO, JP, HV, AH: Involved in drafting the manuscript or revising it critically for important intellectual content; MH, CvO, JP, HV, AH: Given final approval of the version to be published. Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for appropriate portions of the content; MH, CvO, JP, HV, AH: Agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Supporting information

Heinen M, van Oostveen C, Peters J, Vermeulen H, Huis A. An integrative review of leadership competencies and attributes in advanced nursing practice . J Adv Nurs . 2019; 75 :2378–2392. 10.1111/jan.14092 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Contributor Information

Maud Heinen, Email: [email protected] , https://twitter.com/MaudHeinen .

Catharina van Oostveen, https://twitter.com/CatharinavanOOstveen .

Jeroen Peters, https://twitter.com/jeroenpeters6 .

Hester Vermeulen, https://twitter.com/hvermeulen67 .

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A Reflection on Leadership based on my experience with the LEADER Project

Nov 2, 2012

Leadership is a quality that's innate in me. Whether it was in the playground at pre-school, the soccer-field growing up, student council in high school or various teams I am involved in at Ivey, a common theme has been my desire and willingness to lead. For a long time I thought this was because I enjoyed being in a position of control, a position of influence where I could shape the direction of a particular project or initiative. To some extent, this was the case; but I only recently realized that it was the desire to have an impact that I love most about being a leader. In fact, the ability to make an impact is how I would define leadership. Often times, leadership is seen as a title, a position that one is chosen for or given to make decisions and lead a group of people. These individuals are leaders, of course, as they're able to make significant impact on a large group of people; but we forget that leaders are everywhere in our society and more often than not they are leaders in an unorthodox sense. Whether they are artists, teachers, or musicians, many of them make an impact on their communities and those who choose to do so intentionally are leaders in their own right.

This is not to say that everyone can be a leader. I believe there are certain personality traits, skillsets and motivations that need to be present for effective leadership to take place. However, I believe leadership is a means to generating impact and I believe there are numerous individuals out there who do this on a daily basis who we would never consider as being leaders in the traditional sense of the word.

My LEADER experience has been paramount to me redefining my definition of leadership. I have personally been very fortunate to have had formal opportunities to develop my leadership skills and be provided with opportunities to exhibit it as well. This has given me tremendous exposure to new opportunities and only accelerated my growth as a leader. However, after visiting Russia I realized that such opportunities are unheard of in their communities. They don't have student councils, leadership institutes, summer enrichment programs or entrepreneurship incubators. These were all formal institutions that allowed me to practice and develop my leadership skills. This begged the question: is there a lack of leaders in Russia? Absolutely not. Many of the students I had a chance to work with were budding entrepreneurs with ambitious goals for solving critical problems in their communities. Several of them had already pursued various community service projects and some even had international experiences which they sought out on their own.

One student in our class, Julia, was particularly inspirational. She came from a very low-income family and was financing her tuition by founding an adventure sports startup. Specifically, she had partnered with a hot-air balloon pilot and began offering excursions to individuals in the nearby city of Samara. This was a brand new offering unbeknownst to a region that attracted little to no tourists. Despite this seemingly massive hurdle, Julia persevered with her vision and successfully ran this business over the course of the last two years. Since then, she has expanded their offerings to include mountain biking and hiking tours as well. This just goes to show the determination and commitment she made to her education and creating a service that genuinely added value in a unique way for her community. Julia didn't have mentors, venture capitalists or incubators to help guide her through this process. She did her own research, invested the little capital that she could afford and courage to take on this enormous challenge. Julia is a true leader.

Despite a lack of formal infrastructure in place to foster leaders in the traditional sense, many students were still forging their own ways of making an impact. This is what leadership is all about. I'm extremely fortunate and grateful for having the opportunity to experience this first hand. It inspires me to know that youth all around the world embody a passion for change, a desire to lead and a commitment to making an impact. LEADER is a phenomenal initiative that is supporting this dream and opening doors that otherwise may never have opened - for our students, the entrepreneurs, and for us, the LEADERites.

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More From Forbes

College essays that worked and how yours can too.

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CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS - JULY 08: A view of Harvard Yard on the campus of Harvard University on ... [+] July 08, 2020 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology have sued the Trump administration for its decision to strip international college students of their visas if all of their courses are held online. (Photo by Maddie Meyer/Getty Images)

The college essay is a pivotal piece of the college application showcasing your individuality and differentiated outlook to admissions officers. What makes an essay truly shine? Let’s dive into the words behind three standout essays highlighted by university websites and a school newspaper's brand studio so you can get into the right mindset for crafting your own narrative.

Embracing Differences: Finding Strength In Uniqueness

Essay Excerpt: ‘Bra Shopping ’ (Harvard)

Featured by the Harvard Crimson Brand Studio , Orlee's essay recounts a student's humorous and insightful experience of bra shopping with her grandmother, weaving in her unique family dynamics and challenges at her prestigious school.

What Works:

• Humor and Honesty: The student's humor makes the essay enjoyable to read, while her honesty about her challenges adds depth.
• Self-Awareness: She demonstrates a strong sense of self-awareness, embracing her uniqueness rather than trying to fit in.
• Resilience: Her narrative highlights resilience and the ability to find strength in differences.

For Your Essay : To write an essay that embraces your uniqueness, start by identifying a quirky or challenging experience that reflects who a key insight into your experience. Think about how this experience has shaped your perspective and character. Use humor and honesty to bring your story to life, and focus on how you have embraced your differences to become stronger and more resilient.

Best High-Yield Savings Accounts Of 2024

Best 5% interest savings accounts of 2024, finding connections: humor and self-reflection.

Essay: ‘Brood X Cicadas ’ (Hamilton College)

As an example on Hamilton's admissions website, Nicholas writes about the cicadas swarming his hometown every 17 years and draws a parallel between their emergence and his own transition to college life. He uses humor and self-reflection to create a relatable and engaging narrative.

• Humor: Nicholas uses humor to make his essay entertaining and memorable. His witty comparisons between himself and cicadas add a unique twist.
• Self-Reflection: By comparing his life to the cicadas’, he reflects on his own growth and readiness for change.
• Relatability: His narrative about facing new experiences and challenges resonates with readers who have undergone similar transitions.

For Your Essay: To infuse humor and self-reflection into your essay, start by identifying an ordinary experience or object and think about how it relates to your life. Write down funny or insightful observations about this connection. Use humor to make your essay more engaging, but ensure it still conveys meaningful self-reflection. This balance can make your essay both entertaining and profound.

Persistence and Multicultural Identity: Life Lessons From Tortilla Making

Essay: ‘ Facing The Hot Griddle ’ (Johns Hopkins University)

In this essay published by Hopkins Insider, Rocio uses the process of making tortillas to explore her multicultural identity and the challenges she has faced. Her story beautifully weaves together her Guatemalan heritage and her experiences growing up in the United States.

• Metaphor and Symbolism: The process of making tortillas becomes a powerful metaphor for the student’s journey and struggles. The symbolism of the masa harina and water mixing parallels her blending of cultural identities.
• Personal Growth: The essay highlights her perseverance and adaptability, qualities that are crucial for success in college.
• Cultural Insight: She provides a rich, personal insight into her multicultural background, making her story unique and compelling.

For Your Essay: To write an essay that explores your identity through a metaphor, start by thinking about an activity or tradition that holds significant meaning for you. Consider how this activity relates to your life experiences and personal growth. Use detailed descriptions to bring the activity to life and draw connections between the process and your own journey. Reflect on the lessons you've learned and how they've shaped your identity.

A winning college essay isn’t simply about parading your best accomplishment or dramatizing your challenges. It’s not a contest for which student is the most original or entertaining. Rather, the essay is a chance for you to showcase your authenticity, passion, resilience, social awareness, and intellectual vitality . By sharing genuine stories and insights, you can create an essay that resonates with admissions committees and highlights your unique qualities.

For you to have the best possible essay, mindset is key. Here’s how to get into the zone:

• Reflect Deeply: Spend time thinking about your experiences, challenges, and passions. Journaling can help you uncover deep insights.
• Discuss and Share: Talking about your stories with friends, family, or mentors can provide new perspectives and emotional clarity.
• Immerse Yourself: Engage in activities that you are passionate about to reignite the feelings and memories associated with them.
• Draft Freely: Don’t worry about perfection on the first try. Write freely and honestly, then refine your narrative.

The secret to a standout college essay lies in its authenticity, depth, and emotional resonance. By learning from these successful examples and getting into the right mindset, you can craft an essay that not only stands out but also provides a meaningful insight into who you are. Remember, your essay is your story—make it a piece of writing that you will always be proud of.

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