problem solving law question

The Art of Solving Legal Problem Questions

Table of Contents

❌ The Wrong Approach

✅ the successful technique, 4️⃣ the four-step process: irac, 1️⃣ 1. issue, 2️⃣ 2. rule, 3️⃣ 3. application, 4️⃣ 4. conclusion, 🎉 final thoughts.

Legal problem questions are something that trip up many law students. After all these years of writing free-flowing essays, suddenly you have to completely change the way you think about writing and answering questions. Not only will the typical essay approach no longer work when it comes to tackling problem questions, but clear structure is more important than ever. So today I want to help you develop a process for answering problem questions that works every single time. 

I think problem questions are great if you have a system or process for approaching them, so this is how I’m going to break down the article. Firstly, I want to show you the wrong approach most law students take, specifically looking at how they differ from essay questions. Secondly, I want to help you create your own problem solving technique that is equally applicable across all your law modules. So stick around and let’s get into it.

Perhaps the biggest mistake law students make is using their essay skills to answer problem questions.

In my first year of law school, this is something that I did too. After all, why wouldn’t a problem question have an introduction and a conclusion? It seems as though it makes sense to demonstrate your contextual knowledge of the law and to show the examiner your thought process in a coherent arc from start to finish. Unfortunately, this just demonstrate a poor awareness of what a problem question really is. 

With essays, you are supposed to critically analyse the law and associated academic opinion, interjecting your own thoughts into a form of written debate. Whereas with problem questions, you’re not engaging in a verbal battle of opinions, but a structured application of the law to a set of facts. In other words, your goal is not to debate whether or not a law is right or wrong, but to offer advice to a fictitious client about their legal responsibilities.

Think about it like this: if they were a real client would you really sandwich your legal advice with introductions and conclusions? Would they really care about academic opinion or the intricacies of the law? No, that would be absurd! 

Your job is to simply and coherently explain how the law applies to the relevant facts that concern them, and what this could mean for them. Will they go to jail? Will they get a fine? What are the consequences? 

This is what your client cares about in real life and in a problem question.

The key to writing brilliant answers to problem questions then is treating these fictitious clients as real clients and having a structured technique for providing advice to them. 

Your own university has probably given you some advice already on how to structure these questions, but they have probably done little more than chucked an acronym at you and left you to it, without explaining how you can use each element of these acronyms to your advantage. 

So, I will do their job for them by breaking down the technique that actually works.

The IRAC process for answering problem questions is my favourite acronym to use, and it stands for issue, rule, application, and conclusion. So, first you identifying the issue that you are dealing with and advising on; second, you identify the relevant legal rule applies; thirdly, you apply the rule to the issue at hand; before reaching a conclusion that answers the question.

I’m going to talk about each element in turn, but before I do so it’s imperative you NEVER apply the IRAC process to the question as a whole. In other words, you aren’t breaking your answer into four big chunks where you begin by looking at all the issues, then all the rules, then apply the rules, before crafting a huge conclusion on everything. Instead, you are dividing the answer into a number of separate issues and sub-issues that must be explored in turn using the IRAC method. 

For example, let’s say we had a problem question dealing with 3 different people, Tom, Daisy, and Harry and their respective liability for an injury sustained by Emily. We could break down the problem question by structuring our answer as to the liability of each party (e.g. Tom’s liability, Daisy’s liability, and Harry’s liability). Then within each of these ‘issues’ we should be able to identify subissues, which we apply the IRAC method to. For example, you may have to analyse whether Harry owes a duty of care or whether there are any defences available to him, in which case you should make a statement of the law and apply it to the facts before making a conclusion on that subissue.

Warning to one side, let’s wrap our heads around each element of IRAC.

Your job here is to look at the facts in the problem question and analyse them in relation to two key variables: parties and events. So, this is a two stage process.

Firstly, with respect to parties, jot down each of the people that are identified in the problem question and write next to them whether they are someone who has a claim (i.e. something happened to them) or they are someone who faces liability (i.e. they did something wrong).

Once you’ve done that, you want to determine how each of the parties relate to one another. In other words, you need to clearly write down how the ‘victim’ in the problem question relates to the ‘wrongdoer’ and what the specific event that took place to potentially give rise to a claim. 

The purpose of this exercise is to build the structure for your answer setting you up for success. The obvious approach would be to structure your problem question by considering each party one by one (e.g. Tom’s liability), but clearly establishing the issues allows you to see the myriad of possible offences that may need to be analysed as sub-issues. For example, if Tom killed Emily, we will have to analyse the actus reus and mens rea of the offence as sub-issues to help us determine whether or not it was murder.

Now we have a structure for our answer based on the issues within the problem question, it’s time to turn to the law.

I like to open up my textbook, statute books, and relevant websites to simply learn the law around the issues I identified and create some VERY brief notes. There’s no need to go into too much depth because you’re simply looking for supporting authority. For instance, if I was trying to prove mens rea I may look for relevant cases that help explain what is meant by ‘intention’ or with theft I will be looking for its statutory definition.

My top tip here though is to avoid abstract statements of the law. The purpose of finding the relevant ‘rules’ is to simply state the law rather than applying – you don’t need to think too deeply as you’re only making it clear to the reader you are aware of what needs to be proved for there to be liability. What does the statutory law say? What does the case law say? These are the sorts of things you want to write down; the application of this law comes in the next stage.

Application is the crux of a winning answer to any problem question.

Having identified the issue at hand and the relevant law, our focus is on marrying them together to answer the questions. Fortunately, this is a relatively straightforward process as long as we aren’t lazy in our application and don’t just end up critically analysing the law as if we were dealing with an essay.

For example, if we were dealing with the issue of Tom taking Emily’s purse and his liability for theft, we would start by turning to the definition of theft, which is the dishonest appropriation of property belonging to another with intention to permanently deprive. 

By breaking down the components of this definition we find that the actus reus of theft involves appropriating property belonging to another. We can then apply the law to the facts by asking ourselves whether or not Tom’s actions of picking up the purse and placing it in his rucksack was an exercise of the rights of ownership, and therefore whether or not it makes out the actus reus of the crime. 

You see, a good understanding of the law makes its application to the facts quite straightforward. By doing the groundwork in advance of finding the issues, understanding the facts of the case, and identifying the law, you can approach the problem question with a coherent understanding of what advice you need to give.

For each of the issues and sub-issues you identified at the start you need to form a conclusion. This conclusion must address the overall liability of the parties, including the potential ‘punishment’ that they could face, and ensure that all your conclusions are aligned and consistent with one another. 

Unlike an essay question, where a more authoritative conclusion is usually desired, in a problem question you don’t need to be determinative. The nature of a problem question means there are going to be some grey areas of the law and saying “it depends” could be the ‘correct’ answer. But if you do that, make sure you state what the contingent factors and how liability would differ depending on the approach taken by the court.

The whole approach is extremely methodical, and if you follow these steps in order every time you answer a problem question – regardless of the law module you are taking – then you have a strategy that should lead to some awesome answers. It’s a one-size-fits-all approach where you don’t even have to think to get first class grades.

A methodical approach is possible to many other areas of your law degree. So, if you enjoyed this article, you’d probably also enjoy learning more about my approach to studying:  A Masterclass in Studying Law

Thanks for reading!

IRAC: How to Answer Law Problem Questions

You just got ushered into the examination hall and you take your seat. It’s time for another paper, and you’re hoping that you remember all that you read moments before the exams. After all students have sat down, invigilators share the exam questions and you promptly get yours.

As you look through the questions, you suddenly panic. The exam questions look like passages from a novel. You know what this means — problem questions. You read through the questions but things only seem to get worse, you don’t know what to do. You don’t know how to answer the questions. You don’t know where to start.

Problem questions can be quite problematic, if you don’t know  what to do. Luckily, they are also the easiest questions to answer — if you know your onions. The general technique that you can use to deal with any problem question is the simple formula: IRAC.

If you understand how to use IRAC, dealing with problem questions will seem less problematic. By the time you’re done with this post, you should be able to put any problem question in its place.

What is IRAC?

IRAC is simply an acronym for:

A pplication

C onclusion.

IRAC is a formula that is used throughout the broad sphere of legal writing. IRAC or slight variations is used by judges in delivering judgements, by lawyers in writing their briefs, by lawyers when giving legal opinions, and numerous other areas of law.

In essence, understanding IRAC will not only be useful for your exams, it would help you throughout your career as a lawyer.

How to Use IRAC

Now that we understand what IRAC is, we get to the most important part – actually using it.

Just like we did in the guide to answering law essay questions , I am going to give you a sample question that we will use IRAC for.

This is the question:

Mr Daniel Kiss is a seasoned Fuji musician, he heard of the 10th year wedding anniversary of his long-time friend, Mr Starboy, who wanted to celebrate it in a big way. Mr Daniel Kiss was actually at the ceremony and was delighted to have been called by Mr Starboy to perform at the ceremony. The performance was adjudged by  many people at the ceremony to be superb. After the performance, Mr Owolabi, who was highly impressed, promised to pay Mr Daniel Kiss a sum of 500,000 naira as a reward for his performance.  However, Mr Owolabi didn’t pay this sum and  Mr Daniel Kiss instituted an action to get the money. Advice Mr Daniel Kiss on the chances of success or otherwise of his action.

So, this is how you use IRAC to deal with a problem question:

When you want to determine the issue in a problem question, you have to look for the area of conflict. The conflict in a problem is where the interest of the characters clash and there is a disagreement. Looking at the scenario above, I have emphasized the area of conflict:

After the performance, Mr Owolabi, who was highly impressed, promised to pay Mr Daniel Kiss a sum of 500,000 naira as a reward for his performance. However, Mr Owolabi didn’t pay this sum and  Mr Daniel Kiss instituted an action to get the money. 

From the part I have emphasized here, the conflict involves a promise to pay for an action that has already occurred in the past. In essence, the conflict involves past consideration.

With this in mind, we can formulate the issue in this question as:

Whether or not Mr Daniel  Kiss’ performance was past consideration for Mr Owolabi’s promise?

There are some things you should notice in the structure of the issue. Note that it makes use of “Whether or not”, You can either use this phrase or “whether” when writing an issue. This  is due to the fact that in court cases, issues are usually couched in the form of questions. However, there are some lecturers who don’t want issues couched this way, and they will let you know.

You should also note that the issue relates the facts of the case with the area of law you’re considering. In essence, your issue would be incomplete if you just state something like “whether there was past consideration” or “whether Mr Owolabi owes Daniel Kiss some money”. The perfect issue is a unique combination of facts and law.

The rule is the section of your answer where you resort to authority. This can either be by stating statutory provisions or case law relevant to the issue.

The appeal to authority is something that is important to all law students. It is the provision of case law and statute that separates the writing of a lawyer from a sociologist, political scientist, or any other field of social science.

You should also try to define the legal concept that the question deals with. If the definition is something contained in statute, case law, or any other source of law , you should do well to quote it. If you don’t have any authority to quote, just give a definition to the best of your understanding.

This is an example of the rule for this question:

According to the Black’s Law Dictionary 9th Edition , past consideration can be defined as “An act done or a promise given by a promisee before making a promise sought to be enforced. Past consideration is not consideration for the new promise because it has not been given in exchange for this promise.” In the case of Akenzua II, Oba of Benin vs. Benin Divisional Council (1959) WRNLR 1 , the defendant asked the plaintiff to use his influence to convince the African Timber and Plywood company to release some forest areas to it. The plaintiff was able to successfully prevail on the African Timber and Plywood company to do this. After securing this, the Oba told the council to release part of the land to him for his exclusive use. The Provisional Council agreed to do this. However, it subsequently withdrew its assent. As a result, the Oba sued them to enforce the “contract”. The court held that the Oba’s act was not valid consideration for the Provisional Council’s promise because when the Oba carried out the act, he didn’t do it for a promise. As a result, his consideration is past and there is no valid contract that can be enforced.

Application

In the application part of IRAC, you are going to relate the authority(s) you have used with the facts of the case. This is how you should do it:

In the present scenario, Mr Daniel Kiss performed before the promise of reward by Mr Owolabi. This is similar to Oba Akenzua getting the land before the promise of reward by the Benin Provisional Council in the case of Akenzua II, Oba of Benin vs Benin Provisional Council . In this case, the court held that such act was past consideration, and it makes the contract unenforceable. In the same vein, Mr Daniel Kiss’ performance is past consideration for the promise made by Mr Owolabi. As a result, it is not a valid contract that can be enforced  by the court.

Your conclusion is the part where you give advice to the party the question asked you to give advice to. You can glimpse this from the last sentence of this question which reads:

Advice Mr Daniel Kiss on the chances of success or otherwise of his action.

So, this is how you would advice Mr Daniel Kiss in the concluding part of IRAC:

My advice to Mr Daniel Kiss is that he should not go ahead with the suit because his consideration is past consideration, making the contract unenforceable.

The full Answer

To make things clearer, this is what the full answer to the problem question would look like:

The issue here is: Whether or not Mr Daniel  Kiss’ performance was past consideration for Mr Owolabi’s promise. According to the Black’s Law Dictionary 9th Edition , past consideration can be defined as “An act done or a promise given by a promisee before making a promise sought to be enforced. Past consideration is not consideration for the new promise because it has not been given in exchange for this promise. In the case of Akenzua II, Oba of Benin vs. Benin Divisional Council (1959) WRNLR 1 , the defendant asked the plaintiff/Oba to use his influence to convince the African Timber and Plywood company to release some forest areas to it. The Oba was able to successfully prevail on the African Timber and Plywood company to do this. After securing this, the Oba told the council to release part of the land to him for his exclusive use. The Provisional Council agreed to do this. However, it subsequently withdrew its assent. As a result, the Oba sued them to enforce the “contract”. The court held that the Oba’s act was not valid consideration for the Provisional Council’s promise because when the Oba carried out the act, he didn’t do it for a promise. As a result, his consideration is past and there is no valid contract  that can be enforced. In the present scenario, Mr Daniel Kiss performed before the promise of reward by Mr Owolabi. This is similar to Oba Akenzua getting the land before the promise of reward by the Benin Provisional Council in the case of Akenzua II, Oba of Benin vs Benin Provisional Council . In this case, the court held that such act was past consideration, and it makes the contract unenforceable. In the same vein, Mr Daniel Kiss’ performance is past consideration for the promise made by Mr Owolabi. As a result, it is not a valid contract that can be enforced  by the court. My advice to Mr Daniel Kiss is that he should not go ahead with the suit because his consideration is past consideration, making the contract unenforceable.

So, here you have it, how to answer problem questions with IRAC. If you know your way, it’s quite straightforward. If there are areas that aren’t clear to you, you can leave a comment. Also, don’t forget to share this post with any of your friends that might be needing it. You can easily do that with  the share buttons on the screen. To your success!!

P.S: If you are interested in an online course that makes it easy for you to get A’s in your law exams, you can check it out here:  Get Access to Ace LL.B Exams .

128 thoughts on “ IRAC: How to Answer Law Problem Questions ”

Hi Olamide, thanks a lot for this. My question is whether or not there is a way to know how many issues are contained in a problem question?

Yes, you just have to be on the look out for multiple areas of conflict in the question.

So how do I treat them

What if I don’t know the rules to apply and cases to refer in particular scenarios

1.I find it quite difficult to identify the issues in a question.Any solution? 2.How can I differentiate a problem question from an essay question?

To know the issue in a question, you should just look for the area of conflict in the question, just like in the example. About differentiating problem and essay questions, the differentiating factor is that problem questions have a scenario/story and you have to give advice at the end.

Mr olamide thanks so I really appreciate But in the whereby you asked to discuss the concept of Accord and satisfaction with regards to consideration using case law? How would your answer look like?

That’s an essay question.

Thank you so much Sir. You have really inspired me. Sir in a situation where there are two or more issues raised,how will you go about answering the question in such a situation?

Answer the issues separately.

thanks Olamide for your help am sure to be a better student and you will be proud of me. thanks a lot once.

You’re very welcome.

Sir, when stating the rule while applying the irac method, for instance citing a case, do necessarily need to state the fact of the case or can I just present the holding of the case as a rule.

Thanks sir for sharing your knowledge and understanding with us. In the main time, sir i have a question pls. Can someone advice the parties that is involved in the scenario with only one identify legal issue? i.e you only raised one legal issue on the question and use it to advice two or three parties that are involved in the scenario or story.

Thanks sir for sharing your knowledge and understanding with us. In the main time, sir i have a question pls. Can someone advice the parties that are involved in the scenario with only one identified legal issue? i.e you only raised one legal issue on the question and use it to advice two or three parties that are involved in the scenario or story.

Yes. You can do that, if there is only one issue in the scenario, and if the question tells you to advise all parties.

please sir does this formula apply to a legal report. for instance you were made a secretary to a panel set-up to investigate a matter in report will you use the same format

Thanks graciously for this. My question is must definitions to terms in the Rule forumla b from the law dictionary??

2ndly, can we rephrase the issue to be Whether or not is Mr Owolabi’s promise was on past consideration to Mr Daniel’s promise

No. You don’t have to use the Law Dictionary for definitions, It’s just better. Also, on the rephrasing, Mr Owolabi’s promise is not past consideration. Rather it is the performance by Daniel that is past consideration.

Noted. Thank u

THANKS ,I understand it now.

thank you once again sir. Sir, i wanna ask you a question under criminal law sir. if A and B planned to do robbery but agreed that they would not carry any gun along. but on getting there A brought out a gun and B said, but we agreed not to carry any gun along. nevertheless, A went ahead and shoot C the owner of the car and he died instantly. then both A and B made away with the car and later apprehended by the police. Now sir my questions are, with statutory authorities and decided cases sir, (1) who will be liable for the murder of C? (2) both A & B will liable for the murder of C or only A who brought out the gun without the notice of B that will only be liable for the offense of murder? (3) if both of them would be liable, why would they be liable for the murder or if is only A that will be liable of the murder, why would only he be liable for the murder of C sir?

i would be so grateful if my questions could be answered sir. Thank you sir.

your the best solution of our problem as lawyer in making thanks for your lesson

Thanks very much sir I have a question what if the problem has a mutiplmu issues how do you go about it.

I’m currently working on a course that would deal with this in detail. In summary, what you should do is to use IRAC for each issue, separately.

Thank you so much sir. I believe I will be able to answer a problem question now.

Thank you so much sir…God bless you for this

Thank you sir.

May God reward you. We are ever grateful.

Hello Olamide, My question is concerning whether an introduction is necessary when using IRAC: that is, whether the portion that describes the main concept at hand can come before an identification of the legal issues.

In some circumstances, you can briefly highlight the main area of law the scenario deals with. However, the introduction would be very brief, it could just be a sentence. It should not be long and winding like the kind of introduction you’ll need for an essay question.

Thanks for your guide sir… But i wanna as one question please. When we are writing the exam, do we need to even specify the steps of answering the question on the booklet? i.e do we need to specify introduction, definition, body and conclusion?

Thanks for your guide sir… But i wanna ask one question please. When we are writing the exam, do we need to even specify the steps of answering the question on the booklet? i.e do we need to specify introduction, definition, body and conclusion?

Wow… Dear Sir, you definitely explained the IRAC better than my lecturers. Thanks a lot. However, I have a question. Is it possible to get this document in a PDF that I can download. That is, this your explanation on IRAC?

Thanks for the feedback. You can’t currently do that. However, now that you mention it, I’ll definitely work on making it possible.

Introduction is apt, although it comes in form of a concise discuss on the topic the legal issue is based.

Please how do you answer this question using the IRAC method. “Emeka, a cashier to Omenka Co-operative Society defrauded the Society of a huge sum of money. Emeka who was a first offender immediately tendered the money at the police station and begged for forgiveness. The prosecutor who was moved by Emeka’s show of remorse advised the Chairman of the Society who came to report the case to drop the charges. The Chairman however insisted on the prosecution saying that the stolen money belonged to the Society and that the Executive Committee had resolved to press case to a logical conclusion. Advise the parties. ” what rule applies and what’s the issue? I can’t seem to figure it out

It relates to private prosecution of a criminal case. Check out the case of Fawehinmi vs Akilu. If a private individual wants to prosecute a case, he needs to get an endorsement from the governor.

Thanks But what abt problem question that has more than one issue??

Kudos to you man thanks alot for this write-up

You’re welcome

It’s nice ❣️❣️

Yeah… I know 😉

Thank you for this I really appreciate.

Thank you sir am grateful

thank you for your explanation but i want to ask a question, if the question has multiple issues do you have to highlght in your answers that you are using irac i.e issue: indicate the issue rule: indicate the rule etc or you go ahead and answer the question still using irac but in an essay form

You still have to use IRAC for each issue. But it depends on the kind of question though. In most instances, you do.

please how do they use to set problem question base on internal conflicts of law and the best way to answer the questions

Thank you so much. You have explained so nicely and perfectly. It has saved my day.

Thank you Olamide

Comment thank you very much sir. I think I would have probably made more A’s if I asked earlier but not withstanding my subsequent semester would be a better one. But I would have to read it. Time after time

Thanks Sir for your nice article but pls I need a brief on identifying issues in a customary law case

Thank you so much sir i think i am improving already

If murder, rape, and not paying of tax is in a scenario, is that the conflict?

Yeah. Although it mostly depends on how the question is phrased.

Thank you so much Sir I was bad in understanding law but with this information I’m able to answer to law problem questions

I’m happy to have been of help.

Thank you so much! But I have a question.. According to Plato, Justice is giving each one his due, giving an individual that which he’s naturally fitted. However Injustice is leaving one’s fit, or part and meddling with another’s part..

What is the implication of this platonic view of a philosopher. I don’t seem to understand

I haven’t really come across this quote before. It might be better if you tell me your source, Plato might have explained further.

Thank you so much! It’s really helpful I have personal questions to ask

Okay. Would you like to send me a mail then?

That’s a good one Olamide, U can be a good and wonderful friend. Thanks alot for this.

I’m glad to have been of help.

Due to the patronage in free SHS policy introduced in Ghana in 2018/2019 academic year,Esi yaa had the following agreement with her brother who teachers at Madina boys SHS regarding her son. Esi yaa’ s son kwasi Adu is taking his final year exam at Madina boys SHS. Esi Yaa’s brother kojo Bright is Adu’ s economics teacher. At the start of kwasi Adu’s final year, Esi Yaa tell her brother that she will buy him a laptop if her son gets a A’ in economics. When the results came Kwasi Adu had an A in economics, Bright is now asking Esi to buy the laptop as promised. Consider if the agreement Esi Yaa made with Kojo Bright is enforceable by law. Please how do I go about this question.

This is concerned with the intention to enter into legal relations among family members. You can check this out https://djetlawyer.com/intention-enter-legal-relations/

Hi Mr Olamide, the case scenario a above is a very good guide/example on how to identify problem questions and possibly answer Thank you

Thank you so much sir you really helped me.

Thank you very much sir. I need a brief on how to answer this question, whether or not can an infant be in a contract ?

Hello. You can check this out https://djetlawyer.com/capacity-to-contract/

I have a question sir. What if the question ask you to advise the parties and also write a brief judgement, especially in criminal law problem question?

You can use IRAC to write a judgement.

Can one use analysis onthe part of application? Does it have any notable difference if one decides to do so?

The application is the part where you make your analysis

Hello Mr Olanrewaju, the guide for answering our law questions its quite benefit me because i dont even know how to answer because my lect gave me the AIPAC formula and looking forward is quite similar with IPAC and i think this guide its really good and i can sure that i can solve the answer. Thank your sir.

also sir is it different when we use abstract or is it still same with ipac? aipac (abstract, issues, principle. application, conclusion )

If you lecturer wants that format, then you can use it. Although, I haven’t come across it before.

Good work sir, keep doing the good work this really help me when I was undergoing my diploma in law. Okay our articles help me a lot so much so I pass my law questions perfectly. I was very impressed by your work so much so I wanted to be like you and I started researching how will I be like you. I want to have a site as you do after many research and attending lesson finally I am able to learn how to create a website like your own. Thank you very much. Bless the site sir https://www.legalresearch.com.ng/2020/03/the-injunction-on-justice-in-divine.html

Nice site you have there.

I used to be recommended this website via my cousin. I am now not sure whether or not this post is written via him as nobody else recognize such designated about my trouble. You are incredible! Thank you!

I am so lucky to find myself in this site which has helped me a lot about how to answer law essay and problem questions. I must say u are the best sir

Thanks for the compliment. We’re only doing the best we can.

thank God I am here. I just gained admission to study law and my school is about to resume. I was just engaging in researches on how to answer law questions and then I stumbled on this site. you’ve a new fan here sir, pls sir God grant you grace never to quit

Hello. Congratulations. I’m very glad to have been of help to you.

Please when there is more than one issue how do I represent it

If there are multiple issues, you have to highlight each of them. It depends on the question though, as it’s not so straightforward. This is something I addressed in my online course though.

Sir must you define all the elements of a contract when you are given a contract law questions

Sir if you are told to advice all parties in a question Will you do it one place or in a separate place. Sir is there a present consideration? If there’s one give me an example please.

Good day sir, I wanted to ask that, what does one do when he doesn’t know any rule to use in a problem question?

Ah. That is a serious problem O. As a law student, you should always be ready to back up your points with legal authorities. You should probably learn how to easily memorise legal authorities as that would help you remember rules to use in a problem question. This blog post should be of help:

https://djetlawyer.com/how-to-easily-memorise-legal-authorities/

Pls I have four questions If there are multiple legal issues,how do i answer them using irac? Also,when I’m asked to advise both parties, do I present defences to the defendants and remedies to the plaintif, or give my own opinion on what I feel they should do, with reasons? Do I call them by their names when presenting the issues or stick to plaintiff and defendant? Also, when I’m asked to advise the parties in any question,do I first conclude,as per following the irac rule or give my advice in the conclusion? Pls I anticipate your quick reply Thank you?

Please how do I get to know different cases that could be linked to particular problem question..learning the m is a tough one. I NEED HELP!!!

How do I write/answer this question with relevant cases? Agatha and Ben have been investing on the Zimbabwe stock exchange for 20years with the assistance of their Investment advisor Masimba. Masimba has access to Agatha and Ben’s investment account which is worth 5 million dollars. Masimba approached XYZ bank and opened two bank accounts in the name of Agatha and Ben and made himself a signatory to both accounts. Masimba transferred over 3.5million dollars from the investment account into Agatha and Ben personal accounts and eventually withdrew the funds from both accounts.Upon requesting their statement Agatha and Ben observed the anomaly and they are now suing the bank for negligence. Sighting a relevant case does Agatha and Ben have a legal case?

How do I answer a problem question, if it has more than one issue? Will i take the issue one by one and provide solutions to them, or I’m just going to answer it together

Depends on the question. But most likely, you have to address the issues individually.

Thanks a lot..sure this will really help

thank you, sir

Thanks so much for this

Thank you so much for this post, My question is what if you’ve been given a scenario like the one above and instead of question on advice the party’s, a direct question is given. Like they ask as pertaining to your scenario what is past consideration, or explain it in relation with something else. Is IRAC still advisable to be used.

What if the case is based on argument with respect to cult activities in a particular community..what will be the right issue to present in answering such problem?

Thank you, this is very helpful. Please, can you write on how to identify issues in courses, notably criminal law, torts and human rights?

Sir I understand your teaching on how to use IRAC to solve a problem question and am clear about that. But my challenge is how I can differentiate between problem questions and essay please I need ur help dearly.?????? Thanks Sir.

I kindly need help on this

Agatha and Ben have been investing on the Zimbabwe stock exchange for 20years with the assistance of their Investment advisor Masimba. Masimba has access to Agatha and Ben’s investment account which is worth 5 million dollars. Masimba approached XYZ bank and opened two bank accounts in the name of Agatha and Ben and made himself a signatory to both accounts. Masimba transferred over 3.5million dollars from the investment account into Agatha and Ben personal accounts and eventually withdrew the funds from both accounts.Upon requesting their statement Agatha and Ben observed the anomaly and they are now suing the bank for negligence. Sighting a relevant case does Agatha and Ben have a legal case?

I really appreciate your efforts in helping law students solve contending legal issues. Now my question is this scenario or in another where there are exceptions, how then is the best possible way to answer the question?

Thanks for ur properly guidance

Two students, who were in an electoral body, were involved in electoral malpractice and were rusticated. Your chamber has been approached to prove to the school authority that the issue of the student election is purely a student matter and should not be a curricular issue. Is this a problem question?

This not a problem question simply because there’s no conflict between both parties

Please why are you not serving ads here? It’s a really good job you do here!

Thank you so much Mr Olanrewaju,this is so helpful and explicit.God bless you.

I wish to ask some questions Sir🙇‍♀️ 1.what should I do for in case I omitted any party to the case (either the plaintiff’s name or the defendant’s name) or both,but the facts and court holding are known

2.Or if the the principles are clearly understandable but can not be quoted as they are…?

Nice and informative post sir. This gives me clarity on how to approach legal questions. Thanks once again Mr. Olamide!!

Thanks alot

AM sir Olamide please I would be delighted if u can help me with how to go about questions like this Question😎

_The National Assembly has passed a bill on electronic voting system. The bill has successfully passed through all the law making process only remaining the president assent. The president who has being with the bill for over 35days has refused to sign the bill into law. He didn’t give any valid reason for withholding his assent. He only said that the bill can only becomes law if he wish_

_A.With the aid of statutory provisions and judicial authorities, discuss the legal issues arising from the above case scenario._

_B. Can the bill be passed into law even without the president assent? If your answer is in the affirmative, state reasons with statutory provisions and judicial authorities._

Thank you so much sir. This has really helped . I have been using IRAC wrongly

Kindly help me with all the issues. Thanks, After 15 years of trade in the cocoa industry, Madam Echoke decided to expand into 5 different African Countries. She therefore engaged the services of Kwaku Frimpong to trade from Ghana to Nigeria. After three (3) successful trips to Nigeria, Kwaku Frimpong was promoted to handle all 5 African countries. There was a 40-footer container to be shipped to a new client in Rwanda. While the cocoa beans were being transported to Tema Harbour, the truck got stuck for 2 weeks. Finally, the cocoa beans were on board to Rwanda via Maersk Shipping line. The shipping line noticed during the voyage that the cocoa beans were becoming moldy. Discovering that the cocoa beans will greatly devalue before getting to Rwanda, the shipping line got an offer and sold the cocoa beans at Ethopia, after several impossible calls to Kwaku Frimpong. The new buyer paid the agreed price (based on current market value) to Maersk Shipping line’s transactional account which was immediately transferred to Kwaku Frimpong. Kwaku Frimpong under-declared the said payment and paid Madam Echoke. Advice Madam Echoke and Kwaku Frimpong.

Thanks alot Mr. Olamide. I’ve always had a problem with answering problem questions but you’ve just explained it in a more comprehensible manner. Thanks!

Please sir, how do I know the type of question to apply FIRAC?

You mean IRAC? You apply it to problem questions. These are usually questions that have a scenario. Although, not all questions with scenarios are problem questions, most of them are.

I find this piece very helpful.

Thank you very much.

Your words have a way of calming my anxieties and soothing my soul.

I have been seeing IRAC everywhere but no one has broken it down for me to understand it like this article. Thank you so much for sharing this knowledge i know it will be of good help for me and many others.

Please can you use a rule like criminal law or theories of law to give more examples

John,Emeka and Chinedu are students of the faculty of law Godfrey okoye university.John was in first year while Emekawas in second year One particular Friday night,John and Emeka returned from a disco party at about 3am and switch on the light in their room and began a hot argument about events in the faculty since they resumed.John complained about the nature of legal method saying “The course is too dry and technical”.Emeka agreed with John and frankly admitted that he was constrained to cram the course when it was giving him too much problems.He however quickly added it with a sense of pride that he ultimately scored 60% in the course Chinedu who was already fast asleep was awoken by the argument of John and Emeka.Chinedu reminded the Duo of the universities regulations that all rooms light must be switched off by 12 midnight to allow the occupant to sleep in peace.When his advice was ignored, Chinedu angrily called them a “lawless lawyer”.John who was a member of a wrestling club in his secondary school days, pulled Chinedu out of his bed and beat him to a pulp.Chinedu vowed to retaliate . Unknown to john, Chinedu is the leader of campus secret cult called “Aye boys”.Advise the parties using IRAC stating the issues,rules, application and conclusion one by one within the legal method framework and the issues separately with their rules and application

Thanks lawyer for the explanation on the IRAC. I’m reading Business Law this semester but I always find it difficult to understand basic principles and I could do well in midsemester exams. I really need your assist.

Thank you sir I saw exactly this question in my exam Other questions like Lapse of Time and Promisory estoppel too

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Writing Law Problem Questions

How to write a legal problem essay.

Law problem question essays give you an imaginary scenario. They then ask you to comment on the legal issues that arise and advise the parties. This guide will explain how to answer a problem essay with eight handy tips.

1. Read the Facts

The first step to answering any law problem question is to read the entirety of the facts you are given. Do not just jump into answering the question. Take your time and ensure that you fully understand all the issue involved in the case. It may help to highlight parts of the fact-pattern that you think are important.

2. Structuring Your Analysis

This is a mistake many law undergraduates and GDL students make when writing a scenario law essay. They look at the facts and recognise that they are similar to a case they’ve read. They will then immediately assume ‘this is like Joe Bloggs vs John Smith’, and answer the question accordingly. For this reason, examiners often complain that law essays lack coherent structure or proper analysis.

To avoid this pitfall, when answering legal problem questions you must adopt a structure .

Say you have an problem on whether or not the defendant is liable in the tort of negligence. The facts look similar to a particular case you’ve read on contributory negligence. Your first instinct is to start talking about defences. Stop . Ignore the similarity completely for now, and think. Before you can even discuss defences, you must talk about whether the defendant is liable in the first place. What does the law actually require you to establish to prove liability? Is the defendant liable? If so, what defences might he rely on, and how are those established?

Develop steps that you can put every scenario relating to that area of the law through in order. For example:

Contract Law

• Has there been an offer ?
• Was the offer accepted ?
• Are the terms of the agreement certain ?
• Do the parties intend to be legally bound ?
• Is there consideration ?
• What are the terms of the contract?
• Is there a breach ?
• What kind of breach has occurred?
• Is there a defence to the breach?
• What are the innocent party’s remedies and options?

Criminal Law

• Is the actus reus of the offence established?
• Is the mens rea of the offence established?
• Is there a relevant defence?

Negligence Law

• Does the defendant owe the claimant a duty of care ?
• Has the duty been breached ?
• Is the breach a factual cause of the loss?
• Is the breach a legal cause of the loss?
• Is the loss sufficiently non-remote ?

This doesn’t mean you have devote a whole paragraph to every step. If its obvious that the defendant owed a legal duty, a single sentence pointing this out will suffice. If the question tells you there is a contract, simply note you will assume the contract was validly-formed. The most controversial and difficult points should be given the majority of your essay’s attention.

Nevertheless, you get credit for completing each necessary step in the order in which they arose. This is how a court of law would most naturally consider them. This method of structuring essays also stops you missing interesting elements of problem questions. You might miss these points by skipping straight to what you think is the most obvious issue.

3. Structuring the Overall Essay

The problem question may present you with multiple areas of law. For example, a defendant may have committed different kinds of crime, or liability might arise in both negligence and nuisance. Alternatively, the question may ask you to discuss the liability of several different people.

If you have to advise different parties, discuss the liability of each party in turn . Otherwise, a good rule is to  deal with each area of the law in turn . Give each area of law its own separate section. This will lead to a clearer essay structure than trying to deal with each event chronologically.

4. Structuring Individual Paragraphs

You can structure your discussion of individual issues any way which makes sense and follows a logical structure. One of the most popular ways for structuring discussions is the IRAC method. This stands for:

State the issue you are about to discuss

State the applicable legal rules (with authority or statutory references)

Discuss how these legal rules apply to the facts in front of you

State what the conclusion to the issue is based on your analysis

For example, lets say you are writing a problem question in tort law. You have a defendant who has run over a pedestrian with his car. You think he may be liable in negligence, so you start by considering whether he owes a duty of care. You would structure your analysis of this issue as follows:

The first issue is whether the defendant owes the claimant a duty of care.

If the case’s facts are non-novel, whether a duty is owed depends on the applicable precedent ( Robinson v CC of West Yorkshire Police ). It is established that road-users owe others a duty of care ( Nettleship v Weston ).

In this case, the defendant is a road-user because he was driving a car on the road. The claimant was also a road-user because they were a nearby pedestrian.

Therefore, the defendant owes the claimant a duty of care.

5. Not Enough Information Given?

What if the problem question does not seem to give you enough information to advise on the parties’ legal position? It is completely fine to write ‘the problem question does not give us enough information to determine X’.

For example, lets say you think that whether the defendant was in breach depends on how fast he was driving. The facts do not tell you how fast he was driving. Do not be afraid to say so!

However, saying that there isn’t enough information is NOT enough. You must then go on to say what information you would need to advise the party. Once you have set this out, explain how the law would apply to the facts if you had this information.

For example, you might say ‘if the defendant was speeding, he is likely in breach of his duty.’ Explain why. Then, say that ‘if he was not speeding, he is likely not in breach.’ Finish by explaining why this is the case.

This shows you are thinking like a lawyer. If a client walks in and gives half the facts, you need to be able to ask the right questions. You then need to be able to evaluate the facts, whatever they turn out to be.

6. Red Herrings

Sometimes, the fact-pattern will include information which seems salient, but actually is not. This is known as a red herring. These red herrings are designed to test your ability to pick apart relevant information from irrelevant information.

Many students assume that all of the information in the problem question must be relevant and addressed. When presented with a red herring, these students will panic and start guessing at how the information affects the outcome. Instead, the examiners expect you to point out that the information is not relevant. You can get bonus points by explaining why the law doesn’t consider this kind of information relevant.

For example, say you have a commercial law question where the owner of a painting stores it with a local art dealer. The owner then sees that the art dealer has put the painting up for sale without authority. The owner decides he will call the dealer later in the day to clear up the problem. However, he negligently forgets. The painting is later sold to a third-party.

The red herring here is the owner’s negligence. This seems like it should be relevant to whether the owner has lost property in the painting. In reality it is not: you cannot lose ownership of property because you were negligent. Because the information seems relevant, it is tempting to discuss it at length, for example by talking about estoppel by negligence. This wastes time and will not get you any marks. Rather, you should say ‘the owner’s negligence is not relevant to whether he retains ownership of the painting’. Then, move on.

7. Don’t Hedge Your Bets (and other Stylistic Tips)

If there’s one thing most law professors hate, its a phrase like ‘it seems from the evidence that there might be a possibility of supporting the argument that…’.

Confidence in essay-writing is not something that is stressed enough at school or university. When you aren’t sure, it is tempting to hedge your bets with language like ‘probably’ and ‘it might be the case’. Resist that urge. If your analysis is correct but don’t sound confident, the examiner may doubt that you firmly grasp the material. If it is not correct, saying ‘probably’ in front of the error won’t help in any case.

Other stylistic tips for writing a professional sounding essay include:

• Avoid contractions (‘don’t’, ‘can’t’), slang phrases and other informal language;
• Avoid the phrase ‘it is submitted that’. This kind of wording is for moots and legal debating, not academic legal essays;
• Try to deal with only one issue per paragraph. This makes the essay less visually intimidating;
• If simple language and short sentences get your point across, use simple language and short sentences. There is a temptation to sound ‘professional’ by using multi-clauses sentences and complex vocabulary. This just makes the essay harder to read.

8. Cite, Cite and Cite Again

If you ever make any kind of positive claim about the law, back it up with a citation. What proves your claim? A case? A statutory provision? Cite it. You need to assure the marker that you aren’t just making lucky guesses. Also, many institutions’ grading criteria specify that you can’t get more than a 2:2 if there is insufficient citation.

Generally there is no need to give the year, report and page number of case-law in exams. However, you should check your university’s best practice guidelines to know for sure.

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1st Edition

Problem Questions for Law Students A Study Guide

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Description

Law students rarely have experience answering problem questions before university, and lecturers concentrate on teaching content rather than the exam skills needed. This book bridges the gap on how to transpose knowledge and research into structured and coherent answers to problem questions while earning a law degree. Aimed at undergraduates, international students, and foundation and SQE candidates, the book gives a step-by-step study guide on how to navigate what a problem question is asking you to do. It deconstructs the process using examples from a range of different fields of law, providing essential guidance from research and critical thinking to style and tone. Including a range of examples to test yourself against, this is an indispensable resource for any law student who wants to tackle problem questions with confidence.

Table of Contents

Geraint Brown is the Coordinator of English for Specific Purposes and a tutor of English for Academic Purposes at Swansea University. Since 2008, he has taught UK and international students who are about to start their LLMs at Southampton University, as well as master’s and undergraduate law students at Swansea University where he is the Coordinator of the Law Pre-sessional course. He specialises in developing, teaching and delivering medical English, English for Sports, English for Academics, English for International Lecturers in UK universities and, of course, legal English. He is Chair and a panel member of the Academic Integrity Committee deciding on cases where students have been suspected of committing academic misconduct and unfair practice, and a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (FHEA).

Critics' Reviews

"As a qualified CELTA English teacher and an international PhD candidate studying and teaching world trade law in the UK, it is really a pleasure to witness the publication of such a brilliant book on legal academic English. Owing to the instructive content and the clear structure, Geraint’s book has made not only a practical course material for any English tutors but also an easy-to-follow self-study guidance for law students who are seeking language tutorials. The English learning habits of non-native speakers appear to be well considered by the author. Consequently, I strongly recommend the book to any legal English tutors and international students who are about to be engaged in a law-related course in an English-speaking country ." Dr Cherry Kaiyuan Chen "Brown’s book aims to fill this gap in available resources, breaking down the process of unpacking a PQ task and constructing a coherent answer. The writer is an EAP practitioner and therefore this book foregrounds language as integrated in content. This is typically not the case in previously published legal EAP resources, as Candlin et al. noted (2002:302). The book is therefore clearly distinguishable from other available writing guides from law content specialist authors, which often provide only a few cursory, separate notes on language. It also presents law content and sections on referencing and study skills, (e.g., researching law databases). Overall, this book is focussed on academic language and literacy development for law within a process writing approach. [T]he benefit of an EAP practitioner’s specific insights within a specific academic domain is a defining feature of this publication. In conclusion, this book fills a clear gap in the market as a language in content approach to a specific subgenre of academic law writing. Its greatest value derives from how it comprehensively and expertly deconstructs PQ tasks, walking students through the process of writing. Language is integrated and fully contextualised within content, and explanations draw on the EAP author’s insider knowledge about the genre in practice. It is suitable for non L1 students and beginner/returning law students and provides for a range of law study contexts and areas of law." Neil Adam Tibbetts , University of Bristol

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You are here, 6 top tips for answering problem questions in law.

As a law student you’re likely to spend a fair bit of time writing answers to problem questions, so it’s best to be prepared. Below Lawyer Monthly’s latest law school & careers feature benefits from expert top tips from  Emma Jones , Lecturer in Law and member of the  Open Justice  team at The Open University.

Problem questions can help you to develop valuable skills around identifying relevant information, applying legal principles to specific scenarios and writing advice in a clear and logical manner. Here are some top tips on how to approach this type of question.

1. Read the question carefully

OK, so this really applies to all types of assignments, but with problem questions there can be a pretty lengthy scenario for you to get to grips with. It can help to highlight or underline, but even better try making a flow chart or chronology of events, or a spider diagram detailing the involvement of each party.

2. Find a way to break down the question.

One common way to approach analysing problem questions is the IRAC method – identify the Issue, explain the Legal Rule, set out its Application and reach a Conclusion based on this. Depending on the scenario you’re given, you might need to work through this process several times, for example, once for each party involved or each potential cause of action

3. Show what you know

When it comes to explaining the legal rules that apply to a scenario, it can be tempting to quote sections of statute or parts of judgments. Although it’s great to reference legislation and cases, setting out their meaning in your own words really demonstrates your understanding. It can be tricky to get the balance between keeping the original meaning and putting it in your own way, but it does get easier with practice.

4. Reason, reason, reason!

The Application part of a problem question is key. It can be very tempting to jump from the legal rule to a conclusion, but you need to take your reader through your thought-process step-by-step. Often, there is no one “right” answer to a scenario, the key is to construct a clear and sound argument using legal authorities and explaining how they apply to the facts.

5. Get the structure and presentation right

This leads neatly onto the next point – structuring your work carefully. Your Law School may have its own rules on this, for example, whether or not to include a brief introduction and when to use headings. It is important to follow these. The general rule is to try and make your structure and writing as easy to follow as possible. Imagine you are writing for an intelligent lay person with no previous knowledge of law. In fact, you can always ask a friend or family member to take a look to see if they can follow what you’re saying.

6. Reaching a conclusion

When you are trying to write a conclusion, you may find that there are parts of the scenario that are a little ambiguous or where there is potential for different outcomes. If that is the case, it is fine to indicate that you can’t reach a final conclusion, but it is important to explain why not. On the other hand, if you can give a conclusion, you should try and do so. It’s usually fairly clear when someone has lacked the confidence to make a decision.

Problem questions can be challenging, but they are a great way of developing key skills which are needed in plenty of careers, not least for working on the legal profession. Just remember, one day you may have a real client in front of you, and be very glad you had the chance to practice first!

This article was originally published in  Lawyer Monthly . Click to read the  original article .

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Offer and Acceptance Problem Question Structure

Posted by Catherine Robinson on August 4, 2021

Offer and acceptance problem questions can be tricky to structure as there will often be multiple parties and multiple things going on at once. For this reason, it is advisable to separate out the parties and discuss them individually. For example, if you have one party who has made an offer and multiple other parties who have responded to the offer, your answer should discuss whether there has been a valid offer and acceptance between the original offeror and each offeree. This may not seem to make much sense as it would usually be impossible for the offeror to contract with all the parties as there will only be one product or service available. Despite that, you must discuss whether offer and acceptance is present for each and every individual in the problem question scenario.

In practice, the offeror would only be able to successfully perform the contract with one party. This means they would be in breach of contract with all the other parties. But that doesn't matter for your purposes - your task is to determine whether offer and acceptance can be established for each party. 

The steps you must follow when writing a first class offer and acceptance problem question essay are set out below.

Step 1 : Offer or invitation to treat?

The courts have an objective approach: would the reasonable man believe that the offeror intended to be bound by his words? If so, an offer has been made. If not, it is a mere invitation to treat: a statement inviting offers which can then be accepted or rejected.

Gibson v Manchester City Council – stating that the party ‘may be prepared to sell’ was insufficiently certain to be an offer.

C.f. Storer v Manchester City Council – all the terms of the contract of sale had been agreed.

Unilateral offer

Party A promises to do something for party B on the condition that party B does something first. Party B is not obliged to do the act, but if they do, A must fulfil their promise.

Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball – £1000 deposited in bank showing the sincerity of the unilateral offer.

Can be revoked up until the point of performance, per Errington v Errington and Woods .

Communication of revocation: Shuey v US – by same or more efficient means.

No need to communicate acceptance, per Carlill .

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These are invitations to treat, not offers, per Partridge v Crittenden .

Exception 1: when a reward is offered for the performance of a specific act, per Carlill .

Exception 2: the wording of the advert suggests the party wishes to be bound, e.g. ‘first come, first served’ – Lefkowitz v Great Minneapolis Surplus Store .

Shop displays

Shop displays are invitations to treat, per Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots Cash Chemists .

Shop windows

Shop window displays are invitations to treat, per Fisher v Bell .

Generally invitations to treat, not offers, per Spencer v Harding .

Exception: will be an offer if the party expressly undertakes to accept highest or lowest bid, per Harvela Investments Ltd v Royal Trust Co of Canada – also, referential bids are invalid.

Bingham LJ in Blackpool and Fylde Aero Club v Blackpool BC – bids that conform to the requirements of the tender must be ‘opened and considered’.

Statements of price

Mere statements of price that infer no intention to be bound by an acceptance will not be an offer, per Harvey v Facey – telegram stating ‘Lowest price for Bumper Hall Pen £900’ was not an offer.

Usually a request for bids is an invitation to treat, each bid constitutes an offer, and acceptance occurs when the hammer falls, per British Car Auctions v Wright ; s 57(2) of the Sale of Goods Act 1979.

Advertisement isn’t promise that auction will go ahead, per Harris v Nickerson .

An auction without reserve is a promise to sell to the highest bidder, per Barry v Davies .

Step 2 : Communication of offers

According to Taylor v Laird , an offer must have been communicated to the offeree in order to have a valid agreement. Can be done in one of three ways: (1) orally, (2) in writing, (3) by conduct.

Step 3 : Revocation of offers

Offers can be revoked up until the point of acceptance, per Routledge v Grant .

Revocation may take place by:

• lapse of time: Ramsgate Victoria Hotel v Montefiore ;
• failure of a condition subject to which the offer was made: Financings Ltd v Stimson ;
• lock out agreement: Pitt v PHH Asset Management ;
• death of offeror – can still be accepted unless the offeree knows about the death: Bradberry v Morgan . Death of offeree – personal representatives cannot accept: Reynolds v Atherton ; or
• counter offer: Hyde v Wrench , however mere requests for information are not counter offers, so the original offer will stand: Stevenson v McLean .

Step 4 : Acceptance

Acceptance must be mirror image of offer: Hyde v Wrench .

Two cross-offers do not constitute acceptance: Tinn v Hoffman .

Step 5 : Communication of acceptance

• Offeree must have objectively accepted the offer: Hartog v Shields .
• Silence cannot constitute acceptance: Felthouse v Bindley , but obiter in Re Selectmove indicates that offeree could say his silence is acceptance and that would be binding.
• Instantaneous communication sent out of office hours will be valid acceptance at the time sent if sent within office hours, or will be valid when office opens again if sent outside of office hours: Brinkibon v Stahag Stahl (telex case), obiter indications in Thomas v BPE Solicitors suggest that this would apply to email.
• Unilateral offers do not require acceptance to be communicated: Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball .
• Acceptance by post will occur at the time the letter is posted: Adams v Lindsell . Postal rule does not apply to offers: Henthorn v Fraser . Does not matter if letter never gets to offeror, still valid acceptance at the time the letter was posted: Holwell Securities v Hughes . If wrongly addressed, then acceptance is only valid when the letter arrives: Getreide v Contimar . Postal rule will not apply if offeror requires actual receipt of the acceptance: Holwell Securities v Hughes .
• If the offeror specifies the method of acceptance they want the offeree to use, then the offeree can only accept using that method OR an equally expeditious method: Manchester Diocesan Council for Education v Commercial & General Investments , however the offeree must only use the method specified (and no other) if the offeror states that method will be the only method accepted.
• If the offeror and offeree have conflicting standard form contracts, then usually each communication is considered a counter offer and the contract is only formed when the ‘last of the forms is sent and received without objection being taken to it’, per Lord Denning in Butler Machine Tool v Ex-Cell-O .

Hopefully this article cleared up any confusion you might have on writing essays for offer and acceptance problem questions. Please feel free to leave a comment if there's anything you'd like clarifying!

Disclaimer:

The information provided in this blog post is based on the research I carried out for my law degree which I completed in 2020. I accept no responsibility for errors or omissions. Legal principles and interpretations may change over time, and the content presented here may not reflect the most current developments in UK contract law. This information is intended for general informational purposes only and should not be considered as legal advice or relied upon as a substitute for professional legal counsel. For the most up-to-date and accurate legal information or advice, it is advisable to consult with a qualified legal professional who is knowledgeable about the latest legal developments and can provide guidance specific to your situation.

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The Art of Solving Legal Problem Questions

6 Reasons to Consider a Career as A Lawyer

Under the shadow of National Security Law: Concern about academic freedom in Hong Kong

• Tips for Students
• problem questions
• tips for students

Article written by Nemr Chaer, Future Trainee Solicitor at Clifford Chance and finalist Law student at the University of Warwick.

As a law student, it is inevitable that you will be asked to solve a legal problem question (PQ). This is a question whereby you are given a problem scenario that has several legal issues which you will be asked to analyse. Alternatively, you could be asked to advise a fictitious client in the scenario. The purpose of legal PQs is to test whether you can correctly filter your way through complex areas of law in a meaningful way. This short article will provide my top three tips for solving legal PQs.

Tip #1: Knowing the Difference between a Legal Problem Question and Legal Essay

Understanding the difference between a legal PQ and a legal essay is of paramount importance. This is because it allows you to understand where and how you should concentrate your efforts when it comes to answering.

The main difference between answering a legal PQ and an essay is their respective goals. The intention of a legal essay is to critically evaluate the law with reference to academic debates and opinions. As a result, your efforts are concentrated on fleshing out the nuances of the law in a scholarly manner. This means that you are commonly going to write an introductory paragraph contextualising the law and provide several academic arguments. Even the language that you will use in the essay will be a lot more free-flowing and explorative. This differs from legal PQs. For the latter, your intention is to advise a fictitious client. If this client was real, you would not provide an elaborative introduction and flesh out the scholarly debates in the law. Instead, you will be conscious to provide structured, concise, and authoritative advice with the support of case law. In other words, a PQ requires a greater sense of certainty relative to legal essays. Keeping this difference in mind will allow you to make the slight mental adjustment needed to answer a legal PQ.

Tip #2: The IRAC Method

As a law student, it is likely that you would have heard of the IRAC technique for answering legal PQs. What does IRAC stand for and how does it work?

• ISSUE: Identify the issues in the legal problem question.
• RULE: Identify the relevant legal rule(s) for the issue.
• APPLICATION: Apply the legal rules to the issues and facts.
• CONCLUSION: For each of the issues identified, form a conclusion addressing the overall liability of each of the parties including the punishment they could receive.

Adopting the IRAC method is beneficial because it allows you to structure your legal advice in a way that is easy to follow. Here are some extra tips that you should note when using the IRAC method.

• ISSUE: A good tip for any PQ is to identify all of the parties and the event that occurred to them. This allows you to differentiate between the wrongdoer and victim and how the particular event relates to the two. For example, if X used a hammer and killed Y, we would know that the legal issue is whether X is liable for killing Y.
• RULE: Always apply the relevant authority. Whilst this may seem obvious, it is very common for students to cite statutes and cases that do not necessarily relate to the problem question. Avoid this as it does not substantiate your analysis.
• APPLICATION: It will never be the case in a PQ that you are given a scenario with no nuances or uncertainty. When this happens, it is of paramount importance you flesh out the nuance and do so using case law. In our example, ‘X used a hammer and killed Y’ which is obviously murder. However, ask yourself whether there are other facts that could help with your analysis. For example, was X acting in self-defence? What are the elements of self-defence? Are they satisfied? If so, what does this mean legally?
• CONCLUSION: Based on your arguments, what do YOU think is the conclusion?

The IRAC method is definitely the optimum way to solve a legal PQ, but it is also advised that you do not apply it so rigidly. Indeed, there will be instances where the Rule and Application components of IRAC coincide.

Tip #3: Preparing for Legal PQs

If you want to master the art of answering a legal PQ then you must practice it over and over again. This will allow you to find your own technique for answering a PQ whilst also consolidating your revision. The reason it consolidates your revision is that it will eliminate the areas of law that you might have thought were important but are not necessarily so. In other words, practicing answering PQs allows you to work smarter, not harder. The way to practice is to simply refer to previous exam papers, find a question, answer it, and then mark it!

Imaan Fatima

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• Legal problem solving
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Legal problem solving: Example 1 (Contract)

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• Jun 1, 2022

HOW TO ANSWER A LAW PROBLEM QUESTION

Updated: May 17, 2023

The problem that students encounter when studying law is: knowing everything. There is so much to read and so little time to do it. If you skip some material, or a case you are none the wiser. So throughout our years of teaching law we have devised a system and we are going to share this with you.​

You may have encountered different methods or formulas to help when advising a client in a mock scenario. One of example is the IRAC method or another is Celo. These are well documented and you can read about these. I never used them, because I had a method in my head that worked. It was not until I started teaching that I spoke about it. I call my method the “Fact Law Sandwich”. Let me explain. If you are asked to advise a party as to their legal rights this is how you present it:

GENERAL PRINCIPLE

Apply to facts.

This Fact Sandwich Method opens up how to answer a law problem question. In Fact : simply state what you have been told, this why you can never be accused of not considering the facts. In General principle : you simply state what the general rule of the relevant issue is. You express it as if you are speaking to a child who has no knowledge of law. In Law : you state “using the authority of…..and you go on to state which statute or case helps prove your point. Lastly in Apply to Facts : you apply the reasoning of the case to your factual scenario. Your advice will sound and look structured and professional. The reason it is called the “Fact Law Sandwich”, is because the advice contains two outer layers of facts that sandwich the principle and law in the middle.

The books we have published are written to provide the student with a good knowledge of the most important cases on their study. They are written in a way to facilitate the Fact Law Sandwich method provided here. I provide the general principle, the name of the case with full citation, the facts, the Ratio (the thing the lecturers say you always need to use), and application i.e. how the case should be applied. No other book provides this information at your fingertips. Please have a look at our publishing page to see our books.

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Ohm’s Law Practice Problems | Review and Examples

• The Albert Team
• Last Updated On: December 5, 2023

Welcome to the fascinating world of electrical principles, where understanding Ohm’s Law is not just a skill but a necessity. Often considered the backbone of electrical engineering and physics, Ohm’s Law is a fundamental concept that illuminates the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit. In this comprehensive guide, we will cover the core of Ohm’s Law, explore its fundamental formula, and work through a series of Ohm’s Law practice problems. Mastering Ohm’s Law is a step towards unraveling the complexities of electronics.

What Does Ohm’s Law State?

Ohm’s Law is a fundamental principle in electronics and physics, providing a simple yet powerful way to understand the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in electrical circuits. At its core, Ohm’s Law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across these points and inversely proportional to the resistance between them. This relationship is elegantly captured in the formula V = IR , where V stands for voltage, I for current, and R for resistance.

Understanding Voltage, Current, and Resistance

In order to fully appreciate Ohm’s law, let’s review the three components.

• Voltage (V) : Often described as the electrical force or pressure that drives the flow of electrons through a conductor. It’s the potential difference between two points in a circuit.
• Current (I) : This is the flow of electrical charge, measured in amperes (A). It represents how many electrons are flowing through the circuit.
• Resistance (R) : Resistance is the opposition to the current flow in a circuit. It’s measured in ohms (Ω) and depends on the material, size, and temperature of the conductor.

By manipulating the Ohm’s Law formula, you can solve for any one of these three variables if the other two are known. This makes it an invaluable tool for understanding and designing electrical circuits.

Practical Applications

Ohm’s Law isn’t just a theoretical concept; it has numerous practical applications in everyday life and various industries. Here are a few examples:

• Electronics Design: Engineers use Ohm’s Law to design circuits, select appropriate components, and ensure electrical devices function safely and efficiently.
• Troubleshooting Electrical Problems: Technicians often use Ohm’s Law to diagnose issues in electrical systems, such as finding short circuits or identifying components that are not functioning correctly.
• Educational Purposes: Ohm’s Law is a fundamental concept taught in physics and electronics courses, helping students understand the basics of electrical circuits.
• Power Management: In larger-scale applications like power distribution, Ohm’s Law helps calculate the load that can be safely put on electrical systems without causing damage or inefficiency.

Understanding Ohm’s Law opens up possibilities for creating, managing, and troubleshooting electrical systems, from the smallest electronic devices to large-scale power grids.

What is the Formula for Ohm’s Law?

Ohm’s Law is elegant in its formulation, providing a precise mathematical relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit.

In the formula for Ohm’s Law, V represents voltage measured in volts (V), I is the current measured in amperes (A), and R is the resistance measured in ohms (Ω). This formula is the cornerstone for analyzing and understanding electrical circuits, requiring two variables to solve.

Ohm’s Law Triangle

The Ohm’s Law triangle is a helpful tool for remembering how to calculate voltage, current, and resistance. It visually represents the formula V=IR in a graphic format, with V at the top, I on the left, and R on the right. By covering the variable you want to calculate, the other two variables show how they relate. For example, covering V shows I\times R , covering I shows /frac{V}{R} , and covering R shows \frac{V}{I} . This tool is handy for beginners and a reference for quick calculations.

Strategies for Solving Ohm’s Law Practice Problems

When solving problems using Ohm’s Law, it’s important to follow a systematic approach:

• Identify Known Quantities: Start by determining which of the three variables (voltage, current, resistance) are known.
• Determine the Unknown: Figure out which variable you need to calculate.
• Use the Ohm’s Law Circle: Utilize the Ohm’s Law circle to understand the relationship between the variables and to choose the correct formula.
• Solve Step-by-Step: Apply the formula and solve for the unknown variable step-by-step, ensuring accuracy in your calculations.
• Check Units: Always check that your units are consistent (volts for voltage, amperes for current, ohms for resistance) and convert if necessary.

By applying these strategies, you can effectively use Ohm’s Law to solve a wide range of electrical problems, enhancing your understanding and skills in electrical theory and practice.

Examples of Ohm’s Law

Calculating Current: If a light bulb has a resistance of 240\text{ ohms} and is connected to a 120\text{-volt} power source, the current flowing through it can be calculated as:

Determining Voltage: For a toaster that draws a current of 5\text{ amperes} and has a resistance of 10\text{ ohms} , the voltage across it is:

Finding Resistance: If a hairdryer operates at 220\text{ volts} and draws a current of 11\text{ amperes} , its resistance is:

These examples demonstrate how Ohm’s Law is applied in practical situations, providing a clear understanding of how electrical components function in various devices.

Ohm’s Law Practice Problems

Here are eight practice problems involving Ohm’s Law, arranged in order of increasing complexity. These problems will help you apply the concepts of voltage, current, and resistance in various scenarios. Work through these on your own, then scroll down for solutions.

1. Basic Current Calculation

A circuit with a 9\text{-volt} battery and a resistor of 3\text{ ohms} . What is the current flowing through the circuit?

2. Resistance Determination

Find the resistance of a bulb that draws 0.5\text{ amperes} from a 120\text{-volt} supply.

3. Voltage Calculation

What is the voltage across a resistor of 15\text{ ohms} through which a current of 2\text{ amperes} is flowing?

4. Multiple Resistors (Series) 

In a series circuit with a 12\text{-volt} battery, if there are two resistors of 4\text{ ohms} and 6\text{ ohms} , what is the current flowing through the circuit?

5. Multiple Resistors (Parallel)

Calculate the total resistance in a parallel circuit with two resistors of 5\text{ ohms} and 10\text{ ohms} . If a voltage of 12\text{-volts} is applied across the circuit, what is the total current flowing through the circuit?

6. Combined Ohm’s Law and Power

A device using 18\text{ watts} of power is connected to a 9\text{-volt} battery. Calculate the current drawn by the device and determine the resistance of the device.

7. Variable Resistance

If the current in a circuit is 0.25\text{ amperes} and the voltage is 10\text{ volts} , what must be the resistance?

8. Complex Circuit Analysis

In a circuit, a 6\text{-ohm} resistor and a 12\text{-ohm} resistor are connected in series to a 9\text{-volt} battery. Calculate the current through each resistor.

Solutions to Ohm’s Law Practice Problems

Are you ready to see how you did? Review below to see the solutions for the Ohm’s Law practice problems.

We have a simple circuit with a 9\text{ V} battery and a 3\ \Omega resistor. In order to solve this, use Ohm’s Law, V=IR to find the current:

Therefore, the current flowing through this circuit is 3\text{ amperes} , typical for small electronic devices.

A bulb is connected to a 120\text{ V} supply and draws 0.5\text{ A} .To find the resistance, rearrange Ohm’s Law to R = V/I :

The bulb has a resistance of 240\ \Omega , indicating it’s suitable for moderate power applications.

A resistor of 15\ \Omega carries a current of 2\text{ A} . Apply V=IR to find the voltage across the resistor:

The voltage across this resistor is 30\text{ V} , typical for small household circuits.

We have a series circuit with a 12\text{ V} battery and two resistors ( 4\ \Omega and 6\ \Omega ). First, sum the resistances in series. Then, apply Ohm’s Law.

Summing the resistance:

Now, apply Ohm’s Law with the total resistance, rearranged for the current:

The current of 1.2\text{ A} flows uniformly through each component in this series circuit.

In this scenario, there is a parallel circuit with two resistors of 5\ \Omega and 10\ \Omega . First, calculate the total resistance in parallel using the reciprocal formula:

Then, apply Ohm’s Law with the total resistance, rearranged for the current:

The total current flowing through the circuit is approximately 3.6\text{ A} .

An 18\text{ W} device is connected to a 9\text{ V} battery. First, find the current using by rearranging the power formula P=VI :

The device draws a current of 2\text{ A} . Next, use Ohm’s Law rearranged for resistance:

The device’s resistance is 4.5\ \Omega .

For a circuit with a current of 0.25\text{ A} and a voltage of 10\text{ V} , apply Ohm’s Law to find the resistance:

The circuit has a resistance of 40\ \Omega , indicating a relatively high resistance for the given current and voltage.

First, calculate the total resistance:

For a series circuit, all elements receive the same current. Each resistor in this series circuit experiences a current of 0.5\text{ A} .

As we reach the end of our exploration into Ohm’s Law, it’s clear that this fundamental principle is more than just a formula; it’s a key to unlocking the mysteries of electrical circuits. Through this guide, we’ve journeyed from the basic understanding of voltage, current, and resistance to applying these concepts in various practical scenarios. The practice problems provided various challenges, from straightforward calculations to more complex circuit analyses, each designed to strengthen your grasp of Ohm’s Law.

Remember, the journey of mastering Ohm’s Law is as much about practice as it is about understanding the theory. Each problem you solve, and each circuit you analyze adds to your skill set, making you more adept at navigating the world of electronics.

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How to Answer Law Essay & Problem Questions Perfectly

• Post author: Edeh Samuel Chukwuemeka ACMC
• Post published: June 18, 2024
• Post category: Legal Articles / Scholarly Articles

How to answer law questions: Over the years, law schools and law universities have evolved two methods of asking test or exam questions. They are the problem and essay questions patterns. Basically, these two ways of asking questions require a totally different ways of answering them that are different from the traditional ways of answering questions in the primary, secondary, and tertiary institutions.

One major problem that new law university intakes encounter, is the fact that many of them usually have the mindset that where they are (university) will be the same with where they are coming from (secondary school); and because of this, they tend not to ask questions about how well to answer their law questions thus going on to use the traditional or general method and ending up not getting the expected result or even failing.

In this article, I am going to be expounding on the way of tackling law essay questions for the benefit of students. However, what I will be discussing is the general rule which is subject to what your specific tutor or lecturer may require from you.

So, it is advised that in as much as you learn how to generally answer law essay questions, you should pay attention and understand your lecturers so as to give him/her what their individual preferences are, like asking you to write a concised answer or be elaborate, or add this and remove that  etc.

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Table of Contents

Differences Between Law Problem Questions and Essay Questions

As you may know, Law problem questions are not the same as essay questions. Problem questions are those law questions that tell live stories about the relationship between people and then require you to identify legal issues from those interactions, address the issues with relevant authorities and then to advise the parties on their different rights using the IRAC method.

It is important to note that a single problem question could have a series of different events which are based on different legal principles.

On the other hand, an essay question is a question which requires an individual to write on legal principles without using a particular format like the IRAC method.

Notminding the fact that you are not required to advise the parties or to use a particular method to answer your question, you have to have some mental steps at the back of your mind so as to make your work enticing and arranged before your tutor or Lecturer.

How To Answer Law Problem Questions (Using IRAC) 

Just like I explained at the beginning of this work, a problem question is a question that test candidates by giving them stories/cases to solve. Here, law students will be expected to draw out the issues of law in the story, as it relates to what they have been taught in the classroom.

Take for instance, a problem question on customary law might tell the story of a man who beats his wife because the custom provides for it. After explaining the story, students will be required to either provide the position of the law on the issues raised in the story or to advise the parties in the story.

The most acceptable way of answering law problem questions is through IRAC method. IRAC is actually the best because it makes it very easy for students to explain any legal principle with authorities in the simplest format. Below are the things you must know about IRAC method of answering law questions.

Meaning of IRAC

The word “IRAC” is an acronym which stands for:

• Issues – I
• Rule of law – R
• Application – A
• Conclusion – C

Note that if you must answer problem questions using this format, you must have this acronym at the back of your mind. If you miss any step, then you are getting the whole question wrong.

Now, to make sure that you understand the steps listed above, i will take my time to explain what you are supposed to do in every step. Remember, this is to teach you how to answer law problem question using IRAC method.

Your first concern is to determine the issue or issues implicated in the question. This determination involves asking yourself, what is the problem sought to be addressed in the case?

Example: What is the liability of a master regarding tort committed by his servant while engaged in a conduct expressly prohibited by the master?

The importance of accurate identification of the issue(s) is that it narrows your response to the gist of the question.

Once you accomplish this goal, you will know automatically that there is no need to state, for instance, that “the tort borders on vicarious liability” or for you to describe general elements of the tort in question. Your task is to focus only on those elements or information that substantively (not tangentially) speak to the issue(s) you have successfully identified. Relevance is the key here. Recall my admonition, “ the more you write, the more you expose your ignorance .”

Note that you are not expected to call the names of parties in the story in the issues because they are issues for determination in law. You can only mention the names of parties in the story or case given to you when you reach third stage which is APPLICATION

Also read: Are lawyers liars? The truth as to whether lawyers are liars

RULE OF LAW

The “R” or Rule (rule of law) in IRAC is also called “reasoning.” This is because the applicable rule of law is reasoned from the facts of the case. As you think through the problems presented, aided by the issue you have successfully identified, the rule will emerge. What rule of law will guide the court in reaching a correct decision, assuming the same facts?

This is the question that you need to ask your self; it is also the question that you need to address. A rule of law in vicarious liability, for instance, is that “ a master is liable for the acts of his servant, even when expressly prohibited, so long as the servant acted within the scope of his employment. ”

Under the rule of law, students are expected to cite their authorities. Authorities here can be cases, statutes, dictum of judges, articles which are related to the issue in question. It is very important that you cite authorities because that is what will back up the rule of law and legal principles in the case.

APPLICATION:

This is where you apply the rule of law to the issue(s) you have raised. By doing this, you are applying the rule of law to the actual story in the problem question given to you. In the application, you are expected to pick those authorities and rules of law that concerns the issues raised and apply them to the matter effectively.

Always pay attention to exception(s) to the general rule, if any, and clearly outline/justify any distinctions that might be helpful to your argument. By constantly reminding yourself of the issue(s), you are bound to succeed in steering yourself away from irrelevance.

A great analysis is targeted to the issue(s) identified and is judged by the degree of focus/precision as well as the presentation (language/expressions used in articulating your argument).

Finally, the conclusion (“C”) . A few sentences would suffice to wrap up your discussion. Briefly state the outcome of your analysis. Where the question requires that you advise the parties, the conclusion is the best place to do that.

Simply tell each of the parties their rights and persuade them to sue the when the need be. Here, you can also rebuke the party in default in the case and tell him why he/she is at fault.

Okay! Now that you know what all the letters in the acronym IRAC entails, I will give you an example of how a perfect law problem question is answered. The example below is a problem question that borders on the law of defamation.

If you are a student and you don’t know anything about the law of defamation, don’t worry. Just keep reading. You will still be able to understand the steps taken in every section.

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Sample of a law problem question answered using IRAC method

The Daily Trumpeter, a popular Newspaper in Enugu recently published a report of the proceedings of the Enugu State High Court in a land case between Chief Okoto and Barrister Akuepue under the caption ‘Judge calls a popular Enugu Lawyer: ‘A Crook and a Land Speculator”.

In the article, the newspaper reporter, Ade also stated thet Nigerian lawyers are in the habit of using their knowledge of the law to deprive innocent ‘laymen’ of their land. Barrister Akuepue and Barrister Ikpeama, another popular lawyer based in Enugu have sepaprately sued Joe, the edito of The Daily Trumpeter and Ade for publication.

Issue 1: Whether Newspaper Publishers can be liable for publishing court/tribunal proceedings

Issue 2: What must one prove in order for his defense of ‘fair comment’ to be successful

Issue 3: What is the legal position on defamation of a class or a group of person

RULE OF LAW:

Defamation refers to the publication of a statement which is calculated to injure a person and cause right-thinking members of the society to shun or avoid him, or even cause them to hate him and also convey an imputation on him which is injurious to his office, trade or profession – s.137 Enugu State Torts law, cap 150 2004(which shall hereinafter be called ESTL), Sketch v. Ajagbemokeferi.

People are thus warned against idle gossip which may likely impugn another person when communicated to a third party. Defamation may either be in the form of libel which is in a permanent form such as newspaper publication, television or radio broadcasts; or otherwise in slander which has a transient nature usually verbalized or through gesticulations conveying a defamatory connotation. For an action in defamation to succeed, the following essential elements must be proved, as a thing of necessity:

The words complained of must be defamatory:

If right-thinking people of sane minds would think less of an individual or shun and avoid him due to a statement, then this element may be said to have been successfully proved.

Defamatory words must refer to the plaintiff:

It is not sufficient that the defamatory statement described a person merely by his name Akintla v. Anyiam . It is enough where he is identified by his initials, post, Photograph, or even his office – Dafe v. Teswinor.

The words complained of must be published:

It has been held in a vast litany of cases that it is not the publication of defamatory statement but the publication that grounds a cause of action. In fact, in Pullman v. Hill , Lord Esher, Master of the Rolls said thus ‘‘ Publication is the making known of the defamatory matter after it has been written to such person other than the person to whom it is written’’ It therefore follows that publication in itself is what grounds a cause of action- s. 141 ESTL .

Also, communication to the plaintiff himself cannot ground a cause of action for the purposes of determining liability in defamation because defamation is injury to ones reputation and protects not an individual’s opinion of himself but the estimation in which others hold him – Okotcha v. Olumese.

However, even if a person has been alleged to have defamed another, there is an array of defenses open to him. Such defenses are:

• Unintentional Defamation
• Innocent dissemination
• Justification( or truth) – s. 163 ESTL
• Volenti Non fit injuria – Chapman v.
• Fair comment- s. 194(1) ESTL

Under the defenses of privilege , we have what is known as absolute privileges and also qualified privileges. Circumstances under which the defense of qualified privilege can arise are varied but for the purposes of our case, we have an occasion known as Statements made in performance of a legal, moral or social duty – s.178 ESTL .

In the connection above, for such an occasion to arise, the person giving out information which is alleged to contain defamatory statements must have a duty to give such information on grounds of public policy and also the party receiving such information, that is, the person to whom the matter is published to must have a corresponding duty of receiving such information.

Perhaps, this is the reason the law admits that radio and television broadcasters as well as Newspaper Publishers and Proprietors are covered by the said defense – NTA v. Babatope . It is also the legal position, pursuant to s.185 (1) that qualified privilege very much applies to those who publish reports of judicial proceedings. However, such broadcasters or publishers must be very careful enough to give reports of what actually took place in court, not necessarily a verbatim report of the proceedings but at least an abridged or condensed report will be privileged, provided that it gives a fair, accurate and correct impression of what transpired.

Also read: Names of Nigerian Presidents From 1960 till Date (Full list) 

It clearly and necessarily follows that when such reports are substantially inaccurate, such a report will lose the protective cloak of this defense. Thus, in Omo-Osagie v, Okutobo, a report of a newspaper of certain court proceedings bore the caption, ‘‘Chief Justice Tells a Teacher: ‘ You are a Bad Woman’.

However, those words were never used by the Judge, and the courts held that such a newspaper report had lost the defense of qualified privilege. The defense of fair comment stated above, consists of criticisms of matters of public interest in the form of comments, by citizens upon true facts, such comments being honestly made without malice – s.194(1) Enugu State Torts law, cap 150 2004.

In order for this defense to avail a person, the following requirements must be proved to the satisfaction of the courts trying the issue:

The Matter commented on must be of Public Interest:

The matter must be one of general concern as to affect the generality of the population at large- London Artists Ltd. v. Littler. Thus issues of land fraud by legal practitioners may fall for issues of public interest.

The Comment must be an expression of Opinion not an assertion of fact:

It is noteworthy that the defense of fair comment consists of two things: a set of facts which must be true and the commentator’s opinion on those facts- s. 194(1) (a). The distinction between a comment and a fact, however, depends on the merits of each case.

The Comment must be Honest- s. 194(1)(c) So long as a commentator honestly expressed his view, it is immaterial that he used excessively strong language o that people read all sorts of innuendoes into it, if he made the comment honestly, he has nothing at all to fear. However, criticisms cannot be used as a cloak for an attack, or for personal imputations on the plaintiff not arising out of the subject matter not based on the facts.

The Comment must be devoid of Malice- s.195 ESTL Malice is a complete bar to a defense of fair comment. Malice means making abuse of the occasion for some indirect purpose – Bakare v. Ibrahim.

When a class or group of persons i.e. lawyers, teachers, doctors etc, are defamed, no individual member of the class is entitled to bring action upon grounds that he has been defamed save only when the class is so small or so ascertainable that what is said of the class is necessarily said of each and every member of it, or if the circumstances of the case show that the plaintiff was singled out and defamed – Knuppfer v. London Express Newspaper Ltd.

Thus, in Zik Enterprises ltd. V. Awolowo , an article which contained defamatory statements against the Action Group was regarded by the court not to refer to the plaintiff but to the Action Group as a political party since it was a large group and the plaintiff could not show circumstances which proved that he was singled out.

Also read: How to answer Law problem questions effectively

APPLICATION

It seems that Daily Trumpeter will not escape liability if the report they gave of the court proceedings was grossly inaccurate or did not give a correct impression of what actually transpired therein. Also, Ade seems to have overstepped the boundaries of fair comment by making such a comment, he seems to have made a statement of fact because saying that someone is in the habit of doing something is as much as imputing a disreputable motive upon him which is very much actionable in law. Hence the cloak of fair comment may no longer protect.

Barrister Akuepue and Barrister Ikpeama by bringing action against Ade seem to be oblivious of the applicable guiding principles in the circumstance. In this connection, a defamatory statement against Nigerian lawyers as a whole is too large a group for the purposes of an action in defamation, unless, if they can show that they were singled out and defamed. They may be going on a wild goose chase.

Joe : You will only escape liability if what you said happened in court was accurate, otherwise, you will fall for liability. Ade: It is true you have overstepped the bounds of fair comment; however you may still escape liability under the principles of defamation of a class or group.

Barrister Akuepue and Barrister Ikpeama : You both can only bring action against Ade and Joe should what Joe reported about the proceedings be inaccurate. With respect to Ade although he has lost the defense of fair comment, he can still be liable for publishing what Joe reported, only the will you have a cause of action against him.

Must read: Most populated universities in Nigeria 2024

4 Things to Note When Answering Law Questions

1. Note the little differences in the way every lecturer want students to answer their questions:

Even though IRAC method of answer law problem questions is generally acceptable, some lecturers make little changes to the way they want their questions to be answered.

For instance, some lecturers posit that after outlining your issues, you must tackle them one after the other. What that means is that, you are expected to apply IRAC in the different issues ( One after the other ). Well, it is impossible for me to cover all the different styles lecturers like. So, I enjoin you to always attend classes. By attending classes, you will know the best method to answer your law problem questions.

It will surprise you to know that some lecturers don’t even like their questions to be answered using IRAC. So you see, you must know what every lecturer wants.

2. Time is a very important factor:

To perform very well as a law student, you must have it in mind that time is very important. You have to be time conscious because you have only but 2:30 minutes to answer all the questions you were given. Most times, students are expected to answer at least 3 questions in law examinations.

So you must learn to manage your time. If you do not manage your time properly, you will definitely not finish answering your questions.

I personally recommend that you get a wristwatch for your exams. It will go a long way to help you plan how to use your time adequately.

3. Always cite your authorities with red pen:

One of the pivotal information that has never been skipped in all the tutorials I have read on how to answer law problem question is the citing of authorities.

The importance of using a red pen when citing authorities in law examinations cannot be over emphasized. The reason is because, it makes it easy for anyone who is assigned to mark your examination script.

So, in other not to jeopardize your chance of success in any law exam, you should use red pen to cite your authorities. Your authorities here may include: cases, names of judges, articles, statutes, dictums etc.

4. Dive detailed information about the issues raised in every case:

Most times, lecturers prefer giving more marks to students who were able to give them detailed information about the question than students who just answered the question. For sure, if you answer the question correctly you will definitely be given the mark you deserve. But if you give more details, you will likely earn more marks.

Take for instance, you might be asked to explain the term “ Nigeria legal system “. If you go ahead to just define it and move to the next question, you won’t even get your full marks there. To get your full marks, you must also highlight the features of Nigerian legal systems and any other subtopic in the topic. Though, you are not expected to go too deep. Just make sure you give detailed information. Some lecturers love it.

Okay! for now, this is all i can disclose on this topic (How to answer law problem question). Like i have rightly mentioned, it is important to always attend classes because the way a particular lecturer will want his/her problem question to be answered might be different from the way another lecturer wants it.

That notwithstanding, i have explained the most generally accepted way of answering law question using IRAC method above. So, if you have not written law examination before, you can safely understand the IRAC method as i explained it. Hope this article was helpful? Do let me know if you have any question or confusion as to how to answer law problem question using IRAC method. I will be glad to help.

Edeh Samuel Chukwuemeka, ACMC, is a lawyer and a certified mediator/conciliator in Nigeria. He is also a developer with knowledge in various programming languages. Samuel is determined to leverage his skills in technology, SEO, and legal practice to revolutionize the legal profession worldwide by creating web and mobile applications that simplify legal research. Sam is also passionate about educating and providing valuable information to people.

The Supreme Court says cities can punish people for sleeping in public places

Jennifer Ludden

U.S. Supreme Court says cities can punish people for sleeping in public places

A homeless person walks near an elementary school in Grants Pass, Ore., on March 23. The rural city became the unlikely face of the nation's homelessness crisis when it asked the U.S. Supreme Court to uphold its anti-camping laws. Jenny Kane/AP hide caption

In its biggest decision on homelessness in decades, the U.S. Supreme Court today ruled that cities can ban people from sleeping and camping in public places. The justices, in a 6-3 decision along ideological lines, overturned lower court rulings that deemed it cruel and unusual under the Eighth Amendment to punish people for sleeping outside if they had nowhere else to go.

Writing for the majority, Justice Gorsuch said, “Homelessness is complex. Its causes are many.” But he said federal judges do not have any “special competence” to decide how cities should deal with this.

“The Constitution’s Eighth Amendment serves many important functions, but it does not authorize federal judges to wrest those rights and responsibilities from the American people and in their place dictate this Nation’s homelessness policy,” he wrote.

In a dissent, Justice Sotomayor said the decision focused only on the needs of cities but not the most vulnerable. She said sleep is a biological necessity, but this decision leaves a homeless person with “an impossible choice — either stay awake or be arrested.”

The court's decision is a win not only for the small Oregon city of Grants Pass, which brought the case, but also for dozens of Western localities that had urged the high court to grant them more enforcement powers as they grapple with record high rates of homelessness. They said the lower court rulings had tied their hands in trying to keep public spaces open and safe for everyone.

Supreme Court appears to side with an Oregon city's crackdown on homelessness

But advocates for the unhoused say the decision won’t solve the bigger problem, and could make life much harder for the quarter of a million people living on streets, in parks and in their cars. “Where do people experiencing homelessness go if every community decides to punish them for their homelessness?” says Diane Yentel, president of the National Low Income Housing Coalition.

Today’s ruling only changes current law in the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals, which includes California and eight other Western states where the bulk of America’s unhoused population lives. But it will also determine whether similar policies elsewhere are permissible; and it will almost certainly influence homelessness policy in cities around the country.

Cities complained they were hamstrung in managing a public safety crisis

Grants Pass and other cities argued that lower court rulings fueled the spread of homeless encampments, endangering public health and safety. Those decisions did allow cities to restrict when and where people could sleep and even to shut down encampments – but they said cities first had to offer people adequate shelter.

That’s a challenge in many places that don’t have nearly enough shelter beds. In briefs filed by local officials, cities and town also expressed frustration that many unhoused people reject shelter when it is available; they may not want to go if a facility bans pets, for example, or prohibits drugs and alcohol.

Critics also said lower court rulings were ambiguous, making them unworkable in practice. Localities have faced dozens of lawsuits over the details of what’s allowed. And they argued that homelessness is a complex problem that requires balancing competing interests, something local officials are better equipped to do than the courts.

"We are trying to show there's respect for the public areas that we all need to have," Seattle City Attorney Ann Davison told NPR earlier this year. She wrote a legal brief on behalf of more than a dozen other cities. "We care for people, and we're engaging and being involved in the long-term solution for them."

The decision will not solve the larger problem of rising homelessness

Attorneys for homeless people in Grants Pass argued that the city’s regulations were so sweeping, they effectively made it illegal for someone without a home to exist. To discourage sleeping in public spaces, the city banned the use of stoves and sleeping bags, pillows or other bedding. But Grants Pass has no public shelter, only a Christian mission that imposes various restrictions and requires people to attend religious service.

"It's sort of the bare minimum in what a just society should expect, is that you're not going to punish someone for something they have no ability to control," said Ed Johnson of the Oregon Law Center, which represents those who sued the city.

He also said saddling people with fines and a criminal record makes it even harder for them to eventually get into housing.

Johnson and other advocates say today’s decision won’t change the core problem behind rising homelessness: a severe housing shortage, and rents that have become unaffordable for a record half of all tenants. The only real solution, they say, is to create lots more housing people can afford – and that will take years.

• homelessness
• Supreme Court

Mathematicians Are Edging Close to Solving One of the World's 7 Hardest Math Problems

And there’s $1 million at stake.

• In new research, mathematicians have narrowed down one of the biggest outstanding problems in math.
• Huge breakthroughs in math and science are usually the work of many people over many years.
• Seven math problems were given a $1 million bounty each in 2000, and just one has been solved so far.

The “Millennium Problems” are seven infamously intractable math problems laid out in the year 2000 by the prestigious Clay Institute, each with $1 million attached as payment for a solution. They span all areas of math , as the Clay Institute was founded in 1998 to push the entire field forward with financial support for researchers and important breakthroughs.

But the only solved Millennium Problem so far, the Poincare conjecture, illustrates one of the funny pitfalls inherent to offering a large cash prize for math. The winner, Grigori Perelman, refused the Clay prize as well as the prestigious Fields Medal. He withdrew from mathematics and public life in 2006, and even in 2010, he still insisted his contribution was the same as the mathematician whose work laid the foundation on which he built his proof, Richard Hamilton.

Math, all sciences, and arguably all human inquiries are filled with pairs or groups that circle the same finding at the same time until one officially makes the breakthrough. Think about Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz, whose back-and-forth about calculus led to the combined version of the field we still study today. Rosalind Franklin is now mentioned in the same breath as her fellow discoverers of DNA, James Watson and Francis Crick. Even the Bechdel Test for women in media is sometimes called the Bechdel-Wallace Test, because humans are almost always in collaboration.

That’s what makes this new paper so important. Two mathematicians—Larry Guth of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and James Maynard of the University of Oxford—collaborated on the new finding about how certain polynomials are formed and how they reach out into the number line. Maynard is just 37, and won the Fields Medal himself in 2022. Guth, a decade older, has won a number of important prizes with a little less name recognition.

The Riemann hypothesis is not directly related to prime numbers , but it has implications that ripple through number theory in different ways (including with prime numbers). Basically, it deals with where and how the graph of a certain function of complex numbers crosses back and forth across axes. The points where the function crosses an axis is called a “zero,” and the frequency with which those zeroes appear is called the zero density.

In the far reaches of the number line, prime numbers become less and less predictable (in the proverbial sense). They are not, so far, predictable in the literal sense—a fact that is an underpinning of modern encryption , where data is protected by enormous strings of integers made by multiplying enormous prime numbers together. The idea of a periodic table of primes, of any kind of template that could help mathematicians better understand where and how large primes cluster together or not, is a holy grail.

In the new paper, Maynard and Guth focus on a new limitation of Dirichlet polynomials. These are special series of complex numbers that many believe are of the same type as the function involved in the Riemann hypothesis involves. In the paper, they claim they’ve proven that these polynomials have a certain number of large values, or solutions , within a tighter range than before.

In other words, if we knew there might be an estimated three Dirichlet values between 50 and 100 before, now we may know that range to be between 60 and 90 instead. The eye exam just switched a blurry plate for a slightly less blurry one, but we still haven’t found the perfect prescription. “If one knows some more structure about the set of large values of a Dirichlet polynomial, then one can hope to have improved bound,” Maynard and Guth conclude.

No, this is not a final proof of the Riemann hypothesis. But no one is suggesting it is. In advanced math, narrowing things down is also vital. Indeed, even finding out that a promising idea turns out to be wrong can have a lot of value—as it has a number of times in the related Twin Primes Conjecture that still eludes mathematicians.

In a collaboration that has lasted 160 years and counting, mathematicians continue to take each step together and then, hopefully, compare notes.

Caroline Delbert is a writer, avid reader, and contributing editor at Pop Mech. She's also an enthusiast of just about everything. Her favorite topics include nuclear energy, cosmology, math of everyday things, and the philosophy of it all. 

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CLAT PG Mock Test 2025 PDF - Know How to Attempt CLAT Mock Test

• Eligibility
• Application
• Exam Pattern
• Accepting Colleges

The CLAT mock tests are highly beneficial for several reasons as they play a crucial role in your preparation and can significantly enhance your chances of success in the actual exam. The CLAT mock tests replicate the format and structure of the main CLAT exam, helping you become comfortable with the types of questions, sections and time constraints.

Latest:  CLAT PG Previous Year Question Papers with Solution s   Suggested: CLAT 2024 college predictor Admission Alert: Law Programs at Jindal Global Law School

Thereafter, practising these mock tests help you learn to allocate time effectively across different sections and questions. It also aids in analysing your performance in the mock tests and allows you to identify areas where you excel and topics that need more attention.

Further, practice under timed conditions helps in improving your speed in answering questions without compromising on accuracy. They serve as a comprehensive revision tool, reinforcing your understanding of key concepts and legal principles and exposing you to a wide range of questions, including different levels of difficulty and various topics, enhancing your problem-solving skills and adaptability. Moreover, benchmark your performance by comparing your previous and current scores over multiple mock tests and make a detailed analysis of your mistakes and strengths.

Therefore, mocks are a must because they create an actual exam environment, providing crucial practice under timed conditions. They help you acknowledge yourself with the exam format, and types of questions and deal with situations like time constraints, which can significantly reduce anxiety issues on the exam day. So, appearing for mock tests regularly will give you crystal-clear clarity and security of your command in your preparation. Additionally, it’ll provide you valuable insights into your practice and progress, guiding your study plan for optimal results.

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Approaching a CLAT (Common Law Admission Test) mock test effectively involves several strategies to ensure that you maximise your performance and identify areas for improvement. Therefore, below mentioned are some tips and techniques that may help you in approaching mocks.

The CLAT PG exam consists of comprehension-based questions focusing on legal principles, statutes and landmark judgements. So, familiarize yourself with the type of questions, the marking scheme and the time constraints.

Simulate your exam conditions by taking mocks in a quiet environment, free from any distractions and disturbances so that you can focus peculiarly on the test. Stick to the allotted time to build your speed and accuracy under timed conditions.

Review the syllabus and the study material by ensuring you have thoroughly covered the CLAT PG syllabus, including recent case laws, important statutes and legal principles. You may use standard reference books and study materials.

Time management is the most significant way to adhere to mocks. So, allocate time to each section of the mock test and avoid spending too much time on any single question and if you’re stuck, move on and come back to it later if time permits.

Focus on accuracy. You must read questions carefully to understand what is asked before answering and avoid guesswork, especially because there is negative marking.

Analyse your performance after the mocks are completed. You must review your answers and identify questions you got wrong and understand the reason behind your mistakes. Go back to basics if you feel that you lack conceptual clarity and focus on understanding your mistakes and learning from them.

Improvement in the weak areas. You shall pay extra attention to the topics or types of questions where you performed poorly revise these areas and practice similar questions to build your confidence and boost your preparation.

Regular practice is very necessary. Make mock tests a regular part of your preparation. Also, consistent practice helps in retaining information and improving problem-solving speed.

Lastly keep abreast of recent legal developments, amendments and landmark judgements as these are often tested in the exam.

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Further, to avoid negative markings while taking mock tests, focus on accuracy over speed. Carefully read each question and the provided options to ensure a clear understanding before answering. If uncertain about an answer, its better to skip the question or make an educated guess rather than risking a random choice. Also, consistently practicing this approach during mocks will help develop a balanced strategy, minimizing errors and maximizing your score.

Thereafter, to avoid repeating mistakes, start by thoroughly reviewing each mock test to identify and understand the errors made and know the root cause of each mistake, whether it’s a conceptual misunderstanding, a careless error or a time management issue. Then, take detailed notes on these insights and revisit the relevant study material to reinforce your understanding. Regularly practice similar questions to build confidence and accuracy, maintain a checklist of common pitfalls to watch out for in future tests.

Indulge in actively learning from the errors and incorporating corrective measures into your study routine so that you can significantly reduce the likelihood of repeating mistakes.

Further, for effective time-management during exams requires a strategic approach. So, begin by allocating specific time limits for each section based on their weight and difficulty. Then, practice pacing yourself in mock tests to ensure you can complete all questions within the given time frame. Additionally, prioritize answering easier questions first to secure quick points, and return to more challenging ones with any remaining time, thus maximising your overall score.

The number of mocks to solve in a day depends on your study schedule and your ability to effectively analyse and learn from each test. If given an option, go for quality over quantity and generally, one mock test per day is ideal, allowing you ample time to thoroughly review your performance, understand mistakes and reinforce learning. If time permits further, you can gradually increase to two mocks per day, ensuring that you maintain the quality and standard of your preparation and don’t let it degrade just for the sake of increasing the number of mock tests to be appeared.

Hence it can be stated that, approaching a CLAT PG mock test with a well-planned strategy is essential for success. And, by including the above-mentioned strategy and approach for the exam, you can enhance your strengths and address your weaknesses. Analyse your mocks thoroughly and build confidence through improving your accuracy. Ultimately, these steps will help you maximize your potential and perform at your best in the actual exam.

Frequently Asked Question (FAQs)

It is recommended to attempt as many CLAT PG mock tests as possible. Regularly attempting the CLAT mock test will help thoroughly simulate the exam conditions and will help students in smooth preparation.

In the CLAT PG exam, speed and accuracy both play an important role. However, out of both accuracy should be prioritised over speed because it is better to answer a few questions correctly rather than attempting a large number of questions and risking negative marks.

Revise all the answers. Focus on those questions that you have either skipped or got incorrect. Revise those particular topics again and attempt again in the next mock test.

Yes, giving early mock tests can be helpful since it can help students to gauge exam patterns, the types of questions asked in the exam and the difficulty level of the exam. It gradually helps in building confidence and scoring good marks in the examination. 

While attempting the CLAT PG mock tests, allocate specific time for each section. Complete the easiest section first. Skip those questions which seem difficult or take too much time. Ensure that you have completed all the sections within the allotted time. Attempt the difficult questions in the remaining time.

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APSCHE has notified the AP LAWCET 2024 exam date. AP LAWCET 2024 will be conducted on June 9, 2024. APSCHE will issue the detailed AP LAWCET 2024 notification soon on its official website. Interested candidates would be able to apply online and appear for AP LAWCET 2024.

The authorities will conduct Andhra Pradesh Law Common Entrance Test to admit students into 3-year LLB and 5-year LLB programmes of participating colleges in Andhra Pradesh. The AP LAWCET 2024 exam will be held in offline mode in English and Telugu versions.

Candidates desirous of appearing for AP LAWCET 2024 must keep track of the dates. It must be noted that all the dates are tentative and will be updated upon release of official AP LAWCET 2024 notification.

For more details please visit : https://law.careers360.com/articles/ap-lawcet-2024

Hope this helps you.

CONGRATULATIONS ON SUCCESS IN THE EXAMINATION.

CLAT CUT OFF changes every year. For NLU Kolkata BA LLB and LLM programs it will depend on several factors like -

Number of candidates for CLAT 2023

Number of candidates preferring NLU Kolkata during counselling

Number of places offered by the university in BA LLB and LLM programmes

University Reservation Policy

Category of candidates

FOR 2022 THE CUT OFFS WERE :

GENERAL- 579

GENERAL state domiciled- 1423

since general state domiciled is way beyond your state OBC rank so there is high probability of getting into this college under OBC seat.

For more information on the college you can look into following link:

https://www.careers360.com/university/the-west-bengal-national-university-of-juridical-sciences-kolkata/cut-off

thank you!!

Practicing with past year's question papers provides an authentic exam experience, replicating conditions like time constraints and performance pressure. It serves as a crucial method to evaluate the candidate's preparedness level.

Please refer this link to download the model question paper for clat pg 2023:

https://law.careers360.com/articles/clat-2023-question-paper

I hope this answers your question.

The official notification regarding the conduction of CLAT 2023 has been released today, 8th August, 2022.

The notification stated that the deadline for submitting the CLAT application form 2023 is November 13, 2022.

CLAT 2023 will be held in offline mode on December 18, 2022.

Hope this answers your query.

Regarding the updates related to CLAT, you should follow the link below to stay updated about CLAT schedule, results, syllabus and question papers-

https://www.google.com/amp/s/law.careers360.com/articles/clat-2023-exam-date-eligibility-syllabus-pattern-seats-preparation-tips/amp

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Generative AI... What If This Is As Good As It Gets?

Generative AI stormed into the public consciousness when ChatGPT arrived to ghostwrite every middle school essay and, occasionally, federal court briefs . In less than two years, the technology has improved considerably and — more importantly — with folks building the necessary guardrails and firm tech professionals crafting sound procedures , it’s become a credible tool for the legal industry. It certainly doesn’t do anything well enough to replace massive troves of associates yet. But it summarizes, it streamlines drafting, and with proper guidance, it can perform limited research tasks, which are all use cases with tangible value for legal work.

But while AI gurus preach never-ending advancement… what if this is as good as it gets?

A few weeks ago on the Legaltech Week Journalists’ Roundtable, I cited recent studies suggesting that Generative AI development was sapping electricity — and water for cooling — at an alarming and expensive rate that could become unsustainable. Goldman Sachs seems to agree.

In a new report , the bank compared the mounting costs of GenAI development with the plausible opportunities for future revenue and came up empty. The tasks that GenAI performs now are, the report suggests, likely the only tasks it can ever support. At least to a level capable of challenging, much less replacing, a human. With the applications of GenAI largely capped, Goldman sees the potential revenue streams as… slightly bigger streams and not raging rivers.

Which is a significant problem because GenAI needs a whole lot of money to improve. Few have been as bearish on GenAI as Ed Zitron, and in his victory lap coverage of the Goldman report , he notes that even linear improvements to large language model performance will require exponential increases in training data:

Anthropic CEO Dario Amodei saying that the AI models currently in development will cost as much as $1bn to train, and within three years we may see  models that cost as much as “ten or a hundred billion” dollars , or roughly three times the GDP of Estonia.

No one is dumb enough to spend a hundred billion dollars to improve incrementally. Maybe the people running the F-35 program. But outside of the defense industry, no one is dumb enough to spend a hundred billion dollars to improve incrementally.

Maybe this isn’t all that bad for the legal industry. We’ve written before about the importance of rejecting the frame that AI should be more “human” and instead focus on its power to accelerate purely mechanistic tasks . The AI impresarios that Goldman swats down are pitching a Scarlett Johansson sexbot , but legal doesn’t really need that.

Seriously, legal does not need that.

Lawyers aren’t — at least hopefully not for ethics reasons — expecting a robot to make legal judgments for them. They just want a tool that they can feed full of a whole production and then spit out all the key issues it finds based on basic legal concepts. Most of that doesn’t even require the generative part of AI that’s causing all these cost concerns.

If the bottom falls out of GenAI development, then that’s not great for legal. But assuming it trundles along just getting marginally better at what it does already, that’s probably still a good deal for legal.

So… what if this is as good as it gets? Are Silicon Valley techbros going to crash a good thing because they fancy themselves as some post-modern Prometheus or are they going to pull back and develop a nice, usefully boring productivity tool?

Earlier : The Legal Industry Has A Long Way To Go Before GPT Matches The Talk Maybe We’ve Got The Artificial Intelligence In Law ‘Problem’ All Wrong

AI Legal Beat , Artificial Intelligence (AI) , Technology

Trump-Appointed Judge Sees His Way Out -- See Also

Glad To See You Leave : The details on Judge Kindred’s departure show he should have never been there .

Would Love To See You Work : Will Merrick Garland do everyone a solid and investigate Clarence Thomas ?

Wouldn’t Do That If I Were You : If you’re going to carjack someone, skip over Sotomayor’s squad ?

Giving Back Is A Teaching Opportunity : High Point Law to debut with a pro bono veteran’s law clinic .

Which Firms Gave Back The Most ?: See where your firm ranks .

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From the above the law network.

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• This Is Why You Don’t Take Law Advice From Twitter — See Also Source: Associate Center

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Why Britain Just Ended 14 Years of Conservative Rule

Last week, the center-left labour party won the british general election in a landslide..

Hosted by Natalie Kitroeff

Featuring Mark Landler

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For more than a decade, Britain has been governed by the Conservative Party, which pushed its politics to the right, embracing smaller government and Brexit. Last week, that era officially came to an end.

Mark Landler, the London bureau chief for The Times, explains why British voters rejected the Conservatives and what their defeat means in a world where populism is on the rise.

On today’s episode

Mark Landler , the London bureau chief for The New York Times.

Background reading

Five takeaways from the British general election.

The Conservatives have run Britain for 14 years. How have things changed in that time?

There are a lot of ways to listen to The Daily. Here’s how.

We aim to make transcripts available the next workday after an episode’s publication. You can find them at the top of the page.

The Daily is made by Rachel Quester, Lynsea Garrison, Clare Toeniskoetter, Paige Cowett, Michael Simon Johnson, Brad Fisher, Chris Wood, Jessica Cheung, Stella Tan, Alexandra Leigh Young, Lisa Chow, Eric Krupke, Marc Georges, Luke Vander Ploeg, M.J. Davis Lin, Dan Powell, Sydney Harper, Michael Benoist, Liz O. Baylen, Asthaa Chaturvedi, Rachelle Bonja, Diana Nguyen, Marion Lozano, Corey Schreppel, Rob Szypko, Elisheba Ittoop, Mooj Zadie, Patricia Willens, Rowan Niemisto, Jody Becker, Rikki Novetsky, Nina Feldman, Will Reid, Carlos Prieto, Ben Calhoun, Susan Lee, Lexie Diao, Mary Wilson, Alex Stern, Sophia Lanman, Shannon Lin, Diane Wong, Devon Taylor, Alyssa Moxley, Olivia Natt, Daniel Ramirez and Brendan Klinkenberg.

Our theme music is by Jim Brunberg and Ben Landsverk of Wonderly. Special thanks to Sam Dolnick, Paula Szuchman, Lisa Tobin, Larissa Anderson, Julia Simon, Sofia Milan, Mahima Chablani, Elizabeth Davis-Moorer, Jeffrey Miranda, Maddy Masiello, Isabella Anderson, Nina Lassam and Nick Pitman.

Natalie Kitroeff is the Mexico City bureau chief for The Times, leading coverage of Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean. More about Natalie Kitroeff

Mark Landler is the London bureau chief of The Times, covering the United Kingdom, as well as American foreign policy in Europe, Asia and the Middle East. He has been a journalist for more than three decades. More about Mark Landler

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Welcome to the daily solving of our PROBLEM OF THE DAY with Saurabh Bansal. We will discuss the entire problem step-by-step and work towards developing an optimized solution. This will not only help you brush up on your concepts of Arrays but also build up problem-solving skills. Given an array, arr of integers, and another number target , find three integers in the array such that their sum is closest to the target. Return the sum of the three integers.

Note: If there are multiple solutions, return the maximum one.

Input: arr[] = [-7, 9, 8, 3, 1, 1], target = 2 Output: 2 Explanation: There is only one triplet present in the array where elements are -7,8,1 whose sum is 2.

Give the problem a try before going through the video. All the best!!! Problem Link: https://practice.geeksforgeeks.org/problems/three-sum-closest/1