how video games improve problem solving skills

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Neag School of Education

Well-designed video games can enhance problem-solving skills and make learning more effective.

• May 29, 2013
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The tragic December deaths of 20 first-graders and six school staff members in Sandy Hook, Connecticut, along with the Boston Marathon tragedy and other recent attacks, have brought the decades-old debate over the behavioral effects of video games back onto legislative floors throughout the nation. Citing the fact that gunman Adam Lanza, 20, played violent video games, members of the U.S. Congressional Gun Violence Prevention Task Force detailed their plans to address “our culture’s glorification of violence” through media, and commentary stemming from reports like Katie Couric’s May 2013 video game violence exposé has highlighted the need for greater clarification of how we should read and interpret video game research.

Clearly, it’s a complex and emotional issue further complicated by discussions that focus almost exclusively on the negative effects of gaming. The reality, however, is that there’s little research outlining whether or not violent video games beget actual violence: many existing studies, like one described in a recent edition of the UConn Today , focus on aggression without explicitly acknowledging the complex relationship between cognition, transfer, and real world behavior. This has led to two major problems, the combination of which throws a wrench in the socially and politically-charged rhetoric surrounding violence: 1) the dismissal of other, more influential factors common to violent criminals—biological predisposition to mental health issues, instability at home and/or work, lack of positive role models, having no one to confide in, access to weapons, and in-the-moment opportunity versus need; and 2) neglect for how learning in all types of games—violent or not—actually happens.

While the first problem may better fit sociologists and psychologists who have direct experience with individuals who commit violent crimes, the second is something that we as teachers, administrators, and researchers can tackle head on. There’s general consensus in the educational psychology community that the nature of environment-learner-content interactions is vital to our understanding of how people perceive and act. As a result, we can’t make broad assumptions about games as a vehicle for violent behavior without attending to how environment-learner-content interactions influence transfer—the way learning and action in one context affects learning and action in a related context.

It might help to think of transfer in terms of what we hope students will do with the information they learn in our classes. For example, you might teach geometric principles in your math class thinking that those techniques will help your students craft a birdhouse in shop. However, one of the most well-cited studies of the subject (Gick & Holyoak, 1980) showed that only one-fifth of college students were able to apply a particular problem solving strategy—using ‘divide-and-conquer’ to capture a castle—in another, almost identical context less than 24 hours after exposure to the first. Even with explicit direct instruction explaining how the same strategy could be used to solve both problems, fewer than 50% of students were able to make the connection. Though links between situations might seem self-evident to us as teachers, they usually aren’t as obvious to our students as we think they should be.

This gives us reason to believe that, regardless of subject, students—or in the case of video games, players—are rarely able to take something they’ve used in one context and independently apply it in a totally different one. Put another way, even if violent gaming raises general aggression, increased aggression doesn’t automatically translate to real world violent behavior . Gamers might use more curse words while playing Call of Duty , but they won’t learn to steal a car solely by playing Grand Theft Auto —there needs to be a mediating instructor who can provide well-guided bridging between the game and reality, especially for in-game activities that aren’t isomorphic with real world action (i.e., firing a gun).

This relationship between environment-learner-content interaction and transfer puts teachers in the unique position to capitalize on game engagement to promote reflection that positively shapes how students tackle real-world challenges. To some, this may seem like a shocking concept, but it’s definitely not a new one—roleplay as instruction, for example, was very popular among the ancient Greeks and, in many ways, served as the backbone for Plato’s renowned Allegory of the Cave . The same is true of Shakespeare’s works, 18th and 19th century opera, and many of the novels, movies, and other media that define our culture. More recently, NASA has applied game-like simulations to teach astronauts how to maneuver through space, medical schools have used them to teach robotic surgery, and the Federal Aviation Administration has employed them to test pilots.

To be clear, this is not a call for K12 educators to drop everything and immediately incorporate violent games like Doom or Mortal Kombat into their classrooms. Instead, it’s a call to consider how we can take advantage of game affordances (including those of violent games) to extend beyond predictable multiple-choice materials that leave students wishing they could pull out their smartphones. It’s a call for legislators to give greater consideration to the role of transfer before passing sweeping bans on violent video game play. It’s a call for all of us to use games as a vehicle to talk about racial, social, gender, and other inequities that are very much a part of the world we live in.

It’s a bold idea that can feel scary, but the potential benefits are beyond exciting. Research generated by people like Kurt Squire, Sasha Barab, and James Paul Gee suggests that interactive games can be used to teach children about history, increase vocabulary, challenge them to set and achieve goals, and enhance their ability to work in teams. They expose students to culturally diverse casts of characters in addition to providing instant feedback about goal-oriented progress. Most importantly, perhaps, they can be powerfully engaging, giving students a reason to pursue learning beyond the classroom.

To maintain a positive trajectory, teachers looking to make the most of the instructional affordances of video games should keep an eye out for games they feel comfortable playing alongside and discussing with their students, take advantage of opportunities to participate in university game-based learning research studies, and remain open to modifying their instructional approaches. Parents should connect with teachers for up-to-date research coming from organizations like Games+Learning+Society and have their children reflect on material they’ve been exposed to during play—for example, social and cultural stereotypes, gender roles, and ways of thinking presented in each game. Legislators should consult university researchers in both communications and educational psychology to get a wider perspective on how play and learning merge to generate behavior in the real world.

Our collective understanding of game-based learning is evolving at lightning speed, and we need to dispel false information that ignores how games actually affect player thinking and action. More work, involving teachers, administrators, researchers, designers, parents, and politicians, is needed. The next step is to enhance our collaboration by working to create multi-disciplinary games that incorporate not just academic content but educational practices that lead to broader critical thinking and problem solving. Though far from complete, our combined effort has the potential to move beyond the swamp of video game violence and excite kids about school before they say “game over.”

Stephen Slota is doctoral candidate in educational psychology at the University of Connecticut’s Neag School of Education as well as an unashamed gamer. An educational technology specialist and  former urban high school teacher, he has a bachelor’s in molecular and cellular biology and Master’s in curriculum and instruction. His research interests include the situated cognition underlying play, the effects of gaming on student achievement, and prosocial learning through massively multiplayer online role-playing games ( MMORPGs).

The Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP) accredits the Neag School of Education at the University of Connecticut. Read more about CAEP Accreditation, including the programs covered and the accountability measures .

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Playing these 6 video games could help improve your problem-solving skills

Jane McGonigal , a world-renowned designer of alternate-reality games who has a Ph.D. in performance studies, wants to change people's conception of video games as " just escapist, guilty pleasures."

" My number one goal in life is to see a game designer nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize," McGonigal writes on her website . 

She tells Business Insider she wants people to realize that games can be "powerful tools to improve our attention, our mood, our cognitive strengths, and our relationships."

And research is on her side. 

Studies suggest that mainstream games like "Call of Duty" may improve our cognitive abilities significantly more than games specifically designed to do so by designers like Luminosity.

To help spread the truth about common misconceptions, seven neuroscientists from around the world signed the document "A Consensus on the Brain Training Industry from the Scientific Community" in 2014 to say they "object to the claim" that brainteaser games can improve cognitive abilities, as no scientific evidence has been able to confirm such a claim. 

Even better for gamers, research from North Carolina State University and Florida State University suggests that mainstream games geared toward entertainment can help improve attention, spatial orientation, and problem-solving abilities.

In her book, " Super Better ," McGonigal writes that the researchers she talked to about this seeming contradiction offered a simple explanation: "Traditional video games are more complex and harder to master, and they require that the player learn a wider and more challenging range of skills and abilities."

If you want to have fun and stimulate your mind, McGonigal recommends playing one of these six games three times a week for about 20 minutes.

McGonigal says playing fast-paced games like "Call of Duty," a first-person shooter game, can help improve visual attention and spatial-intelligence skills, which can lead to better performance in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

Another fast-paced game, "Forza," a car-racing game, may help improve your ability to make accurate decisions under pressure.

Taking on the role of a criminal in a big city in "Grand Theft Auto" may help train you to process information faster and keep track of more information — up to three times the amount as nongamers, some studies suggest — in high-stress situations.

Strategic games like "StarCraft," a military-science-fiction game, can also improve the ability to solve imaginary and real-life problems, possibly because they teach users to both formulate and execute strategic plans.

Games that require strategic thinking, like science-fiction third-person-shooter game "Mass Effect," also test and refine your information-gathering skills.

Lastly, "thinking games" like "Final Fantasy," a fantasy-role-playing game, can help train you to evaluate your options faster and more accurately.

• Main content

Video games could improve your decision-making skills. Here's how

Frequent players of video games have superior sensorimotor decision-making skills compared to those who do not. Image:  Unsplash/JESHOOTS.COM

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Stay up to date:.

• Frequent players of video games have superior sensorimotor decision-making skills compared to non-players, a recent study shows.
• Researchers found that playing video games enhanced several subprocesses for sensation, perception and mapping to action.
• Video games could be a helpful tool for training perceptual decision-making and increasing task-specific activity.

Frequent players of video games show superior sensorimotor decision-making skills and enhanced activity in key regions of the brain as compared to non-players, according to a recent study.

The authors, who used functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) in the study, say the findings suggest that video games could be a useful tool for training in perceptual decision-making.

“Video games are played by the overwhelming majority of our youth more than three hours every week, but the beneficial effects on decision-making abilities and the brain are not exactly known,” says lead researcher Mukesh Dhamala, associate professor in Georgia State University’s physics and astronomy department and the university’s Neuroscience Institute.

“Our work provides some answers on that,” Dhamala says. “Video game playing can effectively be used for training—for example, decision-making efficiency training and therapeutic interventions —once the relevant brain networks are identified.”

Dhamala was the adviser for Tim Jordan, the lead author of the paper, who offered a personal example of how such research could inform the use of video games for training the brain.

Jordan, who received a PhD in physics and astronomy from Georgia State in 2021, had weak vision in one eye as a child. As part of a research study when he was about 5, he was asked to cover his good eye and play video games as a way to strengthen the vision in the weak one. Jordan credits video game training with helping him go from legally blind in one eye to building strong capacity for visual processing, allowing him to eventually play lacrosse and paintball. He is now a postdoctoral researcher at UCLA.

The new research project involved 47 college-age participants, with 28 categorized as regular video game players and 19 as non-players.

The subjects laid inside an FMRI machine with a mirror that allowed them to see a cue immediately followed by a display of moving dots. Participants were asked to press a button in their right or left hand to indicate the direction the dots were moving, or resist pressing either button if there was no directional movement.

The researchers found that video game players were faster and more accurate with their responses.

The latest figures show that 56% of 8-12-year-olds across 29 countries are involved in at least one of the world's major cyber-risks: cyberbullying, video-game addiction, online sexual behaviour or meeting with strangers encountered on the web.

Using the Forum's platform to accelerate its work globally, #DQEveryChild , an initiative to increase the digital intelligence quotient (DQ) of children aged 8-12, has reduced cyber-risk exposure by 15%.

In March 2019, the DQ Global Standards Report 2019 was launched – the first attempt to define a global standard for digital literacy, skills and readiness across the education and technology sectors.

Our System Initiative on Shaping the Future of Media, Information and Entertainment has brought together key stakeholders to ensure better digital intelligence for children worldwide. Find our more about DQ Citizenship in our Impact Story .

Analysis of the resulting brain scans found that the differences were correlated with enhanced activity in certain parts of the brain.

“These results indicate that video game playing potentially enhances several of the subprocesses for sensation, perception, and mapping to action to improve decision-making skills,” the authors write. “These findings begin to illuminate how video game playing alters the brain in order to improve task performance and their potential implications for increasing task-specific activity.”

Have you read?

Playing more video games could increase creative thinking at work, this video game helps sixth graders learn and collaborate  , how are video games inspiring a new wave of climate action.

The study also notes there was no trade-off between speed and accuracy of response—the video game players were better on both measures.

“This lack of speed-accuracy trade-off would indicate video game playing as a good candidate for cognitive training as it pertains to decision-making,” the authors write.

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The Playing Brain. The Impact of Video Games on Cognition and Behavior in Pediatric Age at the Time of Lockdown: A Systematic Review

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A growing number of children and adolescents play video games (VGs) for long amounts of time. The current outbreak of the Coronavirus pandemic has significantly reduced outdoor activities and direct interpersonal relationships. Therefore, a higher use of VGs can become the response to stress and fear of illness. VGs and their practical, academic, vocational and educational implications have become an issue of increasing interest for scholars, parents, teachers, pediatricians and youth public policy makers. The current systematic review aims to identify, in recent literature, the most relevant problems of the complex issue of playing VGs in children and adolescents in order to provide suggestions for the correct management of VG practice. The method used searches through standardized search operators using keywords related to video games and the link with cognition, cognitive control and behaviors adopted during the pandemic. Ninety-nine studies were reviewed and included, whereas twelve studies were excluded because they were educationally irrelevant. Any debate on the effectiveness of VGs cannot refer to a dichotomous approach, according to which VGs are rigidly ‘good’ or ‘bad’. VGs should be approached in terms of complexity and differentiated by multiple dimensions interacting with each other.

1. Introduction

In the last decades, a very large body of literature has shown an increasing interest in video games (VGs) and their impact on the brain, cognition and behavior, especially in children and adolescents [ 1 ]. Indeed, a widely growing number of children and adolescents play VGs for a long time, often developing real addictive behaviors [ 2 , 3 ]. In addition, the current outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and the following lockdown have significantly reduced outdoor activities and direct interpersonal relationships [ 4 , 5 ]. However, literature data are still inconsistent. For example, according to some meta-analytic reviews [ 6 , 7 , 8 ], exposure to violent VGs is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, cognition and affection in children and adolescents. Conversely, many cross-sectional and intervention studies have shown that the intensive use of some types of VGs leads to significant improvements in many cognitive domains and behaviours [ 1 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Video games are even considered as ‘virtual teachers’ and effective and ‘exemplary teachers’ [ 12 , 13 ].

The current systematic review focuses on some crucial outstanding issues within the debate on the effects of VGs on cognition and behavior in order to provide suggestions for parents, pediatricians, health providers and educators dealing with pediatric ages, especially in the complex pandemic period. Namely, it analyzes the most debated and educationally relevant problems on the relationship between video games, cognition and behavior: 1. video games’ effects on cognitive function; 2. video games’ effects on attention and addictive behaviors; 3. video games and prosocial or aggressive behavior. Therefore, the current analysis may be accounted as an original contribution to the practical dimension in the educational and rehabilitation field for parents and educators.

Early common predominant opinions mainly focused on VGs according to dichotomous thinking, as enjoyable entertainment or harmful tools [ 14 ]. The recent literature instead provided evidence on the impact of VGs on the brain and its functional modifications while playing [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ], showing that video games involve different cortical and subcortical structures, with cognitive and emotional competence, such as frontal and prefrontal regions, the posterior and superior parietal lobe, the anterior and posterior cingulate cortices, limbic areas, the amygdala, the entorhinal cortex and basal nuclei [ 1 , 20 , 21 , 22 ].

Mondéjar and colleagues [ 15 ], in a group of twelve healthy preadolescents between 8 and 12 years old, evaluated the frontal lobe activity and the different types of cognitive processing during five platform-based action videogame mechanics: 1. accurate action, related to processes such as concentration, attention, impulse control and information comprehension; 2. timely action, related to working memory, selective attention, decision-making, problem solving and perception; 3. mimic sequence, related to working memory, focalized attention and inhibition control; 4. pattern learning, as selective attention, planning, inhibition control and spatial orientation; 5. logical puzzles related to attention, working memory, the capacity for abstraction, information processing, problem solving, or resistance to interference. They found prominent bioelectrical prefrontal activity during the performance related to executive functions (timely action, pattern learning, logical puzzles) and more global brain activity and a higher presence of alpha waves, or a greater activation of the temporal lobe, in the accurate action and mimic sequence. Similarly, they correlated higher magnitudes on frequency bands with five game mechanics in ten healthy children, who played with a VG platform for an average of about 20 min [ 16 ]. Theta waves, related to memory and emotions, were more significant in the five mechanics, while beta waves, related to concentration, were more prominent in only two. Moreover, activation was more significant in the intermediate and occipital areas for all the mechanics, while recurrent magnitude patterns were identified in three mechanics.

Similarly, Lee et al. [ 17 ], found a thinner cortex and a smaller gray matter volume in critical areas for evaluating reward values, error processing and adjusting behavior, namely, the anterior cingulate cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex and the frontoparietal areas, in young male adults with internet gaming disorders, compared to age-matched healthy male controls. A neuroimaging study examined in individuals affected by gaming disorders the differences during the playing of a violence-related vs. a non-violence-related version of the same VG [ 18 ]. While functional connectivity of the reward-related network and the behavioral inhibition system was altered, the orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cerebral area were overstimulated, similarly to smart drug addiction [ 17 , 23 ].

Recently, Kwak et al. [ 19 ] longitudinally compared 14 adolescents with internet gaming disorder to 12 professional internet gaming students who practiced for about ten hours a day, within a defined support system that included practice, physical exercise, lectures on team strategy, rest and mealtimes. After one year, both groups showed increased brain activity within the attention system of the parietal lobe. However, professional gamers improved problematic behaviors, impulsivity, aggression, depression and anxiety, while adolescents with internet gaming disorder showed no behavioral improvement and a dysfunctional brain activity within the impulse control network in the left orbitofrontal cortex.

The current systematic review was structured according to the guidelines and recommendations contained in the PRISMA statement [ 24 ].

Eligibility Criteria

Both experimental and correlational studies and meta-analyses between the years of 2000 and 2020 that investigated outcomes of VG exposure were included. They were considered children and adolescents. Studies employing different methodologies were included: studies in which naive participants were trained to use a VG versus a control group and studies comparing experienced versus non-gamers, or inexperienced players. Primary outcome measures were any type of structural and functional data obtained using neuroimaging techniques and behavioral testing.

Information Sources

One hundred and twenty-two studies were identified through electronic database searching in Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus (Elsevier) and Web of Sciences. The final database search was run on January 2021 using the following keywords: video games; video games and cognition; video games and epidemic; cognitive control; behavior control; brain and video games; spatial cognition; prosocial behavior; violence in video games; aggressive behavior; addictions in adolescents; children and video games.

Study Selection

Inclusion criteria: written in English; published since 2000; deals in depth with cognitive skills, attention, executive functions, or cognitive control; follows a high methodological rigor.

Exclusion criteria: does not refer to key topics directly; the full text could not be obtained; lack of transparency due to missing methodology information. Ninety-nine studies were reviewed and included, whereas twelve studies were excluded because they were irrelevant to the topic or because the full text was not obtained. General communication materials, such as pamphlets, posters and infographics, were excluded as they do not provide evidence about their effectiveness.

Figure 1 shows the selection of studies flowchart.

Selection of studies flowchart.

3.1. Effect of Video Games on Cognitive Functions

Any modern VG requires an extensive repertoire of attentional, perceptual and executive abilities, such as a deep perceptual analysis of complex unfamiliar environments, detecting relevant or irrelevant stimuli, interference control, speed of information processing, planning and decision making, cognitive flexibility and working memory.

Literature data in the last years have proven that VGs may improve a variety of cognitive domains [ 1 , 25 ] as, for example, even just 10 hours of VG could improve spatial attention and mental rotation [ 26 , 27 ]. A large variety of design studies reported in habitual players better performance in multiple cognitive domains, including selective attention [ 3 , 21 , 26 , 28 ], speed of processing [ 21 , 28 ], executive functions [ 29 , 30 ] and working memory [ 31 ]. Similarly, a large body of intervention studies have shown improvements in the same cognitive domains in non-players following training in action VGs [ 27 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 ]. Recently, Benoit et al. [ 38 ] examined in 14 professional VG players and 16 casual VG players various cognitive abilities, such as processing speed, attention, memory, executive functions, manual dexterity and tracking multiple objects in three dimensions [ 39 ]. Professional players showed a very large advantage in visual–spatial short-term memory and visual attention, and less in selective and sustained attention and auditory working memory. Moreover, they showed better speed thresholds in tracking multiple objects in three dimensions overall, though the rate of improvement did not differ in the two groups. In two previous meta-analyses, Bediou et al. [ 40 ] focused on the long-term effects of action VGs on various cognitive domains using both cross-sectional and intervention studies. Overall, the results documented a positive impact of action video gaming on cognition. In cross-sectional studies, a main effect of about half a standard deviation was found. The habitual action game players showed better performance than non-players. Likewise, intervention studies showed about a third of a standard deviation advantage in cognition domains in action VG trainees. Perception, spatial cognition and top-down attention were the three cognitive domains with the most robust impact [ 40 ].

Homer et al. [ 41 ] examined the effectiveness of a custom-designed VG (‘alien game’) in a group of 82 healthy adolescents (age range 14–18 years; average = 15.5 years) trained to play for 20 min per week for 6 consecutive weeks. Such a digital game was devised to target, in a fun way, the specific executive ability of shifting, as the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets, hypothesizing that after playing the ‘alien game’ over a period of several weeks, adolescents would show significant improvements in the targeted ability. Pre- and post-test measures of another executive ability, inhibition, as the ability to control a prepotent response, were also recorded in order to examine the extent to which training would transfer from one executive ability to another. Significant advantages both in shifting and in inhibition abilities were found, providing evidence that VGs can be effective tools for training executive abilities [ 42 , 43 ].

Similarly, Oei and Patterson [ 44 ] examined the effect of action and non-action VGs on executive functions. Fifty-two non-VG gamers played one of four different games for 20 h. Pre- and post-training tests of executive function were administered. The group that trained on the physics-based puzzle game, demanding high level planning, problem solving, reframing, strategizing and new strategies from level to level, improved in several aspects of executive function. In a previous study, the same authors [ 45 ] instructed 75 non-gamers, (average age 21.07 ± 2.12) to play for 20 h, one hour a day/five days a week over four weeks. They compared effects of action and non-action games to examine whether non-action games also improve cognition. Four tests pre- and post-training were administered. The results showed that cognitive improvements were not limited to training with action games and that different games improved different aspects of cognition. Action VGs have even been used to treat dyslexic children [ 46 , 47 ]. Only 12 h of action VGs, for nine sessions of 80 min per day, significantly improved reading and attentional skills [ 48 ].

Moreover, several meta-analytic studies provide evidence that action VG training may become an efficient way to improve the cognitive performance of healthy adults. Wang et al. [ 49 ], in a meta-analysis, found that healthy adults achieve moderate benefits from action VG training in overall cognitive ability and moderate to small benefits in specific cognitive domains. In contrast, young adults gain more benefits than older adults in both overall cognition and specific cognitive domains.

In summation, the studies on VG effects, by different methodologies, document both in adults and in children significant positive outcomes in different cognitive domains. Such performance improvements may be paralleled by functional brain remodelling [ 14 ].

3.2. Video Games Effect on Attention and Addictive Behaviors

Attentional problems are accounted as a crucial area of focus on outcomes of intensive game-play practices in children and adolescents. However, literature on the topic appears inconsistent. While some research has found mixed results [ 50 ] or a positive effect [ 51 , 52 , 53 ], or no relationship between VG practice and attention, other studies have linked VG playing with greater attention problems, such as impulsiveness, self-control, executive functioning, and cognitive control [ 53 , 54 , 55 ].

Gentile et al. [ 56 ], examining longitudinally, over 3 years, a large sample of child and adolescent VG players aged 8–17 (mean = 11.2 ± 2.1), suggested a bidirectional causality: children who spend more time playing VGs have more attention problems; in turn, subjects who have more attention problems spend more time playing VGs. Therefore, children and adolescents with attention problems are more attracted to VGs (excitement hypothesis), and, in turn, they find it less engaging to focus on activities requiring more control and sustained attention, such as educational activities, homework or household chores (displacement hypothesis). According to such hypotheses, and to the operant conditioning model [ 57 , 58 ], VGs, providing strong motivational cues, become more rewarding for impulsive children and teenagers [ 51 ] who, in such contexts, experience a sense of value and feelings of mastery that they do not experience in their daily relationships [ 59 ].

Actually, any modern VG is a highly engaging activity with a variety of attractive cues, such as, for example, violence, rapid movement, fast pacing and flashing lights [ 60 , 61 ]. According to the attractive hypothesis [ 56 ], it may provide a strong motivation and support for attention and even become addictive, especially in subjects with problems maintaining attention in usual, monotonous and poorly engaging tasks. Therefore, paradoxically, a greater VG exposure may improve visual attention skills involved in such engaging play [ 26 ], but it may impair the ability to selectively focus on a target for lasting time, without external exciting cues.

Probably, in line with the bidirectional causality framework [ 56 ], such rewarding conditions could become the psychological context for the structuring of addictive behaviors, such as a sense of euphoria while playing, feeling depressed away from the game, an uncontrollable and persistent craving to play, neglect of family and friends, problems with school or jobs, alteration of sleeping routines, irregular meals and poor hygiene [ 14 ]. The most psychologically fragile subjects may be most attracted to an engaging and rewarding activity, ensuring an effective compensation to their fragility [ 14 ]. However, the topic of video game addiction continues to present today many outstanding issues. There is a large consensus that ‘pathological use’ is more debilitating than ‘excessive use’ of VGs alone [ 62 , 63 , 64 ]. Addictive behavior appears associated with an actual lowering in academic, social, occupational, developmental and behavioral dimensions, while excessive use may simply be an excessive amount of time gaming. According to Griffiths’ suggestions, ‘healthy excessive enthusiasms add to life, whereas addiction takes away from it’ [ 65 ]. However, it is sometimes difficult to identify the clear line between unproblematic overuse of gaming and the pathological and compulsive overuse that compromises one’s lifestyle and psychosocial adjustment [ 66 , 67 , 68 ]. Therefore, there may be a risk of stigmatizing an enjoyable practice, which, for a minority of excessive users, may be associated with addiction-related behaviors [ 69 , 70 ]. Przybylski and colleagues, in four survey studies with large international cohorts (N = 18,932), found that the percentage of the general population who could qualify for internet gaming disorders was extremely small (less than one percent) [ 71 ].

In such a discussion of the pathological nature of VGs, another outstanding question is whether pathological play is a major problem, or if it is the phenomenological manifestation of another pathological condition. Several studies have suggested that video game play can become harmful enough to be categorized as a psychiatric disorder, or it could be a symptom of an underlying psychopathological condition, such as depression or anxiety. Moreover, the functional impairments observed in individuals with game addictions are also thought to be similar to the impairments observed in other addictions. Neuroimaging studies have shown that the brain reward pathways which are activated during video game playing are also activated during cue-induced cravings of drug, alcohol or other type of substances abuse [ 72 , 73 , 74 ].

Some longitudinal studies [ 14 , 75 , 76 ] proved that pathological addictive behaviors, such as depression, are likely to be outcomes of pathological gaming rather than predictors of it [ 77 , 78 ]. Lam and Peng [ 79 ], in a prospective study with a randomly generated cohort of 881 healthy adolescents aged between 13 and 16 years, found that the pathological use of the internet results in later depression. Similarly, Liau et al. [ 80 ], in a 2-year longitudinal study involving 3034 children and adolescents aged 8 to 14 years, found that pathological video gaming has potentially serious mental health consequences, in particular of depression.

In summary, attention problems and addictive behaviors in the context of VGs should be addressed in a circular and bidirectional way in which each variable can influence the others.

3.3. Video Games Effect and Prosocial and Aggressive Behaviors

The positive impact of video games also concerns the social and relational dimension, as occurs in the VG training of prosocial or educational skills. Several studies have reported that playing prosocial VGs, even for a short time, increases prosocial cognition [ 81 ], positive affect [ 82 ] and helping behaviors [ 13 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 ], whereas it decreases antisocial thoughts and the hostile expectation bias, such as the tendency to perceive any provocative actions of other people as hostile even when they are accidental [ 13 , 86 ]. Such findings have been found in correlational, longitudinal and experimental investigations [ 82 , 85 , 87 ].

In four different experiments [ 13 ], playing VGs with prosocial content was positively related to increased prosocial behavior, even though participants played the VGs for a relatively short time, suggesting that VGs with prosocial content could be used to improve social interactions, increase prosocial behavior, reduce aggression and encourage tolerance.

Following experimental, correlational, longitudinal and meta-analytic studies provided further evidence that playing a prosocial VG results in greater interpersonal empathy, cooperation and sharing and subsequently in prosocial behavior [ 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 ].

Such literature’s data are consistent with the General Learning Model [ 91 , 92 ], according to which the positive or negative content of the game impacts on the player’s cognition, emotions and physiological arousal, which, in turn, leads to positive or negative learning and behavioral responses [ 12 , 93 , 94 , 95 ]. Therefore, repeated prosocial behavioral scripts can be translated into long-term effects in cognitive, emotional and affective constructs related to prosocial actions, cognition, feelings, and physiological arousal, such as perceptual and expectation schemata, beliefs, scripts, attitudes and stereotypes, empathy and personality structure [ 83 , 91 ].

In the same conceptual framework, educational video games have been found to positively affect behaviors in a wide range of domains [ 12 ], school subjects [ 96 ] and health conditions [ 97 , 98 ]. In randomized clinical trials, for example, diabetic or asthmatic children and adolescents improved their self-care and reduced their emergency clinical utilization after playing health education and disease management VGs. After six months of playing, diabetic patients decreased their emergency visits by 77 percent [ 99 ]. Therefore, well-designed games can provide powerful interactive experiences that can foster young children’s learning, skill building, self-care and healthy development [ 100 ].

Violence in VGs is a matter of intense debate, both in public opinion and in the scientific context [ 101 , 102 ]. A vast majority of common opinions, parents and educators consider the violence of VGs as the most negatively impacting feature to emotional and relational development of youth and children. Actually, studies agree on the negative impact of violent video games on aggressive behavior. Several meta-analyses have examined violent VGs [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 103 ] and, although they vary greatly in terms of how many studies they include, they seem to agree with each other. The most comprehensive [ 8 ] showed that violent VGs, gradually and unconsciously, as a result of repeated exposure to justified and fun violence, would increase aggressive thoughts, affect and behavior, physiological persistent alertnes, and would desensitize players to violence and to the pain and suffering of others, supporting a perceptual and cognitive bias to attribute hostile intentions to others.

Similarly, experimental, correlational and longitudinal studies supported the causal relationship between violent VGs and aggression, in the short- and long-term, both in a laboratory and in a real-life context. A greater amount of violent VGs, or even a brief exposure, were significantly associated with more positive attitudes toward violence [ 104 ], higher trait hostility [ 105 ] and with increased aggressive behaviors [ 106 ], physical fights [ 107 ] and aggressive thoughts [ 108 ] and affect [ 109 ]. In a two-year longitudinal study, children and adolescents who played a lot of violent VGs showed over time more aggressive behaviors, including fights and delinquency [ 110 ]. Saleem, Anderson and Gentile [ 82 ] examined the effects of short-term exposure to prosocial, neutral and violent VGs in a sample of 191 children of 9–14 years old. Results indicated that while playing prosocial games increased helpful and decreased hurtful behaviour, the violent games had the opposite effect.

In summation, the overall literature data support the opinion that violent video games, over time, affect the brain and activate a greater availability to aggressive behavior patterns, although some researchers have pointed out that the negative effects of violent VGs are small and may be a publication bias [ 14 , 111 ].

4. Discussion

The focus of the current overview was to identify, from a functional point of view, the most significant issues in the debate on the impact of VGs on cognition and behavior in children and adolescents, in order to provide suggestions for a proper management of VG practice.

Overall, the reviewed literature agrees in considering the practice of VGs as much more than just entertainment or a leisure activity. Moreover, research agrees that any debate on the effectiveness of VGs cannot refer to a unitary construct [ 14 ], nor to a rigidly dichotomous approach, according to which VGs are ‘good’ or ‘bad’ [ 1 , 12 , 112 , 113 ].

The term ‘video game’ should be viewed as an ‘umbrella term’ that covers different meanings, far from a single unitary construct [ 14 , 114 ]. Furthermore, VGs and their effects should be approached in terms of complexity and differentiated by multiple dimensions interacting with each other and with a set of other variables, such as, for example, the player’s age and personality traits, the amount of time spent playing, the presence of an adult, the game alone or together with others and so on [ 115 ].

Gentile and colleagues [ 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 ] have identified five main features of VGs that can affect players: 1. amount of play; 2. content; 3. context; 4. structure; and 5. mechanics. Each of these aspects can produce or increase different thoughts, feelings and behaviors.

However, the content effects, individually focused, are frequently overemphasized. According to the General Learning Model, children would learn the contents of the specific games and apply them to their lives. Nevertheless, a violent game using a team-based game modality may have different impacts than a violent game using a ‘free for all’ game modality. Although both are equally violent games, the former could suggest teamwork and collaborative behaviors, while playing in an ‘everyone for oneself’ mode could foster less empathy and more aggressive thoughts and behaviors [ 8 , 88 ].

Likewise, the outside social context can have different effects and it may even mitigate or reinforce the effects of the content. Playing violent games together with others could increase aggression outcomes if players reinforce each other in aggressive behavior. Instead, it could have a prosocial effect if the motivations to play together are to help each other [ 120 ].

According to the dominant literature, the psychological appeal of video games may be related to an operant conditioning that reinforces multiple psychological instances, including the need for belonging and social interaction [ 57 , 58 ]. On such drives and reinforcements, the playing time can expand, and it may become endless in addicted subjects. However, the amount of play, regardless of the content, can become harmful when it displaces beneficial activities, affects academic performance or social dimensions [ 52 , 121 ], or supports health problems, such as, for instance, obesity [ 122 , 123 , 124 ], repetitive strain disorder and video game addiction [ 76 , 83 ]. However, a greater amount of time inevitably implies increased repetition of other game dimensions. Therefore, it is likely that some associations between time spent and negative outcomes result from other dimensions, and not from amount of time per se. Moreover, children who perform poorly at school are likely to spend more time playing games, according to the displacement hypothesis, but over time, the excessive amount of play may further damage academic performance in a vicious circle [ 116 ].

VGs can also have a different psychological appeal in relation to their structural organization and the way they are displayed. Many structural features can affect playing behavior, regardless of the individual’s psychological, physiological, or socioeconomic status [ 125 ], such as, for instance, the degree of realism of the graphics, sound and back-ground, the game duration, the advancement rate, the game dynamics such as exploring new areas, elements of surprise, fulfilling a request, the control options of the sound, graphics, the character development over time and character customization options, the winning and losing features as the potential to lose or accumulate points, finding bonuses, having to start a level again, the ability to save regularly, the multi-player option building alliances and beating other players [ 125 ].

The more or less realistic mechanics can also configure the game differently and affect fine or gross motor skills, hand-eye coordination or even balance skills, depending on the type of controller, such as a mouse and keyboard, a game control pad, a balance board, or a joystick.

Therefore, VGs may differ widely in multiple dimensions and, as a result, in their effects on cognitive skills and behavior [ 3 , 33 ]. Moreover, the different dimensions may interact with each other and with the psychological, emotional and personality characteristics of the individual player and context. Even the same game can have both positive and negative effects in different contexts and for different subjects.

The current analysis of the literature, therefore, supports the need for further experimental and longitudinal research on the role of multiple characteristics of video games and their interactions. A wide-ranging approach dynamically focused on the multiple dimensions will allow a deeper theoretical understanding of the different aspects of video games.

Nevertheless, according to common opinion, the violence would always have a negative impact on behavior, especially in pediatric subjects. However, a strictly causal relationship between violent VGs and aggressive behavior appears rather reductive [ 126 , 127 ]. Aggressive behavior is a complex one and arises from the interaction of a lot of factors. Therefore, violent VGs, with no other risk factors, should not be considered ‘per se’ the linear cause and single source of aggressive or violent behavior. Antisocial outcomes can be influenced by personality variables, such as trait aggression, or by a number of the ‘third variables’ such as gender, parental education, exposure to family violence and delinquency history [ 83 ]. According to social learning theories [ 128 ], aggressive behavior would arise from repeated exposure to violence patterns [ 129 ]. Therefore, children who have other risk factors for violent or aggressive behavior, such as violent family patterns, excessive amount of time spent playing, playing alone, and so on are more likely to have negative consequences from playing violent video games.

An alternative theoretical framework [ 126 , 127 ] assumes that violent behavior would result from the interaction of genetically predisposed personality traits and stressful situations. In such a model, violent VGs would act as ‘stylistic catalysts’ [ 127 ], providing an individual predisposed to violence with the various models of violent behavior. Therefore, an aggressive child temperament would derive from a biological pathway, while the violent VG, as a ‘stylistic catalyst’, may suggest the specific violent behavior to enact.

Conversely, playing prosocial VGs, even for a short time, increases prosocial cognition, affect and behaviors in children and adolescents [ 13 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 89 ]. Several intervention or training studies showed that a prosocial VG should activate experiences, knowledge, feelings and patterns of behavior relating to prosocial actions, cognition, feelings and physiological arousal. In turn, in line with the General Learning Model, [ 91 , 130 ], recurrent prosocial behavioral scripts produce new learning, new behavioral patterns and emotional and affective cognitive constructs [ 83 ].

Moreover, several studies emphasize the educational and academic potential of VGs that may become effective and ‘exemplary teachers’ [ 12 , 82 ] providing fun and motivating contexts for deep learning in a wide range of content [ 12 ], such as school learning [ 96 ], rehabilitation activities [ 46 , 47 ], new health care and protection behavior development and the enhancement of specific skills [ 97 , 99 , 100 ]. Similarly, the literature data document that the intensive use of VGs results in generalized improvements in cognitive functions or specific cognitive domains, and in behavioral changes [ 1 ]. Actually, VGs involve a wide range of cognitive functions, and attentional, perceptual, executive, planning and problem solving skills. They can, therefore, be expected to improve different perceptual and cognitive domains. However, on a methodological level, the impact on behavior and cognition cannot be simplistically viewed as the linear result of a causal relationship between VG and performance. For instance, subjects with better perceptual abilities are likely to choose to play and, as a result, their increase in performance may reflect their baseline level rather than the effects of the game.

Studies focused on the attentional functions in VG playing reported inconsistent data. Playing action games may improve attention skills implied in a specific game. However, according to the attractive hypothesis [ 56 ] and operant conditioning theory, children and adolescents with attentional problems may be attracted by the motivating and engaging VG activities. On the other hand, children and adolescents with a wider VG exposure show greater attention problems [ 53 ]. The relationship between VGs and attention, then, seem to be approached in terms of bidirectional causality [ 56 ].

Similarly, since VGs and their cues appear more pleasant and desirable, a large amount of attractive VG exposure can lead to addiction and impair ability to focus on effortful goal oriented behavior [ 131 ]. However, the literature does not yet appear to agree on the objective diagnostic criteria for classifying behavioral game addiction [ 132 ].

In the fifth edition appendix of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [ 133 ], the diagnostic criteria for Internet Gaming Disorder included both specific internet games and offline games. However, this has led to some confusion as to whether excessive video games must necessarily occur online [ 134 , 135 ]. According to some authors, since ‘Internet addiction’ includes heterogeneous behaviors and etiological mechanisms, the term ‘video game disorder’ or simply ‘gaming disorder’ would be more suitable [ 136 , 137 ], while the term ‘Internet addiction’ appears inappropriate. Individuals rarely become addicted to the medium of the internet itself [ 137 , 138 ]. Moreover, it has also been supported theoretically [ 135 ] and empirically proven [ 139 ] that problematic internet use and problematic online gaming are not the same.

The debate on the relationship between pure game addiction behaviors and game addiction in comorbidity with other psychiatric disorders appears still on. Some researchers have argued that game addiction, as a standalone clinical entity, does not exist [ 140 ], but it is simply a symptom of psychiatric illnesses such as major depressive disorder or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Equally poorly defined is the question of genetic predisposition and vulnerability to game addiction.

Likewise, the relationship between clinical symptoms and changes in brain activity and the dynamics by which video games triggers such widespread brain plasticity needs to be more clearly defined.

5. Conclusions

The current analysis of the literature provides strong evidence on the power of video games as highly motivating and engaging tools in the broader context of cognitive, emotional and relational development of children and adolescents. However, the effectiveness of such tools does not arise exclusively from their content, but it results from a set of variables interacting each other.

Video games, beyond their content, can favor pathological aggression, withdrawal, escape from reality and reduction of interests. Virtual reality becomes more attractive than the real one and can become the ‘non-place’ to escape from the complexity of everyday life. Recently, to contain the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, health authorities have forced populations to stay home and children and adolescents may experience an exacerbation of exposure to video games.

Parents, educators and teachers should ensure an educational presence, monitoring times and modalities of VG practice in a broader context in which children and adolescents live with a wider repertoire of interests, without losing social and relational engagement. Moreover, pediatric health care visits may be a great opportunity to support parents helping children to deal with media and video games.

On these assumptions, as practical suggestions to prevent or mitigate addictive behaviors, parents and educators should enforce the golden rule as the educational presence of the adult.

Moreover, in line with the literature, the core values to prevent a negative impact of video games should be focused on a few rules to be proposed with assertiveness and authority: 1. set a clear time limit to play, 2. prefer games that can also be played with family, 3. alternate video games with other games and activities, 4. avoid highly addictive games, 5. keep a social life in the real world.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.S., L.D.F. and G.L.; methodology, D.S., E.G.; formal analysis, D.S., E.G. and L.D.F.; data curation, E.G. and L.D.F.; writing—original draft preparation, D.S., E.G. and L.D.F.; writing—review and editing, D.S.; supervision, D.S. and G.L.; funding acquisition, D.S. and G.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Arts on the Brain

Emory undergrads experience & explore!

Video games on the Brain

Technology has expanded the canvas upon an artist’s ability to express their stories. Videogames prove to be an art form that can solely exist in the digital space and demonstrates a collision of art and science. Our brain interprets these artists’ creations in many ways, both presenting itself as beneficial, yet also damaging to the brain. Video games have both positive and negative effects on the brain, as they can be used for education purposes or can have more drastic consequences. 

When overviewing the positive effects of videogames on the brain there are some main areas of the brain to focus upon: premotor and parietal cortex, prefrontal cortex, dopamine and grey matter. Cognitively, all video games are proven to improve one’s problem solving ability as well as reasoning capabilities. 

Different types of video games develop different skills as well as activate different parts of the brain. More broadly speaking, games that require team efforts help develop collaboration abilities. Other action focused video games have the ability to increase brain activity in the premotor and parietal cortex, where motor skills, quick thinking, and control of sensory movements are required. These same video games have the ability to physically improve one’s peripheral vision as well as hand-eye coordination. Examples of these types of games include Space Invaders and Halo. Games that require more logical thinking, such as Tetris, display an increased use of the prefrontal cortex, where decision-making is controlled. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is released when learning and activates sensations of reward. In the context of playing video games, dopamine is released in the brain’s striatum, invoking senses of pleasure and addiction. 

For the sake of this post, I’ll be emphasising my focus on experiments regarding grey matter. Grey matter helps process information in the brain, by more specifically processing signals that are generated by other sensory organs in the body or other areas which contain grey matter. This grey matter serves to move motor sensory stimuli to nerve cells in the nervous system. There, synapses produce a response to the certain stimuli. Hippocampal grey matter, more specifically, is crucial for the maintenance of healthy cognition. One experiment demonstrated how playing video games has the potential to increase hippocampal grey matter in young adolescents. This experiment tested the influence of the video game Super Mario Kart on the grey matter in the hippocampal and cerebral region of adolescents. 

Figure 1: Demonstrates the increase of grey matter in the hippocampal region.

As seen in the brain scan it is apparent that there is a great increase of grey matter in the brain of the adults immediately after playing the video game. 

Though there are positive effects apparent when playing video games, some of the negative impacts outweigh those of the positive. More broadly speaking, some of the negative effects that videogames can have on the brain is that of the “video game brain.” This effect occurs when one has dedicated so much time to video games that the underside of the frontal lobe begins to shrink, leasing to other symptoms such as mood alterations. With more frequency of playing video games, a visible decrease in activity in the prefrontal lobe is apparent. This is known to lead to symptoms such as increased moodiness, anxiety, and aggressiveness, which may occur even after the conclusion of the game itself.

For the sake of this post, I will be focusing the spectrum of my research to the cingulate cortices. Studies have demonstrated that even one week of violent video gaming can lead to a decreased activation of the rostral anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala, during both numerical and emotional tasks. Both of which areas are utilized in solving and controlling emotional confliction. This frequent play of violent aggressive video games lead to symptoms such as players being relatively more anxious, spike in increases of violent-related and aggressive behaviors for the short and long term period. In the study, it was noted that when players shot and fired a weapon in violent video game play, there was a suppression of emotional response in these areas to cope with their actions afterwards. This is seen in the posterior cingulate cortex, which serves for motor control, cognition, and planning activated by emotions, or in this case weapon usage. Some video games that can demonstrate these effects on humans are Fornite and Call of Duty.

“Choosing to attack is associated with greater activity in the posterior anterior cingulate cortex, while choosing to defend was associated with activity in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex .” As demonstrated in the figure above, specific brain regions are active when choosing an attack or defend strategy. 

One of my favorite video games to play at the moment is Among Us. Among Us is a Social Deduction Game where one imposter tries to kill all the crewmates on board without exposing their identity. If seen killing, crewmates can report the killer and vote out the imposter. The crewmates are responsible for finishing as many simple tasks as they possibly can. Some of the brain functions involved in the game vary depending on the position you are assigned at the beginning of the game: crewmate or imposter. 

When playing the game Among Us strategies of how to operate are required, utilizing the frontal lobe to map out one’s judgement and impulse control. Controlling sensory movements in this action-filled game is crucial. Secondly, there is violence present in this game. So those in the positions of imposters will experience different activities in their brain than those who are crewmates. After the killing of a crewmate, the person playing the imposter will experience a suppression of emotional response after their killing, more specifically suppressed in the rostral angular cortex and the amygdala. Whereas the crewmate on the opposite hand, will feel emotions of reward and pleasure upon completion of their tasks and calling out those who may seem suspicious during the play of the game. This releases dopamine through the brian’s striatum. All in all, videogames all impact the players brain in different ways, having both positive and negative effects upon one’s cognition.

Works Cited:

Itgsnewsauthor. How Gaming Affects the Brain . 4 July 2015, 

www.itgsnews.com/how-gaming-affects-brain/. 

Izaak. (2020, September 22). How to play Among Us: Beginner’s guide, tutorial, and 

frequently asked questions. Retrieved November 01, 2020, from 

https://www.sportskeeda.com/esports/how-play-among-us-beginner-s-guide-tutorial-fr

equently-asked-questions

Melissinos, Chris. Video Games Are One of the Most Important Art Forms in History . 22 Sept. 

2015, time.com/collection-post/4038820/chris-melissinos-are-video-games-art/. 

Palaus, Marc, et al. Neural Basis of Video Gaming: A Systematic Review . 22 May 2017, 

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5438999/. 

Robertson, Sally. What Is Grey Matter? 23 Aug. 2018, 

www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Grey-Matter.aspx. 

Staff, Science X. Brain: A ‘Cingular’ Strategy for Attack and Defense . 20 Apr. 2015, 

medicalxpress.com/news/2015-04-brain-cingular-strategy-defense.html. 

West, Greg L., et al. Playing Super Mario 64 Increases Hippocampal Grey Matter in Older 

Adults . journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0187779. 

6 Comments Add yours

I really enjoyed your post! Although I don’t play video games that often, I definitely liked learning about how and why they activate different parts of the brain. I knew that playing lots of video games can be unhealthy for our minds and physical bodies, however, I didn’t realize that they could entirely shrink our frontal lobes in severe situations. I also enjoyed reading about the Among Us portion in your post as I might have had a slight obsession with it last month. I never even realized all the intricate connections between doing small tasks in an online game and how they affect different parts of my brain. Great read!

Hi Lyla, I love your post so much! It was well written and also intriguing. The strucure of this post was so clear that I could see an introduction, a positive effect part, a negative effect part, and a conclusion. When trying to explain some professional and biological stuffs, you perfectly used great and clear pictures to illustrate the explanation. Just as what Rishika said, I knew that it was definitely unhealthy for one who plays lots of video games, I failed to realize that video games could cause such severe situation such as shrinking the frontal lobes. Thanks you so much for bringing such good work to me!

Wow! Though I have heard of many of the positive effects of playing video games that you touched on like increased problem-solving skills and increased ability to work in teams, I had not heard much about the possible negative effects of gaming. In my experience, many negative claims I have heard about video games are brushed to the side and seen as a misunderstanding from an older, less informed generation. It was interesting to see activation in the posterior cingulate cortex as shown in figure 2, highlighting how the attack portion is activated during in-game attacks. Still, it was very cool to see both positive and negative effects explored in this post!

Hi Lyla, this is such an interesting post about arts and brain! I am also a player of both Mario and Among Us, and I really agree with your argument about the effect of the video game. Before reading your post, I haven’t realized how my brain would be affected by those video games and simply thought games could increase my brain activity. Now I get to know the specific areas like grey matter and frontal lobe will be impacted by the stimulus from games. It reminds me the reason why teenagers should not play too many video games. Proper time management on playing games can reduce the shrink on our frontal lobe, thus help maintain a normal function of controlling emotions and decision making. Thank you for posting it!

I really enjoyed this post and found it super relevant considering how much time people spend playing video games today. It was really interesting to hear about the different kinds of effects, both positive and negative, that video games can have on our brains. It seems to be important to find a balance so that one does not spend too much playing them. It may even be beneficial for someone to mix up what type of games they are playing so that the negative effects are less harmful. Overall, this was super interesting to read!

I really enjoyed reading this post and found it super relevant considering how much time people spend playing video games today. It was really interesting to hear about the different kinds of effects, both positive and negative, that video games can have on our brains. It seems to be important to find a balance so that one does not spend too much playing them. It may even be beneficial for someone to mix up what type of games they are playing so that the negative effects are less harmful. Overall, this was super interesting to read!

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Exploring the Cognitive Benefits of Video Games: How Gaming Can Improve Learning

by Katrine B

September 10, 2023

Video games have become a popular form of entertainment for people of all ages. While there has been much debate about the potential negative effects of gaming, more recent research has focused on the positive impact of video games on cognitive development and learning. In this narrative essay , we will explore the cognitive benefits of video games and discuss how gaming can improve learning.

Understanding the Cognitive Benefits of Video Games

Before delving into the specific cognitive benefits of video games, it is important to define what cognitive benefits are. Cognitive benefits refer to improvements in cognitive functions such as attention, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making that can result from engaging in certain activities or experiences.

Defining Cognitive Benefits

When we talk about cognitive benefits, we are referring to positive changes in cognitive abilities as a result of playing video games. These changes can include enhanced attention span, improved memory retention, better problem-solving skills, and increased cognitive flexibility.

The Connection Between Gaming and Cognitive Function

Research has shown that video games can have a positive impact on various aspects of cognitive function. One study conducted by researchers at the University of California, Irvine, found that playing certain video games can lead to improvements in attention and multitasking abilities.

The researchers found that video game players were better at ignoring irrelevant information and were more efficient at switching between different tasks compared to non-gamers. They suggested that the fast-paced and immersive nature of video games may contribute to these cognitive improvements.

The Impact of Video Games on Learning

In addition to the cognitive benefits, video games have also been found to have a positive impact on learning. In particular, they can enhance memory and improve problem-solving skills.

Video Games and Memory Enhancement

Several studies have shown that playing video games can enhance memory function. In a study published in the journal Nature, researchers found that participants who played a 3D video game had better memory performance compared to those who played a 2D game or did not play any game at all.

The researchers suggested that the immersive and interactive nature of 3D video games may stimulate the hippocampus, a region of the brain associated with memory formation, leading to improved memory function.

Improving Problem-Solving Skills Through Gaming

Video games often require players to think critically and solve puzzles or challenges to progress in the game. This constant engagement with problem-solving tasks can enhance players' abilities to think critically and creatively, and to approach problems from different angles.

Furthermore, research has shown that video games can improve players' ability to transfer problem-solving skills to real-world scenarios. A study conducted by researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison found that individuals who played strategy-based video games showed better problem-solving skills and an increased ability to think strategically in real-world situations.

The Psychological Perspective of Gaming

Another aspect to consider when exploring the cognitive benefits of video games is the psychological perspective. Video games have been found to have an impact on attention span and emotional regulation.

Gaming and Attention Span

Contrary to popular belief, research suggests that playing video games in moderation can actually improve attention span. A study published in the journal Current Biology found that action video game players had better attentional control and were able to sustain their attention for longer periods compared to non-players.

This improved attention span may be attributed to the fast-paced nature of video games, which require players to quickly process and react to various stimuli within the game environment.

The Role of Video Games in Emotional Regulation

Video games can also play a role in emotional regulation. Studies have shown that playing video games can provide an outlet for emotional expression and serve as a means of stress relief.

Furthermore, multiplayer online games can provide opportunities for social interaction and can help individuals develop social skills and emotional intelligence. Engaging in cooperative gameplay can foster teamwork and collaboration, which can be beneficial in both virtual and real-world settings.

The Social Benefits of Multiplayer Games

Multiplayer games, in particular, offer a unique opportunity for social interaction and the development of important skills.

Developing Communication Skills Through Gaming

Multiplayer games often require players to communicate and cooperate with others to achieve shared objectives. This can help individuals develop effective communication skills, as they learn to coordinate actions, share information, and work together as a team.

Teamwork and Collaboration in Multiplayer Games

Playing multiplayer games can also cultivate teamwork and collaboration skills. By working together towards a common goal, players learn to delegate tasks, strategize, and make decisions as a team.

Research has shown that individuals who regularly engage in multiplayer gaming tend to have enhanced teamwork and collaboration skills, which can be transferable to various real-life situations, such as group projects or work environments.

Debunking Myths About Video Games

Despite the growing evidence of the cognitive and social benefits of video games, there are still misconceptions and concerns surrounding their use.

Addressing Concerns About Gaming Addiction

Gaming addiction is a controversial topic that has attracted much attention in recent years. While it is true that excessive gaming can have negative consequences, it is important to note that moderate and responsible gaming can bring about positive effects.

Individuals who engage in gaming as a recreational activity, in balance with other aspects of their lives, are unlikely to develop addiction problems. It is important to establish healthy gaming habits and recognize when it starts to interfere with other important areas of life, such as school or work.

The Truth About Video Games and Violence

Another major concern associated with video games is the belief that they promote aggression and violent behavior. However, research conducted in this area has not found a causal link between video games and real-life violence.

Studies have shown that while video games may temporarily increase aggression levels immediately after playing, this effect is short-lived and does not lead to long-term changes in behavior. It is important to consider other factors, such as pre-existing aggression or a lack of parental involvement, when examining the relationship between video games and aggression.

In conclusion, video games have the potential to offer various cognitive benefits and contribute to learning. They can improve attention, memory, problem-solving skills, and emotional regulation. Additionally, multiplayer games can enhance communication, teamwork, and collaboration skills. It is crucial to approach gaming in a responsible and balanced manner, recognizing the positive aspects while addressing concerns about addiction and violence. By understanding and harnessing the cognitive benefits of video games, we can explore their potential as tools for learning and personal development.

• Open access
• Published: 03 February 2020

Commercial video games and cognitive functions: video game genres and modulating factors of cognitive enhancement

• Eunhye Choi 1 ,
• Suk-Ho Shin 2 ,
• Jeh-Kwang Ryu 3 ,
• Kyu-In Jung 1 ,
• Shin-Young Kim 1 &
• Min-Hyeon Park   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1731-1388 1  

Behavioral and Brain Functions volume  16 , Article number:  2 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Unlike the emphasis on negative results of video games such as the impulsive engagement in video games, cognitive training studies in individuals with cognitive deficits showed that characteristics of video game elements were helpful to train cognitive functions. Thus, this study aimed to have a more balanced view toward the video game playing by reviewing genres of commercial video games and the association of video games with cognitive functions and modulating factors. Literatures were searched with search terms (e.g. genres of video games, cognitive training) on database and Google scholar.

video games, of which purpose is players’ entertainment, were found to be positively associated with cognitive functions (e.g. attention, problem solving skills) despite some discrepancy between studies. However, the enhancement of cognitive functions through video gaming was limited to the task or performance requiring the same cognitive functions. Moreover, as several factors (e.g. age, gender) were identified to modulate cognitive enhancement, the individual difference in the association between video game playing and cognitive function was found.

Commercial video games are suggested to have the potential for cognitive function enhancement. As understanding the association between video gaming and cognitive function in a more balanced view is essential to evaluate the potential outcomes of commercial video games that more people reported to engage, this review contributes to provide more objective evidence for commercial video gaming.

Despite objective research findings which addressed both positive and negative sides of video game (VG) playing, the negativity of VG playing, such as the obsession with VG playing [ 1 ] and increased feeling and thoughts of aggression [ 2 ], has been more focused. The World Health Organization announced the inclusion of “gaming disorder” in the category of addictive behavior disorders in the 11th International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems [ 3 ]. However, violent VGs, which were reported to increase aggression [ 1 ], were found to be positively associated with visuo-spatial abilities without the influence on aggression [ 4 ]. It seemed because action video games (AVGs), which can include violent elements, do not always refer to violent VGs [ 5 ]. Consistent with the argument that VGs should be regarded as one type of learning [ 6 ], VGs were also found to enhance cognitive functions better than conventional methods of learning [ 7 ] by conveying information in a different way from traditional media [ 8 ]. Taken together, unlike the emphasis on the negativity on VG playing, VGs, which provide players with richer environment of cognitive, emotional and social experience, are suggested to enhance their cognitive functions [ 9 ] by simulating cognitive processes, which are activated in real world, in the process of completing VG tasks [ 10 ]. Thus, it is important to understand commercial VGs in a more balanced view. In order to deepen the understanding of commercial VGs, this study reviews genres of VGs, cognitive functions identified to be positively associated with VG playing, and factors for individual difference in the association between VGs and cognitive enhancement.

Literatures were searched on Google Scholar and database (e.g. PubMed, PsychInfo) without date restriction. All designs of studies, found through the search (e.g. cross-sectional studies, training studies and review papers), were included. Search terms for the first section, reviewing genres of VGs, were “genres of (video) games”. “Serious games” was additionally used search term to make the distinction between serious games and commercial VGs. In the second section discussing the association between VG playing and cognitive functions, search terms were “video game (playing)”, “cognitive function/training” and “the association between VG and cognitive function”. Searched literatures for commercial VGs were categorized as six different cognitive functions. As AVGs were found to be highly investigated among various genres of VGs in the search, more literatures for AVGs were included in the second section. Based on literatures for the second section and additionally searched literatures with search terms (e.g. “age and video game”), the last section discussed the factors that were considered as variables for the individual difference in the association of VGs with cognitive functions.

Genres of VGs

Cognitive trainings, having components of VGs (i.e. adapting the difficulty level based on the performance and instantly providing the feedback) [ 11 ], were found to be effective through the individualization of the training (see Table  1 ). Constant provision of feedback was helpful for self-monitoring of the progress in VGs [ 12 ] in that players were able to change their decisions based on the feedback [ 13 ]. VGs, which are suggested to have the potential to train cognitive functions, seem to be divided into two genres depending on the purpose of the development: serious games and commercial VGs. Serious games, which are developed for learning and changes of behavior in various areas such as business, education, healthcare and policies of the government [ 14 , 15 ], were found to be more effective learning methods compared to conventional methods of learning when people played multiple sessions in groups with supplementary instructions [ 16 ]. Unlike serious games, commercial VGs were designed for the entertainment of players [ 17 ]. Although it is not designed for learning, commercial VGs provide players with goal-driven environment that they face various challenges and conflicts [ 18 ]. Players were found to execute their cognitive skills in a more integrated way by playing commercial VGs [ 19 ]. Moreover, people are more motivated to play commercial VGs [ 20 ]. Taken together, the potential influence of commercial VGs on the enhancement of cognitive functions is suggested. Thus, this section focuses on the classification of commercial VGs.

Based on four literatures [ 17 , 22 , 23 , 24 ], five genres of VGs were identified (see Table  2 ). Firstly identified genre of commercial VGs is traditional games (TGs) such as puzzle, card and board VGs [ 23 ]. Secondly identified genre is simulation games (SGs) (i.e. sports or driving VGs [ 22 ], Sims building up towns or communities [ 24 ]). Thirdly identified genre is strategy video games (SVGs) referring to VG that players generally play in the global view by focusing on visual information [ 22 ] and planning the strategies [ 17 ]. As Table  2 shows, SVGs are sub-divided into real-time strategy (RTS) and turn-based strategy (FBS) depending on the way mental process occurs. In SVGs (e.g. Starcraft), expert play (i.e. the integration and contextualization of VG-world activities) is highly associated with the best possible outcomes of VGs [ 22 ]. Fourthly identified genre is action video games (AVGs) that are characterized by the existence of a static physical locator connecting gaze and actions of players in the game environment [ 22 ]. As shown in Table  2 , AVGs are divided into first-person shooters (FPS) and third-person games (TPG) depending on the perspective of the players in the game. The final genre identified in the literatures is fantasy games (FGs). They can be defined as VGs where players explore the game environment in relatively slow pace in order to solve problems [ 17 ] and that focus on the imagination by offering fantasy environment with rules to players [ 22 ]. Among described sub-genres of FGs in Table  2 , role-playing games (RPGs) are the starting point where the notion of VG community was formed [ 22 ]. Massive Multi-player Online RPGs (MMORPGs) are VGs where social and participatory aspects are emphasized by providing the VG itself as the social arena [ 22 ].

Although commercial VGs are classified as five genres in this review, the categorization of VGs seems to vary depending on the criteria for the classification (e.g. interaction type that players experience in VG environments) [ 17 ]. That is, same VGs can be classified as different genres depending on the aspect the researcher focused. For example, RPGs, which were categorized as ‘FGs’ based on characteristics of the VG environment [ 17 ], were categorized as ‘SVGs’ based on the way players performed in VGs [ 25 ]. Thus, more standardized categorizations of VGs are required by conducting further studies in order to more accurately investigate the association between VG playing and cognitive improvement. However, despite this limitation found in the genre classification, it is expected that different genres would be associated with different cognitive functions. It is because players face different designs of VG environments and show the different way of playing. Thus, the association of different VGs with cognitive function is reviewed in the next section.

Cognitive functions identified to be positively related to VG playing

Although cognitive functions are found to be trained through VG playing during relatively short period, enhanced type of cognitive functions depends on genres of VGs [ 20 ]. In this section, the association of different genres with cognitive functions is reviewed. The transfer effect of VGs (i.e. the extent to which cognitive improvement associated with VGs is transferred into untrained cognitive functions) is also discussed. Six cognitive functions are identified to be positively associated with VGs.

Firstly identified cognitive function is attention. Frequent VG players were better at sustaining attention [ 26 ], and players of working memory (WM) and reasoning casual VGs showed the improvement in divided attention [ 19 ]. Compared to other genres of VGs played with slow pace, AVGs were highly associated with improvement in selective attention [ 27 ] which refers to the allocation of attention to relevant information [ 28 ]. FPS players were found to efficiently allocate attention through the improvement in the top-down process of attention [ 29 ]. Although Leauge of Legends (LoL) top-ranking players were better at selective attention than players with lower level skills and less gaming experience, one hour of AVG session resulted in better selective attention in less skilled players [ 30 ]. Players of AVGs and adventure games also showed attenuated attentional blink [ 31 ], which refers to the failure to detect and process the target that was subsequently presented right after the previously processed target [ 32 ]. That is, the training of AVGs, but not other genres of VGs (e.g. TGs and SGs), improved the recovery from attentional blink [ 32 ]. Furthermore, the improvement in attention, found to be associated with VGs [ 33 , 34 ], accompany changes in brain regions. While dorsal fronto-parietal network, which is involved in top-down process of attention [ 35 ], was more activated with increased attentional demands in non-VG players or players of other genres (e.g. SVGs), AVG players barely recruited this network and showed reduced activation in visual motion sensitive area (MT/MST) of which activation results from moving distracters [ 34 ]. Changes in brain activation suggested that AVG players were better at filtering information and efficiently allocating attention to important information. Moreover, AVG experience was found to be positively associated with the plasticity of white matter network in regions (e.g. prefrontal cortex; PFC) [ 36 ] that involves in cognitive control (i.e. goal-directed neural process) [ 37 ]. Even older players showed increased activation in right dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC) [ 38 ]. Taken together, VG playing, especially AVG playing, is associated with the enhancement of visual attention that takes an important role in the efficient processing of information [ 39 ].

Based on the interaction between visual attention and WM [ 40 ], secondly identified cognitive function is WM that refers to the maintenance of presented visual stimuli [ 41 ]. When the association between casual WM reasoning games and cognitive function enhancement was investigated, the enhancement in WM was not found [ 19 ]. However, frequent VG playing was associated with the improvement in WM capacity [ 26 ]. The 20 h of training to play hidden-object and memory matrix VGs resulted in the improvement in spatial WM [ 32 ]. Although 20 h of AVG training did not enhance spatial WM [ 32 ], 30 h of AVG training during 1 month, compared to the training of SGs, resulted in the enhancement in visual WM [ 28 ]. Extensive experience of AVG playing was associated with better visual WM capacity [ 42 ]. FPS players showed more accurate and faster processing of relevant information with better WM capacity compared to non-players [ 43 ]. That is, AVG players showed more precise and detailed visual representation [ 44 ] and performed better in a change detection task than non-VG players [ 45 ]. When AVGs were played in long term, salience network, involved in the detection of visual stimuli (e.g. anterior cingulated cortex and anterior insula) and central executive network, involved in attentional control and WM such as DLPFC and posterior parietal cortex, were highly integrated [ 46 ]. AVG players showed improved WM capacity by efficiently allocating attention to important information [ 42 ]. These findings suggested that playing VGs, especially AVGs, is suggested to have the potential to enhance WM that is important for the learning of skills and the acquisition of knowledge [ 41 , 42 ]. However, as it is unclear whether the discrepancy between AVG training studies result from the different duration of trainings or different aspects of WM, further studies are required.

Thirdly identified cognitive function is visuo-spatial function referring to perception, recognition, and manipulation of visual stimuli (e.g. visuo-motor coordination, navigation skill) [ 27 ]. Enhanced spatial cognition was reported in players of Tetris [ 47 ], which can be classified as one of TGs, and playing TGs (i.e. logic/puzzle games) was associated with gray matter (GM) volume in bilateral entorhinal cortex [ 48 ] that is involved in navigation [ 49 ]. AVGs and SVGs were also found to be associated with the enhanced visuo-spatial function [ 50 ]. Ten hours of AVG training resulted in better navigation skills through the adoption of response strategy, which indirectly measure/indicate the volume of hippocampus and striatum [ 51 ]. Consistently, AVG players, who were trained to play SuperMario for 2 months, showed the improvement in the processing of spatial information and the coordination of visuo-motor function along with larger GM volume in brain regions (i.e. right hippocampus, right DLPFC and bilateral cerebellum) [ 52 ]. Moreover, increases in white matter connections between occipital and parietal areas were found in RTS players compared to non-video gamers [ 53 ]. Furthermore, adolescents with more experience of VG playing showed thicker cortex in left frontal eye-fields that engage in allocating visuo-spatial attention and integrating relevant visuo-motor information [ 54 ]. That is, playing VGs was found to be associated with neural plasticity in brain regions involved in navigation and visual attention (i.e. bilateral entorhinal cortex, hippocampal and occipital GM volume) [ 48 ]. Taken together, although the exact duration of VG training for the detection of structural changes in brain was not identified [ 54 ], VGs are suggested to be associated with the enhancement in visuo-spatial function.

Fourthly identified cognitive function is probabilistic learning that refers to the usage of declarative memory to resolve the uncertainty [ 55 ]. Fifty hours of AVG training in non-VG players increased the efficiency to use not only visually but also auditorily available information [ 56 ]. AVG players also showed higher activation in brain regions involved in visual imagery, semantic memory and cognitive control (e.g. hippocampus, precuneus, thalamus) compared to non-AVG players [ 55 ]. Higher activation in hippocampus in AVG players was related to more pronounced usage of declarative knowledge [ 55 ]. Moreover, the cortex of left DLPFC, involved in resolving the ambiguity by using the cues in the environments, was found to be thicker in adolescents reporting longer duration of VG playing, suggesting players became better at resolving the ambiguity efficiently through VG playing [ 54 ]. It can be concluded that VG playing could enhance the probabilistic learning through the efficient use of evidence presented in the environment of VG.

Fifthly identified cognitive function is problem solving skills. Problem solving skills were improved more through a puzzle VG compared to cognitive training game [ 57 ]. Adolescents, playing strategic VGs (i.e. SVGs, RPGs) more frequently during 4 years of high school period, also showed better skill to solve problems [ 25 ]. Playing strategic VGs, but not fast-paced VGs, was also found to be associated with better academic achievement in that improved problem solving skills mediated the positive association between playing SVGs and academic performance [ 25 ]. Moreover, playing commercial VGs enhanced graduate skills (e.g. problem solving skills, communication) in university students, suggesting the potential efficacy of VG-based learning [ 58 ]. However, gaming habits (e.g. frequency and time of video gaming, genres of VGs) was found to have no influence academic skills in high school students [ 59 ]. The inconsistency between findings seemed to be the different use of measurement for problem solving skills. While self-reports were used to measure problem solving skills in [ 25 ] and [ 58 ], the measurement of academic skills (e.g. mathematics, science) was used in [ 59 ]. Although the longitudinal design of [ 25 ] suggested the potential positive influence of strategic VGs on problem solving skill, further studies that investigate the extent to which problem solving skills can be enhanced through VG playing and examine changes in relevant brain regions should be conducted.

The last cognitive function that is identified to be positively associated with VG is second language (L2) learning in that not only serious games but also commercial VGs provide players with the opportunity for language practice and acquisition [ 60 ]. Among various genres, MMORPGs, which are full with the opportunity of interaction between players, and between players and the VG environment in target language [ 61 ], are suggested as the efficient method for speaking practice [ 62 ] and are reported to facilitate the learning of L2 [ 63 ]. Players engaging in frequent interaction in VG environments were found to show strengthened functional connectivity (FC) within brain regions involved in language processing (i.e. left anterior insular/frontal operculum and visual word form area) [ 63 ]. Moreover, the attentional bias toward information relevant to the task was identified as the possible mechanism for facilitated L2 learning in MMORPGs in that the activation in DLPFC, parahippocampal gyrus and thalamus was higher in players of MMORPGs in the response to VG-related cues compared to neutral cues [ 63 ]. That is, playing MMORPGs are suggested to support L2 learning.

Although not only AVG but also other genres were found to be associated with cognitive enhancement, the transfer effect of VG experience was limited to specific underlying cognitive demands that was trained through VG playing [ 19 , 20 , 32 ]. Among various VG genres, AVGs, which activated multiple cognitive functions (e.g. attention, WM, hand–eye coordination) by providing players with physically and mentally demanding environments [ 46 ], showed the most varied effect of transfer [ 32 ]. However, unlike the suggestion that AVGs seem to improve the skill to infer regularities of presented information in the environment instead of the improvement of specific skill [ 64 ], AVG playing was found to require various information processing skill at lower level such as visual perception, attention skills and change detection [ 20 ]. AVG players, who efficiently tracked multiple moving objects compared to players of other VGs, were better at tracking multiple static objects [ 32 ]. FPS experience was also associated with the improvement in WM capacity but not with the improved inhibitory control [ 43 ]. That is, AVG experience was associated with the activation of specific brain regions [ 65 ]. LoL playing experience was associated with the activation in the frontal lobe compared to the activity with lower working loads (e.g. movie watching, SG experience) [ 66 ]. Moreover, AVGs did not show the transfer to different modality (i.e. auditory detection) and only players of AVGs that require faster attentional switch showed faster recovery from attentional blink [ 67 ]. Furthermore, the improvement of complex verbal WM was found in not memory matrix VG but AVG and match-3 VG that require strategic planning [ 32 ]. These findings suggested that VG playing did not show far transfer (i.e. general improvement in cognitive function to learn new skills) [ 20 ], supporting the common demand hypothesis that the VG-associated cognitive enhancement showed near transfer [ 20 ].

Taken together, six cognitive functions were identified to be positively associated with VG playing despite some discrepancies between findings (see Table  3 ). Different genres of VGs was associated with different aspects of cognitive function [ 5 ]. While AVG training was associated with attentional improvement, the training of match-3 VG resulted in better spatial WM [ 32 ]. Although the weaker association between FPS experience and cognitive enhancement in the sample including players with less FPS experience [ 68 ] questioned the positive association between VG playing and cognitive function, the reduction of VG playing significantly decreased not only self-reported gaming skills but also brain activities [ 69 ]. That is, as certain amount of VG experience is required to show cognitive enhancement (Anguera et al. 2015), VG experience was suggested to have the potential to enhance cognitive function and to show near transfer effect. However, most reviewed research articles were cross-sectional and did not examine the persistency of cognitive enhancement associated with VG playing. Although one study [ 11 ] examined the persistency of VG-associated cognitive enhancement by following up 9 months, VGs used in this study was not commercial VGs. That is, the extent to which not only AVGs but also other genres of VGs showed the transfer and the extent to which cognitive enhancement through commercial VG playing was persistent have been less examined. Thus, more studies, investigating not only the extent of transfer but also the persistency of cognitive advantage associated with VG playing, should be conducted in order to deepen the understanding of transfer effect of VG experience.

• Modulating factors

The positive association between VG playing and cognitive function has been demonstrated. However, there is individual difference in the extent to which players show cognitive enhancement [ 70 ]. It is because some factors influence the plasticity and individual responses to the VG training [ 20 ]. Thus, this section reviews five factors that are identified to modulate the association between VG playing and cognitive enhancement through the review of searched literatures.

The first modulating factor is VG expertise. VG expertise influences cognitive processes that players adopted during VG play. While novice players are more likely to use top-down process where attentional resources were allocated through the strategic control of gaming behavior, VG experts are more likely to use bottom-up processes where attention is automatically allocated to psychologically salient gaming cues as a result of rich experience [ 63 ]. Players with better VG expertise also prioritized skills to strategize during LoL playing compared to lower-ranking players who prioritized action skills [ 65 ]. That is, VG expertise influenced the activation of different cognitive processes during VG play. Moreover, as VG expertise was found to be closely associated with the difference in the baseline speed of visual attention [ 33 ], it seemed to influence attentional benefits associated with VG playing.

Secondly identified modulating factor for the individual difference is age in that different media were used for longer time in younger children [ 71 ]. After peaking at the age of 13 or 14 years, the time of VG playing decreased with age [ 23 ]. Age-related difference in VG playing time suggests that the effect of video gaming potentially has more influence on cognitive function enhancement in younger adults than older adults [ 72 ]. Age also influences the engagement in VG training. As the specific population considered in designing AVGs is young adults [ 5 ], older adults reported lower engagement in AVG training compared to the training of other genres of VGs [ 73 ]. Moreover, age is closely related to cognitive functions and the performance of the task in that the functional connectivity of brain develops with age [ 74 ]. While substantial neuro-plasticity was found in younger children [ 5 ], age-related decline in cognitive control was found [ 75 ]. It was also found that the task performance of younger children with relatively slow and less precise attention process became better when their performance was supported by the provision of temporal cues for attentional responses [ 33 ].

As age is associated with cognitive function, thirdly identified factor is baseline cognitive function (e.g. reasoning skill, attentional skill). Baseline cognitive function influences the choice of VG engagement in that cognitive ability was better in players, who chose regular AVG playing, than in individuals who barely played VGs [ 5 ]. It also influences the extent to which cognitive function would be enhanced through VG playing. Children with more attentional deficits were found to gain greater attentional enhancement through the computerized training and to show persistent effect in 9 months [ 11 ]. Players with lower baseline reasoning skills were also found to gain more cognitive benefits, such as better divided attention and faster perception of stimuli [ 19 ]. However, consistent with the influence of baseline GM in striatum on the degree of skill acquisition in learners [ 76 ], young adults with higher level of baseline modularity in brain showed higher cognitive benefits after VG training where WM and reasoning function was involved [ 77 ]. It is plausible that the modulating role of baseline cognitive function depends on the aspect of cognitive function trained in VGs. Although further studies should be conducted to examine this idea, baseline cognitive function are suggested to modulate the cognitive benefit of VG playing by influencing the choice of VG genre and the extent of cognitive enhancement.

Cognitive function that was identified as one modulating factor was associated with gender in that males were better at inhibiting distracters and sustaining attention [ 26 ]. That is, fourthly identified factor is gender that influences gaming habits that were reported to be associated with the extent of enhancement and types of cognitive functions improved [ 26 ]. Although both female and male AVG players gained similar attentional advantage despite the asymmetric gender distribution in the frequency of gaming [ 33 ], gender influences gaming time and styles. While Huang et al. [ 26 ] found males more frequently engaged in VGs than females, Dindar [ 58 ] reported that females played VGs more frequently than males. Despite the discrepancy in the frequency of gaming between males and females, it was confirmed that the duration for VG play was longer in males than females [ 23 , 59 , 78 ] and that males preferred to play AVGs [ 26 ]. The increased playing time in males was associated with the genre of VGs (e.g. whether it is played by multi-players) [ 79 ]. Moreover, males chose computer as the gaming platform compared to females [ 26 ]. Although the difference in cognitive enhancement between gaming platforms (i.e. mobile and console) was not significant [ 26 ], the choice of gaming platform was found to be associated with the motivation (e.g. social interaction) for VG engagement. While males prefer to play VGs focusing on competition (e.g. AVGs or SGs), females like to play TGs [ 23 ]. Taken together, gender, which is associated with the engagement habits in VGs, indirectly modulates the association between VG playing and cognitive function enhancement.

Based on the gender difference in the choice of gaming platform, the last factor that is identified to modulate the association between VG playing and cognitive functions is motivation. Individuals with higher level of motivation engaged in trainings more voluntarily, performed better in trainings and showed improved WM than those with lower level of motivation [ 80 ]. Players, who were more motivated to communicate in VGs through the experience of social rewards (e.g. positive expressions) in gaming environments, also showed attentional bias to communication-relevant stimuli that was associated with promoted L2 learning [ 63 ]. Moreover, the existence of motivational factor during the VG playing appears to influence the functional changes of the brain associated with the training [ 81 ]. Players, who experienced more fun and relatively less frustration during VG playing with better performance, were more motivated to engage in VGs and showed more functional changes in the relevant brain regions [ 81 ]. However, when monetary reward was given for game playing, motivation was not found to significantly influence the effectiveness of VG training [ 19 ]. Taken together, although monetary reward minimized the role of motivation in gaming engagement, motivational factors were suggested to be considered in investigating the association of VG playing with behavioral and neural changes [ 63 ].

As five factors, identified to influence the individual difference in the association between VG playing and cognitive improvement, interact each other in the modulation of the association, it is difficult to conclude which factor exerts more influence on the individual difference in the association between playing of VGs and cognitive enhancement. Moreover, there are other factors that are not introduced in this section. For example, the personalities of players seem to influence the motivation for VG playing [ 9 ] and the expression of motivation during the VG play [ 82 ]. Personality traits can also influence learning effects in that introverted players can get more benefits of language learning from playing VGs where they simulate the practice more freely compared to the traditional learning [ 61 ]. Moreover, players showed the difference in the results of learning depending on their learning styles [ 24 ]. As the individual difference in VG gains seemed to be explained by not only the duration of VG paying but also the variation in learning trajectories [ 83 ], other factors excluded in this review should be considered and further studies, including all these factors, should be conducted in order to understand what modulates the association between VG playing and cognitive enhancement.

Conclusions

Unlike the emphasized negativity of VG playing, VGs are suggested to enhance cognitive functions. As VG playing has become one aspect of life in young people [ 84 ], it is important to understand the association between video gaming and cognitive function in a more balanced view toward VG playing. Thus, this paper discusses genres of commercial VGs, cognitive functions that are identified to be positively associated with VG playing and modulating factors. It is found that different genres of VGs are associated with different aspects of cognitive functions, that AVGs are identified as the VG genre resulting in most varied transfer, and that factors (e.g. age, gender) influence the association of VG playing with cognitive function. Moreover, despite the concern about the usage of VGs or computerized programs as the primary intervention for the improvement in brain function [ 19 ], VGs, demonstrating the association with structural changes in brain regions, have the potential to be used as an intervention program for patients showing decreased volume in brain regions such as hippocampus [ 36 , 52 ].

Although this review contributes to the understanding of commercial video gaming and its potential effect, the findings of the review should be interpreted by considering three identified research gaps. One identified research gap is the limited generalizability resulting from the absence of standardized definition for VG players. More studies have been conducted by focusing on AVGs compared to other genres of VGs and the criteria for the status of VG players were different between studies. While non-VG players were mostly defined as individual with less or no VG experience, non-AVG players were classified as non-VG players in some studies (e.g. [ 33 ], [ 34 ]). The different classification criteria seems to underestimate the potentially influence of other genres of VGs on cognitive functions and makes it difficult the comparison between studies difficult. The other identified gap is habits of VG playing were usually based on self-reports. As self-report measure is based on autobiographical memory, it could result in inaccurate report of their frequent behaviors [ 23 ]. In order to understand the link between VG playing and cognitive function, further studies, including more reliable measure for VG playing habits, should be conducted. Another identified gap is the scope of cognitive function that has been investigated in relation to VG playing. While more studies focused on attention, studies for higher cognitive functions have been less conducted. Although the enhancement in inhibition was not associated with frequent VG playing [ 26 ], cognitive control was positively associated with AVG experience [ 36 ]. The transfer into complex verbal WM in AVG and match-3 game training groups also suggested the potential of VG training in the enhancement of higher order executive processes [ 32 ]. As the change in some cognitive functions is slow [ 19 ], it is plausible that higher cognitive function requires more playing time for the change. In order to resolve the discrepancy between findings and to deepen the understanding of the association between VG and higher cognitive function, mores studies, investigating more various aspects of cognitive function, should be conducted. Therefore, more studies, considering these research gaps, should be conducted in future in order to deepen the understanding of the influence of VG playing on cognitive function.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Video game(s)

Traumatic brain injuries

Sensory processing dysfunction

Attention deficit/hyperactivity dysfunction

Typically developing children

Traditional games

Simulation games

Strategy video games

Action video games

Fantasy games

Role-playing games

Massive multi-player online RPGs

Real-time strategy

Turn-based strategy

First-person shooters

Third-person games

League of Legends

Working memory

Prefrontal cortex

Dorsolateral PFC

Gray matter

Second language

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Choi, E., Shin, SH., Ryu, JK. et al. Commercial video games and cognitive functions: video game genres and modulating factors of cognitive enhancement. Behav Brain Funct 16 , 2 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-020-0165-z

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Your Gaming Skills Can Help You Shape Your Career

• Igor Tulchinsky

Video games are fast-moving, dynamic, and anything but static. Your career can be too.

Studies have shown the benefits of gaming — whether it’s better spatial awareness, faster cognitive processing, or improved mental health, social skills, and decision-making capabilities. Here are some ways you can harness the unique skills and lessons gaming has taught you to shape your future working life.

• Don’t settle. Video games are fast-moving, dynamic, and anything but static. Your career should be too. Every job requires some combination of problem-solving, strategy, and teamwork — just like every video game. But not every company you encounter will be as solutions-oriented, innovative, or collaborative as you might desire. Aim to find an organization that will value you and your skills.
• Challenge your beliefs. How often have you written off a video game before even playing it? We all have internal biases that can alter our perception of the world. The same is true for our careers — you likely have personal beliefs about certain companies, industries, and job titles. Just like you shouldn’t judge a game by its popular presentation, you shouldn’t with jobs either. Instead, take the time to speak to people on the inside.
• Try again. Fail again. Fail better. We’re often too afraid to fail in real life because we believe we won’t get a second chance. In some ways, that’s true — there are no extra lives here. But just like in video games, we can test hypotheses, experiment, process variables, and establish new ways of understanding our world.
• Have patience. Video games can be repetitive. The same can be said for work, and our lives in general. But that doesn’t have to be a bad thing. The patience and hard work are what make the glorious cut scenes, rare achievements, and final fights worth it. In your career, the work you put in now will pay off long-term, too.
• Think like a creator. Game developers often employ transformational creativity. This is when designers, often drawing on leaps forward in technology, drive revolutionary changes in the entire video game ecosystem. One way to cultivate transformational creativity in your work life is to embrace adjacency. If you’re struggling to come up with new ideas or find yourself making the same errors when addressing a task, try thinking about how other, adjacent disciplines might approach a similar problem.

Growing up in the golden age of video games, it was hard not to feel like you were living two lives at once.

• IT Igor Tulchinsky is the Founder, Chairman, and CEO of WorldQuant, LLC, a global quantitative asset management firm. He was previously a portfolio manager at Millennium.

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Executive Function

Can video games improve processing speed in children, how to help kids with adhd and slow processing speed..

Posted April 5, 2024 | Reviewed by Tyler Woods

• Slow processing speed impacts children at school, socially, and in problem-solving.
• Emerging neurotechnologies also have the potential to improve slow processing speed.
• Improving executive functioning skills can impact processing speed in children.

Slow processing speed impacts children in a variety of ways. Slow processing speed often has a dramatic impact on school performance and the capacity to keep up with peers. It can negatively impact self-esteem . Because it is so frequently misidentified, it can also cause children to develop oppositional tendencies with parents and teachers. Slow processing speed frequently presents itself as children’s difficulty completing schoolwork in a timely fashion, slow-moving behavior, or, conversely, haphazardly rushing through tasks. Longer homework assignments, particularly those that involve writing, are the genesis of frustration and oppositionalism.

The impact of slow processing speed on children has often been underestimated. Slow processing speed is poorly understood or misidentified by parents, educators, and, perhaps most importantly, children. Its impact on academic and social-emotional functioning needs to be better recognized. For example, many family conflicts around activities, such as homework completion or getting ready for school in the morning, are due to unrecognized slow processing speed. Children’s frustration and lack of awareness of their slow processing speed can impact motivation , self-esteem, sustained effort, and school performance. Resignation about keeping up with homework assignments and the demands for taking notes or finishing tests on time is common. Long-term effects of slow processing speed issues in childhood have been linked to depression and psychological distress in adulthood.

Other issues may exacerbate the struggles of children with slow processing speed, including anxiety about their performance, a sense of isolation from others, and trouble keeping up with the pace of peer interactions. Children with slow processing speed also tend to have difficulty with a variety of executive functioning skills, including problems with task initiation, planning, task persistence, and time management .

In a world where speed and efficiency are so highly valued, using video games and other emerging technologies as a tool to help children with slow processing speed is valuable. Studies of neuroplasticity suggest that modest improvements in processing speed are possible. Some of the more promising interventions to improve processing speed in children involve video games and other screen-based technologies. Thus far, the most compelling research has focused on older adults. In a series of studies conducted across six major universities, Posit Science reports that its brain training program, BrainHQ, increased the speed of verbal and visual processing in older adults. The organization reports that the results generalized beyond tasks measured in the study and that improvement continued to be observed in five- and ten-year follow-ups. Other research indicates how action video games can improve processing speed. One recent study suggested that video games that target visual perception functions associated with visual-motor integration can enhance the speed of processing.

However, a prescription of endless video game play to improve slow processing speed is not recommended. The available data suggests that modest improvements in slow processing speed can be achieved through targeted video gameplay. The application of other cognitive training techniques, along with appropriate accommodations, is a far better course of action.

Processing speed is a cognitive process where technology combined with targeted training would seem to make an ideal pair. If we were to look at a physical comparison to processing speed, we might look no further than a running track, where advances in technology, training, equipment, and assessment have all contributed to faster times across many events. These technologies have resulted in world records, but more importantly, they have also made track athletes of all skill levels faster. Similarly to the track, there are limits as to how much improvement in processing speed any person can make as a result of their use of training and technology.

Traditional interventions for children with slow processing speed and ADHD involve the use of accommodations and alternative teaching strategies. For the most part, educators do not make any effort to improve the speed of processing. Instead, these children frequently have 504 plans developed that include additional time to complete tasks, reduction in the amount of expected work, receiving instruction in smaller chunks, scribing or note-taking, and a focus on quality rather than quantity of work.

Until recently, these were the primary interventions to help children with slow processing speed. This approach was based on the aforementioned assumption that processing-speed capacities were fixed, rather than malleable. The science of neuroplasticity, along with the availability of neurotechnologies and productivity tools , has altered this perspective. Psychologists have also begun to examine how other types of interventions and techniques can improve slow processing speed in children with ADHD, including exercise, direct teaching of executive-functioning skills, and complementary skill development.

It’s time to get moving faster on developing new interventions for kids with slow processing speed. While using video games might be the preferred intervention for many kids, the application of common technologies, such as audiobooks for slow readers, dictation apps for slow writers, and apps for time management , can also improve slow processing speed. There is no reason that we should not use both appropriate accommodations and available technologies to support these kids.

Ahn, S. (2021). Combined effects of virtual reality and computer game-based cognitive therapy on the development of visual-motor integration in children with intellectual disabilities: A pilot study. Occupational Therapy International , 2021 , 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6696779

Cunha, F., Campos, S., Simões-Silva, V., Brugada-Ramentol, V., Sá-Moura, B., Jalali, H., Bozorgzadeh, A., & Trigueiro, M. J. (2023). The effect of a virtual reality based intervention on processing speed and working memory in individuals with ADHD—a pilot-study. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2023.1108060

Gale, C. R., Harris, A., & Deary, I. J. (2016). Reaction time and onset of psychological distress: The UK Health and Lifestyle Survey. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health , 70 (8), 813–817. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2015-206479

Simpson, T., Camfield, D., Pipingas, A., Macpherson, H., & Stough, C. (2012). Improved Processing Speed: Online Computer-based cognitive training in older adults. Educational Gerontology , 38 (7), 445–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601277.2011.559858

Smith, G. E., Housen, P., Yaffe, K., Ruff, R., Kennison, R. F., Mahncke, H. W., & Zelinski, E. M. (2009). A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: Results from the improvement in memory with plasticity‐based Adaptive Cognitive training (IMPACT) study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 57(4), 594–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.02167.x

Randy Kulman, Ph.D. , is a child clinical psychologist, parent of 5, and founder of LearningWorks for Kids. He is the author of Train Your Brain for Success and Playing Smarter in a Digital World .

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Not Just Fun: New Study Indicates Video Games Can Improve Career Prospects

By University of Surrey January 26, 2023

Video games have become a popular form of entertainment for people of all ages. They can offer a variety of benefits such as improving hand-eye coordination, problem-solving skills, and decision-making abilities. However,  it is important to remember that video games can also have negative effects if played excessively or without balance.

In an effort to understand the relationship between online gaming behavior and career interests, researchers from Surrey collaborated with Game Academy Ltd. to study the gaming habits of 16,033 participants. The research aimed to explore how the hobby could aid in future career planning and professional training for video game players. Prior to this study, little was known about how people’s gaming choices related to their career aspirations.

The study participants utilized Steam, a digital distribution service and storefront for video games, and played various games on the platform. Researchers examined the 800 games that were played the most and only included participants for whom they had information on gender and occupation.

Researchers discovered that IT professionals and engineers played puzzle-platform games, which possibly enhance their spatial skills. People in managerial roles showed an interest in action roleplay games where organizational and planning skills are involved and engineering professionals were associated with strategy games which often require problem-solving and spatial skills. There were apparent gender differences too – females preferred playing single-player games, whereas males preferred playing shooting games.

Dr. Anna-Stiina Wallinheimo, lead author of the study, Cognitive Psychologist, and Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the University of Surrey’s Centre for Translation Studies (CTS) said: “In recruitment processes, the best candidates may be missed because organizations do not consider the soft skills that have been gained through non-work activities (for example, online gaming). As a result of our research, we believe applicants’ online gaming experiences should be highlighted because these acquired soft skills can really help to develop their all-around strengths for the job at hand.”

Dr. Anesa Hosein, co-author of the study and Associate Professor in Higher Education at the University of Surrey said: “By understanding to what extent career interests are reflected in game playing, we may be able to demonstrate more clearly how these align with career interests and encourage employers to understand the value of the soft skills associated with gaming. Our research could also inspire game developers to work on honing these soft skills more closely in their design. Furthermore, places of learning, such as universities, could allow students to reflect and incorporate gaming as part of their career development and consider how gaming can be included in the curriculum to enhance alignment between students’ learning, career aspirations, and extra-curricular gaming interests.”

Reference: “How Online Gaming Could Enhance Your Career Prospects” by Anna-Stiina Wallinheimo, Anesa Hosein, David Barrie, Andrey Chernyavskiy, Irina Agafonova and Peter Williams, 11 November 2022, SIMULATION . DOI: 10.1177/10468781221137361

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2 comments on "not just fun: new study indicates video games can improve career prospects".

As a Software Engineer I prefer playing action rpgs and shooters.

Games are my relaxation time and doing hardcore strategy and rpg games require too many of the same skills I use all day. Games like these feel more like “work” than fun to me.

Have there been games developed for helping addicts achieve an interest as they are entering treatment?

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The Real Social Benefits of Video Games

The social benefits of gaming have been more widely acknowledged in recent years — plus, seventy-eight percent of gamers believe it actually helps them build relationships — but the general perception of video games isn’t always positive.

In some corners of culture, the long-held stereotype of gamers as socially maladjusted loners still persists. And when the social potential of gaming is acknowledged, it’s still brushed off as an inferior substitution to “real” human connection.

“Online games have been historically portrayed as what people in research call pseudo-communities,” said Dr. Rachel Kowert, the research director of the nonprofit Take This who studies the psychological effects of video games.

“The value of the social connections are assumed to be somehow less than the value of the social connections that we have in face-to-face interactions,” Kowert added. “But if you look at the research, that’s actually not true.”

More on Gaming 48 Gaming Companies You Need to Know

Benefits of Online Video Gaming

Gamers have many different reasons for playing. Sixty-six percent say they use video games to decompress, while 37 percent say they game to build problem-solving skills. Whatever motivations gamers have, many of them are able to tap into gaming’s benefits.  

Video Games Can Boost Social Connection 

Along with researchers from Edge Hill University and University of York, Kowert studied more than 700 players of massively multiplayer online games (MMOs). The sample ranged from gamers who played as little as one hour per week to those who played 30 or more.

In findings published in 2017, the team found that MMO engagement correlated to a stronger sense of social identity, or how people self-identify based on their affiliation to groups. That social identity then corresponded with higher self-esteem and more social competence and lower levels of loneliness, the researchers found.

“It seemed to be quite a positive thing for the games we surveyed, which were all online multiplayer gamers,” said Dr. Linda Kaye, a senior lecturer in psychology at Edge Hill who specializes in cyberpsychology and co-authored the study.

It was positive both individually and in terms of a broader social connection. “Gamers often report that that common interest in itself can actually build friendships and relationships — so that common focus can be really important socially,” Kaye said.

There’s a growing body of other relevant research as well. Kowert edited a collection called Video Games and Well-Being: Press Start , in which authors incorporate a variety of academic research to explore the psychological benefits, including connectedness, of gaming. The first chapter functions as a travelogue of sorts of recent literature, including studies that showed World of Warcraft players expanding their social networks and evidence that social capital of the gaming variety “is positively related to higher levels of offline social support.”

“Gamers often report that that common interest in itself can actually build friendships and relationships — so that common focus can be really important socially.”

“When talking about how games can be socially valuable, there is a lot of research that specifically found reductions in loneliness and depression, and that it’s particularly valuable for people who are geographically isolated,” Kowert said.

She continued: “Face-to-face relationships and those formed within online gaming communities both provide what we call social capital, which is an all-encompassing term for the social resources that make a friendship a friendship.”

Online, game-rooted friendships “are as real as any offline friendships,” Kowert said, “and they shouldn’t be discredited just because they’re mediated through technology.”

Video Games Can Support Cognitive Skills

If you’ve ever wondered if games like Animal Crossing or Mario Kart can help contribute to cognitive development, the answer is yes. 

In a study of 2,217 children published in 2022, researchers found that cognitive performance, specifically in tasks related to memory and response inhibition, was better among children who played video games for around 21 hours a week compared to those who didn’t play any video games. 

And according to a 2013 study , video games can help improve problem-solving skills. This is especially true for open-world, mission-based games structured around completing many smaller tasks and puzzles to achieve a greater goal in the game. 

Gaming is good for your brain’s gray matter, the outer layer of brain tissue that contributes to motor skills, memory and emotional response. One study from 2015 compared gamers who had reached expert levels in action-based video games with novice players. The researchers found that expert players had increased volumes of gray matter and greater functional connectivity. 

Video Games Can Improve Mental Health

It was once common to think that video games weren’t good for your mental health, but that notion is changing too. 

A 2014 paper published in Frontiers of Psychology found a link between gaming and improved mental health. 

“We propose that video games, by their very nature, have design elements aligned with attributes of well-being, and that playing video games can provide opportunities for flourishing mental health,” the paper’s authors wrote. 

People who regularly play video games may experience decreased levels of stress too. A 2009 study found that casual video gaming created changes in brain activity consistent with improved mood and less avoidant behavior.

More on Gaming and Culture What Does the Future of Gaming Look Like?

Video Games and Screen Time for Children 

Not all digital interactions are created equal. Some screen time activities may be more fulfilling than others. “Games are unique because they’re different from online social interaction that lacks the element of a shared activity,” Kowert said.

That shared activity — the sense of a common goal or communal competition — fosters friendships in a way that, say scrolling through a newsfeed might not. “Think of it like team sports,” Kowert said. “There’s a difference between playing soccer with friends and having coffee with friends. You’re building camaraderie and close ties.”

That may be a consideration as parents struggle with whether to moderate screen time. Kowert’s advice? In a word: Balance. 

“Parents need to give themselves more leeway,” said Kowert, who’s already more skeptical than some about how we frame screen-time concerns. “And there’s no research that has found that screens are inherently negative,” she said.

Indeed, research out of the Oxford Internet Institute has notably cast doubt on several longstanding video-gaming concerns, including the notion of gaming disorder, the idea that violent games promote aggression and the worry that screen time diminishes well-being among young people. There is “little evidence for substantial negative associations between digital-screen engagement ... and adolescent well-being,” researchers wrote . 

“Parents need to give themselves more leeway, and there’s no research that has found that screens are inherently negative.”

That study is not without its critics, including psychologist and iGen author Jean Twenge, who found conflicting results using the same data . And the authors themselves admitted “we don’t understand fully the impact of big tech on our society.” 

But Kowert, for one, finds the research compelling, so it might be best to fret less, she said. “Give yourself a little bit more flexibility, not only to give yourself time for your own mental well-being, but also to leverage it as an educational tool,” she said.

Also, it comes back to habits, Kaye said by way of a food analogy. “We don’t talk about eating time or food time, but there are many healthy eating behaviors and many unhealthy behaviors,” she said. “So when we talk about screen time generally, it seems a bit nonsensical to not distinguish between healthy and unhealthy.”

No one is confusing Fortnite with edtech , but online social games would seem to have some leg up. “Anything where you’re actively engaging, preferably with other people in a healthy way, is going to be the healthiest kind of screen time behavior,” Kaye added.

Recommended Reading AI Games: 10 Leading Companies to Know

How to Get Started with Social Online Video Games 

There’s no doubt that video game usage is surging . But are there any online games that are particularly well suited to maximize social engagement? Do any have particularly welcoming communities? And are there any platforms that don’t require hefty console investments?

Steam is one to consider, Kowert said. The online gaming platform doesn’t require a console, holds regular flash sales and includes a chat function that players can use to connect even if they’re not immersed in the same gaming universe. “You don’t have to be playing the same games together, but you still have that feeling of connection and communication,” Kowert said.

There’s always the console in your hand too. “There are many free-to-play mobile games that are also emotionally connecting, games like Words With Friends ,” Kowert said. And racing side-scrollers are also a good way to play with either strangers or friends, Kaye said.

“It’s about finding alternative ways of keeping [face-to-face] connections and conversations going, and using more creative virtual ways to do so.”

As for non-mobile games, Kowert points to Minecraft , the beloved, all-ages sandbox bestseller, and Animal Crossing: New Horizons . ( One reviewer likened the wholesome, private-island sim to a warm blanket in troubled times.) She also recommends Stardew Valley , the indie-phenom farming simulator, which unveiled a co-op feature in 2018. “If you just want to play with someone who maybe lives on the other side of the city, but you can’t see right now, that’s a good option,” Kowert said.

Of course, simply firing up Fortnite won’t instantaneously transform the those who might feel lonely  into online social butterflies. “Some players can be in social environments and still not interact much with others,” said Kaye, pointing to a 2006 research paper that explored the “alone together” phenomenon in MMOs.

But in extremely online times, we might as well try all the help we can get. “It’s about finding alternative ways of keeping [face-to-face] connections and conversations going,” Kaye said, “and using more creative virtual ways to do so.”

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Can Video Gameplay Improve Undergraduates' Problem-Solving Skills?

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International Journal of Game-based Learning , 01 Jan 2020 , 10(2): 21-38 https://doi.org/10.4018/ijgbl.2020040102   PMID: 35223140  PMCID: PMC8870796

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Abstract 

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Can Video Gameplay Improve Undergraduates’ Problem-Solving Skills?

Benjamin emihovich.

University of Michigan - Flint, Flint, USA

Nelson Roque

Pennsylvania State University, State College, USA

Justin Mason

University of Florida, Gainesville, USA

In this study, the authors investigated if two distinct types of video gameplay improved undergraduates’ problem-solving skills. Two groups of student participants were recruited to play either a roleplaying video game (World of Warcraft; experimental group) or a brain-training video game (CogniFit; control group). Participants were measured on their problem-solving skills before and after 20 hours of video gameplay. Two measures were used to assess problem-solving skills for this study, the Tower of Hanoi and The PISA Problem Solving Test. The Tower of Hanoi measured the rule application component of problem-solving skills and the PISA Problem Solving test measured transfer of problem-solving skills from video gameplay to novel scenarios on the test. No significant differences were found between the two groups on either problem-solving measure. Implications for future studies on game- based learning are discussed.

Introduction

Video games are played by more than half of the U.S population and the video game industry generated $36 billion in 2018 ( ESA, 2018 ). Given the popularity and success of the video game industry, game- based scholars are exploring how well-designed video games can be used to improve a wide range of knowledge, skills, and abilities referred to as game-based learning (GBL). Proponents of GBL argue that well-designed video games are grounded by active participation and interaction as the focal point of the learner experience and can lead to changes in behavior and cognition ( Ifenthaler, Eseryel, & Ge, 2012 ; Shute et al., 2019 ). Moreover, well-designed video games immerse players in environments that can provide a framework for learning experiences by promoting engagement and transfer from simulated worlds to the natural world ( Dede, 2009 ).

Current American students are not receiving adequate exposure to authentic ill-structured problem-solving scenarios in their classrooms, and schools need to address the acquisition of problem-solving skills for students in the 21st century ( Shute & Wang, 2016 ). American students trail their international counterparts in problem-solving skills on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) Problem Solving Test. Furthermore, American business leaders complain about recent college graduates’ lack of problem-solving skills. Two surveys conducted by the Association of American Colleges and Universities of business leaders and students indicated that problem-solving skills are increasingly desirable for American employers, but only 38% of employers reported that recently hired American college graduates could analyze and solve complex problems while working ( Hart Associates, 2018 ).

Researchers of video game studies find that gameplay can be positively associated with the improvement of problem-solving skills ( Shute, Ventura, & Ke, 2015 ; Spires et al., 2011 ). However, current discourse in the field of gameplay and problem-solving skills centers primarily on descriptive research ( Eseryel et al., 2014 ) which can be summarized based on the following premise: video games require players to solve problems, and over time, playing video games will lead to improved problem- solving skills ( Hung & Van Eck, 2010 ). Descriptive research is important to argue that video games support problem-solving skills, but further empirical research is needed to demonstrate whether problem-solving skills are acquired through video gameplay. This research study addressed whether two distinct types of video gameplay empirically affects undergraduates’ problem-solving skills.

Video Games and Problem-Solving Skills

According to Mayer and Wittrock’s (2006) definition, problem solving includes four central characteristics: (1) occurs internally to the problem solver’s cognitive system; (2) is a process that involves conceptualizing and manipulating knowledge; (3) is goal directed; and (4) is dependent on the knowledge and skills of the problem solver to establish the difficulty in which obstacles must be overcome to reach a solution. Unlike the well-structured problems that students face in formal learning settings, well-designed games provide students with challenging scenarios that promote problem-solving skills by requiring players to generate new knowledge from challenging scenarios within interactive environments, while also providing immersive gameplay that includes ongoing feedback for the players to hone their problem-solving skills over time ( Van Eck, Shute, & Rieber, 2017 ). Rules govern video gameplay mechanics and one component of problem solving is the ability to apply existing rules in the problem space known as rule application ( Shute et al., 2015 ). One example of a rule application is found in the well-researched problem-solving puzzle the Tower of Hanoi ( Huyck & Kreivenas, 2018 ; Schiff & Vakil, 2015 ; TOH, 2019 ). The rule application component of problem-solving skill is one of the dependent variables in this study. Rule application refers to the problem-solver’s representation of the problem space through direct action, which is critical to problem solving ( Van Eck et al., 2017 ).

Literature Review

Video gameplay and transfer.

Researchers contend that the hidden power of well-designed video games is their potential to address higher-level learning, like retention, transfer, and problem-solving skills ( Gee, 2008 ; Shute & Wang, 2015 ). Retention is the ability to remember the presented information and correctly recall it when needed, while transfer is the ability to apply previously learned information in a novel situation ( Stiller & Schworm, 2019 ). Possible outcomes of playing video games may include the improvement of collaborative problem-solving skills, confidence, and leadership skills that are transferable to the workforce environment. Recent research on video game training studies and transfer of cognitive and noncognitive skills indicates that gameplay is positively associated with the improvement of attention, problem-solving skills, persistence ( Green & Bavelier, 2012 ; Rowe et al., 2011 ; Shute et al., 2015 ; Ventura et al., 2013 ), executive functions ( Oei & Patterson, 2014 ), and hypothesis testing strategies ( Spires et al., 2011 ). However, other researchers have found null effects of video gameplay and transfer of cognitive skills ( Ackerman, et al., 2010 ; Baniqued, Kranz, et al., 2013 ; Boot et al., 2008 ).

A recent meta-analysis of brain-training interventions found that brain-training interventions can improve performance on trained tasks but there were fewer examples of interventions indicating improved performance on closely related tasks, and minimal evidence that training enhances performance on daily cognitive abilities ( Simons et al., 2016 ). Among those finding null effects, questions were raised about the methodological shortcomings of video game training and transfer studies that are common pitfalls in experimental trials. Some of the pitfalls included failing to report full methods used in a study and lack of an effective active control condition that can expect to see similar improvement in competencies as the experimental group ( Baniqued et al., 2013 ; Boot, 2015 ; Boot, Blakely & Simons, 2011 ). Unless researchers define recruitment methods for participants and their gaming expertise (novice vs. expert), as well as compare active control groups with experimental groups receiving equal training games, then differential improvement is indeterminable ( Boot et al., 2013 ; Shute et al., 2015 ). The recruitment approach is outlined in the Method section.

Motivation for Selection of Games

The video games selected for this research study were based on the problem-solving skills players exercise and acquire through gameplay that were aligned with the problem-solving skills assessed on the external measures, the PISA Problem Solving Test and the Tower of Hanoi (TOH). Well-designed video games include sound learning principles embedded within gameplay such as requiring players to solve complex problems which can then be applied to other learning contexts ( Lieberman et al., 2014 ). In this study, the authors examined the effects of playing World of Warcraft ( Activision Blizzard, 2019 ) and CogniFit ( CogniFit, 2019 ) for twenty hours on undergraduates’ problem-solving skills (rule application and problem-solving transfer). The inclusion of CogniFit addresses a main concern of game-based research which is the lack of an active control condition to determine differential improvement ( Boot et al., 2013 ).

Problem-Solving and Video Gameplay Model

The authors have identified observable in-game behaviors (i.e., indicators) during gameplay that provide evidence for each of the problem-solving processes on the PISA Problem Solving Test. The process included playing each video game extensively, checking community forums for solutions to the most challenging problems for each game, and viewing experts’ gameplay video channel streams on YouTube. After generating a list of credible indicators, those selected were based on the following criteria: (a) relevance to the PISA problem solving levels of proficiency and (b) verifiable through gameplay mechanics. Examples of indicators for the PISA problem-solving processes for each game are listed in Tables 1 and ​ and2. 2 . The purpose of developing the problem-solving behavior model is to operationalize the indicators of gameplay that align with the cognitive processes being assessed on the PISA test (i.e., Exploring and Understanding, Representing and Formulating). The PISA Problem Solving Test contains questions representing six levels of proficiency: Level 1 is the most limited form of problem-solving ability such as rule application (solving problems with simple rules or constraints) and Level 6 is the complex form of problem-solving ability (executing strategies and developing mental models to solve problems). The PISA test will determine whether there is transfer of problem-solving skills from video gameplay to novel scenarios.

Examples of indicators for each PISA problem-solving process in Warcraft

Examples of indicators for each PISA problem-solving process in CogniFit

World of warcraft

Massive multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) require players to manage resources, adapt playstyle to the environment, test new skills and abilities, identify and apply rules to solve problems as well as explore the story of the game through questing. MMORPGs like Warcraft provide gameplay experiences that are analogous to meaningful instruction by offering complex multifaceted problems that require model-based reasoning—understanding interrelated components of a system, and feedback mechanisms among the components to find the best solutions to problems that arise using available tools and resources in a given environment ( Chinn & Malhotra, 2002 ; Steinkuehler & Chmiel, 2006 ). Therefore, if MMORPGs provide an authentic sense of inquiry into solving problems through gameplay, then it is worth testing whether these gameplay experiences transfer to novel problem-solving scenarios.

One specific example of transfer from gameplay in the MMORPG Warcraft to a natural context concerns the problem of reducing travel time. When players enter the game environment, they must account for extended travel time between different activities such as exploration, questing, and combat. To solve this problem, players are given a tool that can be accessed on their user interface by pressing (M) on their keyboard, which opens the map. Listed on the map are designated flight paths (FPs) that act as a taxi service for players. The image in Figure 1 indicates the various FPs a player has unlocked on their world map as well as those that have yet to be discovered ( Activision Blizzard, 2019 ). The flight path is a handy tool because it connects the goal of completing quests as soon as possible to earn rewards with the knowledge that using flight paths greatly reduces travel time between quests. Greatly reducing travel time results in a more efficient way to complete many of the sub goals in the game, and as noted by Shute and Wang (2016) the use of tools and resources efficiently is an important part of problem solving during gameplay.

Player map listing flight path locations in World of Warcraft (2019)

Now, consider one of the questions being assessed on an external measure in the study, the PISA Problem Solving Test. Individuals are given a map that shows the roads between each city, a partially filled-in key that shows distances between cities in kilometers, and the overall layout of the area. The purpose of this question is to assess how individuals calculate the shortest distance from one city to another. To solve the problem, individuals are required to calculate the distance between the two cities of Nuben and Kado using the resources available. This is the same kind of problem that Warcraft players experience during gameplay when travelling between locations to complete quests. Both problem scenarios share the same overlapping components, the ability of the problem solver to use given tools and resources efficiently to find the most direct route that reduces travel time between two separate locations. Figure 2 illustrates this problem scenario on the PISA test ( OECD, 2003 ).

Problem scenario for planning the best route for a trip from PISA (2003)

The brain training game CogniFit claims to have developed a patented system that measures, trains, and monitors cognitive skills like rule application, attention, memory, and visual perception and their relation to neurological pathologies. According to the CogniFit (2019) website the company states there are transfer effects from their mini games to problem solving in the natural world. The brain training game is selected as an active control condition based on this claim as well as repeated practice of rule application embedded into the gameplay experience.

One example of rule application in the brain training game CogniFit occurs in the mini-game Gem Breaker 3D. This mini-game requires players to direct a paddle back and forth across the screen to bounce a ball off the paddle that breaks the gem blocks without letting the ball touch the bottom of the screen. The initial tutorial informs players that improvement of their hand-eye coordination and processing speed skills are emphasized through gameplay with over 100 levels available to master. Feedback is provided to players with a score for each level showing where they can improve. Once all gem blocks are broken the level is completed and a new level begins. However, each player only has access to 4 balls for each level, and if they lose, the game reverts to the beginning. The tutorial shows players how to use the mouse to control the paddle back and forth across the screen while the spacebar launches the ball. Once a gem is broken there is a chance for a power-up to be gained such as shooting multiple balls, explosives, missiles, side quests or power-ups. Figure 3 illustrates the rules of the mini-game in Gem Breaker 3D ( CogniFit, 2019 ).

Rules for the mini-game Gem Breaker 3D listed in the initial tutorial (2019)

Rule application occurs when playing the TOH and requires one to move an entire stack of disks (i.e., a number between 3 and 8) of varied sizes from one of three rods to another. While playing, players are constrained by the following rules: (1) only one disk can be moved at a time; (2) no disk can be placed on a smaller one; (3) only the uppermost disk can be moved on a stack. Rule application is demonstrated by the problem solver in the TOH by configuring the disks and the rods to reach a solution in the problem space. By configuring the disks onto the rods, each move of a disk indicates the problem solver attempting to creatively apply the rules, which is vital to problem solving ( Shute et al., 2019 ). Figure 4 illustrates the problem space in an online version of the TOH (2019) .

Problem space in an online version of the Tower of Hanoi puzzle with 5 disks (2019)

Both video games require players to apply rules to solve problems and rule application is a component of problem solving ( Van Eck et al., 2017 ). As an example, Warcraft players learn that they can only cast certain spells in combat while standing still or that eating and drinking food while sitting down hastens the regeneration of health. Similarly, when playing the mini-game Gem Breaker 3D in CogniFit players use a paddle and a ball to break bricks. One of the first rules players encounter in the game is that they can only move the paddle left or right across the screen or that bonus bricks have special effects like increasing ball speed. The rules are more explicit in CogniFit than Warcraft so brain-training gameplay may promote better performance on solving the TOH. Each move with the paddle and ball is an example of applying the rules, and this is frequently done during gameplay in CogniFit .

However, CogniFit mini-games lack some of the salient gameplay features in Warcraft such as roleplaying gameplay, meaningful interactions with other players, and richly designed problem spaces that GBL scholars suggest are important to the transfer of problem-solving skills from video gameplay to novel contexts measured on the PISA Problem Solving Test. Warcraft gameplay provides players with repeated practice to solve authentic ill-structured problems in rich detailed problem-solving scenarios that may be better suited for transfer to novel scenarios on the test.

Research Questions

After describing the video gameplay conditions of Warcraft and CogniFit as well as reviewing the literature on problem-solving skills, the authors seek to answer the following research questions:

Is there a change, from pretest to posttest, on the rule-application component of problem solving, after 20 hours of video gameplay, on either a role playing or brain-training video game?

Does an immersive, collaborative role-playing video game promote transfer of problem-solving skills to novel scenarios better than a brain-training video game for undergraduates after 20 hours of video gameplay?

Setting and Participants

For this study, 91 undergraduate student participants (M Age = 19.32; SD Age = 1.43) were recruited to participate in this study and completed the initial questionnaire for the study, assessing: age, gender, ethnicity, major, and video games played daily. Participants were not invited to participate if they were not students at the data-collecting institution, were not 18–23 years old, or if they reported playing 30 or more minutes of Warcraft or CogniFit . 56 participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental group Warcraft or the control group CogniFit , yet only 34 completed the study ( n = 17 per group). Participant attrition for both groups were attributed to lack of time to complete the study or being too busy with schoolwork. Given the nature of our research questions assessing change as a function of training, subsequently presented analyses only include data from the 34 participants (17 males and 17 females) who completed the study (M Age = 19.44; SD Age = 1.41).

The independent variable in this research study is the video game with two levels: a roleplaying video game ( Warcraft ) and a brain-training video game ( CogniFit ). The video games provide players with repeated problem-solving scenarios requiring players to engage in problem-solving processes. The dependent variable measured for this study is problem-solving skill. One measure assessed the component of rule application of problem solving to solve a puzzle which is the TOH. The second measure assessed problem-solving in novel scenarios which is the PISA Problem Solving Test. Both groups were assessed on the TOH and the PISA Problem Solving Test. The TOH was used to assess research question 1 and the PISA Problem Solving Test was used to assess research question 2.

The Tower of Hanoi

Recall, the TOH is a valid and reliable experimental paradigm that can be used to assess rule application, problem solving and transfer ( Huyck & Kreivenas, 2018 ; Schiff & Vakil, 2015 ). Rule application is demonstrated by the problem solver in the TOH by configuring the disks and the rods to reach a solution in the problem space. By configuring the disks on to the rods, each move of a disk indicates the problem solver attempting to creatively apply the rules. Participants played the TOH on a computer from a free website online. The test score (i.e., lower scores are better) for completing the TOH can range anywhere from 31 (which is the minimal number of moves to execute) until it is solved.

PISA Problem Solving Test

The second external problem-solving measure in this study is the (2003) version of the PISA Problem Solving Test. The PISA Problem Solving Test ( OECD, 2003 ) contains 10 novel problem-solving scenarios, and within each scenario there is a range of one to three different questions that must be solved. There are 19 total questions on the test across all scenarios that required students to solve problems. For this study, participants completed five novel problem-solving scenarios for the pretest and the remaining five novel problem-solving scenarios for the posttest. The levels of proficiency for each question are randomized across all problem-solving scenarios. Each problem-solving scenario is independent from one another and each of the 19 questions across all scenarios being assessed in this study are isomorphic from the questions that were implemented in 2003. The scoring for most questions was either correct or incorrect, with some questions allowing for partially correct answers. Participants that answered each question correctly were awarded one point, while partially correct answers awarded participants a half-point.

Participants for this study were recruited via flyers posted publicly on campus and dormitory bulletin boards. Over the course of eight weeks, participants engaged in 10 gameplay sessions that lasted two hours each. Participants had the opportunity to complete these 10 sessions in two-hour time-blocks that were made available Monday through Friday for eight consecutive weeks. Participants completed the experiment in a classroom lab on campus at the university. In this experiment, student participants were randomly assigned to play one of two video games.

Participants in the experimental condition played the popular roleplaying video game Warcraft that promotes learning new terminologies, mastering interrelated skills and abilities, applying rules to solve problems, goal setting, and reflecting on progress. In addition, participants in the active control condition played the brain-training video game CogniFit (2019) . The video game allows players to select various mini-games including Gem Breaker 3D that may enhance cognitive abilities including rule application, memory, and focus. Student participants in this study were guided by discovery learning and provided with in-game tutorials for each condition while learning to solve problems through active exploration, interacting with the game environment and self-direction ( Westera, 2019 ). At pre-test and post-test participants had 20 minutes to complete isomorphic versions of the TOH as many times as possible. All participants successfully completed the TOH once during the pretest and once during the posttest. At pre-test and post-test, participants also had 20 minutes to complete as many questions as possible on The PISA Problem Solving Test. The pretest required participants to answer nine questions and the posttest required participants to answer 10 questions from multiple problem-based scenarios. Each problem-based scenario was unique, and some examples included the following: (1) calculating the distance between two points given a map; (2) developing a decision tree diagram of a library loan system; and (3) calculating daily energy needs for an individual given a set menu.

Data Structure and Analyses

The full dataset used for all analyses to be presented, contained data from 34 participants. All participants attempted three parallel, computerized forms of the TOH at baseline and at the end of the intervention. Due to the nature of the task’s programming, if participants did not complete a TOH task, the total number of moves attempted was not output to the data file. This will be expanded upon in the results section by utilizing three analyses which included an independent t-test comparing the mean number of incomplete TOH games between the groups, an independent t-test comparing the mean gain score of TOH between the groups, and a multiple linear regression predicting max gain score of TOH by group, by gain score count, and by group, gain score count, and PISA gain. All analyses in sections below were completed in R, version 3.4.3. Packages used for data analysis include: dplyr , for data wrangling ( Wickham et al., 2019 ), and ggplot2 for visualizations ( Wickham, 2016 ), and MASS for stepwise regression analyses ( Venables & Ripley, 2002 ).

Assessing Group differences in Completion

Although groups differed on the overall number of incomplete TOH sessions at pre-testing (N COGNITIVE = 13; N GAMING = 8), an independent t-test of the average number of incomplete games by group, was not significant (p > .05). Furthermore, an independent t-test revealed no group differences for the overall number of incomplete TOH sessions at post-testing (N COGNITIVE = 3; N GAMING = 2; p > .05). A repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a significant time effect, F(1,32) = 13.386, p<.001. However, group, F(1,32) = 1.609, p=.214, nor group by time interaction were significant, F(1,32)=.837, p=.367. On average, participants completed an additional half TOH session (i.e., .47, SD = .53) after receiving either training package (M Pre = .62, SD = .70; M Post = .15, SD = .36). Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations for the pretest and posttest scores participants completed in the experimental ( Warcraft ) and control ( CogniFit ) groups. The mean scores in the table indicate how many moves on average each participant could successfully solve the puzzle per group. For this study, participants had 20 minutes to complete as many questions as possible for the pretest and 20 minutes to do the same for an isomorphic version of the posttest. Table 4 shows the means and standard deviations for the PISA pretest and posttest scores of participants in the experimental ( Warcraft ) and control ( CogniFit ) groups.

Pretest and posttest scores by group on the Tower of Hanoi

Pretest and posttest scores by group on the PISA Problem Solving Test

Quantifying Improvement in Performance

In order to quantify improvement after the intervention, gain scores were calculated by the following formula, for each instance of the TOH task encountered (i.e. three sessions):

Gain scores produced from this calculation can be interpreted as follows: negative gain scores indicating improvement (fewer total moves at post-testing), and positive gain scores indicating a decrement in performance (more total moves at post-testing). As a result of incomplete games not producing the number of moves, for some participants, no gain score calculation was possible. At pretesting, the cognitive training group had three missing gain scores for the second TOH and 10 for the third TOH whereas the game training group had one missing gain score for the second TOH and seven for the third TOH. To account for this, when calculating average gain scores for each participant, averages were weighted by the number of completed games (i.e. averaging by the number of incomplete sessions would result in an undefined calculation, as some participants completed all sessions). Table 5 shows the results of an unpaired t-test on the average weighted gain scores found no group differences in TOH gain scores ( p > .05). Additionally, an unpaired t-test on the average PISA gain scores found no group differences gain scores ( p > .05).

Problem solving performance compared across training groups

Sensitivity Analysis

Due to missing data issues discussed above, the final analysis involves a stepwise multiple linear regression (forward and backward; AIC used for final model variable selection conducted using R package MASS, function stepAIC; Venables & Ripley, 2002 ), predicting max gain score (max of all three potential gain scores) by group membership (WoW or Cognitive Training), total gain score count, and a gain score derived from pre and post measurements on the PISA task (2003). Based on the stepwise regression procedure analysis results in Table 6 , the best fitting, significant, multiple regression model was found to be a model predicting max gain score from gain score count (no predictor for group membership or PISA gain score; F(1,32) = 14.41; p < .001; R 2 = .3104; adjusted R 2 = 0.2889). Participants predicted max gain score is equal to −111.70 + 48.87 (Gain Count), where gain score is in the unit of number of moves. Max gain score increased by 48.87 for every one unit increase in gain score count (more gain scores, closer to 0; less improvement after the intervention). Gain score count was a significant predictor of max gain score (t=3.796; p < 0.001), indicating potential practice effects from repeated exposure to the task. Practice effects will be discussed in subsequent sections.

Stepwise regression model path, analysis of deviance table and the row with the best fitting model, using AIC as criterion, is highlighted in gray

Evidence for Research Question 1

The initial hypothesis regarding the first question was that a brain-training game would help participants improve their rule application component of problem-solving skill better than a roleplaying game after 20 hours of gameplay for several reasons. One reason is that the rules are more explicit during brain-training gameplay and because of claims made by CogniFit that brain-training gameplay will improve its users’ brain fitness or ability to rely on more than one problem-solving strategy. While both games require players to apply rules to solve problems, only CogniFit markets its product as a tool that can help users to solve problems in their daily lives ( CogniFit, 2019 ). This claim also suggests that brain-training gameplay can help users transfer skills learned in-game to novel problem-solving scenarios in the natural world. However, the results indicated that there was no significant difference in gain scores (i.e., in Post - Pre Gain scores) in terms of TOH performance (t-test comparing gain scores: p = .746) between the two gaming conditions (i.e., Warcraft and CogniFit ), though both groups improved from baseline to post-testing assessment, likely attributable to practice effects (see Figure 5 ). Overall, the results contradicted our initial hypothesis for Research Question 1; implications are discussed next.

Average number of moves in the Tower of Hanoi task across (up to 3) sessions per person, per timepoint. The left panel represents scores for the CogniFit (COG) group, and the right panel represents scores for the Warcraft (WOW) group.

Implications of Results for Research Question 1

Solving problems in an immersive game like Warcraft provided players with repeated practice of applying rules and using tools to find creative solutions to similar but varied problems. As players reflected on their choices, they learned how to use the tools by analyzing givens and constraints in unison to achieve maximum character performance and develop optimal solutions to general problems. CogniFit players did not experience immersive gameplay, but instead repeated problem-solving scenarios that were varied but required fewer tools and resources to be solved. Once CogniFit players knew how to use the paddle and the ball in unison, the only additional resources to use during gameplay were power-ups, bonus bricks, and traps. Roleplaying gameplay required players to solve problems using additional tools and resources efficiently which was a more complex task than using the ball and paddle during brain-training gameplay. Strategizing when and how to apply rules through varied but different problem scenarios with multiple tools and resources through immersive gameplay was beneficial for Warcraft participants. Moreover, players in Warcraft could receive feedback with help from other players learning when and how to apply tools and resources to solve problems. CogniFit players received feedback at the end of each level with an overall score and corrected mistakes through trial and error without additional support.

evidence for Research Question 2

The initial hypothesis regarding the second question was that training on an immersive, collaborative roleplaying video game for 20 hours would engender transfer of problem-solving skills to novel problem-solving scenarios on the PISA Problem Solving Test better than a brain-training video game. One reason is that research on MMORPGs including Warcraft indicates that players co-constructed knowledge by challenging and supporting novel ideas to in-game problem-solving scenarios through online discussion forums as well as discovering optimal solutions to in-game problems by combining multiple abilities and resources available to players ( Chinn & Malhotra, 2002 ; Steinkuehler & Chmiel, 2006 ). Efficiently using tools and resources is a component of problem solving and is central to the roleplaying gameplay experience ( Shute & Wang, 2016 ).

However, the results indicated that after 20 hours of gameplay of Warcraft or CogniFit there was no improved performance on the PISA (i.e., comparing PISA Gain Scores; p = .748). Overall, the mean scores for Warcraft participants were slightly better than CogniFit participants on the isomorphic versions of the PISA Problem Solving pretest and posttest - indicating baseline differences between the two groups in terms of performance. Overall, there were no significant differences found between roleplaying and brain-training gameplay on transfer of problem-solving skills (see Figure 6 ). The implications for the results from research question 2 are discussed next.

PISA Scores before and after the intervention. The left panel represents scores for the COG group, and the right panel represents scores for the WOW group.

Implications of Results for Research Question 2

Given that both video game training and “brain-training” did not significantly improve problem-solving skills has several implications. The gameplay behaviors exhibited by players in each condition were aligned with the problem-solving processes on the PISA Problem Solving Test. However, possible reasons for lack of transfer in this study in addition to small sample size include (a) collaborative, immersive roleplaying gameplay may help promote problem-solving skills related to in-game problem solving scenarios but not necessarily to improved performance on external problem-solving assessments, and (b) problem-solving during Warcraft gameplay may be too domain specific to transfer to novel problem-solving scenarios on the PISA Problem Solving Test.

The misalignment between the problem-solving domains of Warcraft and the PISA Problem Solving Test could have hindered the possibility of finding a transfer effect. As an example, Warcraft players must learn how to navigate an immersive environment, use complex tools efficiently and effectively to solve problems during gameplay and interact with both the environment and other characters to solve problems. However, solving problems on the PISA Problem Solving Test is not an immersive experience. It was also a solitary activity; participants did not collaborate or interact with each other while taking the test. The OECD designed the PISA Problem Solving Test to cover more general problem-solving skills to complement domain-specific skills ( Greiff et al., 2014 ). Selecting a problem-solving assessment which is embedded within an immersive environment that requires players to engage in collaborative problem-solving processes (i.e. experienced in video gameplay) using tools and resources efficiently could have been a more viable assessment to measure transfer of problem-solving skills in this study. Further research is still warranted to determine if video gameplay can promote transfer of problem-solving skills to novel scenarios. The limitations of this research study are addressed in the next section.

Limitations

Given time and resource constraints, the sample size of this study is small and lacks statistical significance to make claims regarding the general population. With more available resources, recruitment would have likely continued for an additional semester to raise the sample size for the study. Students that did not complete the study cited time constraints as the main reason they were unable to fulfill the 20 hours of video gameplay requirement. The optimal time to run the study would have been during Fall and Spring semesters instead of Spring and Summer. In Fall and Spring, more students would have been available for recruitment as well as increased scheduling flexibility and time to complete the intervention during the academic year for the participants. Given that the authors monitored participants during video gameplay in case any problems arose, there may have been expectancy effects that impacted participants. For example, participants’ gameplay experiences may have been negatively or positively affected when being monitored. The potential for participants to alter their behavior simply because they are being studied is known as the Hawthorne Effect ( Benedetti, Carlino & Piedimonte, 2016 ). In addition, the inclusion of a more immersive assessment that measures problem-solving skill transfer could have led to improved outcomes when compared to a more traditional assessment like the PISA Problem-Solving Test (2003).

Future Implications

The main goal of this study was to examine the impact of two distinct types of video gameplay; role playing ( Warcraft ) and brain-training ( CogniFit ) on problem-solving skills for undergraduates. Specifically, if video gameplay can improve the rule application component of problem solving and whether problem solving during gameplay transferred to novel problem-solving scenarios. This study addressed some of the methodological shortcomings found in previous video game training and transfer studies that failed to report recruitment methods, define study variables, and provide an active control group in which participants could expect receive equal improvement from competencies ( Baniqued et al., 2013 ; Boot et al., 2013 ). As a result, possible placebo effects are likely mitigated in this experiment improving upon methodological pitfalls affecting other video game training studies ( Anderson et al., 2010 ; Ferguson & Kilburn, 2009 ).

The results from this study suggest that neither a commercially available video game ( Warcraft ) or a commercially available “brain-training” package ( CogniFit ) resulted in improvements in the rule-based component of problem solving (as assessed by the TOH puzzle). Moreover, aside from a lack of improvement in the rule-based component, 20-hours of training did not promote transfer of problem-solving skills to novel scenarios (as assessed by the PISA Problem Solving Task), which is consistent with similar research findings on cognitive training and transfer ( Souders et al., 2017 ). Sensitivity analyses conducted found evidence for practice effects in gain scores, illustrating that rather than improvement due to the training packages, improvement seems related to multiple, closely spaced assessments. Future research can complement this study by increasing the sample size and testing similar immersive well-designed video games on participant knowledge, skills, and abilities, in addition to directly cuing participants to be aware of the strategies (i.e., perceptual and cognitive strategies) they might carry with them from the digital world to the real-world.

Acknowledgment

Nelson Roque was supported by National Institute on Aging Grant T32 AG049676 to The Pennsylvania State University.

Benjamin Emihovich is an Assistant Professor of Educational Technology in the Education Department at the University of Michigan-Flint and is the program faculty coordinator for the online Educational Technology (M.A.) program. He currently teaches undergraduate and graduate students in the areas of Instructional Design and Technology as well as curriculum and instruction. His research area focuses on the following; game-based learning, assessments for learning in immersive environments, and emerging learning technologies.

Nelson A. Roque is a NIA T32 Postdoctoral Fellow, at Penn State’s Center for Healthy Aging. Nelson earned his Ph.D. in Cognitive Psychology from Florida State University in 2018. Nelson has a strong background in visual attention, focusing on how to reliably measure it, how it relates to individual difference factors (e.g., age, sleep) and translating insights from theoretical work in visual attention to applied contexts (e.g. medication errors).

Justin Mason is a Postdoctoral Associate in Rehabilitation Science at the University of Florida. His research interests include interventions suitable for mitigating age-related cognitive and physical decline in older adults. Additionally, he’s interested in factors that influence older adults’ adoption and acceptance of emerging technologies.

Contributor Information

Benjamin Emihovich, University of Michigan - Flint, Flint, USA.

Nelson Roque, Pennsylvania State University, State College, USA.

Justin Mason, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.

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14 Video Games That Will Improve Your Problem-Solving and Strategy Skills

Table of Contents Show

Planet coaster, red alert remastered, call of duty series, forza horizon 4, mass effect, final fantasy, starcraft series, grand theft auto v, civilization series, titanfall 2 series, bejeweled 3.

Video games train your problem-solving skills by getting you to find solutions to complicated problems. They allow players to try out different things to figure out which one works best. Keeping this in mind, here are a variety of our favorite video games that will improve your problem-solving skills.

Running your own themepark isn’t that straight forward. You will be presented with numerous problems from which you’ll need to solve. From unhappy guests to budget problems, your moves will result in you winning or losing the various scenarios on offer. This great game will also allow you to explore your creative palate as you design the themepark of you dreams.

If you’ve never played the Red Alert series from EA (originally Westwood), then you’re in for a treat. It’s a fine series that truly marked the RTS genre. However, the remaster brings fresh attention to the series and it will also enable you to master your problem solving and strategy making skills. You’ll need to bankroll your army by collecting ore, purchase units and buildings, and then decide if and when to attack your opponent(s). Exciting? Absolutely. You’ll be smarter too from playing this game.

Feeling as though you’d love to delve into real-estate? Perhaps you could test-out your skills with the old-school board game, Monopoly. This game is all about decisions and, well, luck. There are numerous editions of this video game, launched on various platforms. Interestingly, this game first appeared as a video game back in 1985.

Another board-game that can be best played on a tablet. Chess is a game of problem solving and strategy. You’ll need to make the right moves, learning the power of each piece. With the Queen the most important and powerful unit, you’ll want to protect and utilize

How does a first-person-shooter make this list? Well, unless you decide to aimlessly run around firing, it’s your strategy that will make the difference, and that, of course, involves problem solving, too. Call of Duty is an FPS video game franchise developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision. The game originally focused on games set in the Second World War. Over time, the developers have set the games in this series in futuristic worlds, the Cold War, and outer space. As part of a trained squad, you will play through the chaos of war. In addition to authentic squad tactics and movements, each soldier’s unique personality and training will come out on the battlefield. Call of Duty helps players to improve their spatial intelligence and visual attention skills.

Set in an open-world based in a fictionalized Kingdom of Great Britain, this racing video game was developed by Playground Games. The publisher of Forza Horizon 4 is Microsoft Studios, and it features a route creator that allows you to create races using customized routes. The game also features a dynamic weather system depicting the change of seasons. In the game, the environment changes depending on the season; for instance, Derwentwater freezes in winter, allowing the player to drive on the ice and reach areas that are inaccessible during other seasons. This fast-paced video game can improve your ability to make correct decisions when you are under pressure.

Set in the year 2183 within the Milky Way galaxy, Mass Effect is an ARPG (action role-playing game) that was developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts. It’s the first installment in the Mass Effect game series. In the game, a highly advanced machine race called Reapers has threatened the existence of civilization. The player takes on the role of Commander Shepard and you have to stop a rogue agent who’s planning to carry out the Reapers’ galactic invasion. You need to complete multiple quests that involve squad and vehicular combat, space exploration, and interaction with NPCs (non-player characters). This game can help you learn how to evaluate your options quickly and correctly.

Final Fantasy, an anthology science fantasy media franchise, was created by a Japanese video game company called Hironobu Sakaguchi. It was developed and published by a Japanese video game holding company called Square Enix. The franchise centers on fantasy and science RPG games. Each game has different plots, settings, and characters. Character names are often derived from pop culture, languages, history, and mythologies of cultures from different parts of the world. Fantasy role-playing games can help to train players how to evaluate their options faster and accurately.

Set in a science-fiction universe, this military science fiction RTG requires strategic thinking. It tests and refines the player’s information-gathering skills. You’ll assume the role of three characters throughout the game. The game story is presented in several ways, including an instruction manual, conversations within the missions themselves, and briefings to each mission. StarCraft can improve your ability to solve real-life and imaginary problems.

Grand Theft Auto V was developed by a New York City-based company known as Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games. It’s the fifth game in the Grand Theft Auto series. The game offers you the option to explore Los Santos and Blaine County world in 4K resolution and beyond. You’ll also get the chance of experiencing the game running at 60 FPS (frames per second). Because players assume the role of a criminal, this may help to train them how to quickly process and keep track of information in high-stress situations.

Civilization, a turn-based strategy 4X game, was developed and published by an American company known as MicroProse. Players are tasked with leading the human civilization throughout several millennia. They can do this by controlling different areas, including military, research, trade, government, urban development, and exploration. The player can also control individual units in the game and advance the conquest, exploration, and settlement of the world. The game teaches you how to work as a team to solve problems and become productive at work.

Titanfall 2 is a multiplayer first-person shooter game that was developed by Respawn Entertainment. The publisher of Titanfall 2 is an American video game company called Electronic Arts. The player controls mecha-style exoskeletons, their pilots, and Titans. The game is set in science-fiction war-torn outer space colonies and features fast-paced future warfare. Players have the tactical ability to regenerate speed boosts, invisibility cloaking, and x-ray vision. The game can help you learn how to formulate and execute strategic plans to solve problems.

This hack-and-slash ARPG was developed by Blizzard Entertainment. It’s the third installment in the Diablo series. The gameplay revolves around the player defeating increasingly difficult enemies to obtain stronger equipment. You’ll fight enemies using various character class skills that you can customize by talent trees and equipment. Enemies are divided into monster families defined by their location, combat style, and theme. Diablo IV can improve your cognitive abilities and allow you to find solutions to problems faster when you are in a difficult situation.

This tile-matching puzzle game was published and developed by PopCap Games. It’s the fifth installment in the Bejeweled series. In the game, the player has to swap one of the on-screen gems with an adjacent one and form chains of at least three gems of the same color. This game can teach you how to relax and reduce stress, which is important when you want to solve a problem.

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