essay on work breakdown structure

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS): The Complete Guide

Last updated on 11th April 2024

Work Breakdown Structure (or WBS, as it’s sometimes known) is about dividing a project into smaller, more digestible chunks, making it easier to plan, execute, and monitor. 

In this guide, we’ll cover everything you need to know about work breakdown structures: what they are, how to create them, and how to use them effectively in your project planning. 

We’ll also provide some templates and examples to get you started. So let’s dive in!

Article Contents

What is a work breakdown structure?

A work breakdown structure is a planning tool used by project managers to break down the work of a project into smaller, more manageable ‘pieces’ in order to make it easier to track progress – as well as identify potential issues. 

As an organisational tool, WBS helps to assign roles for each task and subtask and define who’s responsible for what. 

Typically created from the project scope , a WBS lets teams map out all tasks that need to be completed from beginning to end, starting with the larger activities and breaking them down into more granular detail until every element of the project has been accounted for. 

With its flexibility and scalability, this popular planning tool can easily be modified along the way to adjust for changes or environmental factors that arise during the lifetime of a project.

The benefits of using a WBS

So, we’ve established that a work breakdown structure is an incredibly useful tool for project managers. What are the actual benefits of working in this way?

1. Improved project planning

A WBS breaks down complex projects into smaller, more manageable tasks, making it easier to plan and schedule the work that needs to be completed. 

By identifying all the stuff that needs to be done, you can create a more accurate project plan, including timelines, milestones, and deliverables – keeping your entire project running smoothly and optimising chances of success.

2. Better resource allocation

With a detailed WBS, you can identify the specific resources needed for each task, including people, equipment, time and materials. 

This lets you allocate resources more efficiently and effectively – ensuring that everyone and everything is being used to their fullest potential.

3. Greater project control

A work breakdown structure provides a clear and comprehensive overview of the project, allowing you to monitor progress, identify potential issues, and make necessary adjustments as issues arise.

By breaking the project down into smaller pieces, you can track progress more easily and keep everyone on the same page.

4. Enhanced communication

A WBS can serve as a valuable communication tool, since it lets you share project information with team members, stakeholders, and other relevant parties. 

By presenting the project in a clear, structured format, you can facilitate communication and ensure that everyone understands what needs to be done and when. 

People can grasp not only their own role in the bigger picture of your project, but also understand what others are working on.

5. Improved risk management

With a work breakdown structure, you can identify potential risks and develop strategies to mitigate them. 

By breaking the project down into smaller pieces, you can identify areas where risks are more likely to occur and take steps to address them before they become major issues.

The different types of work breakdown structure

Further underlining the flexibility of this way of working, there are a variety of different types of WBS to be used and adapted depending on the needs of your project.

1. Deliverable-oriented WBS

This type of WBS focuses on the end deliverables of the project and breaks them down into smaller, more manageable tasks. Each task is assigned to a specific team or individual responsible for completing it. 

WORKS BEST FOR: Projects with clearly defined outcomes.

2. Phase-oriented WBS

This type of WBS breaks down the project into phases, with each phase representing a major milestone or objective. Each phase is further broken down into smaller tasks, allowing for better project management and monitoring.

WORKS BEST FOR: Projects with distinct stages. 

Each phase would then be given its own set of tasks and assigned to specific people.

3. Organisational-oriented WBS

This type of WBS is based on the organisational structure of the project team. Tasks are grouped according to the team or department responsible for completing them, making it easier to allocate resources and track progress.

WORKS BEST FOR: Projects with multiple departments or stakeholders involved.

4. Activity-oriented WBS

This type of WBS breaks down the project into specific activities or tasks that need to be completed, regardless of the end deliverable. Each activity is assigned to a specific team or individual responsible for completing it.

WORKS BEST FOR: Projects with many interdependent tasks. 

5. Hybrid WBS

This type of WBS combines two or more of the above types, depending on the needs of the project. For example, a hybrid WBS may include a phase-oriented WBS for overall project management, with an activity-oriented WBS for specific tasks or deliverables.

WORKS BEST FOR: Projects where you have a ‘mix’ of any or all of the other types of WBS and need to use a highly customised WBS to suit the needs of the project team.

A hybrid WBS would be necessary in this project because it would allow for both deliverable-based and phase-based management, as well as departmental management.

This would provide a more comprehensive and flexible structure for managing the project, ensuring that all deliverables are completed on time and within budget while also allowing for more efficient departmental coordination and resource allocation.

In essence a hybrid WBS offers the best of both worlds – a high-level overview of the project’s phases and deliverables, as well as a more detailed breakdown of the tasks and responsibilities within each department. 

How to Create a WBS

Developing a WBS isn’t difficult – all it takes is understanding the basics of project management and following a few steps. 

1. Identify the major deliverables

The first step is to identify the major deliverables or outcomes that the project aims to achieve. These are usually the key objectives or milestones of the project.

2. Break down deliverables into sub-deliverables

Once the major deliverables have been identified, break them down into smaller, more manageable sub-deliverables. This step involves breaking down the major objectives into smaller, more specific tasks that need to be completed to achieve them.

3. Continue breaking down until you reach manageable tasks

Continue breaking down the sub-deliverables into smaller and more manageable tasks until you have reached a level of detail that is sufficient for project planning and management. This level of detail will depend on the complexity and size of the project.

4. Organise the tasks

Organise the tasks into a hierarchical structure that shows the relationship between the different tasks. This structure will help in project planning and tracking progress.

5. Assign resources and estimate time

Assign resources and estimate the time required to complete each task. This will help in determining the project schedule and budget.

6. Review and refine

Review and refine the WBS to ensure that it accurately reflects the scope of the project and that all necessary tasks have been included.

7. Use the WBS as a reference

Once the WBS has been created, use it as a reference tool throughout the project to ensure that all tasks are completed as planned and that the project stays on track.

Work Breakdown Structure: A Summary

To recap, creating a work breakdown structure (WBS) is a critical step in planning and managing a project. 

By breaking down a project into smaller, manageable deliverables, the project team can organise their work, allocate resources effectively, and track progress more easily. 

If you’re looking for the best way to manage your projects, then why not try using Project.co ? With Project.co, you can easily create your project, set up tasks, invite your team, allocate tasks to team members, and give them deadlines –  all in one central location. This allows you to have a clear overview of where things are at in your project and who is working on what at every stage.

Project.co makes project management simple, streamlined, and efficient, helping you to get your project completed on time and within budget.

So why not give it a try? Sign up today – for free! – and get started right away.

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• The work breakdown structure (WBS) for ...

The work breakdown structure (WBS) for project management: What it is and how to use it

A work breakdown structure (WBS) visually organizes project deliverables into different levels based on dependencies. It’s essentially your project plan in a visual form, with your project objective at the top, then dependencies and sub-dependencies below. In this article, we describe the different parts of a work breakdown structure and how to create one for your next project—along with a detailed example to get you started.

A work breakdown structure (WBS) is a visual project breakdown. Beginning with the scope of work, the WBS shows the deliverables and how they connect back to the overarching project.

We’ll walk you through how to make a work breakdown structure, what to include, and show examples for how you can apply it in your own work.

What is the work breakdown structure in project management?

A work breakdown structure is a tool that helps you organize your project by hierarchy. With a WBS, you break down deliverables into sub-deliverables to visualize projects and outline key dependencies. Every work breakdown structure is made up of a few parts: 

A project baseline or scope statement, which includes a project plan , description, and name 

Project stakeholders

An organized project schedule

Project deliverables and supporting subtasks

Project managers use work breakdown structures to help teams to break down complex project scopes , visualize projects and dependency-related deliverables , and give team members a visual project overview as opposed to a list of to-dos. 

From there, you’ll organize your structure based on the hierarchical levels of sub-deliverables. Your project might also include phases based on the work needed and the overall project timeline .  

The 2 types of WBS

Deliverable-based work breakdown structure: This is a deliverable-oriented hierarchical decomposition of the work. If that's a mouthful, don't worry—essentially, this basically means that you’ll look at the overarching project scope and break your work down into deliverables that support it. This approach is best for shorter projects with a really clear outcome. For example, developing your annual revenue report.

Phase-based work breakdown structure: Here, you use project phases to create work packages that house groups of tasks. These task groups are then completed in stages. You’ll want to use a phase-based WBS for longer projects with less defined outcomes. For example, you want to boost retention by 20% over the next three years.

What are the 3 levels of work breakdown structure?

Levels of a work breakdown structure help separate tasks by dependencies. Since projects can differ so significantly, the levels of your work breakdown structure will too. While most projects do have some form of dependencies, it’s possible you’ll come across projects that don’t require sub-dependencies. 

There are three main levels of dependencies, though your structure could require more or fewer than that. Each level is connected to a parent task, with the work needed to complete the parent task organized into dependencies.  

Let’s take a look at the three highest level dependencies within a work breakdown structure. 

Level 1: The parent task

The first level of a work breakdown structure is the most simplified form of the project since it contains the parent task. This is usually the same as the project objective . 

Let’s say, for instance, that your project team is working on revamping your website design. The first level of your WBS might look something like this:

Launch new website design

As you can see, it’s simple and straightforward. Level one is the basic objective and the first step of your many project management phases . The work needed to complete this objective will come later in levels two and three. 

Level 2: Dependencies and tasks

From there, your breakdown structure will get a bit more complicated depending on the scope of the project. Level two of your WBS will include subtasks, otherwise known as dependencies, of the parent task. 

For example, let’s look at what tasks might be needed to launch a new website design. 

Host a creative brainstorming session

Revamp brand guidelines

Create messaging framework

Redesign your logo

Add new photography 

While slightly more granular than level one, level two is still a high-level overview of the dependencies needed to complete the project objective. 

Level 3: Subtasks

In the third level of the WBS, break these dependencies down even further into more manageable components called sub-dependencies. At this stage—the lowest level of the project lifecycle—you’re defining the most detailed tasks. These actionable tasks will simplify the path to completing all your required deliverables.

Continuing the above example, here are the level three tasks you could use for a new site design: 

Choose brand colors

Build a brand mood board

Assign UX designers

Build a mockup design

Review and approve mockups

Schedule a brand photoshoot

Resize and edit pictures

As you can see, the work needed to complete the project objective is becoming much more clear. You may even choose to add additional levels to your WBS, depending on how specific you want your visual to be. 

What’s included in a work breakdown structure?

A work breakdown structure is essentially a condensed project plan organized in a visual hierarchy. That means it contains everything that a successful project charter has, which includes WBS elements such as objectives, deliverables, timelines, and key stakeholders. 

To create your own breakdown structure, you first need to know what to put in one. Thankfully, we’ve got you covered. Let’s take a look at some of the key pieces to include in your work breakdown structure.

WBS dictionary

A work breakdown structure dictionary is a great place to start when building a new project structure. Because the visual nature of a good WBS doesn’t allow room for detailed explanations, the WBS dictionary describes each task in more detail. Creating a dictionary is an instrumental part of helping project team members more easily find necessary details of your tasks.

While created by you, it may be beneficial to enlist the help of team members from various departments. This will ensure the dictionary is as useful as possible and all items are explained correctly.

Some fields you should include in your dictionary are:

Task names: Keep this clear and simple, a few words at most.

Descriptions: Go into a little more detail but no more than a sentence or two.

Deliverables : Again, specificity is your friend here. Be clear about what, exactly, you’re expecting the team to complete.

Budget : your projected expenses, including how much you’ll spend, for what, and by when.

Milestones : Significant moments on the project timeline where a batch of tasks are completed.

Approvals: What tasks—if any—need approvals.

While there are multiple fields you can include, the main thing to consider is creating a resource where project team members can find information on the project work needed to complete various tasks.  

Task description

The task descriptions include both a task name and a brief description of the objectives. Since your WBS won’t have space for a full description, you can include additional details in your WBS dictionary.

The objective of the task description is for team members to easily recognize what the task is in the shortest way possible. So don’t get too caught up in the level of detail needed just yet.  

The assigned task owner is an important piece to include both for accountability reasons and for communication. The easier it is to find answers, the quicker the tasks will be finished. While project managers are often task owners, department heads, and managers may also be owners depending on the type of task.

There’s nothing worse than wasting time looking for project information. Assigning task owners can improve team productivity as project stakeholders will be able to quickly direct questions to the appropriate person.   

Task budget

While not always needed, projects that require large budgets should be tracked carefully. It’s helpful to assign specific task budget caps in order to easily track how close you are to your allocated budget. 

Not tracking your budget could result in spending more than anticipated, which can dig into your profit margin. So be sure to not only track your total budget but individual task costs as well. 

Completion date 

It shouldn’t be a shock to hear that tracking your target completion date is a rather important detail. That said, it’s important to be prepared for changes to your completion date. 

While it can be difficult to manage multiple projects that go over their allotted timeline, sometimes it’s inevitable. In order to properly track progress, you should break down each task in a timeline or other project management tool . This way you can catch timeline delays in real time and work to prevent deadline issues from stacking up and causing you to miss your original completion date. 

Task status

Along with timeline tracking, documenting task status is important for quick progress checks. This can be logged in a few different ways, but many teams use terms such as open, in progress, and complete. 

This will not only help track progress but give a high-level overview of team productivity. For example, if there’s a pattern of select teams unable to complete tasks there may be an underlying issue. That way you can work to solve team workload or communication issues before they become huge problems.  

How to create a work breakdown structure

Now comes the fun part. Since a work breakdown structure is in the form of a visual hierarchy, there are a number of ways to create yours. The best part is that you get to pick which method is right for you and your team. 

Common visual methods that teams use include timelines, Kanban boards , and calendars. Depending on the software you use, some features may look slightly different in each. Let’s dive into these three methods in order to provide a deeper understanding of how you can create a work breakdown structure in each. 

Timelines (or Gantt charts)

Timelines are great tools to visualize work in a fun and colorful way. They’re also great at providing the necessary functionality for a WBS. Here are some of the functions you get using a timeline, also known as a flowchart or Gantt chart :

Import traditional spreadsheets

Track progress

Adjust tasks

Connect tasks by dependencies

Adjust deadline shifts

Assign task owners

Store unscheduled tasks

Adjust color tracking

Section by levels

Filter and sort tasks

You can start your WBS in a number of ways, including by importing an existing spreadsheet or building it directly in timeline software . Timelines are different from Kanban boards and calendars due to the visual layout and adjustable functionality. It’s really up to your preference to determine which visual is right for your team. 

Kanban boards 

Kanban boards are similar to timelines but differ in the way they’re visually organized. Instead of being organized in a horizontal line, they’re designed to look like boards. Kanban software can help with the following to keep your projects on track:

Plot workflows

Communicate in one place

Plan product roadmaps

A Kanban board is another great option for building out your WBS, and it’s one of the most frequently used tools for day-to-day resource management needs. One of the best things about this tool is that you can see task details up front. This makes it a great option if you’re unable to create a WBS dictionary.

The best way to get started with this method is to start building your hierarchy within your Kanban board. 

The third option for creating a WBS of your own is by using team calendar software . While not as commonly used for breakdown structures as the previous options, they’re a great tool to visualize projects. They’re also especially helpful for switching between day, week, and month views for large projects.

Calendars are great tools for creating a WBS and they give you a different visual experience from the options above. To start your structure using a calendar, you can import an existing spreadsheet or start building a new project within your calendar software. 

Work breakdown structure example

Now that you know what goes into a WBS and how to build one using a variety of software tools, let’s look at a tangible WBS example. While your template will look slightly different depending on the method you use to create it, your WBS should include similar task hierarchies and levels. 

Here is an example work breakdown structure to get you started on your own.

Here is an example work breakdown structure from the above details to get you started on your own.

WBS name : Website design

Description : Revamp our old website design based on the new branding. 

Completion date : 9/15/21

Budget : $50,000

Revamp website design 

Revamp brand guidelines (Complete)

Create messaging framework (Complete)

Redesign logo (In progress)

Add new photography (Open)

1. Revamp brand guidelines 

Brand colors—Kat Mooney

Brand mood board—Kat Mooney

Design UX—Ray Brooks

2. Create messaging framework

Headline—Daniela Vargas

Mission statement—Daniela Vargas

Language guidelines—Daniela Vargas

3. Redesign logo

Sketch—Kabir Madan

Mockups—Kat Mooney

Final designs—Kat Mooney

4. Add new photography

Photoshoot—Kabir Madan

Photo edits —Kat Mooney

Final selections—Kabir Madan

Remember that your WBS will look different based on the size of the project, its complexity, the timeline, and your chosen software. Each of these details will shape the dependencies and visual hierarchy of your project. 

Make your work breakdown structure work for you

When it comes down to it, a work breakdown structure isn’t so hard to create. In fact, once you get the hang of it, you and your team can only benefit from adding a visual hierarchy or project tasks. Whether you’re a visual or verbal learner, there’s a work management tool out there for everyone. 

With Asana, you can easily switch between lists, timelines, boards, and calendars without missing a beat. Less time spent on work about work ? Yes, please. 

Related resources

Everything you need to know about waterfall project management

Smooth product launches are simpler than you think

What is stakeholder analysis and why is it important?

Understanding dependencies in project management

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Work Breakdown Structure(wbs)

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Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) Explained with Examples

Editorial Team

You must have heard of the work breakdown structure. However, if you are just getting started with project management, this article should serve as a good starting point. Several essential instruments are needed to get the project off the ground, and the WBS, fully known as the Work Breakdown Structure, is one of them.

In the discussions to follow, we will look at the fundamentals of the work breakdown structure, how you can develop one, some of the best practices when creating a work breakdown structure, an example and any other information that you ought to know regarding the work breakdown structure.

We hope that this article will add to your project management knowledge by understanding some of its fundamentals.

What is The Work Breakdown Structure?

We cannot sustain a discussion around WBS without defining it. It is a definition of everything that the project must accomplish, usually organized into several levels and displayed graphically.

A better and more detailed explanation is that it is a deliverable-oriented decomposition of all the work that the project team must do to ensure that the project objectives are met and the required deliverables created. These are normally arranged hierarchically.

The Work Breakdown Structure, therefore, defines the ‘what’ of the project. These are usually captured in a single and easy to understand chart, which decomposes technical and relatively complex activities into smaller and easy to manage parts.

It has its characteristics that you need to know. Remember, these are distinct features that will help you identify it, given that not every project breakdown is a work breakdown structure. Let’s take a look.

Characteristics of the Work Breakdown Structure

• It is hierarchical

The Work Breakdown Structure is hierarchical. There are parent and child levels that are presented in a strict hierarchical relationship. This is important since it is only by executing these child levels will the parent element be successful.

• Mutual exclusivity

Like we mentioned, the WBS has different levels. All elements at a given level must be mutually exclusive, which serves to prevent miscommunication and reduce instances of duplicate work.

• It is focused on the outcome.

Like the name suggests, the WBS is outcome-focused. It is focused on the deliverables, which are normally the result of the work and not the activities needed to achieve these deliverables. This explains why the elements are described as nouns and not verbs.

• It follows the 100% rule.

Even though this is not necessarily a rule like we have termed it, it is worth noting that every level of decomposition in the work breakdown structure must constitute 100% of the parent level. Even though the number of parent levels is not restricted, they need to be at least two.

Why Should Project Managers Prepare a Work Breakdown Structure?

This part of the article will focus on some of the benefits of WBS. Having a breakdown of all the deliverables to ensure the success of a project serves the following benefits:

• Helps in Project Scheduling

One of the main roles of the project manager is to schedule the project, which is normally done before it begins. The WBS is one of the instruments these managers rely on when coming up with the project schedule and the budget.

It is easier to assign resources and set deadlines for projects once you know all the deliverables and their relationships(hierarchical). This explains why managers must always prepare the work breakdown structure before the commencement of a project.

• Aids in Accountability

Like we mentioned in the characteristics of the WBS, all the elements are mutually exclusive, which aids in accountability. It means that the team assigned to the given work package will be entirely accountable for it and ensure that it is completed. This helps prevent assigning responsibility to different people.

• It Sparks Commitment

Commitment comes in by virtue of teams responsible for the work packages knowing and fully understanding their responsibilities. Therefore, teams will be committed to bringing their tasks to completion, given that there is no overlap of responsibilities.

• Clears out issues

Coming up with the WBS is not entirely left to the project manager. Its successful development calls for the efforts of the project manager, teams and all the stakeholders. It is necessary to stir dialogue and state responsibilities when coming up with such important project management tools.

Therefore, this document or graphical illustration ensures that everybody responsible for the successful execution of the project understands what they are supposed to do.

Having a WBS ensures that everyone is at par with the project scope and the expected deliverables at different levels.

Role of WBS in Project Management

We must look at where the work breakdown structure fits when it comes to the project management framework. It normally emanates from the project charter, and in ideal situations, it is expected that the high-level deliverables match the goals and deliverables in the project scope statement.

It is also one of the first documents that project managers and teams are expected to come up with as the project progresses. In fact, it is normally drafted before the Gantt chart or the project plan. It is accurate to say that this is usually the first deliverable for the project.

In project management, its key benefit kicks in in the creation of the project schedule. Therefore, teams are expected first to create the list of deliverables, form a map or relationship from these before coming up with the project schedule.

The map of deliverables in the WBS can also be used to identify the resources required to achieve the specific deliverables in a document known as the Resource Breakdown Structure. This is normally made up of all the materials and human resources needed to complete the deliverables.

The RBS also helps in project scheduling, which furthers the role of the WBS in project management.

How To Prepare The Work Breakdown Structure

The WBS looks simple to the outside eye but is normally challenging to create. One must have a perfect understanding of the project scope, team capabilities, and stakeholders’ requirements. To help you create one, let us look at a simple process that all project team members need to adhere to.

1.      Understanding The Project Scope

You can never create a work breakdown structure if you do not understand the scope of the project. Remember, this is an essential document normally created by the end of the planning phase, which calls for a clear understanding of the project scope and objectives.

Here, you will need the project scope statement to give you a detailed understanding of the project scope and the project scope management plan, which will equip you with ways to deal with changes to the project scope that may affect your deliverables. You can come up with these two documents by referring to the project charter.

2.      Identify The Major Deliverables

The second step to coming up with an effective WBS is to determine the major deliverables. Once you understand the project scope, this is possible and is usually the first activity in the WBS development process.

Ensure that every deliverable plays an important role in the successful execution of the project, which we mean by ‘key’. Each of these deliverables should also be assigned to independent teams, meaning that the team responsible for one of them cannot be the same one mandated to do the other.

3.      Determine the Work Packages

The work package is the lowest component of the work breakdown structure but should not be confused with the activities. If your work breakdown structure is made up of 3 levels, the work package will be the second step just under the major deliverables.

Unlike the first two steps, this calls for more care and requires lots of input. Remember, it extends from the second step, requiring you to identify all the work necessary to complete the key deliverables. Also, remember to ensure that your work package is independent, meaning that it should be mutually exclusive with no unnecessary dependencies.

It should also be definable, estimable, manageable, integrative and adaptive. Here are a few tips that you can use to come up with your work package:

• The 8/80 Rule

Ensure that each work package does not extend beyond 80 hours and should not be less than eight hours. In case it goes beyond 80 hours, break it down further. If it is shorter, you can go up by one level.

Each work package should be described with a noun or adjective. However, you have to use verbs to break it down further.

4.      Come Up with a WBS Dictionary

The WBS dictionary defines the scopes of all the elements in the Work Breakdown Structure. It helps the incoming project teams to have a better understanding of the work packages. However, this is not necessary for simple projects or those limited in scope.

The dictionary is therefore required for clarity, especially in sophisticated projects. It also comes in handy when drafting a project schedule, as you can easily transfer details from the dictionary to the scheduling tool.

Therefore, we advise that you include the work package ID, name and description, and the individuals they are assigned to. You can also include the department, due date, estimated costs and the date of assignment. This is not, however, mandatory as you can choose what to include and what not to.

5.      Ensure That the WBS Format Is Right

The last step is creating the WBS. Remember, this follows identifying the key work packages and drafting a WBS dictionary. Keep in mind that there are multiple formats that you can follow, even though the simplest approach is to use numbers and decimal points to show the levels of different elements.

You can also use visual structures or, better yet, a flow chart. After the work breakdown structure is ready, make sure that you share it with your team to give them a high-level overview of the project and what it entails.

Best Practices for Preparing Work Breakdown Structure

These best practices should be adhered to in the WBS creation phase. This will help you come up with the perfect document and help you in project scheduling. Take a look at some of these:

• Do Not Use Verbs

The WBS answers the ‘what’ and not the ‘how’ in regards to the project. Therefore, it tracks deliverables and not activities, which call for the use of nouns rather than verbs when adding elements to it. If it cannot be a noun, ensure that it is an adjective.

Therefore, instead of sourcing for materials for building, indicate ‘building materials. This will ensure that whatever you include in your elements have a broader scope.

• All The Elements Should Be Mutually Exclusive

Make sure that all the elements in the Work Breakdown Structure are independent. Avoid listing elements that require input from others for successful completion. You can combine these two elements and include another level in the work packages if it comes to this.

• Ensure That You Have the Right Level of Detail

Do not keep the level of detail in the work breakdown structure too broad or too narrow. Learn to strike a balance when coming up with the WBS by finding the right detail. Do not decompose further if it means using a verb to describe an element since this will give you activities.

Also, avoid too many levels. If possible, strive for 3-5 levels or end up with something too complex.

• Use a Software

You can use a template or a flow chart tool when creating a Work Breakdown Structure. However, we advise that you use project management software to ensure that it integrates with the other project documents.

This article has covered some of the key things you need to know about the work breakdown structure. Remember to apply the best practices that we have outlined.

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The Work Breakdown Structure Essay Example

The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is a planning tool that project managers and teams use to progressively divide projects into smaller, manageable units of work, called work packages. The WBS provides teams with a complete outline of work packages/deliverables required to complete the project. It combines all project job objectives with resources and activities in a logical framework; Scope, Schedule, and Estimate for the work package. (Burghate, M.(2018)). The WBS system encompasses a range of visually manageable parts that the project team can understand to provide additional explanation and detail at each level of the work breakdown. PMBOK® Guide- Third Edition defines the WBS as a " deliverable-oriented hierarchical decomposition of the work to be executed by the project team to accomplish the project objectives and create required deliverables".  The WBS is a vital foundation for adequate project preparation, implementation, monitoring, and reporting. It ensures all parts of the project are considered and as a basis for other planning- such as schedule, budget, risk and quality. 

Importance of the WBS in a project

The primary purpose of WBS is to help define and organise the scope of the total project more explicitly and accurately. WBS demonstrates each descending level through a hierarchical tree arrangement, breaking down the project deliverables into more measurable sections. By dividing the entire project into its components, the WBS assigns responsibilities, allows for resource allocation, monitors the project, controls orders, tracks costs, time, and technical performance at all stages of the project's life cycle (Mukul Burghate, 2018).

The WBS does not discuss the procedures used to complete the project nor address the timeline that determines how or where the deliverables will be made. It is strictly limited to defining and outlining the project's outcomes to ensure all the deliverables specific to stakeholders are not missing or overlapping.  In this way, Scope Creep and unnecessary work or anything not directly related to the project's scope is identified and eliminated. 

Experienced project managers understand that no matter how well they prepare and execute their work, projects may not go according to plan. A well constructed WBS helps project managers identify project risks by identifying and reducing uncertainty areas, for example, missing key deliverables, unclear work assignments, budget overrun, absence coverage factors due to poor communication. (T.Rajani Devi, V.Shobha Reddy 2012). To remedy this, good communication and understanding of the project between team members, leaders/project managers, clients, and stakeholders must occur. 

How do you develop a WBS? + core characteristics of an effective WBS 

Before Project managers begin developing the WBS, project teams must develop an extensive understanding of the project scope, statement and management plan. Determining the essential deliverables required for the project and recognising work packages from these deliverables while creating a WBS dictionary to understand which approach is suitable for representing the project is vital.  Without the correct expertise and experience within project management processes and methods, this can result in unclear Work Packages. Neglecting these measures is equivalent to failing to plan, essentially planning to fail (Petros Rigas, 2016). 

What are the different ways of organising a WBS and what are the pros and cons of those? 

Delieveerable

There are various approaches to developing a WBS, including the analogy approach, the use of guidelines, the top-down approach, the bottom-up approach, and the mind mapping approach (Mukund, 2013).  A top-down technique is frequently associated within the Construction Industry, starting from the project outputs, activities, and specific tasks. Using a top-down approach produces a complete and more accurate WBS,  as defining a solution to a problem first and then dividing the solution into the steps required to implement it is only rational.  An initial brainstorm is conducted for information to be categorised into tasks and activities. While activities and tasks are not included in the WBS, they aid in planning work packages until allocation. Identifying the first line of outputs can be complex; hence, utilising a mind map or sticky notes can organise the project activities in order.  Work packages are the lowest level of the WBS; consequently, project managers need to ensure they are not too broad, general and improbable for project managers to manage as a whole. Establishing a set of rules and decomposing the overall project into sub-projects is crucial. Decomposition is defined as the act of breaking down deliverables into successively smaller chunks of work until the work units reach a level where they can be accurately defined and estimated. (Makarfi Ibrahim, Y., Kaka, A., Aouad, G. and Kagioglou, M. 2009). This level of breakdown and detail is the work package that is specifically delegated to a single individual or team to complete. Although how specific and small does a chunk of work, need to be considered a work package? These rules vary by the project's uniqueness, team and industry; however, Project managers usually measure the project applies an 8/80 Rule. No work package should be less than 8 hours or greater than 80 hours. 

Ideally, project managers should create a WBS in the planning stage after collecting all the requirements for the particular project- including stakeholder requirements; however, WBS  can also be created when producing an output that needs clarification. However, this will be further developed and refined during the planning process. WBSs may be generated in various ways, including listing, sorting, and sequencing outputs—the activities and project tasks needed to complete the task. This step must be repeated for every WBS entry to develop a complete and cohesive work package. Once a bottom-up validation has is complete, it is now appropriate to re-evaluate the entire WBS by comparing the currently defined WBS deliverables to the project's initially defined objectives. Once this is successfully achieved, a solid constructed WBS can be expected.  

What are the pros and cons of those? 

Benefits of Using WBS:

Building a good WBS is the foundation of effective project management. Producing a comprehensive and accurate WBS will reduce risks by minimising the likelihood that significant tasks are missed.

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Work-Breakdown Structure in Project Management Report

Introduction, main discussion, reference list.

A project work breakdown structure enables the logical analysis of project components (Devi & Reddy 2012). Mostly, a WBS should be presented in a diagrammatic representation as this is the simplest way to outline the various sets of work required for the completion of the project. The hierarchical presentation is to ensure that the works presented reflect their subset order in execution. This implies that the performance of an important role is dependent on its supporting activities (Brotherton 2008).

According to the Department of Energy, the work-based structure can either take up the form of a contract or a project. The above work-based structure chooses to highlight a project-based work structure, which essentially considers all the elements required in the project, also acting as a basis through which subcontractors can develop their CWBS (Cleland, King, & Lavold 1988).

Through this structure, one can decipher the relationship between project parts and components. This is mainly in the form of a hierarchy structure, with each element of the plan explaining the technical aspects, evaluating costs, and stating the scheduled time for when the action should be taken (D’arrigo & Smith 998). The above WBS is a great pillar in implementing the project. Through the above structure, the project team members are presented with the capability to understand the code and structure of the various processes required to complete the oil project. Thus, the project includes a project baseline imperative for the technical objectives needed to carry out the project.

Overall, the WBS ensures proper project management throughout the full project lifecycle in terms of recognizing, allocating, and tracking already accomplished jobs (U.S. Department of Energy 2012). The key characteristic that the above WBS has taken up is the use of language and simple terms that can easily be defined and understood by all the project members even at first glance. From the above WBS, it is possible for the team leader to assign duties and project responsibilities to each team member as all units of work are high.

Brotherton, SA 2008, Applying the work breakdown structure to the project management Lifecycle , Project Management Institute, Newtown Square, PA.

Cleland, DI, King, WR & Lavold, GD 1998 Project management handbook, second edition, John Wiley & Sons.

D’arrigo, CS & Smith, DE 1998, U.S. Patent No. 5,848,394, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC.

Devi, TR & Reddy, VS 2012, ‘Work breakdown structure of the project’, International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications vol. 2, no. 2, pp 683-686.

U.S. Department of Energy 2012, Work breakdown Structure handbook . Web.

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Work Breakdown Structure

• Business & Management

Introduction

Work breakdown structure is a very critical tool in project management. It is a project management technique that deconstructs a mega project with an objective of identifying deliverables required for the project completion. Project management requires the tool in the initial stage of project planning to enable them define the scope, costs estimation and the planned time for the completion of the project. The technique is also important in enabling delegation of duties in project accomplishment. The breakdown of a complex project into small manageable chunks also helps in resource allocation, monitoring and control of the project thus enhancing effectiveness and efficiency in the project. It is, however, noteworthy to the project management team to understand that the breakdown is not in too little deliverables. This can lead to large tasks that may make the management of the project difficult.

The Importance of the Work Breakdown Structure

Project managers must understand that work breakdown structure is a critical component in the planning process of a project. Some of the managers may view it as time wasted in writing and drawing tables and charts for the structure instead of going directly to the project. It is, however, imperative for the project managers to understand that ignoring the tool would be detrimental to the overall effectiveness and success of the project. The structure is an integral part of the projects lifecycle and timeline thus providing a road map for the project implementation.

For instance, the work breakdown structure is an essential tool that enables the project team to consider all pieces of a project carefully. Project managers must understand it is very difficult to manage a large project effectively individually. The breakdown of the large project into small manageable chunk will enable the project team to have effective management on the projects.  Failure to deconstruct the project and consider all the work components is a clear indication of lack of due diligence to ensure that all work has been identified.

Another importance of work breakdown structure is ensuring timely completion of the project. It is essential to understand that the structure provides an outline on when the project will commence, the phases involve, and the sequence in which the mini-projects will be fulfilled. Project managers must understand that skipping the work breakdown structure would lead to devastating results. For instance, lack of WBS would result in unnecessary delays, confused tasking by the team members and in extreme cases may result in project overruns. It is there note worth for the project managers to understand that the tool is essential in defining the specifics of the project outlined in the project scope. This is an important step since it ensures that all these specifics are timely and effectively accomplished.

Work breakdown structure is also important for effective budgetary allocations. Project managers must be aware that human and capital resources are limited and must be appropriated effectively. Work breakdown structure lays the groundwork for developing an effective schedule and good budgetary plans.  The tool ensures that it enables the managers to allocate resources effectively to the project specifics. Human resources are also effectively allocated to the project specifics especially depending on the specialization levels. It is also important to note that work breakdown structure helps in generating a meaningful schedule as well as making reliable budget calculations.

Work breakdown structure is also responsible for increased accountability in a project accomplishment. It is imperative to understand that the technique assigns specific tasks to certain individuals, thus making it easier to hold them accountable for completion of their respective tasks. The technique ensures that the team players cannot hide under the cover of broadness. The breakdown ensures that all the players in the project have their roles wells set. It, therefore, plays a pivotal role in increasing responsibility among the participants.

The creation of work breakdown structure is also important in cultivating cohesion among the different players in the project. WBS offers a platform where the managers, team members and customers can elaborate on ensuring effective service and product deliveries. The process encourages dialog that is essential in ambiguities clarifications and where critical issues regarding the project can be raised for discussion.  It is also essential to note that the exercise help increase commitment by all the team players.

Why do we need to create a Work Breakdown Structure for our projects?

The question of why work breakdown structure is important for project implementation has been a topic of discussion for a long time. Some people consider it as a time wasting exercise while to others it is a critical tool for effective project completion. It is, however, important to understand that this is a critical tool in any successful project. Work breakdown structure serves a great role in project management.  The project managers must plan effectively for the costs, schedule and delegation of duties for effective execution of the project. For us to have a proper understanding of why we need the work breakdown structure for our projects, it is important that we understand the purpose of the tool.

For instance, the work breakdown structure main purpose is the deconstruction of a complex project into smaller manageable tasks. The breakdown helps the project manager in performing his supervisory role effectively and efficiently. Work breakdown structure is critical to ensuring that the collection of tasks is measurable and independent of each other thus making the monitoring and control measures more effective. The breakdown must ensure that all the project work is included and that there is no room for error or skipping of important steps during the project time. It is also important to understand that the WBS is critical in ensuring that all non-project work is not included thus helping in time-saving and increased concentration in the project work.

Another reason we cannot afford to miss work breakdown structures in our projects is to ensure effectiveness in our budgets and costs. It is important that all project managers understand that costs and budgeting are important for an effective project accomplishment. Work breakdown structure ensures that project specifics are measurable. This is a very important aspect since it makes it easy for the project manager to assign specific costs to each project specific. The planning tool enables the managers to distribute the total budget allocation for the whole project to the mini tasks. This enables the management to ensure that the tasks costs do not exceed the total project cost. The issue of managing costs is a critical one since underfunding may result in incomplete projects. On the other hand, it is the obligation of the management to ensure that the organization’s finances are effectively utilized, and thus there is no misuse of such funds.

It is also important to understand that the project management team must have the capability of monitoring the progress made in project completion. Work breakdown structure becomes very important in ensuring monitoring and control exercise in project completion. The management provides a schedule with definite timelines on when certain tasks are expected to be complete.  All the tasks provided by the work breakdown structure have clearly defined limits and thus tracking the progress of the completed tasks becomes easy. It is also possible for the management of a project to determine the percentage of the completed tasks since each task is measurable. Such evaluation and controls are essential since the management can plan accordingly if the timelines provided are not met.

Work breakdown structure also defines the scope of the project. The management of any project has the responsibility of defining the scope of the project. Project scope definition is essential since it ensures completion of the stipulated tasks without carrying out unnecessary extra work. It is paramount to understand that the work breakdown structure plays a vital role in defining the scope of the project. All the individual tasks that make up the whole project are clearly listed in the WBS. This enables the team players to complete all the listed tasks without engaging themselves in additional work.

Work breakdown structure is also an important aspect that ensures increased responsibility in project completion exercise. The project managers have the responsibility of assigning the different tasks making the main project to qualified individuals. The delegation of duties enables the project managers to assess the effectiveness of his team members. It also leads to increased accountability since all the team members must strive to ensure that they fulfill their responsibility in a timely manner.

Another important aspect that makes work breakdown structure a vital tool in a project completion is function definition. Every project will only be classified as a complete if it fulfills its intended purpose. The work breakdown structure enables the project defines the different purposes fulfilled by the different tasks making up the main project. The completion of the partial functions by the smaller tasks will result in overall completion of the main project. In essence, work breakdown structure is essential in defining the overall purpose of the project that is made possible by the completion of the partial function by the tasks.

Work Breakdown Structure Concepts

Every project manager aims at ensuring effective completion of the project and achieving the desired results. It is important to note that work breakdown structure has been instrumental in ensuring successful project completion. Through division of complex projects into smaller manageable tasks has enabled swift and effective execution of projects. It is, however, imperative for the project managers to understand the essential concepts involved the construction of the work breakdown structure. For instance, identifying of the main deliverables of project forms the foundation for an effective WBS.

After identifying the deliverables, the next step involves breaking down of the high-level tasks into smaller tasks. The smaller tasks can be further split into smaller sub-tasks depending on the complexity of the task. There are no definite rules on the level of breakdown, but it is determined by the project type and the management style in the organization. The deconstruction of the main project is a continuous process carried out at different levels at a level where planning and control of the work are achieved. The lowest level in the decomposition process is referred to as the work package and offers the management an opportunity to fulfill the purpose of the project.

The work package must define the work, duration and budget estimates for the task required to produce the sub deliverable. It is important for the project managers to understand that the work packages should not exceed ten days of duration and should be independent of other work packages in the breakdown structure. The team must also ensure that there is no duplication of the work packages across the structure to ensure that all the tasks are completed according to plan.

The breakdown structure can either be displayed by use of tree structure or flow charts while others may use lists and tables.  The project scope may also be represented graphically. The entire project is represented by the top box while the tasks and the sub-tasks are represented by other boxes below the top box.  Most work breakdown structure diagrams are based on deliveries. However, it is also important to note that some WBS is created based on project phases. Gantt charts are also a common concept in the work breakdown structure and it enables tracking the progression of the tasks derived from the work breakdown structure.

How to make these Concepts to Work

The work breakdown structure must be workable if the desired results of the project are to be realized. To start with, it is imperative to understand that project effectiveness highly depends on teamwork between the different players. To make the concept of the work breakdown structure workable, it is essential to have a brainstorming session.  The various stakeholders in the project must be given an opportunity to express their views and concerns during the planning process. The project team can opt for less sophisticated tools like note cards, white board or sticky note pads in identifying the major deliverables, sub deliverables, and the specific work packages. These cards can be helpful to the team while discussing the major deliverables and work packages involved in a project.

The less sophisticated approach is important since it is easy for the team members to implement. Nevertheless, the project managers must be wary of the fact that the low-technology may not work well with distributed teams or translate easily into an electronic format. It is, therefore, noteworthy that there are other effective tools for brainstorming, mind mapping and work breakdown structures. To make the concept of work breakdown structures workable, it is essential to adopt modern technology such as the Match Ware Mind View which is an easy to use mind mapping software package and the Gantt charts which makes the concepts easy to use.

The work breakdown structure will not have the desired results if it is not used properly. It is important for the team manager to ensure that all the players in the organization are conversant with the provisions of the work breakdown structure. It is also imperative to understand that it may be necessary to break the guidelines in anticipation of better results. All the concerns and views of the team members should be treated with a lot of seriousness.  This is because the creation of breakdown structure is a team game and thus ignoring the views of the members would jeopardize the intended WBS purpose.

Explain Work Breakdown Structure in Hierarchical Outline Form

Work breakdown structure involves decomposition of a complex project into smaller manageable tasks. It is an essential aspect of project management and forms the foundation of planning and control in project management. The disintegration of these tasks can be represented in different phases, levels, and activities.  The components of work breakdown structure can be represented in a hierarchal format with the main project being at the top of the outline while the tasks and sub-tasks follow below the ladder. The number of the different levels is dependent on the size of the project and its nature as well.

The hierarchal WBS outline must have a dictionary that provides further details regarding the activities of each element in the work breakdown structure.  The dictionary gives detailed information about the work to be done, milestones, activities, resources requirements and costs for every element in the structure. In essence, the major role of the dictionary is removing any ambiguity regarding the scope of the projects work.

Another important aspect in WBS hierarchal outline is the structure’s code numbers. This represents a unique number that identifies the different components of the hierarchy. The numbers should be easily expanded to allow for any future revisions to the work breakdown structure if need arise.

The work breakdown structure can be represented in a number of ways. The choice of visual representation varies from project to project and organizational setup. The most common types of visual representation include:

Tabular view: this is a type of representation the hierarchal work breakdown structure is represented with the help of columns and tables.

Outline view: this is a kind of visual representation where work breakdown structure is depicted using different levels of indentation. The indentations are accompanied by their respective work breakdown structure’s code number.

Work Breakdown Structure Outline

Tree structure view : this is the most common format of the visual representation. It is where a tree structure is used to represent the main project, tasks, and sub-tasks by connecting them with the use of lines. The top most box represents the main projects while the rest depicts the tasks and sub tasks.

The hierarchical representation also has different structure elements. The lowest component of the work breakdown structure represents the workable tasks where control and monitoring are achieved. This level is referred to as the work package and includes the schedule activities and milestones to be accomplished. Managers must ensure that they have the right size of the work package for effective results.

In conclusion, work breakdown structure is an essential project management tool that must be embraced for the realization of successful project completion. It is, however, important to understand that successful project completion will highly depend on the efficiency of the WBS and more specifically the size of the work package. Work breakdown structure provides the basis for all project management work. The tool plays a vital role in planning, cost estimation, scheduling and resource allocation in the project completion exercise. It is, therefore, important for all project managers to ensure that they take the creation of WBS as an essential step in project management.

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The Work Breakdown Structure, Essay Example

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Although the work breakdown structure (WBS) can vary based on the organization, the four core components include the scope of the project or its deliverables, the start and end time of each project goal and the project as a whole, the budget for each individual goal of the project and the project as a whole, and the name of the project manager in charge of each part of the project and the project as a whole. These components help define the project’s execution because it provides information to workers concerning what is expected at each stage of the project. Ultimately, it provides set guidelines for this purpose.

By breaking a project down into smaller components, it is easier for the project manager to sketch out how he or she wants the project to progress in addition to how it should be done. The first stage of the project will be defined by providing an overall goal, budget, timeline, and the name of the person in charge. Therefore, employees who are responsible for achieving this section of the project will be able to simply refer to the WBS as a reminder of what is expected of them. In addition, this will allow workers to determine the scope of a specific section of the project in relation to its following steps. In addition, it functions as a statement of work which defines technical, scheduling, cost, and labor hour reporting capabilities.

Haugan GT. (2001). Effective Work Breakdown. Tysons Corner, VA: Management Concepts.

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Work Breakdown Structure Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Workplace , Human Resource Management , Teamwork , Management , Project , Team , WBS , Breakdown

Published: 11/26/2019

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Use of WBS (Work Breakdown Structure) worksheet as an aid to determining staffing level requirements for a project team

A WBS provides a detailed breakdown of a variety of tasks that must be completed for a given project. Estimates of a project in terms of skills and resources needed are easier to understand at the smallest level. The level of detail provided by WBS is useful in determining estimates as well as project staffing. The work packages also make it easier to identify the risks that are likely to be encountered during execution.

WBS offer many business benefits. Given the fact that work is broken down into the smallest possible units, stakeholders can easily get their minds around the project process, putting into consideration its complexity, requirements and constraints. The team members can easily be allocated tasks based on the level established using WBS. The complexity at each level determines the amount of effort and resources to be dedicated to that level. Team members therefore, are provided with an understanding of where their respective tasks fit to the overall project plan. Work packages are also important in the realization of work boundary of each team. Conflicts and other problems associated with poor communication are likely to be reduced. It provides the basis for estimation of staff requirement, cost and duration of the entire project. Scope can easily be identified as well and as such make it easier for managers to manage and control it, while ensuring that the staff work within the required boundary. This will help the team to focus better on what need to be done therefore resulting in high quality results and improved management.

Determination of resources and staffing requirements for large and complex projects is a hard and time-consuming task. However, breaking down the project into smaller work packages and pieces makes it easier to estimate the entire requirements by summing up all the individual requirements of each package. It is in this regard to this that that the WBS can be used as a basic worksheet to determine project team staffing needs.

Bibliography

Brotherton, S. A., Fried, R. T., & Norman, E. S. (2008). Applying the work breakdown structure to the project management lifecycle. Retrieved August 16, 2011, from Global Congress: http://www.ca.com/files/whitepapers/fried_wbs__pmi_global_congress_202925.pdf Forest, P., & Fischer, M. (2009, April). Case study: Scope-cost-time integrated model with work. Retrieved August 16, 2011, from Stanford University: http://www.stanford.edu/group/CIFE/online.publications/WP115.pdf

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Thirty years ago, the South African miracle came true. Millions voted in the country’s first democratic elections, seemingly delivering a death blow to apartheid.

The African National Congress rose to power under the leadership of Nelson Mandela and used the Freedom Charter, a decades-old manifesto, as a guide to forming a new nation.

The charter’s 10 declarations offered a vision for overcoming apartheid through a free, multiracial society, with quality housing, education and economic opportunities for all.

As South Africans celebrate 30 years of freedom and prepare to vote in a pivotal national election, we looked at how far the country has come in meeting the Freedom Charter’s goals.

Has South Africa Truly Defeated Apartheid?

By John Eligon and Lynsey Chutel in Johannesburg and Lauren Leatherby in London. Photographs by Joao Silva .

When the apartheid government was toppled in South Africa, ending white minority rule, people around the world shared in the excitement and optimism that a more just society would emerge. A generation later, the country’s journey provides a broader lesson: It is far easier to rally for an end to racism than it is to undo entrenched inequities and to govern a complicated country.

The African National Congress won the 1994 election on the promise of “a better life for all.” But for many that promise has fallen short. Polls now suggest that in the election scheduled for May 29, the party risks losing its absolute majority in the national government for the first time.

No one doubts that South Africa has made strides since the days of legalized racial oppression. Democracy has brought a growing Black middle class, access to better education across racial lines and a basic human dignity once stolen from the Black majority.

But there also has been a widening gap between rich and poor, a breakdown in basic services like electricity and water, and the continued isolation of Black families stuck in ramshackle homes in distant communities.

Black South Africans, who make up 81 percent of the population, often argue that they’ve gained political freedom, but not economic freedom — and remain trapped in the structure of apartheid.

We went through the Freedom Charter’s declarations — each ending in an exclamation point — to measure South Africa’s progress and shortcomings over the past 30 years.

100% turnout among voting-age population

Voter turnout has dropped.

U.S.A., 2020 - 63%

U.K., 2019 - 62%

U.S.A., 2020 – 63%

U.K., 2019 – 62%

Sources: Collette Schulz-Herzenberg, "The South African non-voter: An analysis"; Konrad Adenaur Stiftung, 2020 (South Africa); Pew Research (United States and U.K.)

On a continent where coups, autocrats and flawed elections have become common, South Africa is a widely admired exception.

Since 1994, the country has held national elections every five years, with local elections in between. Presidents have changed, but the party in power — the A.N.C. — never has. Despite this, there have never been any serious doubts about the integrity of those electoral contests. A record 52 parties will compete in the national election this year.

Despite the electoral stability, politics have been dangerous. Fierce conflict within the A.N.C. has resulted in many assassinations over the years. The A.N.C.’s access to state resources as the governing party has fueled many of the disputes and led to widespread corruption — from top national officials down to local councilors.

The enrichment of A.N.C. leaders while many people barely earn enough to feed themselves has shaken the faith of many South Africans in their democratic system.

Last year, 22 percent of South Africans approved of the functioning of the country’s democracy, down from 63 percent in 2004, according to surveys from the Human Sciences Research Council.

Under apartheid, race restricted every aspect of life for South Africans who were Black, Indian and colored — a multiracial classification created by the government. There were strict limits on where they could live, attend school, work and travel. Laws enforced this segregation, and partaking in politics was criminalized.

But the democratic government drafted a constitution that enshrined equal rights for all.

South Africa has become a place where people of all races often dine, worship and party together. Gay rights are largely accepted. There is a free and vigorous press, and protests and open political debate are a part of life.

But many of the economic barriers created under apartheid still endure.

By one measure, the World Bank has ranked South Africa as the most unequal country in the world. Ten percent of the population holds about 71 percent of the country’s wealth, while the bottom 60 percent holds just 7 percent of assets, according t o the World Bank .

To a large extent, the wealth disparities have kept millions of Black South Africans relegated to some of the most deplorable conditions.

Just look at the place in the Soweto community of Kliptown where hundreds of anti-apartheid activists gathered to draft the Freedom Charter in 1955. It is now known as Walter Sisulu Square, named for a prominent anti-apartheid activist.

Nearly two decades ago, the government built a large concrete complex around the square, with restaurants, offices and a hotel. But because of a lack of maintenance and political grievances that led to huge riots in 2021, most of the businesses are now gutted, littered and stinking of sewage. Informal traders eke out a living nearby selling sandwiches, clothes and fruit.

Across adjacent railroad tracks sits an all-Black neighborhood where most residents live in tin shacks, use outdoor latrines, rely on jury-rigged wires for electricity and navigate craggy dirt roads.

Walter Sisulu Square in Kliptown, Soweto, where South Africa’s Freedom Charter was signed in 1955, is now largely abandoned.

Joao Silva/The New York Times

Jack Martins, 54, who lives in the neighborhood, had a cellphone repair shop in the complex, but it did not survive the riots. He now plies his trade from a table on the sidewalk. He secured public housing, but had to pay a bribe to get it, he said. Two of his sons could not get into university because there was not enough space, and his daughter, despite having a mechanical engineering degree, has been unable to find stable work. He is fed up with the near-daily, hourslong electricity outages caused by the failing state power utility.

“What is this government doing for us?” he said. “Absolutely nothing.”

The Black middle and upper classes have grown significantly. In 1995, just 350,000 Black South Africans lived in households that were among the top 15 percent in income, according to researchers at the University of Cape Town’s Liberty Institute of Strategic Marketing. By 2022, that number had grown to about 5.6 million.

Still, Black families are underrepresented among rich households.

Many expected something better this far into democracy. Much of the nation’s wealth remains in white hands.

Black South Africans had a stake in only 29 percent of the companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange, according to a 2022 report by South Africa’s Black Economic Empowerment Commission. Not a single entity on the exchange was fully Black-owned, the report said.

Economists say the country’s economy never took off enough to allow for a greater redistribution of wealth. Even when South Africa experienced its strongest stretch of economic growth in the first decade and a half of democracy, it still lagged behind its peers in Africa and other upper-middle-income countries. Since then, growth has been tepid, and contraction since the Covid-19 pandemic has been sharper than that in similarly sized economies.

8% annual GDP growth

Upper-middle-income

country average

Sub-Saharan

Africa average

South Africa

South Africa’s economic growth

has consistently lagged behind

Sources: Harvard Growth Lab analysis of World Economic Outlook (South Africa and sub-Saharan Africa) and World Development Indicators (upper-middle-income countries).

Government rules have allowed Black South Africans to gain a greater stake in industries like mining, where Black ownership has grown from 2 percent to 39 percent over the past two decades. But the gains have gone to relatively few people at the top.

However, the Bafokeng kingdom, an ethnic group within South Africa, has shown what is possible when a community gets its fair share of its resource wealth. The kingdom sits on rich platinum deposits. After a court victory in 1999 that affirmed its land rights, the kingdom used its platinum dividends to build a school with a large campus and a modern clinic, and to invest in other industries. Most families live in large brick homes that are the envy of other rural villages.

At the end of apartheid, when almost all of South Africa’s agricultural land was white-owned, Mr. Mandela’s government pledged in 1994 to transfer 30 percent of it into Black hands within a few years, by encouraging white landowners to sell.

The government failed to meet its goal, and it stretched the deadline to 2030. So far, about 25 percent of white-owned farmland has been transferred to Black ownership, mostly through the purchase of land by the government or Black individuals, according to Wandile Sihlobo and Johann Kirsten, agricultural economists at Stellenbosch University.

White South Africans make up roughly 7 percent of the population, but white-owned farms still cover about half of the country’s entire surface area, according to Mr. Sihlobo and Mr. Kirsten.

A worker on a Black-owned farm letting out cattle to graze near Carletonville, South Africa.

In the first decade of democracy, the government gave Black people full ownership of the white-owned farms it had bought. Owning the land meant that Black families had the chance not only to feed and support themselves but also advance.

But the government is no longer giving land to Black South Africans outright, offering long-term leases instead, Mr. Sihlobo and Mr. Kirsten said. Without ownership, Black farmers cannot generate wealth by using the land as collateral to get a bank loan. That has prevented Black farmers from expanding their operations to be commercially competitive.

Only about 7 percent of commercial-scale farms — those that sell to major grocers or export their products — are Black-owned. Only about 10 percent of the food produced by commercial farms in South Africa comes from Black-owned farms, about the same share as in the 1980s, Mr. Sihlobo said.

In the first decade of democracy, more than 930,000 mostly Black and colored farm workers were evicted from farms despite new laws intended to allow them to spend their lives on the farms where they worked.

“We haven’t been able to live up to those ideals” of Black land ownership, Mr. Sihlobo said.

Black South Africans are unemployed at far higher rates than their white peers, and that disparity has not improved over time.

50% unemployment rate

Black unemployment

The unemployment gap between

Black and white South Africans

remains wide.

White unemployment

Source: Statistics South Africa

Note: Graphic shows the expanded definition of unemployment, which includes those discouraged from seeking work.

The high unemployment rate has given rise to a hustle culture that sends many South Africans to the streets early each morning in search of work.

Zinhle Nene, 49, has been waking up by 5:30 a.m. most days and waiting on a corner in downtown Johannesburg with hundreds of others seeking day jobs. She left her low-paying job as a home health aide because the transportation to work was too expensive.

“It’s heartbreaking because we come here and we don’t even have food,” she said, wiping away tears as the hours passed. “Sometimes, you even get home, there’s nothing. You just drink water and then you sleep.”

Poverty has decreased since the start of democracy. Still, it remains very high. Nearly two out of every three Black South Africans lived below the upper-bound poverty line in 2015 — the most recent data available — meaning they had access to less than about $80 a month. Only 1 percent of white South Africans lived below that line.

Peter Mokoena broke down in tears last November inside the modest two-bedroom house the government had just given him. It sat alongside dozens of other homes just like it, on the freshly paved roads of a new subdivision about half an hour southeast of Johannesburg.

“I’m so happy, happy, happy, happy for this house,” said Mr. Mokoena, 74, who had been living in a tin shack so leaky that his furniture was soaked when it rained. “Now, it feels like I'm in heaven.”

The government has built 3.4 million houses since 1994, and given ownership of most of them for free to poor South Africans. Some units, known as social housing, are rented out at below-market rates. The government also has embarked on several “mega city” projects, in partnership with the private sector, to cluster together various types of housing and services like day care centers.

Many South Africans have moved into formal homes from makeshift structures, and access to basic services like electricity and piped water has increased. But frequent power and water outages have made those services unreliable, leading to anger and frustration nationwide.

Mr. Mokoena waited 27 years for his house. Many are still waiting. In the meantime, some squat in downtown buildings. Others build shacks in any open space they can find. Or they rent small backyard units built behind houses — an effort the government is supporting .

New government housing has often ended up in areas far from jobs and economic activity, perpetuating the apartheid system of marginalizing Black people to outlying townships.

JOHANNESBURG

Jobs in the city are concentrated in this area.

The area includes Sandton, a suburb that was

exclusively for white residents during

The densest populations are often far away.

Many of the densest places are townships,

like Soweto, where Black South Africans

were forced to live during apartheid

and where many new government

housing units have been built.

Population density

Jobs in the city are

concentrated in this

The area includes

Sandton, a suburb that

was exclusively for

white residents during

The densest populations are

often far away.

Many of the densest places are

in townships, like Soweto,

where Black South Africans

were forced to live during

apartheid and where many new

government housing units have

been built.

Sources: Spatial Tax Panel (employment data); WorldPop (population density)

Note: The area outlined in yellow represents parts of Johannesburg with at least 10,000 full-time equivalent employees in formal employment.

Nokuthula Mabe anxiously sat on her suitcase in the February heat outside North-West University in the city of Mahikeng, waiting with about a dozen other high-school graduates hoping for a spot. The university had received more than 181,000 applications for 11,717 slots.

In many ways, Ms. Mabe epitomized post-apartheid progress simply by graduating from her overcrowded village school near the Botswana border.

Nokuthula Mabe, right.

In the 1950s, only 10 percent of Black children finished high school. By 2021, that number had risen to 58 percent, according to government statistics.

Despite these gains, significant racial disparities persist.

100% completion rate

White high school

completion rate

Despite gains, there remains a

large education gap between

Black and white South Africans.

Black high school

Sources: Equal Education Law Centre analysis of data from Statistics South Africa General Household Survey, the Department of Basic Education

Note: Shows share of 22- to 25-year-olds who have completed at least grade 12 or equivalent.

In 1982, the apartheid government spent roughly $1,100 a year on education for each white child but just $140 for each Black child, according to Section 27 , a human rights organization.

By 2018, that had increased to about $1,400 for each child, according to researchers at Stellenbosch University, much of it intended to level the playing field for Black students.

But schools are still failing many of their students. A report published in 2022 found that 81 percent of Grade 4 students could not understand what they were reading.

And while more children are finishing high school, there are not enough seats in colleges to meet the demand.

In 2022, about 6 percent of South Africans aged 18 to 29 were enrolled in higher education, according to Statistics South Africa. These enrollment rates lag behind countries with similarly sized economies, like Brazil, Mexico and the Philippines, according to figures from the World Bank .

After waiting nervously for hours, Ms. Mabe, 18, dragged her suitcase to the nearest bus stop to begin the three-and-a-half-hour trip back to her village. The university was too full to admit her.

During apartheid, the judicial system was used to criminalize Black people, mete out harsh punishment and cover up the atrocities committed against them.

Today, the judiciary is seen as among the most credible institutions in the country. Judges have upheld human rights and taken tough stances against even powerful political figures like the former president Jacob Zuma, who was sentenced to prison for contempt .

Still, as in many other countries, the South African justice system works best for those with money. A government commission found two years ago that most South Africans could not afford legal fees. The agency providing legal assistance for the poor is underfunded and overburdened.

“Those with very deep pockets are able to take the criminal justice process, stretch it for a very long period of time,” said Chrispin Phiri, a spokesman for the Ministry of Justice and Correctional Services. “That’s a privilege not afforded to a poorer person.”

What’s more, the justice system does not seem to be taming the country’s high crime rate.

70 murders per 100,000 residents

Murder rates are

on the rise.

70 per 100,000 residents

Sources: The Institute for Security Studies (South Africa); the World Bank (other countries, 2021 figures)

Although the murder rate is lower than it was in 1994, it has climbed steadily since 2012.

On paper, South Africa’s legal system prioritizes rehabilitating prisoners. The government offers an array of restorative justice, jobs and counseling programs for inmates and those being released.

In reality, though, prison-reform activists and studies suggest that treatment behind bars can be harsh and access to education difficult.

Internationally, South Africa has tried to position itself as a broker of peace and a leader in challenging a Western-led world order.

South Africa is the “S” in the BRICS group of nations that also includes Brazil, Russia, India and China, formed as a counterpoint to American and European alliances.

South Africa has played a critical role over the years in peace missions in African countries like Ethiopia, Burundi and Zimbabwe. And President Cyril Ramaphosa led a peace delegation last year to Ukraine and Russia, while refusing to condemn the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

President Cyril Ramaphosa in 2021.

South Africa argues that as a midsize nation, it cannot afford to choose sides and must make friends with everyone.

But it has been accused of being hypocritical and selectively concerned about peace and human rights.

The government brought a genocide case this year in the International Court of Justice against Israel for its war in Gaza after the attacks by Hamas on Oct. 7. South African officials have argued that Palestinians face a situation similar to apartheid.

For all of the frustrations that South Africans may have about the past 30 years, democracy has brought something that money and data cannot measure: freedom.

As in, freedom to go where you want, to date whom you want, to complain and advocate change as loudly as you want.

That has driven Sibusiso Zikode, 48, for much of his adult life.

He arrived in Durban, a port city on South Africa’s east coast, and started law school, but dropped out in the first term when his family savings ran out.

Sibusiso Zikode, left, helped establish a protest movement in Durban to advocate on behalf of poor people.

He moved to Kennedy Road, a slum built on muddy slopes and surrounded by a landfill, joining thousands who had flocked to the city for opportunity, only to find themselves in zinc shacks. This didn’t feel like freedom.

So, he helped to establish Abahlali baseMjondolo, a protest movement that is one of many that represent the revolt of poor people. Between July and September in 2022, the South African police responded to 2,455 protests.

But going up against the post-apartheid political establishment has come at great cost: Leaders of Abahlali have been assassinated, and Mr. Zikode had to flee from his home at the squatter camp after deadly attacks.

Abahlali’s members are growing more disillusioned with democracy.

“Whoever is homeless now,” Mr. Zikode said, “will be homeless after the election.”

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