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How to build your critical thinking skills in 7 steps (with examples)

Critical thinking is, well, critical. By building these skills, you improve your ability to analyze information and come to the best decision possible. In this article, we cover the basics of critical thinking, as well as the seven steps you can use to implement the full critical thinking process. 

Critical thinking comes from asking the right questions to come to the best conclusion possible. Strong critical thinkers analyze information from a variety of viewpoints in order to identify the best course of action.

Don’t worry if you don’t think you have strong critical thinking abilities. In this article, we’ll help you build a foundation for critical thinking so you can absorb, analyze, and make informed decisions. 

What is critical thinking? 

Critical thinking is the ability to collect and analyze information to come to a conclusion. Being able to think critically is important in virtually every industry and applicable across a wide range of positions. That’s because critical thinking isn’t subject-specific—rather, it’s your ability to parse through information, data, statistics, and other details in order to identify a satisfactory solution. 

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Top 8 critical thinking skills

Like most soft skills, critical thinking isn’t something you can take a class to learn. Rather, this skill consists of a variety of interpersonal and analytical skills. Developing critical thinking is more about learning to embrace open-mindedness and bringing analytical thinking to your problem framing process. 

In no particular order, the eight most important critical thinking skills are:

Analytical thinking: Part of critical thinking is evaluating data from multiple sources in order to come to the best conclusions. Analytical thinking allows people to reject bias and strive to gather and consume information to come to the best conclusion. 

Open-mindedness: This critical thinking skill helps you analyze and process information to come to an unbiased conclusion. Part of the critical thinking process is letting your personal biases go and coming to a conclusion based on all of the information. 

Problem solving : Because critical thinking emphasizes coming to the best conclusion based on all of the available information, it’s a key part of problem solving. When used correctly, critical thinking helps you solve any problem—from a workplace challenge to difficulties in everyday life. 

Self-regulation: Self-regulation refers to the ability to regulate your thoughts and set aside any personal biases to come to the best conclusion. In order to be an effective critical thinker, you need to question the information you have and the decisions you favor—only then can you come to the best conclusion. 

Observation: Observation skills help critical thinkers look for things beyond face value. To be a critical thinker you need to embrace multiple points of view, and you can use observation skills to identify potential problems.

Interpretation: Not all data is made equal—and critical thinkers know this. In addition to gathering information, it’s important to evaluate which information is important and relevant to your situation. That way, you can draw the best conclusions from the data you’ve collected. 

Evaluation: When you attempt to answer a hard question, there is rarely an obvious answer. Even though critical thinking emphasizes putting your biases aside, you need to be able to confidently make a decision based on the data you have available. 

Communication: Once a decision has been made, you also need to share this decision with other stakeholders. Effective workplace communication includes presenting evidence and supporting your conclusion—especially if there are a variety of different possible solutions. 

7 steps to critical thinking

Critical thinking is a skill that you can build by following these seven steps. The seven steps to critical thinking help you ensure you’re approaching a problem from the right angle, considering every alternative, and coming to an unbiased conclusion.

 First things first: When to use the 7 step critical thinking process

There’s a lot that goes into the full critical thinking process, and not every decision needs to be this thought out. Sometimes, it’s enough to put aside bias and approach a process logically. In other, more complex cases, the best way to identify the ideal outcome is to go through the entire critical thinking process. 

The seven-step critical thinking process is useful for complex decisions in areas you are less familiar with. Alternatively, the seven critical thinking steps can help you look at a problem you’re familiar with from a different angle, without any bias. 

If you need to make a less complex decision, consider another problem solving strategy instead. Decision matrices are a great way to identify the best option between different choices. Check out our article on 7 steps to creating a decision matrix .

1. Identify the problem

Before you put those critical thinking skills to work, you first need to identify the problem you’re solving. This step includes taking a look at the problem from a few different perspectives and asking questions like: 

What’s happening? 

Why is this happening? 

What assumptions am I making? 

At first glance, how do I think we can solve this problem? 

A big part of developing your critical thinking skills is learning how to come to unbiased conclusions. In order to do that, you first need to acknowledge the biases that you currently have. Does someone on your team think they know the answer? Are you making assumptions that aren’t necessarily true? Identifying these details helps you later on in the process. 

2. Research

At this point, you likely have a general idea of the problem—but in order to come up with the best solution, you need to dig deeper. 

During the research process, collect information relating to the problem, including data, statistics, historical project information, team input, and more. Make sure you gather information from a variety of sources, especially if those sources go against your personal ideas about what the problem is or how to solve it.

Gathering varied information is essential for your ability to apply the critical thinking process. If you don’t get enough information, your ability to make a final decision will be skewed. Remember that critical thinking is about helping you identify the objective best conclusion. You aren’t going with your gut—you’re doing research to find the best option

3. Determine data relevance

Just as it’s important to gather a variety of information, it is also important to determine how relevant the different information sources are. After all, just because there is data doesn’t mean it’s relevant. 

Once you’ve gathered all of the information, sift through the noise and identify what information is relevant and what information isn’t. Synthesizing all of this information and establishing significance helps you weigh different data sources and come to the best conclusion later on in the critical thinking process. 

To determine data relevance, ask yourself:

How reliable is this information? 

How significant is this information? 

Is this information outdated? Is it specialized in a specific field? 

4. Ask questions

One of the most useful parts of the critical thinking process is coming to a decision without bias. In order to do so, you need to take a step back from the process and challenge the assumptions you’re making. 

We all have bias—and that isn’t necessarily a bad thing. Unconscious biases (also known as cognitive biases) often serve as mental shortcuts to simplify problem solving and aid decision making. But even when biases aren’t inherently bad, you must be aware of your biases in order to put them aside when necessary. 

Before coming to a solution, ask yourself:

Am I making any assumptions about this information? 

Are there additional variables I haven’t considered? 

Have I evaluated the information from every perspective? 

Are there any viewpoints I missed? 

5. Identify the best solution

Finally, you’re ready to come to a conclusion. To identify the best solution, draw connections between causes and effects. Use the facts you’ve gathered to evaluate the most objective conclusion. 

Keep in mind that there may be more than one solution. Often, the problems you’re facing are complex and intricate. The critical thinking process doesn’t necessarily lead to a cut-and-dry solution—instead, the process helps you understand the different variables at play so you can make an informed decision. 

6. Present your solution

Communication is a key skill for critical thinkers. It isn’t enough to think for yourself—you also need to share your conclusion with other project stakeholders. If there are multiple solutions, present them all. There may be a case where you implement one solution, then test to see if it works before implementing another solution. 

7. Analyze your decision

The seven-step critical thinking process yields a result—and you then need to put that solution into place. After you’ve implemented your decision, evaluate whether or not it was effective. Did it solve the initial problem? What lessons—whether positive or negative—can you learn from this experience to improve your critical thinking for next time? 

Depending on how your team shares information, consider documenting lessons learned in a central source of truth. That way, team members that are making similar or related decisions in the future can understand why you made the decision you made and what the outcome was. 

Example of critical thinking in the workplace

Imagine you work in user experience design (UX). Your team is focused on pricing and packaging and ensuring customers have a clear understanding of the different services your company offers. Here’s how to apply the critical thinking process in the workplace in seven steps: 

Start by identifying the problem

Your current pricing page isn’t performing as well as you want. You’ve heard from customers that your services aren’t clear, and that the page doesn’t answer the questions they have. This page is really important for your company, since it’s where your customers sign up for your service. You and your team have a few theories about why your current page isn’t performing well, but you decide to apply the critical thinking process to ensure you come to the best decision for the page. 

Gather information about how the problem started

Part of identifying the problem includes understanding how the problem started. The pricing and packaging page is important—so when your team initially designed the page, they certainly put a lot of thought into it. Before you begin researching how to improve the page, ask yourself: 

Why did you design the pricing page the way you did? 

Which stakeholders need to be involved in the decision making process? 

Where are users getting stuck on the page?

Are any features currently working?

Then, you research

In addition to understanding the history of the pricing and packaging page, it’s important to understand what works well. Part of this research means taking a look at what your competitor’s pricing pages look like. 

Ask yourself: 

How have our competitors set up their pricing pages?

Are there any pricing page best practices? 

How does color, positioning, and animation impact navigation? 

Are there any standard page layouts customers expect to see? 

Organize and analyze information

You’ve gathered all of the information you need—now you need to organize and analyze it. What trends, if any, are you noticing? Is there any particularly relevant or important information that you have to consider? 

Ask open-ended questions to reduce bias

In the case of critical thinking, it’s important to address and set bias aside as much as possible. Ask yourself: 

Is there anything I’m missing? 

Have I connected with the right stakeholders? 

Are there any other viewpoints I should consider? 

Determine the best solution for your team

You now have all of the information you need to design the best pricing page. Depending on the complexity of the design, you may want to design a few options to present to a small group of customers or A/B test on the live website.

Present your solution to stakeholders

Critical thinking can help you in every element of your life, but in the workplace, you must also involve key project stakeholders . Stakeholders help you determine next steps, like whether you’ll A/B test the page first. Depending on the complexity of the issue, consider hosting a meeting or sharing a status report to get everyone on the same page. 

Analyze the results

No process is complete without evaluating the results. Once the new page has been live for some time, evaluate whether it did better than the previous page. What worked? What didn’t? This also helps you make better critical decisions later on.

Critically successful 

Critical thinking takes time to build, but with effort and patience you can apply an unbiased, analytical mind to any situation. Critical thinking makes up one of many soft skills that makes you an effective team member, manager, and worker. If you’re looking to hone your skills further, read our article on the 25 project management skills you need to succeed . 

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41+ Critical Thinking Examples (Definition + Practices)

Critical thinking is an essential skill in our information-overloaded world, where figuring out what is fact and fiction has become increasingly challenging.

But why is critical thinking essential? Put, critical thinking empowers us to make better decisions, challenge and validate our beliefs and assumptions, and understand and interact with the world more effectively and meaningfully.

Critical thinking is like using your brain's "superpowers" to make smart choices. Whether it's picking the right insurance, deciding what to do in a job, or discussing topics in school, thinking deeply helps a lot. In the next parts, we'll share real-life examples of when this superpower comes in handy and give you some fun exercises to practice it.

Critical Thinking Process Outline

Critical thinking means thinking clearly and fairly without letting personal feelings get in the way. It's like being a detective, trying to solve a mystery by using clues and thinking hard about them.

It isn't always easy to think critically, as it can take a pretty smart person to see some of the questions that aren't being answered in a certain situation. But, we can train our brains to think more like puzzle solvers, which can help develop our critical thinking skills.

Here's what it looks like step by step:

Spotting the Problem: It's like discovering a puzzle to solve. You see that there's something you need to figure out or decide.

Collecting Clues: Now, you need to gather information. Maybe you read about it, watch a video, talk to people, or do some research. It's like getting all the pieces to solve your puzzle.

Breaking It Down: This is where you look at all your clues and try to see how they fit together. You're asking questions like: Why did this happen? What could happen next?

Checking Your Clues: You want to make sure your information is good. This means seeing if what you found out is true and if you can trust where it came from.

Making a Guess: After looking at all your clues, you think about what they mean and come up with an answer. This answer is like your best guess based on what you know.

Explaining Your Thoughts: Now, you tell others how you solved the puzzle. You explain how you thought about it and how you answered. 

Checking Your Work: This is like looking back and seeing if you missed anything. Did you make any mistakes? Did you let any personal feelings get in the way? This step helps make sure your thinking is clear and fair.

And remember, you might sometimes need to go back and redo some steps if you discover something new. If you realize you missed an important clue, you might have to go back and collect more information.

Critical Thinking Methods

Just like doing push-ups or running helps our bodies get stronger, there are special exercises that help our brains think better. These brain workouts push us to think harder, look at things closely, and ask many questions.

It's not always about finding the "right" answer. Instead, it's about the journey of thinking and asking "why" or "how." Doing these exercises often helps us become better thinkers and makes us curious to know more about the world.

Now, let's look at some brain workouts to help us think better:

1. "What If" Scenarios

Imagine crazy things happening, like, "What if there was no internet for a month? What would we do?" These games help us think of new and different ideas.

Pick a hot topic. Argue one side of it and then try arguing the opposite. This makes us see different viewpoints and think deeply about a topic.

3. Analyze Visual Data

Check out charts or pictures with lots of numbers and info but no explanations. What story are they telling? This helps us get better at understanding information just by looking at it.

4. Mind Mapping

Write an idea in the center and then draw lines to related ideas. It's like making a map of your thoughts. This helps us see how everything is connected.

There's lots of mind-mapping software , but it's also nice to do this by hand.

5. Weekly Diary

Every week, write about what happened, the choices you made, and what you learned. Writing helps us think about our actions and how we can do better.

6. Evaluating Information Sources

Collect stories or articles about one topic from newspapers or blogs. Which ones are trustworthy? Which ones might be a little biased? This teaches us to be smart about where we get our info.

There are many resources to help you determine if information sources are factual or not.

7. Socratic Questioning

This way of thinking is called the Socrates Method, named after an old-time thinker from Greece. It's about asking lots of questions to understand a topic. You can do this by yourself or chat with a friend.

Start with a Big Question:

"What does 'success' mean?"

Dive Deeper with More Questions:

"Why do you think of success that way?" "Do TV shows, friends, or family make you think that?" "Does everyone think about success the same way?"

"Can someone be a winner even if they aren't rich or famous?" "Can someone feel like they didn't succeed, even if everyone else thinks they did?"

Look for Real-life Examples:

"Who is someone you think is successful? Why?" "Was there a time you felt like a winner? What happened?"

Think About Other People's Views:

"How might a person from another country think about success?" "Does the idea of success change as we grow up or as our life changes?"

Think About What It Means:

"How does your idea of success shape what you want in life?" "Are there problems with only wanting to be rich or famous?"

Look Back and Think:

"After talking about this, did your idea of success change? How?" "Did you learn something new about what success means?"

8. Six Thinking Hats 

Edward de Bono came up with a cool way to solve problems by thinking in six different ways, like wearing different colored hats. You can do this independently, but it might be more effective in a group so everyone can have a different hat color. Each color has its way of thinking:

White Hat (Facts): Just the facts! Ask, "What do we know? What do we need to find out?"

Red Hat (Feelings): Talk about feelings. Ask, "How do I feel about this?"

Black Hat (Careful Thinking): Be cautious. Ask, "What could go wrong?"

Yellow Hat (Positive Thinking): Look on the bright side. Ask, "What's good about this?"

Green Hat (Creative Thinking): Think of new ideas. Ask, "What's another way to look at this?"

Blue Hat (Planning): Organize the talk. Ask, "What should we do next?"

When using this method with a group:

• Explain all the hats.
• Decide which hat to wear first.
• Make sure everyone switches hats at the same time.
• Finish with the Blue Hat to plan the next steps.

9. SWOT Analysis

SWOT Analysis is like a game plan for businesses to know where they stand and where they should go. "SWOT" stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats.

There are a lot of SWOT templates out there for how to do this visually, but you can also think it through. It doesn't just apply to businesses but can be a good way to decide if a project you're working on is working.

Strengths: What's working well? Ask, "What are we good at?"

Weaknesses: Where can we do better? Ask, "Where can we improve?"

Opportunities: What good things might come our way? Ask, "What chances can we grab?"

Threats: What challenges might we face? Ask, "What might make things tough for us?"

Steps to do a SWOT Analysis:

• Goal: Decide what you want to find out.
• Research: Learn about your business and the world around it.
• Brainstorm: Get a group and think together. Talk about strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
• Pick the Most Important Points: Some things might be more urgent or important than others.
• Make a Plan: Decide what to do based on your SWOT list.
• Check Again Later: Things change, so look at your SWOT again after a while to update it.

Now that you have a few tools for thinking critically, let’s get into some specific examples.

Everyday Examples

Life is a series of decisions. From the moment we wake up, we're faced with choices – some trivial, like choosing a breakfast cereal, and some more significant, like buying a home or confronting an ethical dilemma at work. While it might seem that these decisions are disparate, they all benefit from the application of critical thinking.

10. Deciding to buy something

Imagine you want a new phone. Don't just buy it because the ad looks cool. Think about what you need in a phone. Look up different phones and see what people say about them. Choose the one that's the best deal for what you want.

11. Deciding what is true

There's a lot of news everywhere. Don't believe everything right away. Think about why someone might be telling you this. Check if what you're reading or watching is true. Make up your mind after you've looked into it.

12. Deciding when you’re wrong

Sometimes, friends can have disagreements. Don't just get mad right away. Try to see where they're coming from. Talk about what's going on. Find a way to fix the problem that's fair for everyone.

13. Deciding what to eat

There's always a new diet or exercise that's popular. Don't just follow it because it's trendy. Find out if it's good for you. Ask someone who knows, like a doctor. Make choices that make you feel good and stay healthy.

14. Deciding what to do today

Everyone is busy with school, chores, and hobbies. Make a list of things you need to do. Decide which ones are most important. Plan your day so you can get things done and still have fun.

15. Making Tough Choices

Sometimes, it's hard to know what's right. Think about how each choice will affect you and others. Talk to people you trust about it. Choose what feels right in your heart and is fair to others.

16. Planning for the Future

Big decisions, like where to go to school, can be tricky. Think about what you want in the future. Look at the good and bad of each choice. Talk to people who know about it. Pick what feels best for your dreams and goals.

Job Examples

17. solving problems.

Workers brainstorm ways to fix a machine quickly without making things worse when a machine breaks at a factory.

18. Decision Making

A store manager decides which products to order more of based on what's selling best.

19. Setting Goals

A team leader helps their team decide what tasks are most important to finish this month and which can wait.

20. Evaluating Ideas

At a team meeting, everyone shares ideas for a new project. The group discusses each idea's pros and cons before picking one.

21. Handling Conflict

Two workers disagree on how to do a job. Instead of arguing, they talk calmly, listen to each other, and find a solution they both like.

22. Improving Processes

A cashier thinks of a faster way to ring up items so customers don't have to wait as long.

23. Asking Questions

Before starting a big task, an employee asks for clear instructions and checks if they have the necessary tools.

24. Checking Facts

Before presenting a report, someone double-checks all their information to make sure there are no mistakes.

25. Planning for the Future

A business owner thinks about what might happen in the next few years, like new competitors or changes in what customers want, and makes plans based on those thoughts.

26. Understanding Perspectives

A team is designing a new toy. They think about what kids and parents would both like instead of just what they think is fun.

School Examples

27. researching a topic.

For a history project, a student looks up different sources to understand an event from multiple viewpoints.

28. Debating an Issue

In a class discussion, students pick sides on a topic, like school uniforms, and share reasons to support their views.

29. Evaluating Sources

While writing an essay, a student checks if the information from a website is trustworthy or might be biased.

30. Problem Solving in Math

When stuck on a tricky math problem, a student tries different methods to find the answer instead of giving up.

31. Analyzing Literature

In English class, students discuss why a character in a book made certain choices and what those decisions reveal about them.

32. Testing a Hypothesis

For a science experiment, students guess what will happen and then conduct tests to see if they're right or wrong.

33. Giving Peer Feedback

After reading a classmate's essay, a student offers suggestions for improving it.

34. Questioning Assumptions

In a geography lesson, students consider why certain countries are called "developed" and what that label means.

35. Designing a Study

For a psychology project, students plan an experiment to understand how people's memories work and think of ways to ensure accurate results.

36. Interpreting Data

In a science class, students look at charts and graphs from a study, then discuss what the information tells them and if there are any patterns.

Critical Thinking Puzzles

Not all scenarios will have a single correct answer that can be figured out by thinking critically. Sometimes we have to think critically about ethical choices or moral behaviors. 

Here are some mind games and scenarios you can solve using critical thinking. You can see the solution(s) at the end of the post.

37. The Farmer, Fox, Chicken, and Grain Problem

A farmer is at a riverbank with a fox, a chicken, and a grain bag. He needs to get all three items across the river. However, his boat can only carry himself and one of the three items at a time. 

Here's the challenge:

• If the fox is left alone with the chicken, the fox will eat the chicken.
• If the chicken is left alone with the grain, the chicken will eat the grain.

How can the farmer get all three items across the river without any item being eaten? 

38. The Rope, Jar, and Pebbles Problem

You are in a room with two long ropes hanging from the ceiling. Each rope is just out of arm's reach from the other, so you can't hold onto one rope and reach the other simultaneously. 

Your task is to tie the two rope ends together, but you can't move the position where they hang from the ceiling.

You are given a jar full of pebbles. How do you complete the task?

39. The Two Guards Problem

Imagine there are two doors. One door leads to certain doom, and the other leads to freedom. You don't know which is which.

In front of each door stands a guard. One guard always tells the truth. The other guard always lies. You don't know which guard is which.

You can ask only one question to one of the guards. What question should you ask to find the door that leads to freedom?

40. The Hourglass Problem

You have two hourglasses. One measures 7 minutes when turned over, and the other measures 4 minutes. Using just these hourglasses, how can you time exactly 9 minutes?

41. The Lifeboat Dilemma

Imagine you're on a ship that's sinking. You get on a lifeboat, but it's already too full and might flip over. 

Nearby in the water, five people are struggling: a scientist close to finding a cure for a sickness, an old couple who've been together for a long time, a mom with three kids waiting at home, and a tired teenager who helped save others but is now in danger. 

You can only save one person without making the boat flip. Who would you choose?

42. The Tech Dilemma

You work at a tech company and help make a computer program to help small businesses. You're almost ready to share it with everyone, but you find out there might be a small chance it has a problem that could show users' private info. 

If you decide to fix it, you must wait two more months before sharing it. But your bosses want you to share it now. What would you do?

43. The History Mystery

Dr. Amelia is a history expert. She's studying where a group of people traveled long ago. She reads old letters and documents to learn about it. But she finds some letters that tell a different story than what most people believe. 

If she says this new story is true, it could change what people learn in school and what they think about history. What should she do?

The Role of Bias in Critical Thinking

Have you ever decided you don’t like someone before you even know them? Or maybe someone shared an idea with you that you immediately loved without even knowing all the details. 

This experience is called bias, which occurs when you like or dislike something or someone without a good reason or knowing why. It can also take shape in certain reactions to situations, like a habit or instinct. 

Bias comes from our own experiences, what friends or family tell us, or even things we are born believing. Sometimes, bias can help us stay safe, but other times it stops us from seeing the truth.

Not all bias is bad. Bias can be a mechanism for assessing our potential safety in a new situation. If we are biased to think that anything long, thin, and curled up is a snake, we might assume the rope is something to be afraid of before we know it is just a rope.

While bias might serve us in some situations (like jumping out of the way of an actual snake before we have time to process that we need to be jumping out of the way), it often harms our ability to think critically.

How Bias Gets in the Way of Good Thinking

Selective Perception: We only notice things that match our ideas and ignore the rest. 

It's like only picking red candies from a mixed bowl because you think they taste the best, but they taste the same as every other candy in the bowl. It could also be when we see all the signs that our partner is cheating on us but choose to ignore them because we are happy the way we are (or at least, we think we are).

Agreeing with Yourself: This is called “ confirmation bias ” when we only listen to ideas that match our own and seek, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms what we already think we know or believe. 

An example is when someone wants to know if it is safe to vaccinate their children but already believes that vaccines are not safe, so they only look for information supporting the idea that vaccines are bad.

Thinking We Know It All: Similar to confirmation bias, this is called “overconfidence bias.” Sometimes we think our ideas are the best and don't listen to others. This can stop us from learning.

Have you ever met someone who you consider a “know it”? Probably, they have a lot of overconfidence bias because while they may know many things accurately, they can’t know everything. Still, if they act like they do, they show overconfidence bias.

There's a weird kind of bias similar to this called the Dunning Kruger Effect, and that is when someone is bad at what they do, but they believe and act like they are the best .

Following the Crowd: This is formally called “groupthink”. It's hard to speak up with a different idea if everyone agrees. But this can lead to mistakes.

An example of this we’ve all likely seen is the cool clique in primary school. There is usually one person that is the head of the group, the “coolest kid in school”, and everyone listens to them and does what they want, even if they don’t think it’s a good idea.

How to Overcome Biases

Here are a few ways to learn to think better, free from our biases (or at least aware of them!).

Know Your Biases: Realize that everyone has biases. If we know about them, we can think better.

Listen to Different People: Talking to different kinds of people can give us new ideas.

Ask Why: Always ask yourself why you believe something. Is it true, or is it just a bias?

Understand Others: Try to think about how others feel. It helps you see things in new ways.

Keep Learning: Always be curious and open to new information.

In today's world, everything changes fast, and there's so much information everywhere. This makes critical thinking super important. It helps us distinguish between what's real and what's made up. It also helps us make good choices. But thinking this way can be tough sometimes because of biases. These are like sneaky thoughts that can trick us. The good news is we can learn to see them and think better.

There are cool tools and ways we've talked about, like the "Socratic Questioning" method and the "Six Thinking Hats." These tools help us get better at thinking. These thinking skills can also help us in school, work, and everyday life.

We’ve also looked at specific scenarios where critical thinking would be helpful, such as deciding what diet to follow and checking facts.

Thinking isn't just a skill—it's a special talent we improve over time. Working on it lets us see things more clearly and understand the world better. So, keep practicing and asking questions! It'll make you a smarter thinker and help you see the world differently.

Critical Thinking Puzzles (Solutions)

The farmer, fox, chicken, and grain problem.

• The farmer first takes the chicken across the river and leaves it on the other side.
• He returns to the original side and takes the fox across the river.
• After leaving the fox on the other side, he returns the chicken to the starting side.
• He leaves the chicken on the starting side and takes the grain bag across the river.
• He leaves the grain with the fox on the other side and returns to get the chicken.
• The farmer takes the chicken across, and now all three items -- the fox, the chicken, and the grain -- are safely on the other side of the river.

The Rope, Jar, and Pebbles Problem

• Take one rope and tie the jar of pebbles to its end.
• Swing the rope with the jar in a pendulum motion.
• While the rope is swinging, grab the other rope and wait.
• As the swinging rope comes back within reach due to its pendulum motion, grab it.
• With both ropes within reach, untie the jar and tie the rope ends together.

The Two Guards Problem

The question is, "What would the other guard say is the door to doom?" Then choose the opposite door.

The Hourglass Problem

• Start both hourglasses. 
• When the 4-minute hourglass runs out, turn it over.
• When the 7-minute hourglass runs out, the 4-minute hourglass will have been running for 3 minutes. Turn the 7-minute hourglass over. 
• When the 4-minute hourglass runs out for the second time (a total of 8 minutes have passed), the 7-minute hourglass will run for 1 minute. Turn the 7-minute hourglass again for 1 minute to empty the hourglass (a total of 9 minutes passed).

The Boat and Weights Problem

Take the cat over first and leave it on the other side. Then, return and take the fish across next. When you get there, take the cat back with you. Leave the cat on the starting side and take the cat food across. Lastly, return to get the cat and bring it to the other side.

The Lifeboat Dilemma

There isn’t one correct answer to this problem. Here are some elements to consider:

• Moral Principles: What values guide your decision? Is it the potential greater good for humanity (the scientist)? What is the value of long-standing love and commitment (the elderly couple)? What is the future of young children who depend on their mothers? Or the selfless bravery of the teenager?
• Future Implications: Consider the future consequences of each choice. Saving the scientist might benefit millions in the future, but what moral message does it send about the value of individual lives?
• Emotional vs. Logical Thinking: While it's essential to engage empathy, it's also crucial not to let emotions cloud judgment entirely. For instance, while the teenager's bravery is commendable, does it make him more deserving of a spot on the boat than the others?
• Acknowledging Uncertainty: The scientist claims to be close to a significant breakthrough, but there's no certainty. How does this uncertainty factor into your decision?
• Personal Bias: Recognize and challenge any personal biases, such as biases towards age, profession, or familial status.

The Tech Dilemma

Again, there isn’t one correct answer to this problem. Here are some elements to consider:

• Evaluate the Risk: How severe is the potential vulnerability? Can it be easily exploited, or would it require significant expertise? Even if the circumstances are rare, what would be the consequences if the vulnerability were exploited?
• Stakeholder Considerations: Different stakeholders will have different priorities. Upper management might prioritize financial projections, the marketing team might be concerned about the product's reputation, and customers might prioritize the security of their data. How do you balance these competing interests?
• Short-Term vs. Long-Term Implications: While launching on time could meet immediate financial goals, consider the potential long-term damage to the company's reputation if the vulnerability is exploited. Would the short-term gains be worth the potential long-term costs?
• Ethical Implications : Beyond the financial and reputational aspects, there's an ethical dimension to consider. Is it right to release a product with a known vulnerability, even if the chances of it being exploited are low?
• Seek External Input: Consulting with cybersecurity experts outside your company might be beneficial. They could provide a more objective risk assessment and potential mitigation strategies.
• Communication: How will you communicate the decision, whatever it may be, both internally to your team and upper management and externally to your customers and potential users?

The History Mystery

Dr. Amelia should take the following steps:

• Verify the Letters: Before making any claims, she should check if the letters are actual and not fake. She can do this by seeing when and where they were written and if they match with other things from that time.
• Get a Second Opinion: It's always good to have someone else look at what you've found. Dr. Amelia could show the letters to other history experts and see their thoughts.
• Research More: Maybe there are more documents or letters out there that support this new story. Dr. Amelia should keep looking to see if she can find more evidence.
• Share the Findings: If Dr. Amelia believes the letters are true after all her checks, she should tell others. This can be through books, talks, or articles.
• Stay Open to Feedback: Some people might agree with Dr. Amelia, and others might not. She should listen to everyone and be ready to learn more or change her mind if new information arises.

Ultimately, Dr. Amelia's job is to find out the truth about history and share it. It's okay if this new truth differs from what people used to believe. History is about learning from the past, no matter the story.

Related posts:

• Experimenter Bias (Definition + Examples)
• Hasty Generalization Fallacy (31 Examples + Similar Names)
• Ad Hoc Fallacy (29 Examples + Other Names)
• Confirmation Bias (Examples + Definition)
• Equivocation Fallacy (26 Examples + Description)

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Psychology Spot

All About Psychology

What is critical thinking? It’s not what you think, but how you think

Critical thinking is an essential skill to become a person who thinks autonomously and does not allow himself to be infected in a thoughtless way by the ideas in vogue or by those that some manipulative groups or people want to impose. Despite this, it is also a rare ability in a society designed to tell us what to think, not to teach us to think.

More than 2,400 years ago, Socrates defended the importance of critical thinking through a series of logical and rational tools. At that time the world did not embrace his idea and did not even understand the need to apply it on a wide scale in society. The same happens today. Critical thinking has become something of an oxymoron. It is “valued” but not developed.

In 1997, a group of experts conducted a study for the California Commission on Teacher Accreditation to determine the extent to which colleges and universities were developing critical thinking through the curriculum. The research analyzed institutes and universities of the California educational system, as well as private colleges such as Stanford University.

The researchers found that the majority of teachers (89%) stated that “critical thinking” was of vital importance in their classes, but only 19% were able to offer even a moderately acceptable definition of critical thinking. In addition, most claimed that they were cultivating critical thinking in students, but when asked to give examples of critical thinking in their classes, very few were able to provide real evidence that they were actually fostering this ability in their students.

The good news is that, although the school does not enhance this cognitive ability as much as it should, we can all develop a more critical thinking to assume a more reflective, conscious and independent posture before the world.

Definition of critical thinking: It’s not what you think but how you think

Critical thinking is the ability to properly organize, verify and evaluate the information we generate or receive using explicit and consistent criteria. It is the tendency to show a reflective skepticism that allows us to decide autonomously what to believe or not.

Therefore, it implies being able to interpret the data, facts and expressions, as well as analyze the ideas, intentions, concepts and arguments to reach a personal conclusion. However, the concept of critical thinking does not only turn outward, it also has a metacognitive component. It implies being able to think one’s own thought; that is, being aware of cognitive biases or errors in our thought process to correct them.

The essential skills of critical thinking

Critical thinking demands the development of a series of basic skills that become the pillars of autonomous reasoning. These are skills that allow us to think more freely, outside of established canons.

•Open mentality . Open mindedness does not mean accepting anything just because it is a new and different idea, rejecting old ones, but just being willing to analyze new ideas. It means not closing in on what’s different and new, rejecting it just because it doesn’t fit our mental paradigm.

• Intellectual humility . Intellectual humility is the ability to recognize our mistakes, stereotypes and prejudices, realizing that we are not immune to cognitive biases and emotions. It implies being aware that we do not have the absolute truth, always keeping ourselves open to different ideas that can contribute something or make us grow.

• Healthy doubts . Critical thinking feeds on healthy doubts. It is not about becoming cynical people who do not believe in anyone or anything, even doubting our shadow and rejecting the good intentions and goodness of the others, but to nurture a reflective skepticism according to which, we do not have to believe certain statements straight up just because they come from so-called authority figures.

• Intellectual perseverance . To go beyond what is seen and taken for granted, we need to be persistent. Critical thinking often involves swimming against the current, so we need to be highly motivated to seek personal truth, even when much of the world is going against it. This intellectual perseverance is what will allow us to continue searching and analyzing information until we find an answer that satisfies us.

Examples of critical thinking in everyday life

Critical thinking doesn’t just apply to science or philosophy. Critical thinking plays an essential role even in everyday life in making many of the decisions that will determine our destiny. Is giving shape to our convictions and helps us choose the causes with which we commit ourselves and those that do not make any sense to us.

It allows us to elucidate what each statement really contains. Critical thinking allows us to question the statements we hear or make, from the simplest such as “The sun is shining today” to the more complex such as “All men/women are equal” or “Communists /capitalists are bad.” In this way, critical thinking prevents us from falling into the trap of slogans devoid of meaning or cultural, generational or other stereotypes.

Critical thinking is also essential to grow as people because it allows us to look inward. It’s what allows us to ask ourselves: Did I do my best? Did I behave in a logical way? If it happened again, would I act differently? Have I acted according to my values ​​or have I been carried away by the group? Have I been a victim of my stereotypes and prejudices? Did I rush into making that decision?

This type of thinking, in short, allows us to develop a critical view from a more open and reflective attitude, to ensure that we make our own decisions, as little influenced as possible by the opinions, judgments and pressures of the others.

Duro, E. et. Al. (2013) In Search of Critical Thinking in Psychology: an exploration of student and lecturer understandings in higher education.  Psychology Learning and Teaching ; 12(3): 275-281.

Elder, L. et. Al. (1997) California  Teacher Preparation for Instruction in Critical Thinking: Research Findings and Policy Recommendations . ERIC Clearinghouse: Washington, D.C.

Jennifer Delgado

I am a psychologist and I spent several years writing articles for scientific journals specialized in Health and Psychology. I want to help you create great experiences. Learn more about me .

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Keep Learning

A Beginner’s Guide for Upgrading Your Critical Thinking Skills

Of one thing we can be sure: The quality of our life will be determined by the quality of our thinking. – Edward de Bono

The Keys to Becoming a Critical Thinker

Each of us tends to perceive and understand the problems, events, and circumstances of our lives somewhat differently. In fact, we believe that our understanding of reality is built upon the foundations of our perceptions. This is however only one half of the picture.

Our perception of reality is actually built upon the foundations of our filtering mechanisms, which tend to interpret how we perceive the problems, events, and circumstances of our lives as a result of the thoughts, beliefs, habitual behaviors and emotions we tend to cultivate on a daily basis.

Becoming an outstanding critical thinker has more to do with a state-of-mind rather than a specific set of tools, techniques or strategies you have at your disposal. It is this state-of-mind that will help you to overcome the obstacles and challenges you face on a daily basis. Moreover, it is exactly this state-of-mind that will help you pierce through the veil of filters coloring your understanding of reality. As a result, you will be better prepared to deal with the problems, challenges, and obstacles that are impeding your progress as you make your way towards the attainment of your goals and objectives.

Our discussion today will delve into the mind of an outstanding critical thinker. We will first break down the essential qualities of critical thinking, after which we will delve into the critical thinking process and analyze the different types of perspectives that critical thinkers adopt into their everyday thinking routine. And finally, we will explore a variety of questions that are essential to a critical thinker’s habitual thought process as they work their way through a problem.

This article post is part of the  Effective Thinking  series of IQ Matrix maps that are designed to help you successfully deal with the problems and challenges confronting your reality. Topics within this series include:

• Part 1: Strategic Questions • Part 2: Creative Thinking • Part 3: Problem Solving • Part 4: Critical Thinking • Part 5: Six Thinking Hats

A Critical Thinker’s Indispensable Traits

Becoming an outstanding critical thinker requires the cultivation of a number of key traits and qualities that will help instill a specific set of habitual thoughts and patterns of behavior that are essential when working through life’s daily problems.

Definition of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is the process of critically judging the validity of information while using a specific set of criteria that help you to better understand your outcomes, thereby enabling you to make better and more educated decisions about the problems confronting your reality.

The better critical thinker you become, the more effective your decisions will become, and the more likely you are to achieve your goals and objectives.

Advantages of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is an essential habitual thought process that is imperative to cultivate and grow on a daily basis. Without it, we will struggle to make sense of reality. However, with it, we will open new doors of understanding about the events and circumstances of our lives.

Here is a break down of the advantages of critical thought:

Expands Perspective and Possibilities

Critical thinking allows us to see things from unique perspectives that under normal circumstances we might not have been aware of.

By learning to ask the right kinds of questions in order to break down each angle and avenue for new answers, we expand the possibilities of the reality we find ourselves in. With this unique outlook, we are better able to reach new solutions and find the answers that will help us to overcome our problems and challenges.

Identifies Hidden Facts and Assumptions

Many events and circumstances are riddled with hidden facts that we do not recognize and therefore we tend to make assumptions and uneducated guesses.

By learning to ask the right kinds of critical questions , you will unveil that which is hidden from view. You will, therefore, have a greater array of information to work with in order to reach effective conclusions about the circumstances confronting your reality.

Builds Confidence, Knowledge, and Understanding

Asking the right kinds of critical questions helps us to gain new knowledge, perspective, and understanding about the state of our current life circumstances. As a result of acquiring this knowledge, we gain the confidence we need to overcome the obstacles standing in our way.

Helps with Problem Solving and Creativity

Effective critical thinking goes hand-in-hand with problem solving and creativity.

When you think critically about a problem, you essentially open the floodgates to new insights, encouraging deeper and more creative thought about your circumstances and predicament.

Each of these three methods will help you gain perspective about your life, and will lead you to the answers you have been searching for.

The Mindset of a Critical Thinker

An outstanding critical thinker’s mindset may seem complex at first, and somewhat difficult to understand. Yet, their habitual thought process is built upon simple patterns of thinking that piece information together from a detached and unemotional perspective.

An outstanding critical thinker sees everything as part of an all-encompassing canvas that needs to be understood in its entirety before all the answers can be revealed. It is these insights that allow them to make effective decisions that further help them overcome seemingly insurmountable obstacles confronting their reality.

Ability to Distinguish Between Pieces of Information

An outstanding critical thinker has the ability to distinguish between different chunks or pieces of information that appear to be very similar on the surface.

They understand that if they make quick judgments or assumptions about information, that they may misinterpret their circumstances. As a result, they always attempt to separate distinguishing fragments of conflicting pieces of information in order to gain the widest perspective of the events and circumstances confronting their reality.

They consciously and consistently distinguish facts from opinions, causes from effects, and ideas from assumptions. These distinguishing characteristics allow them to better understand the world from a completely unbiased and reflective perspective.

Ability to Identify Patterns and Connections

When we take information in through our senses, we naturally tend to categorize and segregate it accordingly in a way that will promote a greater sense of understanding and awareness. We then categorically try and make sense of this information based on our understanding of the patterns evident within it.

An outstanding critical thinker will tend to identify a greater array of patterns within a piece of information when compared to the rest of the population. As a result, they are better able to make the necessary connections and associations with existing memories, which helps them to gather insights that others are simply not aware of. This is, in fact, a primary quality that separates a genius from everybody else.

Ability to Analyze Information

An outstanding critical thinker always thinks about information from an analytic perspective. They are constantly questioning, ordering and comparing different pieces of information, which helps trigger new insights and understandings that enable them to find suitable answers to the most difficult challenges.

Characteristics of a Critical Thinker

An outstanding critical thinker has a set of character traits that are essential for effective and efficient thought. These traits help them to think more proficiently about the problems they are confronted with. As a result, they are able to gather unexpected insights and understandings that help improve their decision-making abilities.

Open Minded

An outstanding critical thinker is always open-minded to all possibilities, interpretations, and perspectives. They understand that unless they keep an open mind at all times, that they may essentially miss important cues and pieces of information that will provide them with new insights and understandings to successfully overcome the problems confronting their reality.

Has Flexibility of Thought

An outstanding critical thinker understands that a flexible and fluid thought process is required at all times in order to successfully gain new insights and perspectives about events and circumstances.

They are fully aware that there are always a variety of ways to look at a situation, and that there are an endless amount of possibilities and perspectives available to them at any one moment in time. They, therefore, maintain their flexible nature and change course with their thinking, decision making, and actions whenever an opportunity presents itself to move them forward in a more proficient way.

The Vocabulary of a Critical Thinker

An outstanding critical thinker’s vocabulary is focused on breaking down the problems and circumstances from a multitude of angles and perspectives. Their words help bring clarity and understanding to situations that at first may seem foggy and misdirected.

The following is a list of words that outstanding critical thinkers use to formulate questions to the problems confronting their reality:

Meaning, Reasons, Example, Prejudice, Evidence, Reliability, Viewpoint, Credibility, Explanation, Consequences, Assumptions, and Relevance .

Each of these words can be formulated into insightful and thought-provoking questions that will help you to break down any problem or situation from a critical perspective.

Critical Thinking Process for Problem Solving

The critical thinking process for problem-solving will help you to gain a wider perspective of the events and circumstances of your life. These insights will stimulate new ideas that will help you to find solutions that would not have been possible when using standard patterns of thinking.

As you progress through this section you will discover a simple step-by-step process of critical thought that will improve your ability to overcome the obstacles and challenges confronting your reality in the most efficient and effective way. You will also be presented with some key insights and perspectives of the critical thinking process that will become indispensable to your growth as a critical thinker.

Steps for Effective Critical Thinking

The following is one of several methods of critical thought that will help you to break down your problems most effectively.

As you follow these steps, it is important to reflect back on the critical thinking traits we discussed above. This is relevant because without these traits you will struggle to establish the patterns of thinking that are required to successfully work your way through this process.

Your first step is to tune-in to your past memories, knowledge, and understanding of this problem or a similar challenge you previously experienced. Recall how you dealt with this circumstance — identifying the exact approach you took. You are essentially trying to bring forth useful insights and experiences from your past into the present moment.

Here are some questions to get you started:

What past experiences could be useful with assisting me here? What could I use from my past that would effectively help me here? How is this relevant to my current circumstances and problem? Why did these tactics work for me in the past? Who helped me in the past, and how can they assist me in the present? Why is all this important? And how can capitalize on it?

Comprehension

Your goal here is to demonstrate your understanding of your current problem or predicament.

You must gather thorough objective insights about the events and circumstances that are manifesting within your reality. This is best achieved through a process of organizing , comparing , translating and interpreting your predicament from a variety of perspectives. This is in fact where the outstanding critical thinker distinguishes between facts and opinions, between causes and effects, and between ideas and assumptions.

What is really going on here? How could I look at this problem from a variety of different perspectives? How does this problem compare with my past experience and understanding?

Application

Your goal here is to take a look at hypothetical solutions to your problem. This is best achieved through the process of applying your acquired knowledge and by using the insights you gained from the previous two steps in a unique way.

We discuss many of these strategies throughout the creative thinking and problem-solving process. If you haven’t done so already, then have a read through them to further your understanding of this step.

Before proceeding to the questions, it is important to clarify that the key here is to only flex your understanding about the potential solutions that may be possible. It’s all about possibilities, and not so much about probabilities. Which is why you must keep a flexible approach and gain as clear of a perspective about your circumstances as is possible.

What if…? How would I best use…? What examples, techniques, objects and tools can I find that could further assist me here? What approach could I use that would expand the possibilities here? What would result if I did…?

Now that you have loosened your mind through the process of formulating hypothetical solutions, you are now free to enter the examination stage, where you break the information and knowledge you have gathered into chunks, that will help you to reach effective explanations for the motives or causes of this problem. By fully understanding the causes, you will be better prepared to critically examine the concrete solutions within the synthesis stage.

This is the moment where the outstanding critical thinker analyzes all the information they have collected through a means of comparing, ordering and via intensive questioning tactics.

How is this related to…? What is the relationship between…? What distinctions can I make between…? What are the possible causes that triggered this problem in the first place? What possible conclusions can be drawn from this? What evidence can I find to back up these conclusions? What other ideas can justify this? What new possibilities does this bring to mind?

Now that you have a rough idea of the potential solutions and have pinpointed the causes that led to the formation of this problem, you are finally ready to synthesize and compile all this information in a way that will help you gain unique insights into the potential solutions to your problem.

This is where the outstanding critical thinker begins their search for patterns and connections between pieces of information — helping them to reach new insights and answers that may not have been evident before.

What possible changes could I make to solve this effectively? How would I potentially improve…? What would happen if…? How could I potentially change…? What could be done to minimize this problem? Suppose I could… What would I do? What could I construct that would change…? What is the best potential solution for this problem? How would I test the potential consequences of these outcomes?

Within the final stage of this critical thinking process, you must be prepared to defend and test the validity of the solutions you brought forward throughout the synthesis stage.

Spend time developing a set of criteria that you will use to evaluate the potential solutions to your problem. Without this criteria, you will struggle to find the answers you are after.

How could I prove or disprove the advantages of choosing this method to overcome my problem? How could I evaluate this more thoroughly? What new insights could I gain? How could I be certain of the potential outcomes? How can I justify that this is the ideal and correct solution? How could I argue against this? What solution would I choose if…?

Critical Thinking Perspectives

An outstanding critical thinker perceives the world from a vastly different perspective than the average person. They naturally see things that others don’t because they are not afraid to ask the difficult questions that will help to open their mind and expand their habitual processes of thinking. As a result, they gain better insights and are therefore able to reach more effective decisions quickly.

The following is a list of methods that critical thinkers use to analyze the problems they are confronted with. Each step of this analysis process allows them to dig ever deeper into the underlying factors of a problem, and thusly enables them to gain a wider perspective of the events and circumstances.

Facts vs. Opinion Analysis

An outstanding critical thinker understands and immediately picks up on the differences between facts and opinions.

They realize that opinions are based on feelings, suggestions and future predictions. On the other hand, facts are built upon evidence, past events and upon variables that can easily be proven and measured.

They fully realize that the best way to work through their problems is to base their understanding upon concrete facts that will help them reach effective solutions to their circumstances.

• Fact-based words: “Has… Was… Is…”
• Opinion based words: “Could… Should… Might… Possibly… Potentially…”

Definitive vs. Indefinitive Analysis

An outstanding critical thinker takes time to analyze each and every circumstance from a definitive and indefinite perspective.

They understand that they must be very careful not to jump to any rushed conclusions or make unnecessary assumptions about the events and circumstances they are experiencing. Yet at the same time, they fully realize the importance of bringing forth all the possible assumptions that could be made when dealing with this particular problem. As a result, this conscious assumption awareness leads them to the answers they are searching for.

Here are some questions that will help you to break through the assumptions that may be hindering your understanding of your problems:

What can I directly observe? What could potentially be misinterpreted here? What is another explanation for this?

Reliable vs. Unreliable Analysis

An outstanding critical thinker takes time to judge whether or not a certain perspective or piece of information is reliable or unreliable. They fully understand that if they are unable to identify the reliability of something, that this could throw them off the beaten track, thereby hindering their ability to overcome their problems.

Here are some questions that will help you break down the reliability of the perspectives you have taken:

Can this perspective be justified? Where is the evidence for this? What is it about this that doesn’t quite compute?

Relevant vs. Irrelevant Analysis

An outstanding critical thinker does not waste their time on irrelevant perspectives or pieces of information. They fully know that focusing on irrelevant information and perspectives will lead them to a dead-end that could essentially exacerbate their problems even further. As a result, they zero-in on the most relevant information, perspectives and solutions that will help them to successfully overcome the obstacles and challenges standing in their way.

Here are some questions that will help you to identify the relevance and irrelevance of the perspectives you have taken:

Is this really relevant to the outcome I seek to attain? Is this really relevant to the solutions I hope to realize? What is most relevant to my outcome, and what should I focus my attention on? What is not relevant to my outcome at all?

Critical Thinker’s Questioning Tactics

Outstanding critical thinking rests upon the quality of questions we tend to ask ourselves on a daily basis.

Our problems have an amazing and all-encompassing power when we fail to control and understand their fickle ways. However, through the process of asking effective critical questions, we gain new insights that open the doors to a greater sense of control, helping us reach better solutions to our problematic circumstances.

Within this section, we will focus on a simple questioning process that will force you to think more critically about the problems and circumstances in your life.

Seek Clarification

Whenever first confronted with a problem it is paramount that you immediately seek to clarify what exactly is going on from a variety of different angles and perspectives.

Your goal is to immediately question yourself and others about the problem, identifying the potential causes, reasons, meanings and possible solutions that need to be pieced together.

Here are some questions you should ask yourself or ask others about the problem:

What do you mean when you say…? Why do you say that? Could you give me an example of why this is the case? Can you provide reasons for your perspective and the stance you have taken? Could you explain that further? What other possible factors could have triggered this problem? What else could this mean? Why is this important? Can you restate that another way?

Breakdown Assumptions

Once you have thoroughly clarified the problem, your next step is to break down all the possible assumptions that may be coloring your perception of reality. This is achieved by questioning possible misunderstandings or misleading conclusions that have been made.

Could this potentially be a simple overlooked assumption? How can you justify this statement? Why do you think your assumptions hold here? Why can’t you conclude that? How can you break this down another way?

Probe Different Points of View

Once you have identified and broken down the possible assumptions that you or others might be making, you are now ready to probe for different points-of-view or perspectives that will help you to understand the problem from a variety of unique angles.

What would someone who disagrees with you say? Does anyone see this another way? How exactly? Why have you approached the issue from this perspective? Have you considered the opposite point-of-view? What are some other points-of-view? How are other points-of-view justified?

Probe for Evidence

Having obtained a variety of perspectives and points-of-view, your next step is to begin questioning the validity of these perspectives.

A few words of warning: If you do not validate these perspectives accurately, they may lead you down the wrong path, and you will, therefore, fail to find an effective solution to your problem.

What are your reasons for saying that? Could you explain your reasons further? How do you know that’s true? How does that apply here in this particular situation? Why did you say that? Are these reasons adequate?

Probe for Potential Consequences

The final step of this critical questioning process is to question the possible solutions and implications of the outcomes and perspectives you have reached.

Here are some questions you should ask yourself or ask others about this problem:

When you say… are you implying that…? What effect will that have in the short and long-term? If this is the case, then what else must follow? What are the possible consequences of this decision? Is this the only solution that is available, or is there another alternative?

Concluding Thoughts

Critical thinking is more than just a way of processing, organizing and validating chunks of information, it is, in fact, a lifestyle that we must cultivate and adapt into our habitual patterns of thought and behavior in order to break through the obstacles confronting our lives.

Many of us may very well ignore the critical thinking process and continue to go about our daily lives accepting reality as it appears to be from our limited perspective.

We accept that problems exist, we accept that circumstances will not go our way, and we accept that disappointment awaits us around the corner. This act of acceptance breeds lazy habitual patterns of thinking, acting and decision making, that lock us away into a never-changing inflexible world. We struggle to find answers because we lack the necessary habits of thought that will allow us to expand our understanding and perspective of our circumstances. And as a result, we fail to find the solutions that will awaken our critical thinker from within.

The solution is to begin transforming our perspective through the meticulous process of asking effective questions that will help us to expand our understanding and awareness of our own reality. Cultivate these critical thinking questions, practice them, work through them, and bring them forth into your daily patterns of thinking and behaving, and you will progressively become an outstanding critical thinker.

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Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms for thinking carefully, and the thinking components on which they focus. Its adoption as an educational goal has been recommended on the basis of respect for students’ autonomy and preparing students for success in life and for democratic citizenship. “Critical thinkers” have the dispositions and abilities that lead them to think critically when appropriate. The abilities can be identified directly; the dispositions indirectly, by considering what factors contribute to or impede exercise of the abilities. Standardized tests have been developed to assess the degree to which a person possesses such dispositions and abilities. Educational intervention has been shown experimentally to improve them, particularly when it includes dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring. Controversies have arisen over the generalizability of critical thinking across domains, over alleged bias in critical thinking theories and instruction, and over the relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking.

2.1 Dewey’s Three Main Examples

2.2 dewey’s other examples, 2.3 further examples, 2.4 non-examples, 3. the definition of critical thinking, 4. its value, 5. the process of thinking critically, 6. components of the process, 7. contributory dispositions and abilities, 8.1 initiating dispositions, 8.2 internal dispositions, 9. critical thinking abilities, 10. required knowledge, 11. educational methods, 12.1 the generalizability of critical thinking, 12.2 bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, 12.3 relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking, other internet resources, related entries.

Use of the term ‘critical thinking’ to describe an educational goal goes back to the American philosopher John Dewey (1910), who more commonly called it ‘reflective thinking’. He defined it as

active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey 1910: 6; 1933: 9)

and identified a habit of such consideration with a scientific attitude of mind. His lengthy quotations of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill indicate that he was not the first person to propose development of a scientific attitude of mind as an educational goal.

In the 1930s, many of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association (Aikin 1942) adopted critical thinking as an educational goal, for whose achievement the study’s Evaluation Staff developed tests (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942). Glaser (1941) showed experimentally that it was possible to improve the critical thinking of high school students. Bloom’s influential taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives (Bloom et al. 1956) incorporated critical thinking abilities. Ennis (1962) proposed 12 aspects of critical thinking as a basis for research on the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability.

Since 1980, an annual international conference in California on critical thinking and educational reform has attracted tens of thousands of educators from all levels of education and from many parts of the world. Also since 1980, the state university system in California has required all undergraduate students to take a critical thinking course. Since 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions in conjunction with the divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association (APA). In 1987, the APA’s Committee on Pre-College Philosophy commissioned a consensus statement on critical thinking for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (Facione 1990a). Researchers have developed standardized tests of critical thinking abilities and dispositions; for details, see the Supplement on Assessment . Educational jurisdictions around the world now include critical thinking in guidelines for curriculum and assessment.

For details on this history, see the Supplement on History .

2. Examples and Non-Examples

Before considering the definition of critical thinking, it will be helpful to have in mind some examples of critical thinking, as well as some examples of kinds of thinking that would apparently not count as critical thinking.

Dewey (1910: 68–71; 1933: 91–94) takes as paradigms of reflective thinking three class papers of students in which they describe their thinking. The examples range from the everyday to the scientific.

Transit : “The other day, when I was down town on 16th Street, a clock caught my eye. I saw that the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that I had an engagement at 124th Street, at one o’clock. I reasoned that as it had taken me an hour to come down on a surface car, I should probably be twenty minutes late if I returned the same way. I might save twenty minutes by a subway express. But was there a station near? If not, I might lose more than twenty minutes in looking for one. Then I thought of the elevated, and I saw there was such a line within two blocks. But where was the station? If it were several blocks above or below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of gaining it. My mind went back to the subway express as quicker than the elevated; furthermore, I remembered that it went nearer than the elevated to the part of 124th Street I wished to reach, so that time would be saved at the end of the journey. I concluded in favor of the subway, and reached my destination by one o’clock.” (Dewey 1910: 68–69; 1933: 91–92)

Ferryboat : “Projecting nearly horizontally from the upper deck of the ferryboat on which I daily cross the river is a long white pole, having a gilded ball at its tip. It suggested a flagpole when I first saw it; its color, shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these reasons seemed to justify me in this belief. But soon difficulties presented themselves. The pole was nearly horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the next place, there was no pulley, ring, or cord by which to attach a flag; finally, there were elsewhere on the boat two vertical staffs from which flags were occasionally flown. It seemed probable that the pole was not there for flag-flying.

“I then tried to imagine all possible purposes of the pole, and to consider for which of these it was best suited: (a) Possibly it was an ornament. But as all the ferryboats and even the tugboats carried poles, this hypothesis was rejected. (b) Possibly it was the terminal of a wireless telegraph. But the same considerations made this improbable. Besides, the more natural place for such a terminal would be the highest part of the boat, on top of the pilot house. (c) Its purpose might be to point out the direction in which the boat is moving.

“In support of this conclusion, I discovered that the pole was lower than the pilot house, so that the steersman could easily see it. Moreover, the tip was enough higher than the base, so that, from the pilot’s position, it must appear to project far out in front of the boat. Moreover, the pilot being near the front of the boat, he would need some such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would also need poles for such a purpose. This hypothesis was so much more probable than the others that I accepted it. I formed the conclusion that the pole was set up for the purpose of showing the pilot the direction in which the boat pointed, to enable him to steer correctly.” (Dewey 1910: 69–70; 1933: 92–93)

Bubbles : “In washing tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth downward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? There was no substance entering to force it out. It must have expanded. It expands by increase of heat, or by decrease of pressure, or both. Could the air have become heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrapping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bubbles appear on the outside of every one of the former and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. Air from the outside must have been expanded by the heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the bubbles on the outside. But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was removed, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse” (Dewey 1910: 70–71; 1933: 93–94).

Dewey (1910, 1933) sprinkles his book with other examples of critical thinking. We will refer to the following.

Weather : A man on a walk notices that it has suddenly become cool, thinks that it is probably going to rain, looks up and sees a dark cloud obscuring the sun, and quickens his steps (1910: 6–10; 1933: 9–13).

Disorder : A man finds his rooms on his return to them in disorder with his belongings thrown about, thinks at first of burglary as an explanation, then thinks of mischievous children as being an alternative explanation, then looks to see whether valuables are missing, and discovers that they are (1910: 82–83; 1933: 166–168).

Typhoid : A physician diagnosing a patient whose conspicuous symptoms suggest typhoid avoids drawing a conclusion until more data are gathered by questioning the patient and by making tests (1910: 85–86; 1933: 170).

Blur : A moving blur catches our eye in the distance, we ask ourselves whether it is a cloud of whirling dust or a tree moving its branches or a man signaling to us, we think of other traits that should be found on each of those possibilities, and we look and see if those traits are found (1910: 102, 108; 1933: 121, 133).

Suction pump : In thinking about the suction pump, the scientist first notes that it will draw water only to a maximum height of 33 feet at sea level and to a lesser maximum height at higher elevations, selects for attention the differing atmospheric pressure at these elevations, sets up experiments in which the air is removed from a vessel containing water (when suction no longer works) and in which the weight of air at various levels is calculated, compares the results of reasoning about the height to which a given weight of air will allow a suction pump to raise water with the observed maximum height at different elevations, and finally assimilates the suction pump to such apparently different phenomena as the siphon and the rising of a balloon (1910: 150–153; 1933: 195–198).

Diamond : A passenger in a car driving in a diamond lane reserved for vehicles with at least one passenger notices that the diamond marks on the pavement are far apart in some places and close together in others. Why? The driver suggests that the reason may be that the diamond marks are not needed where there is a solid double line separating the diamond lane from the adjoining lane, but are needed when there is a dotted single line permitting crossing into the diamond lane. Further observation confirms that the diamonds are close together when a dotted line separates the diamond lane from its neighbour, but otherwise far apart.

Rash : A woman suddenly develops a very itchy red rash on her throat and upper chest. She recently noticed a mark on the back of her right hand, but was not sure whether the mark was a rash or a scrape. She lies down in bed and thinks about what might be causing the rash and what to do about it. About two weeks before, she began taking blood pressure medication that contained a sulfa drug, and the pharmacist had warned her, in view of a previous allergic reaction to a medication containing a sulfa drug, to be on the alert for an allergic reaction; however, she had been taking the medication for two weeks with no such effect. The day before, she began using a new cream on her neck and upper chest; against the new cream as the cause was mark on the back of her hand, which had not been exposed to the cream. She began taking probiotics about a month before. She also recently started new eye drops, but she supposed that manufacturers of eye drops would be careful not to include allergy-causing components in the medication. The rash might be a heat rash, since she recently was sweating profusely from her upper body. Since she is about to go away on a short vacation, where she would not have access to her usual physician, she decides to keep taking the probiotics and using the new eye drops but to discontinue the blood pressure medication and to switch back to the old cream for her neck and upper chest. She forms a plan to consult her regular physician on her return about the blood pressure medication.

Candidate : Although Dewey included no examples of thinking directed at appraising the arguments of others, such thinking has come to be considered a kind of critical thinking. We find an example of such thinking in the performance task on the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+), which its sponsoring organization describes as

a performance-based assessment that provides a measure of an institution’s contribution to the development of critical-thinking and written communication skills of its students. (Council for Aid to Education 2017)

A sample task posted on its website requires the test-taker to write a report for public distribution evaluating a fictional candidate’s policy proposals and their supporting arguments, using supplied background documents, with a recommendation on whether to endorse the candidate.

Immediate acceptance of an idea that suggests itself as a solution to a problem (e.g., a possible explanation of an event or phenomenon, an action that seems likely to produce a desired result) is “uncritical thinking, the minimum of reflection” (Dewey 1910: 13). On-going suspension of judgment in the light of doubt about a possible solution is not critical thinking (Dewey 1910: 108). Critique driven by a dogmatically held political or religious ideology is not critical thinking; thus Paulo Freire (1968 [1970]) is using the term (e.g., at 1970: 71, 81, 100, 146) in a more politically freighted sense that includes not only reflection but also revolutionary action against oppression. Derivation of a conclusion from given data using an algorithm is not critical thinking.

What is critical thinking? There are many definitions. Ennis (2016) lists 14 philosophically oriented scholarly definitions and three dictionary definitions. Following Rawls (1971), who distinguished his conception of justice from a utilitarian conception but regarded them as rival conceptions of the same concept, Ennis maintains that the 17 definitions are different conceptions of the same concept. Rawls articulated the shared concept of justice as

a characteristic set of principles for assigning basic rights and duties and for determining… the proper distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation. (Rawls 1971: 5)

Bailin et al. (1999b) claim that, if one considers what sorts of thinking an educator would take not to be critical thinking and what sorts to be critical thinking, one can conclude that educators typically understand critical thinking to have at least three features.

• It is done for the purpose of making up one’s mind about what to believe or do.
• The person engaging in the thinking is trying to fulfill standards of adequacy and accuracy appropriate to the thinking.
• The thinking fulfills the relevant standards to some threshold level.

One could sum up the core concept that involves these three features by saying that critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking. This core concept seems to apply to all the examples of critical thinking described in the previous section. As for the non-examples, their exclusion depends on construing careful thinking as excluding jumping immediately to conclusions, suspending judgment no matter how strong the evidence, reasoning from an unquestioned ideological or religious perspective, and routinely using an algorithm to answer a question.

If the core of critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking, conceptions of it can vary according to its presumed scope, its presumed goal, one’s criteria and threshold for being careful, and the thinking component on which one focuses. As to its scope, some conceptions (e.g., Dewey 1910, 1933) restrict it to constructive thinking on the basis of one’s own observations and experiments, others (e.g., Ennis 1962; Fisher & Scriven 1997; Johnson 1992) to appraisal of the products of such thinking. Ennis (1991) and Bailin et al. (1999b) take it to cover both construction and appraisal. As to its goal, some conceptions restrict it to forming a judgment (Dewey 1910, 1933; Lipman 1987; Facione 1990a). Others allow for actions as well as beliefs as the end point of a process of critical thinking (Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b). As to the criteria and threshold for being careful, definitions vary in the term used to indicate that critical thinking satisfies certain norms: “intellectually disciplined” (Scriven & Paul 1987), “reasonable” (Ennis 1991), “skillful” (Lipman 1987), “skilled” (Fisher & Scriven 1997), “careful” (Bailin & Battersby 2009). Some definitions specify these norms, referring variously to “consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey 1910, 1933); “the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning” (Glaser 1941); “conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul 1987); the requirement that “it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is self-correcting” (Lipman 1987); “evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations” (Facione 1990a); and “plus-minus considerations of the product in terms of appropriate standards (or criteria)” (Johnson 1992). Stanovich and Stanovich (2010) propose to ground the concept of critical thinking in the concept of rationality, which they understand as combining epistemic rationality (fitting one’s beliefs to the world) and instrumental rationality (optimizing goal fulfillment); a critical thinker, in their view, is someone with “a propensity to override suboptimal responses from the autonomous mind” (2010: 227). These variant specifications of norms for critical thinking are not necessarily incompatible with one another, and in any case presuppose the core notion of thinking carefully. As to the thinking component singled out, some definitions focus on suspension of judgment during the thinking (Dewey 1910; McPeck 1981), others on inquiry while judgment is suspended (Bailin & Battersby 2009, 2021), others on the resulting judgment (Facione 1990a), and still others on responsiveness to reasons (Siegel 1988). Kuhn (2019) takes critical thinking to be more a dialogic practice of advancing and responding to arguments than an individual ability.

In educational contexts, a definition of critical thinking is a “programmatic definition” (Scheffler 1960: 19). It expresses a practical program for achieving an educational goal. For this purpose, a one-sentence formulaic definition is much less useful than articulation of a critical thinking process, with criteria and standards for the kinds of thinking that the process may involve. The real educational goal is recognition, adoption and implementation by students of those criteria and standards. That adoption and implementation in turn consists in acquiring the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker.

Conceptions of critical thinking generally do not include moral integrity as part of the concept. Dewey, for example, took critical thinking to be the ultimate intellectual goal of education, but distinguished it from the development of social cooperation among school children, which he took to be the central moral goal. Ennis (1996, 2011) added to his previous list of critical thinking dispositions a group of dispositions to care about the dignity and worth of every person, which he described as a “correlative” (1996) disposition without which critical thinking would be less valuable and perhaps harmful. An educational program that aimed at developing critical thinking but not the correlative disposition to care about the dignity and worth of every person, he asserted, “would be deficient and perhaps dangerous” (Ennis 1996: 172).

Dewey thought that education for reflective thinking would be of value to both the individual and society; recognition in educational practice of the kinship to the scientific attitude of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (Dewey 1910: iii). Schools participating in the Eight-Year Study took development of the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems as a means to leading young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18, 81). Harvey Siegel (1988: 55–61) has offered four considerations in support of adopting critical thinking as an educational ideal. (1) Respect for persons requires that schools and teachers honour students’ demands for reasons and explanations, deal with students honestly, and recognize the need to confront students’ independent judgment; these requirements concern the manner in which teachers treat students. (2) Education has the task of preparing children to be successful adults, a task that requires development of their self-sufficiency. (3) Education should initiate children into the rational traditions in such fields as history, science and mathematics. (4) Education should prepare children to become democratic citizens, which requires reasoned procedures and critical talents and attitudes. To supplement these considerations, Siegel (1988: 62–90) responds to two objections: the ideology objection that adoption of any educational ideal requires a prior ideological commitment and the indoctrination objection that cultivation of critical thinking cannot escape being a form of indoctrination.

Despite the diversity of our 11 examples, one can recognize a common pattern. Dewey analyzed it as consisting of five phases:

• suggestions , in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution;
• an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought;
• the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis , to initiate and guide observation and other operations in collection of factual material;
• the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition ( reasoning , in the sense on which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference); and
• testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action. (Dewey 1933: 106–107; italics in original)

The process of reflective thinking consisting of these phases would be preceded by a perplexed, troubled or confused situation and followed by a cleared-up, unified, resolved situation (Dewey 1933: 106). The term ‘phases’ replaced the term ‘steps’ (Dewey 1910: 72), thus removing the earlier suggestion of an invariant sequence. Variants of the above analysis appeared in (Dewey 1916: 177) and (Dewey 1938: 101–119).

The variant formulations indicate the difficulty of giving a single logical analysis of such a varied process. The process of critical thinking may have a spiral pattern, with the problem being redefined in the light of obstacles to solving it as originally formulated. For example, the person in Transit might have concluded that getting to the appointment at the scheduled time was impossible and have reformulated the problem as that of rescheduling the appointment for a mutually convenient time. Further, defining a problem does not always follow after or lead immediately to an idea of a suggested solution. Nor should it do so, as Dewey himself recognized in describing the physician in Typhoid as avoiding any strong preference for this or that conclusion before getting further information (Dewey 1910: 85; 1933: 170). People with a hypothesis in mind, even one to which they have a very weak commitment, have a so-called “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998): they are likely to pay attention to evidence that confirms the hypothesis and to ignore evidence that counts against it or for some competing hypothesis. Detectives, intelligence agencies, and investigators of airplane accidents are well advised to gather relevant evidence systematically and to postpone even tentative adoption of an explanatory hypothesis until the collected evidence rules out with the appropriate degree of certainty all but one explanation. Dewey’s analysis of the critical thinking process can be faulted as well for requiring acceptance or rejection of a possible solution to a defined problem, with no allowance for deciding in the light of the available evidence to suspend judgment. Further, given the great variety of kinds of problems for which reflection is appropriate, there is likely to be variation in its component events. Perhaps the best way to conceptualize the critical thinking process is as a checklist whose component events can occur in a variety of orders, selectively, and more than once. These component events might include (1) noticing a difficulty, (2) defining the problem, (3) dividing the problem into manageable sub-problems, (4) formulating a variety of possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (5) determining what evidence is relevant to deciding among possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (6) devising a plan of systematic observation or experiment that will uncover the relevant evidence, (7) carrying out the plan of systematic observation or experimentation, (8) noting the results of the systematic observation or experiment, (9) gathering relevant testimony and information from others, (10) judging the credibility of testimony and information gathered from others, (11) drawing conclusions from gathered evidence and accepted testimony, and (12) accepting a solution that the evidence adequately supports (cf. Hitchcock 2017: 485).

Checklist conceptions of the process of critical thinking are open to the objection that they are too mechanical and procedural to fit the multi-dimensional and emotionally charged issues for which critical thinking is urgently needed (Paul 1984). For such issues, a more dialectical process is advocated, in which competing relevant world views are identified, their implications explored, and some sort of creative synthesis attempted.

If one considers the critical thinking process illustrated by the 11 examples, one can identify distinct kinds of mental acts and mental states that form part of it. To distinguish, label and briefly characterize these components is a useful preliminary to identifying abilities, skills, dispositions, attitudes, habits and the like that contribute causally to thinking critically. Identifying such abilities and habits is in turn a useful preliminary to setting educational goals. Setting the goals is in its turn a useful preliminary to designing strategies for helping learners to achieve the goals and to designing ways of measuring the extent to which learners have done so. Such measures provide both feedback to learners on their achievement and a basis for experimental research on the effectiveness of various strategies for educating people to think critically. Let us begin, then, by distinguishing the kinds of mental acts and mental events that can occur in a critical thinking process.

• Observing : One notices something in one’s immediate environment (sudden cooling of temperature in Weather , bubbles forming outside a glass and then going inside in Bubbles , a moving blur in the distance in Blur , a rash in Rash ). Or one notes the results of an experiment or systematic observation (valuables missing in Disorder , no suction without air pressure in Suction pump )
• Feeling : One feels puzzled or uncertain about something (how to get to an appointment on time in Transit , why the diamonds vary in spacing in Diamond ). One wants to resolve this perplexity. One feels satisfaction once one has worked out an answer (to take the subway express in Transit , diamonds closer when needed as a warning in Diamond ).
• Wondering : One formulates a question to be addressed (why bubbles form outside a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , how suction pumps work in Suction pump , what caused the rash in Rash ).
• Imagining : One thinks of possible answers (bus or subway or elevated in Transit , flagpole or ornament or wireless communication aid or direction indicator in Ferryboat , allergic reaction or heat rash in Rash ).
• Inferring : One works out what would be the case if a possible answer were assumed (valuables missing if there has been a burglary in Disorder , earlier start to the rash if it is an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug in Rash ). Or one draws a conclusion once sufficient relevant evidence is gathered (take the subway in Transit , burglary in Disorder , discontinue blood pressure medication and new cream in Rash ).
• Knowledge : One uses stored knowledge of the subject-matter to generate possible answers or to infer what would be expected on the assumption of a particular answer (knowledge of a city’s public transit system in Transit , of the requirements for a flagpole in Ferryboat , of Boyle’s law in Bubbles , of allergic reactions in Rash ).
• Experimenting : One designs and carries out an experiment or a systematic observation to find out whether the results deduced from a possible answer will occur (looking at the location of the flagpole in relation to the pilot’s position in Ferryboat , putting an ice cube on top of a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , measuring the height to which a suction pump will draw water at different elevations in Suction pump , noticing the spacing of diamonds when movement to or from a diamond lane is allowed in Diamond ).
• Consulting : One finds a source of information, gets the information from the source, and makes a judgment on whether to accept it. None of our 11 examples include searching for sources of information. In this respect they are unrepresentative, since most people nowadays have almost instant access to information relevant to answering any question, including many of those illustrated by the examples. However, Candidate includes the activities of extracting information from sources and evaluating its credibility.
• Identifying and analyzing arguments : One notices an argument and works out its structure and content as a preliminary to evaluating its strength. This activity is central to Candidate . It is an important part of a critical thinking process in which one surveys arguments for various positions on an issue.
• Judging : One makes a judgment on the basis of accumulated evidence and reasoning, such as the judgment in Ferryboat that the purpose of the pole is to provide direction to the pilot.
• Deciding : One makes a decision on what to do or on what policy to adopt, as in the decision in Transit to take the subway.

By definition, a person who does something voluntarily is both willing and able to do that thing at that time. Both the willingness and the ability contribute causally to the person’s action, in the sense that the voluntary action would not occur if either (or both) of these were lacking. For example, suppose that one is standing with one’s arms at one’s sides and one voluntarily lifts one’s right arm to an extended horizontal position. One would not do so if one were unable to lift one’s arm, if for example one’s right side was paralyzed as the result of a stroke. Nor would one do so if one were unwilling to lift one’s arm, if for example one were participating in a street demonstration at which a white supremacist was urging the crowd to lift their right arm in a Nazi salute and one were unwilling to express support in this way for the racist Nazi ideology. The same analysis applies to a voluntary mental process of thinking critically. It requires both willingness and ability to think critically, including willingness and ability to perform each of the mental acts that compose the process and to coordinate those acts in a sequence that is directed at resolving the initiating perplexity.

Consider willingness first. We can identify causal contributors to willingness to think critically by considering factors that would cause a person who was able to think critically about an issue nevertheless not to do so (Hamby 2014). For each factor, the opposite condition thus contributes causally to willingness to think critically on a particular occasion. For example, people who habitually jump to conclusions without considering alternatives will not think critically about issues that arise, even if they have the required abilities. The contrary condition of willingness to suspend judgment is thus a causal contributor to thinking critically.

Now consider ability. In contrast to the ability to move one’s arm, which can be completely absent because a stroke has left the arm paralyzed, the ability to think critically is a developed ability, whose absence is not a complete absence of ability to think but absence of ability to think well. We can identify the ability to think well directly, in terms of the norms and standards for good thinking. In general, to be able do well the thinking activities that can be components of a critical thinking process, one needs to know the concepts and principles that characterize their good performance, to recognize in particular cases that the concepts and principles apply, and to apply them. The knowledge, recognition and application may be procedural rather than declarative. It may be domain-specific rather than widely applicable, and in either case may need subject-matter knowledge, sometimes of a deep kind.

Reflections of the sort illustrated by the previous two paragraphs have led scholars to identify the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a “critical thinker”, i.e., someone who thinks critically whenever it is appropriate to do so. We turn now to these three types of causal contributors to thinking critically. We start with dispositions, since arguably these are the most powerful contributors to being a critical thinker, can be fostered at an early stage of a child’s development, and are susceptible to general improvement (Glaser 1941: 175)

8. Critical Thinking Dispositions

Educational researchers use the term ‘dispositions’ broadly for the habits of mind and attitudes that contribute causally to being a critical thinker. Some writers (e.g., Paul & Elder 2006; Hamby 2014; Bailin & Battersby 2016a) propose to use the term ‘virtues’ for this dimension of a critical thinker. The virtues in question, although they are virtues of character, concern the person’s ways of thinking rather than the person’s ways of behaving towards others. They are not moral virtues but intellectual virtues, of the sort articulated by Zagzebski (1996) and discussed by Turri, Alfano, and Greco (2017).

On a realistic conception, thinking dispositions or intellectual virtues are real properties of thinkers. They are general tendencies, propensities, or inclinations to think in particular ways in particular circumstances, and can be genuinely explanatory (Siegel 1999). Sceptics argue that there is no evidence for a specific mental basis for the habits of mind that contribute to thinking critically, and that it is pedagogically misleading to posit such a basis (Bailin et al. 1999a). Whatever their status, critical thinking dispositions need motivation for their initial formation in a child—motivation that may be external or internal. As children develop, the force of habit will gradually become important in sustaining the disposition (Nieto & Valenzuela 2012). Mere force of habit, however, is unlikely to sustain critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinkers must value and enjoy using their knowledge and abilities to think things through for themselves. They must be committed to, and lovers of, inquiry.

A person may have a critical thinking disposition with respect to only some kinds of issues. For example, one could be open-minded about scientific issues but not about religious issues. Similarly, one could be confident in one’s ability to reason about the theological implications of the existence of evil in the world but not in one’s ability to reason about the best design for a guided ballistic missile.

Facione (1990a: 25) divides “affective dispositions” of critical thinking into approaches to life and living in general and approaches to specific issues, questions or problems. Adapting this distinction, one can usefully divide critical thinking dispositions into initiating dispositions (those that contribute causally to starting to think critically about an issue) and internal dispositions (those that contribute causally to doing a good job of thinking critically once one has started). The two categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, open-mindedness, in the sense of willingness to consider alternative points of view to one’s own, is both an initiating and an internal disposition.

Using the strategy of considering factors that would block people with the ability to think critically from doing so, we can identify as initiating dispositions for thinking critically attentiveness, a habit of inquiry, self-confidence, courage, open-mindedness, willingness to suspend judgment, trust in reason, wanting evidence for one’s beliefs, and seeking the truth. We consider briefly what each of these dispositions amounts to, in each case citing sources that acknowledge them.

• Attentiveness : One will not think critically if one fails to recognize an issue that needs to be thought through. For example, the pedestrian in Weather would not have looked up if he had not noticed that the air was suddenly cooler. To be a critical thinker, then, one needs to be habitually attentive to one’s surroundings, noticing not only what one senses but also sources of perplexity in messages received and in one’s own beliefs and attitudes (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
• Habit of inquiry : Inquiry is effortful, and one needs an internal push to engage in it. For example, the student in Bubbles could easily have stopped at idle wondering about the cause of the bubbles rather than reasoning to a hypothesis, then designing and executing an experiment to test it. Thus willingness to think critically needs mental energy and initiative. What can supply that energy? Love of inquiry, or perhaps just a habit of inquiry. Hamby (2015) has argued that willingness to inquire is the central critical thinking virtue, one that encompasses all the others. It is recognized as a critical thinking disposition by Dewey (1910: 29; 1933: 35), Glaser (1941: 5), Ennis (1987: 12; 1991: 8), Facione (1990a: 25), Bailin et al. (1999b: 294), Halpern (1998: 452), and Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo (2001).
• Self-confidence : Lack of confidence in one’s abilities can block critical thinking. For example, if the woman in Rash lacked confidence in her ability to figure things out for herself, she might just have assumed that the rash on her chest was the allergic reaction to her medication against which the pharmacist had warned her. Thus willingness to think critically requires confidence in one’s ability to inquire (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
• Courage : Fear of thinking for oneself can stop one from doing it. Thus willingness to think critically requires intellectual courage (Paul & Elder 2006: 16).
• Open-mindedness : A dogmatic attitude will impede thinking critically. For example, a person who adheres rigidly to a “pro-choice” position on the issue of the legal status of induced abortion is likely to be unwilling to consider seriously the issue of when in its development an unborn child acquires a moral right to life. Thus willingness to think critically requires open-mindedness, in the sense of a willingness to examine questions to which one already accepts an answer but which further evidence or reasoning might cause one to answer differently (Dewey 1933; Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b; Halpern 1998, Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). Paul (1981) emphasizes open-mindedness about alternative world-views, and recommends a dialectical approach to integrating such views as central to what he calls “strong sense” critical thinking. In three studies, Haran, Ritov, & Mellers (2013) found that actively open-minded thinking, including “the tendency to weigh new evidence against a favored belief, to spend sufficient time on a problem before giving up, and to consider carefully the opinions of others in forming one’s own”, led study participants to acquire information and thus to make accurate estimations.
• Willingness to suspend judgment : Premature closure on an initial solution will block critical thinking. Thus willingness to think critically requires a willingness to suspend judgment while alternatives are explored (Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Halpern 1998).
• Trust in reason : Since distrust in the processes of reasoned inquiry will dissuade one from engaging in it, trust in them is an initiating critical thinking disposition (Facione 1990a, 25; Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001; Paul & Elder 2006). In reaction to an allegedly exclusive emphasis on reason in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, Thayer-Bacon (2000) argues that intuition, imagination, and emotion have important roles to play in an adequate conception of critical thinking that she calls “constructive thinking”. From her point of view, critical thinking requires trust not only in reason but also in intuition, imagination, and emotion.
• Seeking the truth : If one does not care about the truth but is content to stick with one’s initial bias on an issue, then one will not think critically about it. Seeking the truth is thus an initiating critical thinking disposition (Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). A disposition to seek the truth is implicit in more specific critical thinking dispositions, such as trying to be well-informed, considering seriously points of view other than one’s own, looking for alternatives, suspending judgment when the evidence is insufficient, and adopting a position when the evidence supporting it is sufficient.

Some of the initiating dispositions, such as open-mindedness and willingness to suspend judgment, are also internal critical thinking dispositions, in the sense of mental habits or attitudes that contribute causally to doing a good job of critical thinking once one starts the process. But there are many other internal critical thinking dispositions. Some of them are parasitic on one’s conception of good thinking. For example, it is constitutive of good thinking about an issue to formulate the issue clearly and to maintain focus on it. For this purpose, one needs not only the corresponding ability but also the corresponding disposition. Ennis (1991: 8) describes it as the disposition “to determine and maintain focus on the conclusion or question”, Facione (1990a: 25) as “clarity in stating the question or concern”. Other internal dispositions are motivators to continue or adjust the critical thinking process, such as willingness to persist in a complex task and willingness to abandon nonproductive strategies in an attempt to self-correct (Halpern 1998: 452). For a list of identified internal critical thinking dispositions, see the Supplement on Internal Critical Thinking Dispositions .

Some theorists postulate skills, i.e., acquired abilities, as operative in critical thinking. It is not obvious, however, that a good mental act is the exercise of a generic acquired skill. Inferring an expected time of arrival, as in Transit , has some generic components but also uses non-generic subject-matter knowledge. Bailin et al. (1999a) argue against viewing critical thinking skills as generic and discrete, on the ground that skilled performance at a critical thinking task cannot be separated from knowledge of concepts and from domain-specific principles of good thinking. Talk of skills, they concede, is unproblematic if it means merely that a person with critical thinking skills is capable of intelligent performance.

Despite such scepticism, theorists of critical thinking have listed as general contributors to critical thinking what they variously call abilities (Glaser 1941; Ennis 1962, 1991), skills (Facione 1990a; Halpern 1998) or competencies (Fisher & Scriven 1997). Amalgamating these lists would produce a confusing and chaotic cornucopia of more than 50 possible educational objectives, with only partial overlap among them. It makes sense instead to try to understand the reasons for the multiplicity and diversity, and to make a selection according to one’s own reasons for singling out abilities to be developed in a critical thinking curriculum. Two reasons for diversity among lists of critical thinking abilities are the underlying conception of critical thinking and the envisaged educational level. Appraisal-only conceptions, for example, involve a different suite of abilities than constructive-only conceptions. Some lists, such as those in (Glaser 1941), are put forward as educational objectives for secondary school students, whereas others are proposed as objectives for college students (e.g., Facione 1990a).

The abilities described in the remaining paragraphs of this section emerge from reflection on the general abilities needed to do well the thinking activities identified in section 6 as components of the critical thinking process described in section 5 . The derivation of each collection of abilities is accompanied by citation of sources that list such abilities and of standardized tests that claim to test them.

Observational abilities : Careful and accurate observation sometimes requires specialist expertise and practice, as in the case of observing birds and observing accident scenes. However, there are general abilities of noticing what one’s senses are picking up from one’s environment and of being able to articulate clearly and accurately to oneself and others what one has observed. It helps in exercising them to be able to recognize and take into account factors that make one’s observation less trustworthy, such as prior framing of the situation, inadequate time, deficient senses, poor observation conditions, and the like. It helps as well to be skilled at taking steps to make one’s observation more trustworthy, such as moving closer to get a better look, measuring something three times and taking the average, and checking what one thinks one is observing with someone else who is in a good position to observe it. It also helps to be skilled at recognizing respects in which one’s report of one’s observation involves inference rather than direct observation, so that one can then consider whether the inference is justified. These abilities come into play as well when one thinks about whether and with what degree of confidence to accept an observation report, for example in the study of history or in a criminal investigation or in assessing news reports. Observational abilities show up in some lists of critical thinking abilities (Ennis 1962: 90; Facione 1990a: 16; Ennis 1991: 9). There are items testing a person’s ability to judge the credibility of observation reports in the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Levels X and Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). Norris and King (1983, 1985, 1990a, 1990b) is a test of ability to appraise observation reports.

Emotional abilities : The emotions that drive a critical thinking process are perplexity or puzzlement, a wish to resolve it, and satisfaction at achieving the desired resolution. Children experience these emotions at an early age, without being trained to do so. Education that takes critical thinking as a goal needs only to channel these emotions and to make sure not to stifle them. Collaborative critical thinking benefits from ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotional commitments and reactions.

Questioning abilities : A critical thinking process needs transformation of an inchoate sense of perplexity into a clear question. Formulating a question well requires not building in questionable assumptions, not prejudging the issue, and using language that in context is unambiguous and precise enough (Ennis 1962: 97; 1991: 9).

Imaginative abilities : Thinking directed at finding the correct causal explanation of a general phenomenon or particular event requires an ability to imagine possible explanations. Thinking about what policy or plan of action to adopt requires generation of options and consideration of possible consequences of each option. Domain knowledge is required for such creative activity, but a general ability to imagine alternatives is helpful and can be nurtured so as to become easier, quicker, more extensive, and deeper (Dewey 1910: 34–39; 1933: 40–47). Facione (1990a) and Halpern (1998) include the ability to imagine alternatives as a critical thinking ability.

Inferential abilities : The ability to draw conclusions from given information, and to recognize with what degree of certainty one’s own or others’ conclusions follow, is universally recognized as a general critical thinking ability. All 11 examples in section 2 of this article include inferences, some from hypotheses or options (as in Transit , Ferryboat and Disorder ), others from something observed (as in Weather and Rash ). None of these inferences is formally valid. Rather, they are licensed by general, sometimes qualified substantive rules of inference (Toulmin 1958) that rest on domain knowledge—that a bus trip takes about the same time in each direction, that the terminal of a wireless telegraph would be located on the highest possible place, that sudden cooling is often followed by rain, that an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug generally shows up soon after one starts taking it. It is a matter of controversy to what extent the specialized ability to deduce conclusions from premisses using formal rules of inference is needed for critical thinking. Dewey (1933) locates logical forms in setting out the products of reflection rather than in the process of reflection. Ennis (1981a), on the other hand, maintains that a liberally-educated person should have the following abilities: to translate natural-language statements into statements using the standard logical operators, to use appropriately the language of necessary and sufficient conditions, to deal with argument forms and arguments containing symbols, to determine whether in virtue of an argument’s form its conclusion follows necessarily from its premisses, to reason with logically complex propositions, and to apply the rules and procedures of deductive logic. Inferential abilities are recognized as critical thinking abilities by Glaser (1941: 6), Facione (1990a: 9), Ennis (1991: 9), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 99, 111), and Halpern (1998: 452). Items testing inferential abilities constitute two of the five subtests of the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser 1980a, 1980b, 1994), two of the four sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), three of the seven sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), 11 of the 34 items on Forms A and B of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992), and a high but variable proportion of the 25 selected-response questions in the Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Experimenting abilities : Knowing how to design and execute an experiment is important not just in scientific research but also in everyday life, as in Rash . Dewey devoted a whole chapter of his How We Think (1910: 145–156; 1933: 190–202) to the superiority of experimentation over observation in advancing knowledge. Experimenting abilities come into play at one remove in appraising reports of scientific studies. Skill in designing and executing experiments includes the acknowledged abilities to appraise evidence (Glaser 1941: 6), to carry out experiments and to apply appropriate statistical inference techniques (Facione 1990a: 9), to judge inductions to an explanatory hypothesis (Ennis 1991: 9), and to recognize the need for an adequately large sample size (Halpern 1998). The Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) includes four items (out of 52) on experimental design. The Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) makes room for appraisal of study design in both its performance task and its selected-response questions.

Consulting abilities : Skill at consulting sources of information comes into play when one seeks information to help resolve a problem, as in Candidate . Ability to find and appraise information includes ability to gather and marshal pertinent information (Glaser 1941: 6), to judge whether a statement made by an alleged authority is acceptable (Ennis 1962: 84), to plan a search for desired information (Facione 1990a: 9), and to judge the credibility of a source (Ennis 1991: 9). Ability to judge the credibility of statements is tested by 24 items (out of 76) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) and by four items (out of 52) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). The College Learning Assessment’s performance task requires evaluation of whether information in documents is credible or unreliable (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Argument analysis abilities : The ability to identify and analyze arguments contributes to the process of surveying arguments on an issue in order to form one’s own reasoned judgment, as in Candidate . The ability to detect and analyze arguments is recognized as a critical thinking skill by Facione (1990a: 7–8), Ennis (1991: 9) and Halpern (1998). Five items (out of 34) on the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992) test skill at argument analysis. The College Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) incorporates argument analysis in its selected-response tests of critical reading and evaluation and of critiquing an argument.

Judging skills and deciding skills : Skill at judging and deciding is skill at recognizing what judgment or decision the available evidence and argument supports, and with what degree of confidence. It is thus a component of the inferential skills already discussed.

Lists and tests of critical thinking abilities often include two more abilities: identifying assumptions and constructing and evaluating definitions.

In addition to dispositions and abilities, critical thinking needs knowledge: of critical thinking concepts, of critical thinking principles, and of the subject-matter of the thinking.

We can derive a short list of concepts whose understanding contributes to critical thinking from the critical thinking abilities described in the preceding section. Observational abilities require an understanding of the difference between observation and inference. Questioning abilities require an understanding of the concepts of ambiguity and vagueness. Inferential abilities require an understanding of the difference between conclusive and defeasible inference (traditionally, between deduction and induction), as well as of the difference between necessary and sufficient conditions. Experimenting abilities require an understanding of the concepts of hypothesis, null hypothesis, assumption and prediction, as well as of the concept of statistical significance and of its difference from importance. They also require an understanding of the difference between an experiment and an observational study, and in particular of the difference between a randomized controlled trial, a prospective correlational study and a retrospective (case-control) study. Argument analysis abilities require an understanding of the concepts of argument, premiss, assumption, conclusion and counter-consideration. Additional critical thinking concepts are proposed by Bailin et al. (1999b: 293), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 105–106), Black (2012), and Blair (2021).

According to Glaser (1941: 25), ability to think critically requires knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning. If we review the list of abilities in the preceding section, however, we can see that some of them can be acquired and exercised merely through practice, possibly guided in an educational setting, followed by feedback. Searching intelligently for a causal explanation of some phenomenon or event requires that one consider a full range of possible causal contributors, but it seems more important that one implements this principle in one’s practice than that one is able to articulate it. What is important is “operational knowledge” of the standards and principles of good thinking (Bailin et al. 1999b: 291–293). But the development of such critical thinking abilities as designing an experiment or constructing an operational definition can benefit from learning their underlying theory. Further, explicit knowledge of quirks of human thinking seems useful as a cautionary guide. Human memory is not just fallible about details, as people learn from their own experiences of misremembering, but is so malleable that a detailed, clear and vivid recollection of an event can be a total fabrication (Loftus 2017). People seek or interpret evidence in ways that are partial to their existing beliefs and expectations, often unconscious of their “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998). Not only are people subject to this and other cognitive biases (Kahneman 2011), of which they are typically unaware, but it may be counter-productive for one to make oneself aware of them and try consciously to counteract them or to counteract social biases such as racial or sexual stereotypes (Kenyon & Beaulac 2014). It is helpful to be aware of these facts and of the superior effectiveness of blocking the operation of biases—for example, by making an immediate record of one’s observations, refraining from forming a preliminary explanatory hypothesis, blind refereeing, double-blind randomized trials, and blind grading of students’ work. It is also helpful to be aware of the prevalence of “noise” (unwanted unsystematic variability of judgments), of how to detect noise (through a noise audit), and of how to reduce noise: make accuracy the goal, think statistically, break a process of arriving at a judgment into independent tasks, resist premature intuitions, in a group get independent judgments first, favour comparative judgments and scales (Kahneman, Sibony, & Sunstein 2021). It is helpful as well to be aware of the concept of “bounded rationality” in decision-making and of the related distinction between “satisficing” and optimizing (Simon 1956; Gigerenzer 2001).

Critical thinking about an issue requires substantive knowledge of the domain to which the issue belongs. Critical thinking abilities are not a magic elixir that can be applied to any issue whatever by somebody who has no knowledge of the facts relevant to exploring that issue. For example, the student in Bubbles needed to know that gases do not penetrate solid objects like a glass, that air expands when heated, that the volume of an enclosed gas varies directly with its temperature and inversely with its pressure, and that hot objects will spontaneously cool down to the ambient temperature of their surroundings unless kept hot by insulation or a source of heat. Critical thinkers thus need a rich fund of subject-matter knowledge relevant to the variety of situations they encounter. This fact is recognized in the inclusion among critical thinking dispositions of a concern to become and remain generally well informed.

Experimental educational interventions, with control groups, have shown that education can improve critical thinking skills and dispositions, as measured by standardized tests. For information about these tests, see the Supplement on Assessment .

What educational methods are most effective at developing the dispositions, abilities and knowledge of a critical thinker? In a comprehensive meta-analysis of experimental and quasi-experimental studies of strategies for teaching students to think critically, Abrami et al. (2015) found that dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring each increased the effectiveness of the educational intervention, and that they were most effective when combined. They also found that in these studies a combination of separate instruction in critical thinking with subject-matter instruction in which students are encouraged to think critically was more effective than either by itself. However, the difference was not statistically significant; that is, it might have arisen by chance.

Most of these studies lack the longitudinal follow-up required to determine whether the observed differential improvements in critical thinking abilities or dispositions continue over time, for example until high school or college graduation. For details on studies of methods of developing critical thinking skills and dispositions, see the Supplement on Educational Methods .

12. Controversies

Scholars have denied the generalizability of critical thinking abilities across subject domains, have alleged bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, and have investigated the relationship of critical thinking to other kinds of thinking.

McPeck (1981) attacked the thinking skills movement of the 1970s, including the critical thinking movement. He argued that there are no general thinking skills, since thinking is always thinking about some subject-matter. It is futile, he claimed, for schools and colleges to teach thinking as if it were a separate subject. Rather, teachers should lead their pupils to become autonomous thinkers by teaching school subjects in a way that brings out their cognitive structure and that encourages and rewards discussion and argument. As some of his critics (e.g., Paul 1985; Siegel 1985) pointed out, McPeck’s central argument needs elaboration, since it has obvious counter-examples in writing and speaking, for which (up to a certain level of complexity) there are teachable general abilities even though they are always about some subject-matter. To make his argument convincing, McPeck needs to explain how thinking differs from writing and speaking in a way that does not permit useful abstraction of its components from the subject-matters with which it deals. He has not done so. Nevertheless, his position that the dispositions and abilities of a critical thinker are best developed in the context of subject-matter instruction is shared by many theorists of critical thinking, including Dewey (1910, 1933), Glaser (1941), Passmore (1980), Weinstein (1990), Bailin et al. (1999b), and Willingham (2019).

McPeck’s challenge prompted reflection on the extent to which critical thinking is subject-specific. McPeck argued for a strong subject-specificity thesis, according to which it is a conceptual truth that all critical thinking abilities are specific to a subject. (He did not however extend his subject-specificity thesis to critical thinking dispositions. In particular, he took the disposition to suspend judgment in situations of cognitive dissonance to be a general disposition.) Conceptual subject-specificity is subject to obvious counter-examples, such as the general ability to recognize confusion of necessary and sufficient conditions. A more modest thesis, also endorsed by McPeck, is epistemological subject-specificity, according to which the norms of good thinking vary from one field to another. Epistemological subject-specificity clearly holds to a certain extent; for example, the principles in accordance with which one solves a differential equation are quite different from the principles in accordance with which one determines whether a painting is a genuine Picasso. But the thesis suffers, as Ennis (1989) points out, from vagueness of the concept of a field or subject and from the obvious existence of inter-field principles, however broadly the concept of a field is construed. For example, the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning hold for all the varied fields in which such reasoning occurs. A third kind of subject-specificity is empirical subject-specificity, according to which as a matter of empirically observable fact a person with the abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker in one area of investigation will not necessarily have them in another area of investigation.

The thesis of empirical subject-specificity raises the general problem of transfer. If critical thinking abilities and dispositions have to be developed independently in each school subject, how are they of any use in dealing with the problems of everyday life and the political and social issues of contemporary society, most of which do not fit into the framework of a traditional school subject? Proponents of empirical subject-specificity tend to argue that transfer is more likely to occur if there is critical thinking instruction in a variety of domains, with explicit attention to dispositions and abilities that cut across domains. But evidence for this claim is scanty. There is a need for well-designed empirical studies that investigate the conditions that make transfer more likely.

It is common ground in debates about the generality or subject-specificity of critical thinking dispositions and abilities that critical thinking about any topic requires background knowledge about the topic. For example, the most sophisticated understanding of the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is of no help unless accompanied by some knowledge of what might be plausible explanations of some phenomenon under investigation.

Critics have objected to bias in the theory, pedagogy and practice of critical thinking. Commentators (e.g., Alston 1995; Ennis 1998) have noted that anyone who takes a position has a bias in the neutral sense of being inclined in one direction rather than others. The critics, however, are objecting to bias in the pejorative sense of an unjustified favoring of certain ways of knowing over others, frequently alleging that the unjustly favoured ways are those of a dominant sex or culture (Bailin 1995). These ways favour:

• reinforcement of egocentric and sociocentric biases over dialectical engagement with opposing world-views (Paul 1981, 1984; Warren 1998)
• distancing from the object of inquiry over closeness to it (Martin 1992; Thayer-Bacon 1992)
• indifference to the situation of others over care for them (Martin 1992)
• orientation to thought over orientation to action (Martin 1992)
• being reasonable over caring to understand people’s ideas (Thayer-Bacon 1993)
• being neutral and objective over being embodied and situated (Thayer-Bacon 1995a)
• doubting over believing (Thayer-Bacon 1995b)
• reason over emotion, imagination and intuition (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
• solitary thinking over collaborative thinking (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
• written and spoken assignments over other forms of expression (Alston 2001)
• attention to written and spoken communications over attention to human problems (Alston 2001)
• winning debates in the public sphere over making and understanding meaning (Alston 2001)

A common thread in this smorgasbord of accusations is dissatisfaction with focusing on the logical analysis and evaluation of reasoning and arguments. While these authors acknowledge that such analysis and evaluation is part of critical thinking and should be part of its conceptualization and pedagogy, they insist that it is only a part. Paul (1981), for example, bemoans the tendency of atomistic teaching of methods of analyzing and evaluating arguments to turn students into more able sophists, adept at finding fault with positions and arguments with which they disagree but even more entrenched in the egocentric and sociocentric biases with which they began. Martin (1992) and Thayer-Bacon (1992) cite with approval the self-reported intimacy with their subject-matter of leading researchers in biology and medicine, an intimacy that conflicts with the distancing allegedly recommended in standard conceptions and pedagogy of critical thinking. Thayer-Bacon (2000) contrasts the embodied and socially embedded learning of her elementary school students in a Montessori school, who used their imagination, intuition and emotions as well as their reason, with conceptions of critical thinking as

thinking that is used to critique arguments, offer justifications, and make judgments about what are the good reasons, or the right answers. (Thayer-Bacon 2000: 127–128)

Alston (2001) reports that her students in a women’s studies class were able to see the flaws in the Cinderella myth that pervades much romantic fiction but in their own romantic relationships still acted as if all failures were the woman’s fault and still accepted the notions of love at first sight and living happily ever after. Students, she writes, should

be able to connect their intellectual critique to a more affective, somatic, and ethical account of making risky choices that have sexist, racist, classist, familial, sexual, or other consequences for themselves and those both near and far… critical thinking that reads arguments, texts, or practices merely on the surface without connections to feeling/desiring/doing or action lacks an ethical depth that should infuse the difference between mere cognitive activity and something we want to call critical thinking. (Alston 2001: 34)

Some critics portray such biases as unfair to women. Thayer-Bacon (1992), for example, has charged modern critical thinking theory with being sexist, on the ground that it separates the self from the object and causes one to lose touch with one’s inner voice, and thus stigmatizes women, who (she asserts) link self to object and listen to their inner voice. Her charge does not imply that women as a group are on average less able than men to analyze and evaluate arguments. Facione (1990c) found no difference by sex in performance on his California Critical Thinking Skills Test. Kuhn (1991: 280–281) found no difference by sex in either the disposition or the competence to engage in argumentative thinking.

The critics propose a variety of remedies for the biases that they allege. In general, they do not propose to eliminate or downplay critical thinking as an educational goal. Rather, they propose to conceptualize critical thinking differently and to change its pedagogy accordingly. Their pedagogical proposals arise logically from their objections. They can be summarized as follows:

• Focus on argument networks with dialectical exchanges reflecting contesting points of view rather than on atomic arguments, so as to develop “strong sense” critical thinking that transcends egocentric and sociocentric biases (Paul 1981, 1984).
• Foster closeness to the subject-matter and feeling connected to others in order to inform a humane democracy (Martin 1992).
• Develop “constructive thinking” as a social activity in a community of physically embodied and socially embedded inquirers with personal voices who value not only reason but also imagination, intuition and emotion (Thayer-Bacon 2000).
• In developing critical thinking in school subjects, treat as important neither skills nor dispositions but opening worlds of meaning (Alston 2001).
• Attend to the development of critical thinking dispositions as well as skills, and adopt the “critical pedagogy” practised and advocated by Freire (1968 [1970]) and hooks (1994) (Dalgleish, Girard, & Davies 2017).

A common thread in these proposals is treatment of critical thinking as a social, interactive, personally engaged activity like that of a quilting bee or a barn-raising (Thayer-Bacon 2000) rather than as an individual, solitary, distanced activity symbolized by Rodin’s The Thinker . One can get a vivid description of education with the former type of goal from the writings of bell hooks (1994, 2010). Critical thinking for her is open-minded dialectical exchange across opposing standpoints and from multiple perspectives, a conception similar to Paul’s “strong sense” critical thinking (Paul 1981). She abandons the structure of domination in the traditional classroom. In an introductory course on black women writers, for example, she assigns students to write an autobiographical paragraph about an early racial memory, then to read it aloud as the others listen, thus affirming the uniqueness and value of each voice and creating a communal awareness of the diversity of the group’s experiences (hooks 1994: 84). Her “engaged pedagogy” is thus similar to the “freedom under guidance” implemented in John Dewey’s Laboratory School of Chicago in the late 1890s and early 1900s. It incorporates the dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring that Abrami (2015) found to be most effective in improving critical thinking skills and dispositions.

What is the relationship of critical thinking to problem solving, decision-making, higher-order thinking, creative thinking, and other recognized types of thinking? One’s answer to this question obviously depends on how one defines the terms used in the question. If critical thinking is conceived broadly to cover any careful thinking about any topic for any purpose, then problem solving and decision making will be kinds of critical thinking, if they are done carefully. Historically, ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’ were two names for the same thing. If critical thinking is conceived more narrowly as consisting solely of appraisal of intellectual products, then it will be disjoint with problem solving and decision making, which are constructive.

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives used the phrase “intellectual abilities and skills” for what had been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others (Bloom et al. 1956: 38). Thus, the so-called “higher-order thinking skills” at the taxonomy’s top levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation are just critical thinking skills, although they do not come with general criteria for their assessment (Ennis 1981b). The revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) likewise treats critical thinking as cutting across those types of cognitive process that involve more than remembering (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270). For details, see the Supplement on History .

As to creative thinking, it overlaps with critical thinking (Bailin 1987, 1988). Thinking about the explanation of some phenomenon or event, as in Ferryboat , requires creative imagination in constructing plausible explanatory hypotheses. Likewise, thinking about a policy question, as in Candidate , requires creativity in coming up with options. Conversely, creativity in any field needs to be balanced by critical appraisal of the draft painting or novel or mathematical theory.

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• What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

Published on May 30, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment .

To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources .

Critical thinking skills help you to:

• Identify credible sources
• Evaluate and respond to arguments
• Assess alternative viewpoints
• Test hypotheses against relevant criteria

Table of contents

Why is critical thinking important, critical thinking examples, how to think critically, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about critical thinking.

Critical thinking is important for making judgments about sources of information and forming your own arguments. It emphasizes a rational, objective, and self-aware approach that can help you to identify credible sources and strengthen your conclusions.

Critical thinking is important in all disciplines and throughout all stages of the research process . The types of evidence used in the sciences and in the humanities may differ, but critical thinking skills are relevant to both.

In academic writing , critical thinking can help you to determine whether a source:

• Is free from research bias
• Provides evidence to support its research findings
• Considers alternative viewpoints

Outside of academia, critical thinking goes hand in hand with information literacy to help you form opinions rationally and engage independently and critically with popular media.

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Critical thinking can help you to identify reliable sources of information that you can cite in your research paper . It can also guide your own research methods and inform your own arguments.

Outside of academia, critical thinking can help you to be aware of both your own and others’ biases and assumptions.

Academic examples

However, when you compare the findings of the study with other current research, you determine that the results seem improbable. You analyze the paper again, consulting the sources it cites.

You notice that the research was funded by the pharmaceutical company that created the treatment. Because of this, you view its results skeptically and determine that more independent research is necessary to confirm or refute them. Example: Poor critical thinking in an academic context You’re researching a paper on the impact wireless technology has had on developing countries that previously did not have large-scale communications infrastructure. You read an article that seems to confirm your hypothesis: the impact is mainly positive. Rather than evaluating the research methodology, you accept the findings uncritically.

Nonacademic examples

However, you decide to compare this review article with consumer reviews on a different site. You find that these reviews are not as positive. Some customers have had problems installing the alarm, and some have noted that it activates for no apparent reason.

You revisit the original review article. You notice that the words “sponsored content” appear in small print under the article title. Based on this, you conclude that the review is advertising and is therefore not an unbiased source. Example: Poor critical thinking in a nonacademic context You support a candidate in an upcoming election. You visit an online news site affiliated with their political party and read an article that criticizes their opponent. The article claims that the opponent is inexperienced in politics. You accept this without evidence, because it fits your preconceptions about the opponent.

There is no single way to think critically. How you engage with information will depend on the type of source you’re using and the information you need.

However, you can engage with sources in a systematic and critical way by asking certain questions when you encounter information. Like the CRAAP test , these questions focus on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

When encountering information, ask:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert in their field?
• What do they say? Is their argument clear? Can you summarize it?
• When did they say this? Is the source current?
• Where is the information published? Is it an academic article? Is it peer-reviewed ?
• Why did the author publish it? What is their motivation?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence? Does it rely on opinion, speculation, or appeals to emotion ? Do they address alternative arguments?

Critical thinking also involves being aware of your own biases, not only those of others. When you make an argument or draw your own conclusions, you can ask similar questions about your own writing:

• Am I only considering evidence that supports my preconceptions?
• Is my argument expressed clearly and backed up with credible sources?
• Would I be convinced by this argument coming from someone else?

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
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• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

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Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

Critical thinking skills include the ability to:

You can assess information and arguments critically by asking certain questions about the source. You can use the CRAAP test , focusing on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

Ask questions such as:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence?

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.

Being information literate means that you:

• Know how to find credible sources
• Use relevant sources to inform your research
• Understand what constitutes plagiarism
• Know how to cite your sources correctly

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs. It refers to the ability to recollect information best when it amplifies what we already believe. Relatedly, we tend to forget information that contradicts our opinions.

Although selective recall is a component of confirmation bias, it should not be confused with recall bias.

On the other hand, recall bias refers to the differences in the ability between study participants to recall past events when self-reporting is used. This difference in accuracy or completeness of recollection is not related to beliefs or opinions. Rather, recall bias relates to other factors, such as the length of the recall period, age, and the characteristics of the disease under investigation.

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Critical Thinking in Marketing: Elevate Your Strategy

To succeed in the ever-changing world of marketing, small business owners and marketers need to possess critical thinking skills that enable them to make informed decisions to drive growth.  

Think of it like a dating…you know, that thing that’s supposed to end in a happily ever after but far too often ends in tears and heartbreak? Yeah, digital marketing is just like that. You need trust, communication, and the ability to make quick decisions that will help your brand survive in this cutthroat world. 

No pressure or anything.

In this blog post, we’ll explore the art of critical thinking in marketing. 

We’ll cover everything from analyzing data to enhancing problem-solving skills and adopting habits to cultivate a critical mindset. By understanding these concepts and putting them into practice, you can avoid costly mistakes and identify existing problems before they become bigger issues. 

… Like our client who’s previous ad manager wasted $25k in ad spend over a single week. But that’s a story for another day.

So, let’s dive in! We’ll explore the five elements of critical thinking and how they play a crucial role in making well-informed marketing decisions. You’ll learn how to hone your analytical abilities through practice and active discussion with your favorite communities.

Get ready to take your marketing game to the next level! Because let’s be real, your current level is about as impressive as a one-hit-wonder’s comeback tour (….MMM’bop anyone?).

With these insights and tips, you’ll be equipped to make informed decisions that drive growth and help your brand stand out from the competition.

Defining Critical Thinking in Marketing

In the wild world of marketing, critical thinking means taking a good hard look at situations and problems to make decisions based on cold hard evidence and logic. 

It’s all about using your experience to spot potential pitfalls and sharpening your problem-solving skills to make better decisions that ultimately lead to more success in your industry.

Because let’s face it, success in marketing won’t come from simply picking the right filter for your Instagram post. It’s about diving deep into the data to uncover insights that will set you apart from the competition. 

So let’s take a closer look at how to analyze data for effective decision-making.

Analyzing Data for Effective Decision-Making

In today’s data-driven world, being able to analyze information effectively is a critical component of successful marketing. As a marketer, you need to be able to comb through multiple sources of data – from customer feedback to market research reports – and turn them into actionable insights that drive growth. 

By harnessing the power of digital analytics and staying up-to-date on industry trends, you can make informed decisions that help your brand stand out from the competition. 

After all, data isn’t just a buzzword – it’s the key to unlocking your marketing potential.

Enhancing Problem-Solving Skills Through Experience

Marketing professionals who possess critical thinking skills can quickly identify underlying issues and develop innovative solutions that drive success. They gain this ability through experience working with diverse clients and navigating different business landscapes. By studying past campaigns’ successes or failures through case studies marketers can refine their approach over time and create effective strategies tailored for each unique situation. Critical thinking is an essential skill that helps marketers stay ahead of the curve and achieve business growth.

Critical thinking in marketing is like a secret weapon – it can help business owners make better decisions, spot hidden opportunities, and avoid costly mistakes. With enough practice, you might even become a marketing superhero. So, let’s dive into the five elements of critical thinking and uncover how to wield this powerful tool for success.

The Five Elements of Critical Thinking

In the world of marketing, honing critical thinking abilities is essential for success. There are five key elements of critical thinking that can be honed through application and experience but need to be expressed effectively in writing to establish authority. 

Asking Good Questions for Better Understanding

One crucial aspect of critical thinking is the ability to ask relevant and thought-provoking questions. This skill helps marketers delve deeper into problems and uncover hidden insights that may otherwise go unnoticed. Asking pertinent queries can assist in gaining a better understanding of your target market’s requirements and inclinations, allowing for the formation of more effective promotional tactics. 

And let’s be honest, who doesn’t love answering a bunch of questions? Especially when they’re relevant and thought-provoking. 

It’s like a game of 20 questions, but instead of guessing if your friend is thinking of a banana, you’re figuring out how to market said banana. So go ahead, ask away and see what hidden insights you can uncover. Your target audience will thank you for it.

Actively Listening for Enhanced Communication with Clients

Ah, yes, Active listening , the often-overlooked skill in a world where everyone is too busy talking. 

But in all seriousness, active listening is a crucial component of critical thinking in marketing. By paying attention to both verbal and non-verbal cues, you can build trust and establish open lines of communication with clients and stakeholders. 

This not only leads to better collaboration but also allows for valuable feedback from your clients and team throughout various stages of a campaign.

So, put down your phone, turn off your email notifications, and let your clients do the talking. With active listening, you can hear what they’re saying, what they’re not saying, and what they really mean. Trust us, your marketing campaigns will thank you for it.

Clearly Defining Goals for Focused Strategies

A clear understanding of objectives is crucial for any business to succeed.

I mean, even Deadpool knows what he wants, and he’s not exactly the poster boy for strategic planning. But seriously, having a clear plan of action tailored towards achieving your desired results is essential in the world of marketing. Whether you’re trying to increase brand awareness or generate leads and conversions, having a focused plan will help you get there faster than Deadpool can regenerate his limbs.

To ensure clarity, goals should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound). Because let’s be real, setting vague goals is for those who want to leave success to chance.

In marketing, clear and specific objectives are crucial to creating focused strategies and achieving desired outcomes.

Considering Multiple Perspectives When Making Decisions

Decision-making in marketing involves a delightful mix of diverse opinions, varying objectives, and multiple stakeholders. 

But fear not, critical thinkers thrive in this environment by carefully considering every perspective and weighing the pros and cons of each before making a final decision. And not only does this approach lead to better outcomes, but it also encourages teamwork and collaboration, ensuring that everyone feels heard and valued.

Evaluating Outcomes Objectively

Last but not least, critical thinking requires marketers to evaluate the success or failure of campaigns objectively using data-driven insights rather than relying solely on personal biases and assumptions. 

By analyzing marketing analytics data, you can identify which strategies and tactics worked well and those that didn’t perform as expected, allowing you to make informed adjustments for future efforts to improve ROI and ultimately drive growth for your business. Because let’s face it, gut feelings aren’t always reliable.

Overall, the five elements of critical thinking provide a comprehensive framework for making informed decisions in marketing. By recognizing and understanding the importance of critical thinking in marketing, businesses can better identify existing problems and reduce costly mistakes with effective analysis.

And who doesn’t want to save some money?

Critical thinking – the not-so-secret weapon of successful marketers. Asking thought-provoking questions, listening actively, and considering multiple perspectives are all part of the grand plan to become a marketing genius. And let’s not forget defining goals clearly and evaluating outcomes objectively with data-driven insights. It’s like a recipe for success – just add a pinch of critical thinking and voila! You’ll be uncovering hidden insights left and right and developing marketing strategies that will blow your competition out of the water.

Importance of Critical Thinking in Marketing

Critical thinking is a vital component of marketing that can lead to better decision-making, reduced errors, and improved overall performance.

Here are some key reasons why critical thinking is so important in marketing:

Reducing Costly Mistakes with Effective Analysis

By thoroughly analyzing data and considering multiple perspectives before making decisions, marketers can avoid costly mistakes. Critical thinking enables marketers to identify potential pitfalls in advertising campaigns, messaging, and target audience selection. Such errors could have severe financial implications, making critical thinking an essential tool for minimizing risks. 

Remember that client who basically burned $25k? 

We don’t want that to happen to you – ok?

Identifying Existing Problems Swiftly

Critical thinking allows marketers to identify existing problems in their organization or industry quickly. This skill helps them proactively address potential issues and implement solutions efficiently.

 A McKinsey report highlights how quick problem identification leads to faster decision-making processes – which ultimately translates into better results for businesses.

• Fostering collaboration:  A culture that encourages open communication and teamwork helps develop a shared understanding of the challenges faced by the organization. Creative problem-solving approaches often arise when team members come together to share ideas, perspectives, and insights. Critical thinking is essential in fostering collaboration as it allows team members to identify potential areas of conflict or disagreement and work towards a mutually beneficial solution.
• Promoting continuous learning: Marketing is an ever-evolving field that requires constant learning and adaptation. Providing opportunities for employees to develop their critical thinking skills through training, workshops, or other learning initiatives can help them stay ahead of industry trends and make better-informed decisions. By promoting continuous learning, organizations can remain competitive and adapt to changing market conditions.
• Creating a culture of accountability: Holding team members accountable for their actions encourages them to think critically about the consequences of their decisions. This approach fosters an environment where mistakes are seen as opportunities for growth rather than failures. Critical thinking is essential in creating a culture of accountability, as it enables team members to assess the potential risks and benefits of their decisions more effectively.

Incorporating these practices into your organization’s daily operations will not only improve overall performance but also create a more innovative and agile workforce capable of adapting to changing market conditions. Small business owners can achieve greater success in the current competitive climate by emphasizing the value of analytical thought within their marketing strategies.

Critical thinking is essential in marketing as it allows business owners to make informed decisions and reduce costly mistakes. Developing critical thinking skills through application and experience can help marketers hone their analytical abilities, broaden perspectives, and ultimately increase success.

So, remember, critical thinking isn’t just for rocket scientists and philosophers. It’s also for marketers who want to avoid crashing and burning their campaigns.

If you want to avoid costly blunders in marketing, critical thinking is a must-have skill. By fostering a culture of collaboration, continuous learning, and accountability, entrepreneurs can encourage their team (and clients) to think critically and identify problems with lightning speed. With a creative and adaptive skills at your disposal, you’ll be ready to tackle any market condition that comes your way – as long as it’s not a zombie apocalypse.

Developing Critical Thinking Skills Through Application & Experience

Small business owners and marketers must actively engage in activities that challenge their analytical abilities to develop critical thinking skills. 

Think of it as a mental gym for your brain. 

Engaging in activities that test your analytical aptitude can help you to sharpen your problem-solving abilities and make more informed choices for marketing tactics.

Practicing Analytical Abilities Through Smaller Challenges

To begin honing your critical thinking skills, start with small tasks that require analysis and decision-making. This could include analyzing customer feedback data or evaluating the effectiveness of a recent social media campaign. 

As you work through these smaller challenges, take note of any patterns or trends that emerge – this will help build your intuition as a marketer. 

Remember, critical thinking is a process that requires continuous effort and practice. So don’t be discouraged if you don’t get it right the first time. With persistence and dedication, you’ll be well on your way to becoming a critical thinking ninja.

• Analyze customer feedback:  Review comments left by customers on social media platforms or online review sites to identify areas where improvements can be made. Who knew angry rants on Twitter could be so helpful?
• Evaluate marketing campaigns: Assess the performance of past marketing efforts using metrics such as conversion rates, click-through rates (CTR), and return on investment (ROI) to determine what worked well and what needs improvement. It’s like a game of marketing detective – just without the trench coat and magnifying glass.

Engaging in Active Discussions for Broader Perspective

Engaging in active discussions with colleagues or industry peers is another effective way to develop critical thinking skills. These conversations allow you to explore different perspectives within the field while also broadening your knowledge base about various aspects of marketing strategy.

• Join local meetups:  Attend events organized by professional groups focused on digital marketing topics like SEO optimization techniques or content creation best practices. You might even make some new marketing friends – who will be just as nerdy about marketing as you are. Yeah, we totally called you nerdy – it’s a compliment.
• Participate in LinkedIn groups: Connect with other marketing professionals by joining relevant LinkedIn groups and engaging in discussions about industry trends, challenges, and solutions. You might even come across a new strategy to test with a client.
• Attend conferences or workshops: Participate in industry events to learn from experts and gain insights into the latest marketing strategies being employed by successful businesses. Plus, you’ll finally get to use that travel line item on your tax returns.

As a savvy small business owner or marketer, you know that the key to success is staying ahead of the game. By actively seeking opportunities to develop your intellectual abilities through utilization and practice, you’ll equip yourself with the knowledge necessary to make informed decisions and create successful marketing strategies.

The application and experience of critical thinking skills is crucial for small business owners to make smarter decisions that lead to winning marketing campaigns. By exploring real-life examples of critical thinking in marketing, you’ll further develop your analytical abilities and create even more effective campaigns that leave your competition in the dust.

If you want to be a critical thinker in marketing, you could start by analyzing customer feedback data or evaluating past social media campaigns. And for those who want to take it to the next level, engaging in discussions with peers and attending industry events could also help broaden your horizons and push limits.

And who knows, with enough practice, you might even become the Chuck Norris of marketing decision-making.

Examples of Critical Thinking in Marketing Decisions

In the world of marketing, critical thinking plays a significant role in making informed decisions that can positively impact your business. Let’s explore some examples where applying critical thinking skills has led to better marketing outcomes.

Evaluating the Credibility of Sources

When it comes to choosing the theories that will shape your marketing strategies, it’s critical to be discerning about what you accept as fact. 

Don’t just take an article’s claims at face value – dig deeper to evaluate the author’s credentials and knowledge of the field. Do they have relevant experience or expertise? Are their claims supported by other reputable sources? 

Only by doing your due diligence can you confidently make informed decisions about which theories to apply to your marketing efforts.

Utilizing Behavioral Science-Backed Insights for Targeted Campaigns

If you want to actually create effective branding campaigns that speak to specific demographics, stop guessing and start using insights based on real science. You know, that thing that’s been around for centuries and involves things like data and testing. Shocking, right?

• Analyze data like it’s your job: Use tools like Google Analytics to track user behavior on your website and identify patterns indicating what works well with different customer segments. Don’t rely on your gut feeling or your cousin’s opinion, unless they happen to be a qualified data analyst.
• Run A/B tests like you’re a mad scientist: Test multiple variations of your marketing materials (e.g., email subject lines, landing pages) to determine which ones resonate best with your target audience. Because nothing says “effective marketing” like blindly sending the same message to everyone.
• Ask for customer feedback like you’re not afraid of criticism: Actively seek input from customers through surveys or social media interactions to gain insights into their preferences and pain points. And don’t worry, your fragile ego will survive a few negative comments.

Let’s face it, in the world of marketing, everyone thinks they have the answers. But relying on just any old source for decision-making can lead to disaster. Instead, marketers need to constantly assess the credibility of sources and use data-driven intelligence to make informed choices that lead to success.

Analytical reasoning isn’t just a buzzword – it’s crucial to making smart marketing decisions. By forming habits that stimulate critical thinking and avoiding information overload, businesses can better equip themselves with the skills needed for effective campaigns. So let’s embrace everyday learning opportunities and practice due diligence, because in the world of marketing, ignorance is definitely not bliss.

Thinking analytically is not just for math geeks and data scientists. In marketing, it can mean the difference between a successful campaign and a cringe-worthy flop. But don’t worry, you don’t need a Ph.D. in statistics to make informed decisions. By evaluating the credibility of sources and tapping into behavioral science-backed insights, marketers can create targeted campaigns that resonate with their audience. And if that fails, there’s always A/B testing and begging for customer feedback.

Adopting Habits to Foster Critical Thinking

Let’s face it: we live in an age of information overload. But amidst all the noise, there’s one skill that can help small business owners and marketers rise above the fray: critical thinking. 

By cultivating a mindset that values learning and questioning the status quo, we can make more informed decisions and craft marketing plans that truly resonate with our audience. 

So don’t be afraid to challenge assumptions, dig deeper into data, and stay curious – the rewards of a more thoughtful approach to marketing are well worth the effort.

Embracing Learning Opportunities from Everyday Situations

The secret to improving your critical thinking skills? Treat every situation like it’s a learning opportunity – as Simon Kuper suggested. Be receptive, inquire, ponder encounters, and look for criticism from others.

Yep, even that embarrassing moment when you spilled your coffee all over yourself. Embrace the awkwardness, ask questions, and be receptive to feedback. Here are some tips to get you started:

• Challenge Everything: Don’t be afraid to challenge assumptions and seek clarification. Your curiosity could lead to some brilliant ideas.
• Reflect and Learn: Analyze past successes and failures to identify patterns that could inform future decisions. Trust us, analyzing your mistakes is just as important as celebrating your wins.
• Feedback is Key: Seek input from colleagues and clients about how well certain marketing tactics worked or areas where improvements can be made. Don’t be a one-hit-wonder! Looking at you, Hansen Brothers.

Practicing Due Diligence in an Era of Information Overload

Information overload can make it tough to tell the truth from the trash online. 

That’s why practicing due diligence when consuming online content is essential for forming informed opinions. And that, dear reader, is how you become a marketing mastermind. (are you catching the Bridgerton vibes?!)

Here are some tips for practicing due diligence:

• Verify sources: Don’t believe everything you read, even if it’s written by your bestie. Check the credibility of authors and publications before relying on their information. Look for industry experts, reputable organizations, or peer-reviewed studies as reliable sources.
• Cross-reference data: Make sure the data lines up. Compare information from multiple sources to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Evaluate relevance: Make sure the info you’re getting is fresh and relevant to your specific marketing goals or target audience. It’s like milk – you don’t want it to be past its expiration date.
• Avoid confirmation bias: We all have biases, but don’t let them blind you. Be aware of your own biases when evaluating information, and actively seek out opposing viewpoints to gain a more balanced understanding of any given topic.

If you want to be the Belle of the marketing ball, make these habits part of your daily routine. Embrace learning opportunities in everyday situations, and practice due diligence amidst the sea of online content. 

With these skills in your arsenal, you’ll make better-informed decisions and see improved results in your respective industries. So, let’s get critical and start thinking!

To truly excel in the competitive world of marketing, small business owners and marketers must make a habit of thinking critically. This means asking tough questions, analyzing feedback, and seeking out new perspectives. Of course, with so much information at our fingertips these days, it can be challenging to sort through the noise and verify the accuracy of sources. But hey, at least practicing due diligence gives us an excuse to spend more time on Google.

Frequently Asked Questions about Critical Thinking in Marketing

Let’s face it, marketing is all about staying ahead of the game. And to do that, you need to be able to analyze market trends, consumer behavior, and keep an eye on your competitors – all while juggling a million other tasks. By applying critical thinking skills, marketers can identify their target audience, create unique solutions to problems, and evaluate the effectiveness of their strategies.

When it comes to critical thinking, there are five concepts to keep in mind: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, and depth. Basically, you need to be crystal clear on what you’re trying to achieve, fact-check like a pro, get specific, focus on what’s important, and dive deep into the nitty-gritty. By mastering these concepts, you’ll be able to make quicker decisions and develop razor-sharp thinking skills.

In marketing, critical thinking is like a three-legged stool: it requires three key elements to stand on its own. First, you need to identify any hidden assumptions or biases lurking beneath the surface. Second, you need to evaluate the evidence and determine what’s reliable and what’s not. And finally, you need to synthesize all of the information and put together a coherent solution. It’s like solving a puzzle, but instead of a picture of a cute puppy, you get more sales and happy clients.

Design and critical thinking go together like peanut butter and jelly, except instead of being delicious, they lead to innovative, user-centered products. Designers create products that are both visually pleasing and functional, while critical thinkers analyze customer feedback, industry trends, and competition data to inform product improvements. By combining these approaches, businesses can create products that not only meet customer needs but also exceed their expectations.

Congratulations, you’ve made it to the end! If you’re still reading, then it’s safe to assume that you’re serious about improving your critical thinking skills. And why not? After all, who doesn’t want to be a marketing genius? By mastering the art of critical thinking, you’ll be able to analyze market trends like nobody’s business, identify your target audience’s needs faster than you can say “conversion rate,” and come up with solutions that are so innovative, your competitors will be left scratching their heads.

But let’s not kid ourselves – improving your critical thinking skills isn’t a walk in the park. It takes time and effort. You might even have to sacrifice some of your precious Netflix binge-watching time (gasp!). But trust us, it’ll be worth it. When you’re able to make better-informed decisions in your marketing efforts, you’ll feel like a superhero – minus the spandex suit (unless that’s your thing). So, keep practicing, keep analyzing, and keep honing your critical thinking skills. You got this!

If you’re looking for more resources on how to use data-driven insights in your marketing strategy or need help with implementing these concepts into practice, check out our mega-mind community – Rebellion .

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The Power of Critical Thinking in the Life of the High Schooler | Interview w/ Kathy Gibbens How to Homeschool in High School

Our world (especially as teens) is full of so much information! We are confronted daily with bad thinking, propaganda, and emotional reasoning - it can be hard to manage! Today we have the privilege of hearing from Kathy Gibbens, homeschool mom and host of the "Filter it Through a Brain Cell Podcast" (a podcast focused on teaching critical thinking skills to every listener)! We cover everything from defining critical thinking and the most common fallacies we face as teens today to discovering how we can stay rooted in truth amidst this ever-changing culture! Resources mentioned: Fallacy Detective Master Books  - Introduction to Logic Memoria Press  - Traditional Logic Connect with Mrs. Gibbens: Filter it Through a Brain Cell: Podcast Filter it Through a Brain Cell: Instagram Follow How to Homeschool in High School on Instagram and Facebook Email questions to [email protected] Music by FASSounds from Pixabay

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How To Encourage Critical Thinking in Math

By Mary Montero

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Critical thinking is more than just a buzzword… It’s an essential skill that helps students develop problem-solving abilities and make logical connections between different concepts. By encouraging critical thinking in math, students learn to approach problems more thoughtfully, they learn to analyze and evaluate math concepts, identify patterns and relationships, and explore different strategies for finding the solution. Critical thinking also involves a great deal of persistence. Those are critical life skills!

When you think about it, students are typically asked to solve math problems and find the answer. Showing their work is frequently stressed too, which is important, but not the end. Instead, students need to be able to look at math in different ways in order to truly grasp a complete understanding of math concepts. Mathematics requires logical reasoning, problem-solving, and abstract thinking.

What Does Critical Thinking in Math Look Like?

When I think about critical thinking in math, I focus on:

• Solving problems through logical thinking . Students learn how to break down complex problems, analyze the different parts, and understand how they fit together logically.
• Identifying patterns and making connections. Students learn how to identify patterns across different math concepts, make connections between seemingly unrelated topics, and develop a more in-depth understanding of how math works.
• Evaluating and comparing solutions. Students learn to evaluate which solution is best for a given problem and identify any flaws in their reasoning or others’ reasoning when looking at different solutions

Mathematician Posters

These FREE Marvelous Mathematician posters have been a staple in my classroom for the last 8+ years! I first started using a version from MissMathDork and adapted them for my classroom over the years. 

I print, laminate, and add magnetic stickers on the back. At the beginning of the year, I only put one or two up at a time depending on our area of focus. Now, they are all hanging on my board, and I’ll pull out different ones depending on our area of focus. They are so empowering to my mathematicians and help them stay on track!

A Marvelous Mathematician:

• knows that quicker doesn’t mean better
• looks for patterns
• knows mistakes happen and keeps going
• makes sense of the most important details
• embraces challenges and works through frustrations
• uses proper math vocabulary to explain their thinking
• shows their work and models their thinking
• discusses solutions and evaluates reasonableness
• gives context by labeling answers
• applies mathematical knowledge to similar situations
• checks for errors (computational and conceptual)

Critical Thinking Math Activities

Here are a few of my favorite critical thinking activities. 

Square Of Numbers

I love to incorporate challenge problems (use Nrich and Openmiddle to get started) because they teach my students so much more than how to solve a math problem. They learn important lessons in teamwork, persistence, resiliency, and growth mindset. We talk about strategies for tackling difficult problems and the importance of not giving up when things get hard.

This square of numbers challenge was a hit!

ALL kids need to feel and learn to embrace challenge. Oftentimes, kids I see have rarely faced an academic challenge. Things have just come easy to them, so when it doesn’t, they can lack strategies that will help them. In fact, they will often give up before they even get started.

I tell them it’s my job to make sure I’m helping them stretch and grow their brain by giving them challenges. They don’t love it at first, but they eventually do! 

This domino challenge was another one from Nrich . I’m always on the hunt for problems like this!!  How would you guide students toward an answer??

Fifteen Cards

This is a well-loved math puzzle with my students, and it’s amazing for encouraging students to consider all options when solving a math problem.

We have number cards 1-15 (one of each number) and only seven are laid out. With the given clues, students need to figure out which seven cards should be put out and in what order. My students love these, and after they’ve done a few, they enjoy creating their own, too! Use products, differences, and quotients to increase the challenge.

This is also adapted from Nrich, which is an AMAZING resource for math enrichment!

This is one of my favorite fraction lessons that I’ve done for years! Huge shout out to Meg from The Teacher Studio for this one. I give each child a slip of paper with this figure and they have to silently write their answer and justification. Then I tally up the answers and have students take a side and DEBATE with their reasoning! It’s an AMAZING conversation, and I highly recommend trying it with your students. 

Sometimes we leave it hanging overnight and work on visual models to make some proofs. 

Logic Puzzles

Logic puzzles are always a hit too! You can enrich and extend your math lessons with these ‘Math Mystery’ logic puzzles that are the perfect challenge for 4th, 5th, and 6th grades. The puzzles are skills-based, so they integrate well with almost ANY math lesson. You can use them to supplement instruction or challenge your fast-finishers and gifted students… all while encouraging critical thinking about important math skills!

Three levels are included, so they’re perfect to use for differentiation.

• Introductory logic puzzles are great for beginners (4th grade and up!)
• Advanced logic puzzles are great for students needing an extra challenge
• Extra Advanced logic puzzles are perfect for expert solvers… we dare you to figure these puzzles out! 

Do you have a group of students who are ready for more of a fraction challenge? My well-loved fraction puzzlers are absolutely perfect for fraction enrichment. They’ll motivate your students to excel at even the most challenging tasks! 

Math Projects

Math projects are another way to differentiation while building critical thinking skills. Math projects hold so much learning power with their real-world connections, differentiation options, collaborative learning opportunities, and numerous avenues for cross curricular learning too. 

If you’re new to math projects, I shared my best tips and tricks for using math projects in this blog post . They’re perfect for cumulative review, seasonal practice, centers, early finisher work, and more.

I use both concept-based math projects to focus on specific standards and seasonal math projects that integrate several skills.

Error Analysis

Finally, error analysis is always a challenging way to encourage critical thinking. When we use error analysis, we encourage students to analyze their own mistakes to prevent making the same mistakes in the future.

For my gifted students, I use error analysis tasks as an assessment when they have shown mastery of a unit during other tasks. For students in the regular classroom needing enrichment, I usually have them complete the tasks in a center or with a partner.

For students needing extra support, we complete error analysis in small groups.  We go step-by-step through the concept and they are always able to eventually identify what the error is. It is so empowering to students when they finally figure out the error AND it helps prevent them from making the same error in the future!

My FREE addition error analysis is a good place to start, no matter the grade level. I show them the process of walking through the problem and how best to complete an error analysis task.

When you’re ready for more, this bundle of error analysis tasks contains more than 240 tasks to engage and enrich your students in critical thinking practice.

If you want to dig even deeper, visit this conceptual vs computational error analysis post to learn more about using error analysis in the classroom. 

Related Critical Thinking Posts

• How to Increase Critical Thinking and Creativity in Your “Spare” Time
• More Tips to Increase Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is essential for students to develop a deeper understanding of math concepts, problem-solving skills, and a stronger ability to reason logically. When you learn how to encourage critical thinking in math, you’re setting your students up for success not only in more advanced math subjects they’ll encounter, but also in life. 

How do you integrate critical thinking in your classroom? Come share your ideas with us in our FREE Inspired In Upper Elementary Facebook group .

Mary Montero

I’m so glad you are here. I’m a current gifted and talented teacher in a small town in Colorado, and I’ve been in education since 2009. My passion (other than my family and cookies) is for making teachers’ lives easier and classrooms more engaging.

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Mary Thankyou for your inspirational activities. I have just read and loved the morning talk activities. I do have meetings with my students but usually at end of day. What time do you

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Critical thinking definition

Critical thinking, as described by Oxford Languages, is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement.

Active and skillful approach, evaluation, assessment, synthesis, and/or evaluation of information obtained from, or made by, observation, knowledge, reflection, acumen or conversation, as a guide to belief and action, requires the critical thinking process, which is why it's often used in education and academics.

Some even may view it as a backbone of modern thought.

However, it's a skill, and skills must be trained and encouraged to be used at its full potential.

People turn up to various approaches in improving their critical thinking, like:

• Developing technical and problem-solving skills
• Engaging in more active listening
• Actively questioning their assumptions and beliefs
• Seeking out more diversity of thought
• Opening up their curiosity in an intellectual way etc.

Is critical thinking useful in writing?

Critical thinking can help in planning your paper and making it more concise, but it's not obvious at first. We carefully pinpointed some the questions you should ask yourself when boosting critical thinking in writing:

• What information should be included?
• Which information resources should the author look to?
• What degree of technical knowledge should the report assume its audience has?
• What is the most effective way to show information?
• How should the report be organized?
• How should it be designed?
• What tone and level of language difficulty should the document have?

Usage of critical thinking comes down not only to the outline of your paper, it also begs the question: How can we use critical thinking solving problems in our writing's topic?

Let's say, you have a Powerpoint on how critical thinking can reduce poverty in the United States. You'll primarily have to define critical thinking for the viewers, as well as use a lot of critical thinking questions and synonyms to get them to be familiar with your methods and start the thinking process behind it.

Are there any services that can help me use more critical thinking?

We understand that it's difficult to learn how to use critical thinking more effectively in just one article, but our service is here to help.

We are a team specializing in writing essays and other assignments for college students and all other types of customers who need a helping hand in its making. We cover a great range of topics, offer perfect quality work, always deliver on time and aim to leave our customers completely satisfied with what they ordered.

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Advanced Critical and Creative Thinking Certificate

Through a series of engaging courses, you’ll gain versatile skills to stand out in the job market — all while fulfilling general education requirements.

Certificate Overview

Today’s employers want professionals who can think critically, and that demand is expected to grow massively during the next decade. Our certificate program will help students in all majors hone their critical and creative thinking abilities to stand out in the job search, now and in the future. 

Through our 12-credit-hour program, you’ll not only gain skills you can transfer to any field or industry. You’ll also fulfill NC State general education requirements through a cohesive theme of your choice. 

How it Works

The certificate includes a gateway course that applies critical thinking to major themes in American life. Then, you’ll choose one of three professionally useful, thematic general education tracks with courses designed to complement any academic major on NC State’s campus:

• Environment, Health and Wellness
• Justice, Law and Social Change
• Science, Business and Innovation

Gain a Competitive Edge

By earning this certificate, you’ll stand out in the job market.

Fulfill GEP Requirements

Explore intriguing topics while earning general education credits.

Pick Your Own Theme

No matter your major, align courses to your interests.

Info Session

Join us at 3:30 p.m. on April 3 in Talley Student Union (Room 4280) for light refreshments and to learn about NC State’s newest undergraduate offering. Learn why employers want critical and creative thinking skills in the age of artificial intelligence, how the new program promotes professional readiness and civil discourse in a multicultural world, and how students can complete the certificate without adding extra time or money toward a degree.

Requirements

The Certificate in Advanced Critical and Creative Thinking consists of 12 credit hours. Upon completion, the certificate will be listed on your official transcript.

Required Course (3 credits)

• Satisfies GEP requirements for Humanities or US Diversity, Equity and Inclusion

Elective Courses (9 credits)

Only one 200-level elective course can be counted toward the certificate, and at least two elective courses must be in the same thematic track.

Environment, Health and Wellness Track

200-Level Courses

• ENG 232 – Literature and Medicine
• IDS 201 – Environmental Ethics
• IDS 203 – Humans and the Environment
• IDS 211 – Eating through American History
• IDS 220 – Science and Art of Happiness
• SOC 211 – Community and Health
• SOC 241 – Sociology of Agriculture and Rural Society

300-Level Courses

• AFS/PSY 345 – Psychology and the African American Experience
• ANT 370 – Intro to Forensic Anthropology
• HI 318 – Environmental History of Cuba (study abroad)
• HI 340 – History of Agriculture
• HI 342 – Global Environmental History
• HI 360 – US Agricultural History
• HI 381 – NGO Nonprofits in a Global Context
• PHI 325 – Bio-Medical Ethics
• PHI 347 – Neuroscience and Philosophy
• SOC 350 – Food and Society
• SOC 381 – Sociology of Medicine
• STS 322 – Technological Catastrophes
• STS 323 – World Population and Food Prospects
• WGS 330 – Women and Health

Justice, Law and Social Change Track

• ENG 248 – Survey of African-American Literature
• ENG 267 – LGBTQI Literature in the US
• FL 218 – The Harlem Renaissance in Paris
• PS 231 – Introduction to International Relations
• SOC 203 – Current Social Problems
• SOC 212 – Race in America
• AFS/SOC 305 – Racial and Ethnic Relations
• AFS/REL 343 – African American Religions
• AFS/ENG 375 – African American Cinema
• AFS/WGS 380 – Black Feminist Theory
• ENG 378 – Women and Film
• HI 324 – History of Common Law and Constitution
• HI 380 – History of Nonprofits, Philanthropy, and Social Change
• HI 383 – Law in the American Story
• PHI 309 – Political Philosophy
• PHI 312 – Philosophy of Law
• PHI 313 – Ethical Problems in the Law
• PHI 319 – Black Political Philosophy
• PS/WGS 306 – Gender and Politics in the US
• REL 383 – Religion, Globalism, and Justice
• SOC/WGS 304 – Gender and Society

Science, Business and Innovation Track

• ANT/SOC 261 – Technology in Society and Culture
• ARS/STS 257 – Technology in the Arts
• COM 200 – Communication Media in a Changing World
• COM 289 – Science Communication and Public Engagement
• ID 244 – History of Industrial Design
• PHI 214 – Issues in Business Ethics
• PHI 227 – Data Ethics
• SOC 205 – Jobs and Work
• STS 210 – Women and Gender in Science and Technology
• STS 214 – Introduction to Science, Technology, and Society
• COM/ENG 364 – History of Film to 1940
• COM/ENG 374 – History of Film from 1940
• ENG 339 – Literature and Technology
• ENG 376 – Science Fiction
• HI 321 – Scientific Revolution and European Society
• HI 322 – Rise of Modern Science
• HI 323 – Science, American Style
• HI 341 – Technology in History
• HI 344 – Dinomania: Dinosaurs in Culture and Science
• HI 375 – Global History of Travel and Tourism
• HI 382 – History of Capitalism in America
• PHI 340 – Philosophy of Science
• PS 314 – Science, Technology, and Public Policy
• PS 339 – Politics of the World Economy
• STS 302 – Contemporary Science, Technology, and Human Values
• STS 304 – Ethical Dimensions of Progress

Admission Info

Our certificate is open to any undergraduate student at NC State.

While there’s no formal application process, students must declare their intent to enroll in and complete the program via our Google Form. Once you submit the form, the certificate coordinator and your academic advisor will be notified.

Frequently Asked Questions

Do the courses require prerequisites.

Yes, some of the elective courses require prerequisites.

Are elective course exceptions possible?

Elective course exceptions are possible, including special topics courses and transfer credits, depending on course content.

Must I earn a certain grade in the courses to satisfy the certificate requirements?

A grade of C- or better is required in all courses used to satisfy the certificate requirements. S/U courses cannot count toward the certificate.

Have questions?

Contact the certificate coordinator, Noah Strote.

Apa Itu Critical Thinking dan Mengapa Penting bagi Orang Indonesia?

Apa itu critical thinking? Mengapa critical thinking penting bagi para pelajar di Indonesia? Berikut ini penjelasannya.

Definisi Critical Thinking

Sebenarnya tidak ada definisi tunggal tentang critical thinking . Para akademisi punya definisi berbeda tentang critical thinking .

Monash University dalam publikasi di situs resminya, menjelaskan bahwa berpikir kritis ( critical thinking ) adalah jenis pemikiran di mana seseorang mempertanyakan, menganalisis, menafsirkan, dan membuat penilaian tentang sesuatu yang dibaca, didengar, dikatakan atau ditulis. Definisi ini berangkat dari asal kata “kritis” dalam Bahasa Yunani disebut “kritikos” yang berarti “mampu menilai atau membedakan.”

Critical thinking sebenarnya sudah sudah dilakukan sejak di era filsuf Yunani Kuno, tetapi istilah ini baru populer di dunia akademik pada 1987. Michael Scriven dan Richard Paul mempopulerkan istilah tersebut pada Konferensi Internasional Tahunan ke-8 tentang Pemikiran Kritis dan Reformasi Pendidikan, Musim Panas 1987. Keduanya adalah profesor dan peneliti di bidang critical thinking .

Kedua ahli ini mendefinisikan berpikir kritis adalah proses intelektual mengkonseptualisasikan, menganalisis, mensitesis dan atau menghasilkan informasi sebagai panduan keyakinan atau tindakan. Informasi ini dikumpulkan dari hasil pengamatan, pengalaman, refleksi, penalaran, atau komunikasi.

Dalam tesaurus Bahasa Indonesia, kata “kritis” bermakna; bersifat tidak lekas percaya, bersifat selalu berusaha menemukan kesalahan atau kekeliruan, atau tajam dalam penganalisisan.

Kendati ada perbedaan definisi tentang berpikir kritis, ada beberapa inti utama dari metode berpikir ini, antara lain:

1. Memperjelas tujuan dan konteks pemikiran

Memperjelas tujuan dan konteks pemikiran ini maksudnya adalah memilah dan memilih informasi yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan.

2. Mempertanyakan sumber informasi

Setelah informasi yang sesuai dikumpulkan, tahapan selanjutnya adalah mempertanyakan sumber informasi apakah punya kredibilitas atau orisinalitas. Pendek kata, kritik terhadap sumber.

3. Mengidentifikasi argumen

Setelah informasi valid didapatkan, langkah berikutnya adalah mengambil poin utama dari informasi tersebut yang akan menjadi bahan argumentasi.

4. Menganalisis sumber dan argumen

Bahan informasi ini kemudian diolah dengan teori untuk menjadi sebuah konstruksi argumen yang kuat.

5. Mengevaluasi argumen orang lain

Di tahap evaluasi ini, seseorang yang berpikir kritis perlu melihat klaim, bukti, dan alasan yang diajukan oleh orang lain.

6. Membuat atau mensintesis argumen sendiri

Setelah mempunyai bahan argumentasi dan mengevaluasi argumen orang lain, selanjutnya seseorang yang berpikir kritis membentuk argumennya sendiri.

Mengapa Berpikir Kritis itu Penting bagi Pelajar Indonesia?

Kemampuan berpikir kritis penting buat manusia Indonesia terutama bagi pelajar sebagai generasi penerus. Metode critical thinking akan membantu seseorang untuk mengobservasi masalah yang dimiliki dengan kemampuan analisis. Hal ini dibutuhkan dalam proses belajar maupun di dunia kerja.

Selain itu, dengan berpikir kritis juga dapat meningkatkan kreativitas seseorang serta mengasah cara berkomunikasi dan menyampaikan ide secara terstruktur dan informatif. Dengan kemampuan tersebut, seseorang dapat menemukan solusi terbaik ketika menghadapi berbagai permasalahan dalam kehidupannya.

Menurut Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), kemampuan critical thinking merupakan satu dari lima soft skills utama yang harus dimiliki individu pada 2030.

Dengan alasan itu, maka berpikir kritis sangat penting bagi pelajar saat ini yang kelak menjadi pemimpin di Indonesia. Di Indonesia sendiri sebenarnya gerakan berpikir kritis ini sudah dikembangkan dan disebarluaskan.

Intellectual Academy (IIA) yang berdiri sejak tahun 2018 telah memelopori gerakan berpikir kritis ini. Selain bergerak di bidang strategi belajar, daya ingat, dan growth mindset , lembaga ini fokus pada pengembangan critical thinking bagi para pemuda di Indonesia.

IIA pun memiliki berbagai platform pembelajaran yang bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan intelektualitas masyarakat Indonesia, khususnya pelajar, melalui platform dan aplikasi pendidikan seperti Mind Academy dan MindX Memory Games.

Dalam pengembangannya, IIA saat ini didukung oleh para pakar di bidang pendidikan dan neurosains. Mereka mengembangkan riset-risetnya dan berkomitmen memberikan pendidikan berkualitas guna mempersiapkan generasi muda. Tujuannya agar kelak para pelajar Indonesia siap memimpin Indonesia Emas di tahun 2045.

Sejalan dengan upaya menyebarluaskan gerakan berpikir kritis, IAA menggelar Critical Thinking Championship 2022. Kompetisi ini terbuka bagi para pelajar Indonesia dari jenjang SD hingga perguruan tinggi.

Untuk informasi jadwal dan cara pendaftaran kompetisi dapat dibaca pada artikel " Jadwal dan Cara Daftar Critical Thingking Championship 2022. "

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