a thesis statement about discrimination

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5 examples of thesis statements about racism for your next paper.

By Evans Apr 28 2021

Racism is a hot topic worldwide. It is one of the topics that never lack an audience. As expected, racism is also one of the most loved topics by teachers and even students. Therefore, it is not a surprise to be told to write an essay or a  research paper  on racism. You need to come up with several things within an incredible paper on racism, the most important one being a thesis statement. The term thesis statement sends shivers down the spine of many students. Most do not understand its importance or how to come up with a good thesis statement. Lucky for you, you have come to the right place. Here, you will learn all about  thesis statement  and get to sample a few racist thesis statements.

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Tips to writing a strong racism thesis statement

Keep it short.

A thesis statement is supposed to appear in the first paragraph of your essay. However, this does not mean that it should be the entire paragraph! A strong thesis statement should be one sentence (not an annoyingly long sentence), usually placed as the last sentence in the first paragraph.

Have a stand

A thesis statement should show what you aim to do with your paper. It should show that you are aware of what you are talking about. The thesis statement prepares the reader for what he or she is about to read. A wrong thesis statement will leave the reader of your paper unsure about your topic choice and your arguments.

Answer your research question

If you have been tasked with writing a  research paper  on why the Black Lives Matter movement has successfully dealt with racism, do not write a thesis statement giving the movement's history. Your thesis statement should respond to the research question, not any story you feel like telling. Additionally, the thesis statement is the summary of your sand and answer to the question at hand.

Express the main idea

A confused thesis statement expresses too many ideas while a strong, suitable one expresses the main idea. The thesis statement should tell the reader what your paper is all about. It should not leave the reader confused about whether you are talking about one thing or the other.

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Thesis Statements About Racism Samples

Racism in workplace thesis statement examples.

Racism is so rampant in the workplace. Thousands face discrimination daily in their workplaces. While this is definitely bad news, it gives us more data to choose from when working on an essay or research paper on racism in the workplace. Here are a few examples of thesis statements about racism in the workplace:

1.       Despite being in the The 21st century, racial discrimination is still rampant in the workplace. The efforts made by governments and world organizations have not helped to do away with this discrimination completely.

2.       Even with the unity that comes with digitalism, colour remains the one aspect of life that has continually caused a rift in this life. A lot of efforts have turned futile in the war against racism. The workplace is no exception. It is infiltrated with racial ideologies that remain within man's scope despite the professionalism within the workplace.

3.       Systemic racism is no new concept. It remains the favoured term with the tongues of many after food and rent. This is an indicator of how rooted the world is when it comes to the issue of racism. The now world has been configured to recognize racial differences and be blind to human similarity. Organizations have been established upon this social construct, and more often than it has led them into a ditch of failure. The loot that comes with racism is of great magnitude to bear.

Thesis statement about Racism in schools

Many academic institutions have been recognized for producing students who have passed with distinctions. Unfortunately, behind these overwhelming results lies a trail of many students who have suffered racism and have missed the honors board because of the color differences. Let's look at some of the examples of thesis statements on racism in schools:

1.       Merit should be the S.I unit upon which humanity is graded. Unfortunately, this is not the case, especially in schools, for the new merit score is the person's color. Many have found their way to the honour's board not because of merit but because they of the same color affiliation as the teacher.

2.       Enlightenment and civilization have found their way to the world through one important institution called schools. We owe that to it. Unfortunately, even with the height to which the world has reached civilization and enlightenment, one area has been left out and remains unaddressed- the world view of color. Despite the light and glamour, we see globally, one predominant view is called race. We continue to paint the world based on human color, even in schools.

3.       Bullying falls among the vices that have dire consequences to the victim. One of the spheres to which bullying exists is the sphere of color and race within the context of schools. Many student's confidence and esteem have been shuttered only because they are black or white. Many have receded to depression because they feel unwanted in the schools. One of the prominent times within American History is the Jim Crow Era, where racial segregation in schools within North Carolina was rampant. We saw schools have a section for white students and a separate section for black students within this era. The prevailing flag was black and white, and racism was the order of the day.

Final Thought

Coming up with a thesis statement does not have to difficult. No, not at all. Evaluate the topic or question and express yourself through the thesis statement from your stance or the answer. Mastering this one key in writing exams or assignments is one of the keys to scaling up the ladder of lucrative grades. However, practice is a discipline that will see you become a pro in writing a prolific strong, and catchy thesis statement. Henceforth, regard yourself as a pro, regard yourself as the best in thesis statement writing. If you are still having trouble with coming up with an excellent thesis statement, do not beat yourself up because of it.  Paper per hour  has the  best writers  who can help you with all your racism thesis statement needs.

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Discrimination - Free Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

Discrimination, a pervasive social issue, entails unjust treatment based on an individual’s identity traits like race, gender, or ethnicity. Essays might explore the psychological, social, and systemic roots of discrimination, its various manifestations, and its detrimental effects on individuals and communities. Moreover, discussions might extend to anti-discrimination initiatives, legal frameworks, and the role of education in combating discriminatory attitudes. We have collected a large number of free essay examples about Discrimination you can find at Papersowl. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

What is Discrimination?

Discrimination is well known in all societies. It is treating some people unequally that is treating people differently. Discrimination can be unlawful or legal. Legal discrimination is whereby you discriminate against a person for being who he or she is. However, if you treat a person in an unjust manner due to their race, religion, age, nationality ethical background or gender is said to be unlawful. In businesses, for instance, where an employer may decide to mistreat his or her […]

Fight against Discrimination

Discrimination is the treatment or making preference against or in favor of a person, on the grounds of category, color, group or race. People discriminated against are usually denied their full rights to either access or participate in activities. Discrimination can also be based on policies laid down to certain people from different activities or places, or can be against individuals with different ideas or opinions, like political or there can be laws set to bar some individuals from their […]

Aftershock: Beyond the Civil War Summary

Aftershock: Beyond the Civil War is a documentary aired on history channel on TV. The movie was directed by David Padrusch in the year 2006. The documentary is segmented into various series that describe the history of the time of the civil war in America. During that time, there was a deadly conflict between various races represented in America. The southern part of America was experiencing angry rebellion from the people. The Aftershock documentary is mainly focused on broadcasting the […]

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Discrimination of Races

Discrimination of races is something that is occuring in our society everyday. It still exists today because it started so long ago and once certain races had the hierarchy, some refuse to let go of the idea that they have more power just because they look a certain way and they choose to discriminate the minorities. Discrimination against a person's race occurs when an individual or group of individuals are treated unequally because of their true or perceived race. I […]

Stereotyping and Discrimination

Introduction The movie starts with all the animals living together and happily in the big city. Their peaceful lives are then disturbed by ferocious predators. The case goes to the swindler fox and a bunny cop, those who unintentionally solve many problems related to hidden cases of interspecies.Rhetorical Strategies Few of the negative observers interpret that movie does not openly or directly express the racism. Additionally, the writer named as Nico Lang also asserts that movie does not score much […]

Racial Inequality in America

The United States has been struggling with racial inequality for decades, and the media has been paying more attention to this issue. Race can impact the likelihood of graduating high school, attending college, or even maintaining a livable income as an adult (Back and Solomos, 2020). An individual's racial ethnicity is a factor when determining these outcomes and is worth noting. If you are skeptical of your race's role in the number of options you have, look no further than […]

Racism and Discrimination: the Influence of Past Sins

Discrimination against black people by white people in the United States had been regarded as a matter of course and justifiable for more than 300 years. Therefore, the problem is far more than whether the laws are prohibited or not, but whether people's mind and concepts are changed or not. The latter is something that everyone understands but is the most difficult to do. While looking at American history, the history of African Americans can be said to be soaked […]

Racism: Unmasking Microaggressions and Discrimination

Reading through the article provided a vivid reflection on how racism becomes a serious issue in the today society. There are various types of racism the article brings out manifested in micro aggression form. The varied opinions in my mind provide a clear picture of the information relayed in the article through the following analysis. Discrimination concerning race will major in my analysis. First, let me talk about the black guy abused in the Saudi Arabia that has sparked public […]

Is Racism Still a Current Issue in America

Racism is defined as prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that one's own race is superior. It is no secret that America has a racist past, with issues like hate crimes, police brutality, and slavery. However, the concern of racism is still apparent in American society today. Completely eliminating racism will be very hard. However, to start the process of eliminating this issue, we need to start by recognizing our own […]

Discrimination in Workplace

Discrimination in workplace is when an employee experiences harsh or unfair because of his or her race, skin color, National origin, gender, disability, religion, or age. Discrimination is one of the biggest problems a lot of people face in a workplace, people gets judged based off their appearance and who they are. There are different ways of discrimination that occurs often in a workplace. One way is denying his/her a job cause of their race and gender all employers have […]

Discrimination against Blacks in a Raisin in the Sun

Chicago's Southside, like many other towns, suffers considerably post World War II. Racism stretches across the nation and into the Youngers, an African-American family in the play A Raisin in the Sun, home. Lorraine Hansberry, playwright of A Raisin in the Sun, vividly shows people how racism and discrimination can make a family suffer. Since racism will never go away, people need to learn how racism negatively impacts others' lives. Hansberry's play A Raisin in the Sun demonstrates how racism […]

Appeal to Ethos, Logos and Pathos Racism

Abraham Lincoln once said, Achievement has no color."", but is that really true? In many cases of racism, people have been suppressed and kept from being able to contribute to the society. Racism is a blight and a hindrance to our development. Imagine the many things we could do if people could set aside differences and cooperate meaningfully. Sadly that is not the case. In reality, people are put down because of their heritage and genetics. By no means is […]

About Gender Discrimination in Sports

Gender discrimination in sports has been a controversial topic for a long time. Men and women have been given different opportunities in the sports community. In the beginning, men had more rights than women. Even though gender inequality exists in sports, the situation has improved. Today there are several famous female athletes, such as Simone Biles, Abby Wambach, and Ronda Rousey. These women have made an impact on the gender discrimination matter; however, most sports are still dominated by men. […]

Main Causes of Discrimination

To the extent verifiable records appear, no general public or country has been insusceptible to discrimination, either as a victim or victimizer. Most of the causes of that discrimination and racism is given by fear of difference, through ignorance, and because people strive to show that they are stronger. Contemporary types of segregation go back to when European colonizers infiltrated and changed recently disengaged social orders and people groups. The more outrageous types of biased practices incorporate slavery, genocide, and […]

Racial Discrimination Within the Workplace

Racial Discrimination Within the Workplace Racial discrimination has played a big part in the United States history without a doubt however, there is still an argument on whether or not racial discrimination still exist in the U.S. in particular the workplace. According to Pew Research Center, over 150 million American are employed and of those 150 million 12.6% of employees are African American but many still say that they have experienced racism within the workplace. Racial discrimination is not only […]

“The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson: a Reflection on Gender Discrimination

Shirley Jackson’s, “The Lottery” depicted the cruelty of old principles and how they have effects on its citizens, especially on its women. In the story, the men are the one who choose a slip of paper that determined the horrific faith of one of their fellow townspeople. The women in the town have no right to choose a slip until her family has chosen theirs first. The lower down on the list that a citizen is increase their chance of […]

Three Problems of the Criminal Justice System and how to Fix them

The criminal justice system has an important role in society to maintain order and to ensure that law is equal and fair; no matter age, ethnicity, race, sex, or social economical status. Unfortunately, this is not true within the current judicial system. Racial discrimination, youth incarceration, and health related infirmities result from incarceration (Simonson, 2017). Three Problems of the Criminal Justice System and How to Fix Them There are many problems that plague our current criminal justice system. The problems […]

Discrimination and Prejudice in Frankenstein

During our human history, prejudice and discrimination have existed. Prejudice refers to the irrational and inflexible attitudes that members of a particular group hold about members of another group (Sibley and Duckitt 248). Prejudices are either harmful or positive. Both forms of prejudice are usually preconceived by the people who hold them and are extremely difficult to alter (Stephan, Cookie and Stephan 33). The negative form of prejudices leads to discrimination- unjust behaviors that holders of negative prejudice direct against […]

Frida Kahlo’s Experience of Discrimination

In America, everyone will experience discrimination in their lifetime, it's not a matter of when, but why. Discrimination, although diminished from previous decades, still holds strong in our societies present day. Frida Kahlo is famous for her self portraits which depicted her culture and female experience, and the ways they suffered. One of the first photos shown to us in this module was a painting of Frida herself, standing on a broken piece of land. It highlighted clues to many […]

Discrimination of the LGBTQ Community

Since the beginning of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) community, it has been one of the most discriminated against groups in the world as they are denied the basic rights that most people get to enjoy. Today, it is still legal to discriminate someone based on their sexual orientation or gender identity in thirty states. The following pages will inform readers on discrimination of the LGBTQ community by the general public, in schools, and in the workplace. […]

Depiction of Discrimination in to Kill a Mockingbird

"Our generation has had no Great war, no Great Depression. Out war is spiritual. Our depression is our lives" (Chuck Palahniuk). Discrimination was most common in the 1930's and was performed by prejudice people against others. In the novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, by Harper Lee, discrimination is one of the main conflicts in the story. Till this day, people still face discrimination and injustice. Throughout the novel, sexism, classism, and racism are prominent in the lives of the characters. […]

Madisonian Democracy

Madisonian Democracy was based on the idea that human are self interested. Factions would be form due to common interest. There would be fragmented power to avoid the tyranny of majority and minority power. The point of the Civil Rights Movement was to have minority fight against tyranny of the majority, and they wanting their basic rights. With their hard effort they were able to pass the Civil Rights Act. They did use Madisonian Democracy but it fail. This was […]

Discrimination against Women in the Workplace

Various studies report that inequality still persists despite women making great milestones in the place of work (Bach, 2018). A recent survey conducted by Social Institutions and Gender Index (2018) shows that women discrimination in the United States is much higher when compared to discrimination against women in Australia, Colombia, regions of Eastern Europe, and Western Europe (Bach, 2018). The report by Social Institutions and Gender Index also highlighted the existing gender compensation differences in US, as well as the […]

Gender Discrimination Lawsuit against Nike

Abstract This article sets to expand on the recent discrimination lawsuit that has been brought against the Nike Corporation. Former female employees in leadership roles have filed a complaint against Nike citing pay disparities and an unfavorable work environment. Claims of gender disparity and unfavorable work environment floods the Nike Corporation after alleged claims that the company discriminates against female employees. Findings suggests male employees are paid more than female employees of the company who hold the same position. Women […]

Society and Racial Discrimination

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Religious Discrimination Throughout Cultures and the Workplace

Religious discrimination refers to the treating of an individual unfairly because of his or her religious beliefs (Kerner). P. Smith (2017) defines religious discrimination as the adverse treatment of an individual who is either an employee or any other person considering the religious beliefs of the person rather than the merit of the employee. Additionally, religious discrimination can refer to the unjust, or the prejudicial treatment of a group of people or just an individual because of his or chosen […]

Gender Hierarchy of Power

There has been gender discrimination over the years in our societies by power. Most of the society has been structured in such a way the culture value one gender more than the other, and this is what has led to gender discrimination. In many societies, the gender hierarchy has brought unequal opportunities in power, and this has discriminated the female gender leading to the feminism in our societies. According to the Bechdel movies, it has explained the gender hierarchy in […]

Racial Discrimination in Justice System

Abstract It is essential to analyze the racial disparity in the criminal justice system because the criminal courts are important in society because, especially in making judgments, they are expected to bring equal opportunities for all people. It must ensure that, despite the political statuses and other backgrounds of the individuals, every person in the country follows the rule of law and order. When making important judgments, they should not have the bias of allowing any favor. The manner in […]

The Discrimination of Women in Society

The unequal treatment of individuals based on their gender is a deeply rooted problem in most societies, even our own. Discrimination of women in health, education, and politics has consequences for the development of their lives and their freedom of choice. A country’s culture directly impact how gender equality is exercised as a basic human right. The first step to finding suggestion and solutions for this global problem, is understanding what it is: “Gender equality is, first and foremost, a […]

The is Immigration Discrimination

Immigration has always been a problem, Native Americans used to call it 'white people'. Some scientists consider human came to America for the first time about 20,000 years ago over the Bering Straits ( The Statue of Liberty- Ellis Island Foundation). These people were the Native American ancestors, who would populate the landscape for thousands of years. Around the year 1000, a small number of Vikings arrived and five hundred years later, the great European migration began. Crossing the Atlantic […]

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How To Write an Essay About Discrimination

Understanding the concept of discrimination.

Before you begin writing an essay about discrimination, it's crucial to understand its definition and the various forms it can take. Discrimination is the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, sex, or disability. Start your essay by defining discrimination and differentiating it from prejudice and bigotry. Explore the different types of discrimination, such as racial, gender, age, religious, and disability discrimination. Understanding these variations is important to provide a comprehensive view of the topic in your essay.

Developing a Focused Thesis Statement

A strong, focused thesis statement is essential for an effective essay on discrimination. This statement should present a specific angle or argument about discrimination. For example, you might choose to write about the impact of discrimination in the workplace, the role of systemic discrimination in society, or strategies to combat discrimination. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and ensure that your analysis is structured and coherent.

Gathering Supporting Evidence

An essay about discrimination should be supported by relevant facts, data, and examples. This might include statistical evidence, case studies, historical examples, or current events. For instance, if you are discussing racial discrimination, you might include recent incidents that have gained public attention or historical legislation that has contributed to systemic racism. Use this evidence to support your thesis and strengthen your arguments.

Analyzing Causes and Effects

Dedicate a section of your essay to analyzing the causes and effects of discrimination. Discuss various factors that lead to discriminatory practices, such as stereotypes, ignorance, and societal norms. Explore the impact of discrimination on individuals, communities, and society as a whole. For instance, consider how workplace discrimination can affect employee morale and productivity. This analysis will help readers understand the complexities of discrimination.

Proposing Solutions and Conclusions

Towards the end of your essay, discuss potential solutions to address discrimination. This could include policy changes, educational programs, or grassroots initiatives. Highlight initiatives that have been successful in combating discrimination and suggest areas where more work is needed. Conclude your essay by summarizing the key points discussed, restating the importance of addressing discrimination, and encouraging further research or action.

Final Review and Editing

After completing your essay, it's important to review and edit your work. Ensure that your arguments are clear and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical errors and ensure that your essay flows logically. It might also be helpful to get feedback from others, perhaps classmates or a teacher, who can provide a fresh perspective. A well-polished essay will communicate your ideas more effectively and demonstrate your understanding of discrimination and its impacts.

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Essays About Discrimination: Top 5 Examples and 8 Prompts

You must know how to connect with your readers to write essays about discrimination effectively; read on for our top essay examples, including prompts that will help you write.

Discrimination comes in many forms and still happens to many individuals or groups today. It occurs when there’s a distinction or bias against someone because of their age, race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or disability.

Discrimination can happen to anyone wherever and whenever they are. Unfortunately, it’s a problem that society is yet to solve entirely. Here are five in-depth examples of this theme’s subcategories to guide you in creating your essays about discrimination.

1. Essay On Discrimination For Students In Easy Words by Prateek

2. personal discrimination experience by naomi nakatani, 3. prejudice and discrimination by william anderson, 4. socioeconomic class discrimination in luca by krystal ibarra, 5. the new way of discrimination by writer bill, 1. my discrimination experience, 2. what can i do to stop discrimination, 3. discrimination in my community, 4. the cost of discrimination, 5. examples of discrimination, 6. discrimination in sports: segregating men and women, 7. how to stop my discrimination against others, 8. what should groups do to fight discrimination.

“In the current education system, the condition of education and its promotion of equality is very important. The education system should be a good place for each and every student. It must be on the basis of equal opportunities for each student in every country. It must be free of discrimination.”

Prateek starts his essay by telling the story of a student having difficulty getting admitted to a college because of high fees. He then poses the question of how the student will be able to get an education when he can’t have the opportunity to do so in the first place. He goes on to discuss UNESCO’s objectives against discrimination. 

Further in the essay, the author defines discrimination and cites instances when it happens. Prateek also compares past and present discrimination, ending the piece by saying it should stop and everyone deserves to be treated fairly.

“I thought that there is no discrimination before I actually had discrimination… I think we must treat everyone equally even though people speak different languages or have different colors of skin.”

In her short essay, Nakatani shares the experiences that made her feel discriminated against when she visited the US. She includes a fellow guest saying she and her mother can’t use the shared pool in a hotel they stay in because they are Japanese and getting cheated of her money when she bought from a small shop because she can’t speak English very well.

“Whether intentional or not, prejudice and discrimination ensure the continuance of inequality in the United States. Even subconsciously, we are furthering inequality through our actions and reactions to others… Because these forces are universally present in our daily lives, the way we use them or reject them will determine how they affect us.”

Anderson explains the direct relationship between prejudice and discrimination. He also gives examples of these occurrences in the past (blacks and whites segregation) and modern times (sexism, racism, etc.)

He delves into society’s fault for playing the “blame game” and choosing to ignore each other’s perspectives, leading to stereotypes. He also talks about affirmative action committees that serve to protect minorities.

“Something important to point out is that there is prejudice when it comes to people of lower class or economic standing, there are stereotypes that label them as untrustworthy, lazy, and even dangerous. This thought is fed by the just-world phenomenon, that of low economic status are uneducated, lazy, and are more likely to be substance abusers, and thus get what they deserve.”

Ibarra recounts how she discovered Pixar’s Luca and shares what she thought of the animation, focusing on how the film encapsulates socioeconomic discrimination in its settings. She then discusses the characters and their relationships with the protagonist. Finally, Ibarra notes how the movie alluded to flawed characters, such as having a smaller boat, mismatched or recycled kitchen furniture, and no shoes. 

The other cast even taunts Luca, saying he smells and gets his clothes from a dead person. These are typical things marginalized communities experience in real life. At the end of her essay, Ibarra points out how society is dogmatic against the lower class, thinking they are abusers. In Luca, the wealthy antagonist is shown to be violent and lazy.

“Even though the problem of discrimination has calmed down, it still happens… From these past experiences, we can realize that solutions to tough problems come in tough ways.”

The author introduces people who called out discrimination, such as Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Barbara Henry – the only teacher who decided to teach Ruby Bridges, despite her skin color. 

He then moves on to mention the variations of present-day discrimination. He uses Donald Trump and the border he wants to build to keep the Hispanics out as an example. Finally, Bill ends the essay by telling the readers those who discriminate against others are bullies who want to get a reaction out of their victims. 

Do you get intimidated when you need to write an essay? Don’t be! If writing an essay makes you nervous, do it step by step. To start, write a simple 5 paragraph essay .

Prompts on Essays About Discrimination

Below are writing prompts that can inspire you on what to focus on when writing your discrimination essay:

Have you had to go through an aggressor who disliked you because you’re you? Write an essay about this incident, how it happened, what you felt during the episode, and what you did afterward. You can also include how it affected the way you interact with people. For example, did you try to tone down a part of yourself or change how you speak to avoid conflict?

List ways on how you can participate in lessening incidents of discrimination. Your list can include calling out biases, reporting to proper authorities, or spreading awareness of what discrimination is.

Is there an ongoing prejudice you observe in your school, subdivision, etc.? If other people in your community go through this unjust treatment, you can interview them and incorporate their thoughts on the matter.

Tackle what victims of discrimination have to go through daily. You can also talk about how it affected their life in the long run, such as having low self-esteem that limited their potential and opportunities and being frightened of getting involved with other individuals who may be bigots.

For this prompt, you can choose a subtopic to zero in on, like Workplace Discrimination, Disability Discrimination, and others. Then, add sample situations to demonstrate the unfairness better.

What are your thoughts on the different game rules for men and women? Do you believe these rules are just? Cite news incidents to make your essay more credible. For example, you can mention the incident where the Norwegian women’s beach handball team got fined for wearing tops and shorts instead of bikinis.

Since we learn to discriminate because of the society we grew up in, it’s only normal to be biased unintentionally. When you catch yourself having these partialities, what do you do? How do you train yourself not to discriminate against others?

Focus on an area of discrimination and suggest methods to lessen its instances. To give you an idea, you can concentrate on Workplace Discrimination, starting from its hiring process. You can propose that applicants are chosen based on their skills, so the company can implement a hiring procedure where applicants should go through written tests first before personal interviews.

If you instead want to focus on topics that include people from all walks of life, talk about diversity. Here’s an excellent guide on how to write an essay about diversity .

How to Write a Racism Thesis Statement: A Step-by-Step Guide (With Examples)

Jul 20, 2023

Jul 20, 2023 | Blog

As a student, you will handle many subjects and assignments.

One topic that is popular for essays and research papers is Racism.

Many resources are on the topic, so students assume a racism essay is easy.

The challenge you will face with a racism essay is not content but a thesis statement.

The racism thesis statement should be powerful and something your audience can understand and relate to.

This article will provide helpful guidelines and tips on writing a racism thesis statement and examples of powerful racist thesis statements.

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What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement is the backbone of a persuasive paper.

The thesis states your position or opinion as a factual claim and guides readers through their journey with you in this essay.

I am informing them on how they will navigate through it.

A good thesis statement is the equivalent of a preacher giving a sermon or a politician making an announcement.

As you craft your paper’s introduction, your goal will be to pique interest by announcing what you’re going to say in-depth throughout the rest of your essay.

Do you know how a preacher or politician might say, “Here’s what I’m going to tell you”?

The thesis statement is your announcement of what you’re trying to convey.

Difference between a TOPIC and a THESIS STATEMENT

A topic is a subject or good idea you would like to explore further.

A thesis statement is a specific argumentative stance you will take on the subject.

For example, Racism is a topic, while a thesis statement about Racism could be:

“While racism remains a problem in America, it can be reduced or potentially eliminated through the effective implementation of diversity training programs in schools and corporate institutions.”

How do I get started with writing a thesis statement on racial discrimination?

Use these three steps:

(1) brainstorm what you think

(2) refine your idea

(3) rewrite your idea in the form of a central claim

Let’s use a hypothetical sociology class assignment asking you to construct a response to the racism problem on our college campus.

Step 1: Brainstorm what you think 

You start by writing, “Racism is a prominent issue on our college campus.”

Even though this is a great starting point, it is not well-defined. It’s’ simply restating the assignment.

At this point, what you need to do is to brainstorm. On this given topic, what do you think about it?

What’s your opinion on the given topic?

How will you support your opinion?

What examples and facts can you provide?

Try putting these questions on paper and writing down your answers. You will then use the solutions you wrote down to formulate a stronger racism thesis statement.

Step 2: Refine your idea

One of the proven best methods of doing this is using the following model:

On a piece of paper, write this: “I think that ____________.

Using your initial brainstorming idea, fill in the blank.

In our case, it will be this: “I think that racism remains a problem on our college campus.”

While you have rewritten your rough idea at this stage, it is starting to form a thesis.

Next, complete this model as you continue building your thesis: I think racism Racism remains a problem on our college campus because __________.

Then you write: IRacism Racism remains a problem on our college campus because it does not require mandatory diversity training for all of its students.

Okay, now you are progressing and heading in a good direction.

Let’s reword the thesis to make it appear more “academic.”

Step 3: Rewrite your idea in the form of a central claim 

We need to replace the word “you” to make the thesis statement appear less personal and like the main claim.

To achieve this, delete the “I think that” from the sentence:

“Racism remains a problem on our college campus because the college does not require mandatory diversity training for all of its students.”

Hurray! You now have your thesis statement—many congratulations.

Essential details to keep in mind when writing a racism thesis statement

1) your racism thesis statement should appear at the beginning of the paper.

When writing a Racism essay on Racism, the thesis statement is important.

Readers should be given a clear idea of what your essay will cover and how it will unfold.

The racism thesis statement is an outlook for the rest of your paper in the introductory paragraph.

The introductory paragraph should clarify that you’re approaching this topic from all angles and know how complicated this issue can be in today’s society.

2) Your theRacismatement on Racism should give direction to the rest of your paper

A thesis statement on Racism gives your reader direction and provides several reasons for elaborating on a specific claim.

If you wish to accomplish this, your statement should expRacismhe the idea of Racism in-depth with different examples that will persuade readers.

For example: ”Racism does not exist” while still, an argument is insufficient as it has a false sense of structure.

However, if your thesis is that “racism does not exist because antiracist movements have grown in power and number over the years,” you can provide two reasons to support this claim within one sentence.

Such shapes the rest of your paper while leaving much time for evidence discussion later.

Such gives the paper the needed shape as evidence is discussed in detail to support this claim.

3) Ensure that you have a debatable argument

Although it’s important to question any information you are given, there is a certain knowledge that the public already values.

For exampRacismeryone, he knows Racism is a social and moral vice.

This means coming up with such a topic would not interest their audience.

Your argument becomes a racism thesis statement once you add an aspect.

For instance, oRacismld says, “Racism is the most harmful social and moral vice on earth. we might lose our unique identities and multicultural features if not eradicated soon enough.”

4) Keep your Racism thesis statement short!

It’s effortless to make your racism essay more interesting if you keep it short.

If you pick a broad topic, the magnitude of information will almost certainly give you trouble.

A good thesis statement should be small and localized rather than large or generalizing.

For example: “White police brutality on black people among many other things shows that Racism still exists in the United States” would make a powerful claim about something that was happening more often now than before

Tips On How To Write A Racism Thesis Statement

Before writing your thesis statement on Racism, consider the following guidelines.

Find a racism topic or issue to write about

Racism is a broad issue that continues to plague the world even today.

Therefore, finding an informative topic from which you can develop a thesis statement shouldn’t be difficult.

You can see Racism approach Racism through other social issues such as art, politics, economy, equitability, poverty, and history.

2. Pick a topic that is interesting to you

You might not be familiar with all the Racism surrounding Racism.

As asRacismoned earlier, Racism is a broad topic; there are many approaches you can take in your paper.

Therefore, to have an easier time developing a thesis, pick a racist topic that interests you.

For instance, if you are conversant with the history of America, your thesis statement could focuRacismhe the effects of Racism during the Civil Rights Movement that began in 1954 and ended in 1968.

3. Hook your reader

As you write your thesis statement, try to include a hook.

A hook is a statement that grabs the attention of a reader.

Try hooking your reader by relating your thesis to popular culture.

You could even refer to current issues on the news or relate to popular television programs, movies, or books.

4. Avoid offensiveRacismage

Remember, Racism is a personal issue; it is open to bias depending on your thinking.

Therefore, most of the issues surrounding this topic are controversial.

Avoid offensive and rude language when discussing a controversial topic in an academic paper.

Examples Of Racism Thesis Statements

It would help if you had a well-thought-out and well-constructed thesis statement to get a good score in your racism-related research paper or essay.

The following are examples of thesis statements on different racism topics.

Existence of Racism

Such an essay tries to prove that racial segregation is still a significant social problem.

Therefore, your thesis statement should focus on the problems racial segregation causes.

Consider the following example:

It is a fact that police killings involving people of color are more than white people. Joshua Correll of the University of Colorado confirmed this when he designed a game where the participants played cops. The game results indicated that, despite the people playing cop, they were more willing to kill a person of color and showed hesitation when the suspect was a white persRacismis. Racism continues to plague society.

Use our free Thesis Statement Generator Tool Here .

Workplace-related Racism

Racism is a form of prejudice often experienced in a workplace environment.

A workplace powerful racism thesis statement could read as follows:

Prejudice in a workplace environment is a backward practice that undermines productivity. In the professional sphere, white people are considered mentally superior, and therefore they get the top jobs that pay higher wages. Blacks are considered physically endowed and land physical labor jobs, which generally pay lower.

Anti-racism movements

Anti-racism is a phrase coined by people who formed movements to fight Racismnsequences of Racism.

Martin Luther King Jr led the greatest antiracist movement between the early 50s and the late 60s.

Another key antiracist figure was Nelson Madiba Mandela of South Africa.

Anti-racism also covers the beliefs and policies set to combat racial prejudice.

An anti-racism essay thesis statement should evoke emotion from a reader.

The following is an example:

Anti-racism movement leaders were treated inhumanely; Nelson Mandela was imprisoned for 27 years, and Martin Luther King Junior was assassinated. But, society today would not be as egalitarian as it is without them. Their sacrifices are the sole reason blacks and whites can walk on the same street and work together to create a brighter future.

Cause and effect

You can choose to write about Racism and the effect of Racism.

For example, ignoRacismis a cause of Racism that results in fear and eventually extreme violence.

The following is an example of a thesis statement that focuses on ignorance and fear as thRacismary causes of Racism.

Undoubtedly, Racism has negative consequences, the key among them being fear and violence, resulting from a need to protect themselves. Racism major cause of Racism is ignorance. Uneducated and unexposed feel threatened by people of a different race. Such people condone and practice this prejudice without considering its negative effects and consequences on the individuals they discriminate against and society.

Racism Thesis statements based on art and literature

Books, music, and movies cover a wide variety of racist topics.

The following are examples of literary artworks you can base a racism essay on:

Othello is a play by Shakespeare that addresses some delicate sociRacismssues such as Racism.

You could develop a thesis statemeRacismhlighting Racism in the play.

Othello, who was black, was highly disrespected by Lago and other characters such as Emilia, Roderigo, and Brabantio. These characters labeled him ”Barbary horse,” ”an old black ram,” ”thick lips,” and other demeaning names. He was also abused for marrying a Venetian woman. All this shows a strong conviction that one race is superior and a barbaric intolerance towards the ”inferior” race.

2. To kill a mockingbird

This book by Harper Lee is popular because it portrays the struggles of a black man in the southern states in the early 20 th century.

The book is a good source for Racism essays as it depicts Racism and its effects easily and comprehensibly.

The following is a good example of a racist thesis statement from To Kill a Mocking Bird :

Tom Robinson was suspected of murdering Mayella Ewell, a white woman, and was sentenced not because of any evidence but because he was black. Like Atticus Finch, Scout, and Jem, who tried to defend him, White characters were given shaming names such as ”Nigger lovers.” The story in the book clearly shows the tribulations a black man went through and how his word meant nothing.

3. Disney films

Disney films are popular for their fascinating stories and world-class acting and production.

However, scrutiny of several films will realize a certain degree of racial prejudice in how the films portray characters.

The following is an example of a thesis statement focusing on racial prejudice in Disney films:

There is a significant degree of racial prejudice in how Disney portrays characters in their films. For example, in Jungle Book, the gorillas communicated in an African vernacular language. Another example is Lady and the Tramp, where the cat villains had slanted eyes and spoke with an East Asian accent. The film production company portrays protagonists as white and antagonists as people of color.

4. Advertisements

The advertisement sector also depicts racial prejudice.

To demonstrate, consider this thesis statement:

Several surveys show that black people are underrepresented in commercials, mainstream media, and online ads. According to the US Census Bureau 2010 records, blacks  and other racial minorities represent 30%. Yet, only 7% of ads involve black people, while other racial minorities are hardly ever represented.

Racism is a fairly easy subject for an essay and research paper .

However, it has so many sources and different points of view that selecting one idea to focus on in creating a thesis statement can be problematic.

But, with the guidelines shared above, developing a thesis statement for your racism essay will not be as difficult.

Remember, you need to let the reader know your point of view and demonstrate your objectiveness on the issue.

Examples of thesis statements on Racism

• Racism worldwide can end if the global collaboration and interracial and intercultural communication continue to increase.
• Racial minorities in America still face covert prejudice despite America’s institutional and societal changes in the sixties.
• Multiculturalism has failed as an institutional practice in Europe, which can be determined by the increase in hate crime cases and racial minority issues.
• Despite the significance of affirmative action in countering racial prejudice, there are concerns that it promotes racial differences.
• There exists a misconception that affirmative action is a women’s agenda.
• Racial prejudice founded on a single person’s actions but taken to be the general state of affairs for the given race is wrong.
• Racism in the workplace adversely impacts workers’ productivity as it affects their aggressiveness.
• It costs nothing to point out racist actions in the workplace.
• The majority of Racism in the world relies on Racism as a means of garnering votes and grabbing power.
• The rate of racial hatred and related crimes is high in Australian universities.
• Students’ diversity can play a significant role in reducing racial crimes and related issues.
• Embracing diversity in the workplace can help reduce incidences of racial intolerance.
• Transgender, bisexual, gay, and lesbian Americans have experienced prejudice from society.
• In the thirties, the Blacks lived in hatred and poverty, which was the cause of death of many innocent lives.
• It was considered strange to show affection to Black Americans in the past.
• Despite the frowning among most citizens in America, racial prejudice is a common practice, especially in the brave home.
• Racial equality is a social barrier that Americans are yet to overcome.
• There are wide geographical and psychological distances between Asians and Blacks in America. Such distances can be attributed to the segregation by the American society government or the white-centric media.

I am dedicated to creating engaging blog posts that provide valuable insights and advice to help students excel in their studies. From study tips to time management strategies, my goal is to empower students to reach their full potential.

• The Significance of Strong Thesis Statement Examples Across Various Disciplines
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Discrimination Essay In A Nutshell

Table of Contents

The history of mankind is sodden with discrimination. It takes different forms and shapes, and modern society is not an exception. It is at stake of cultural history and has influenced many social, cultural, and economic occurrences that we see today.

Thus, any student will face a writing assignment dedicated to this subject matter sooner or later.

It is not that difficult when you know the principles of proper academic writing. Yet, when you have no time or decided to write it without an outline, you may end up in a deadlock.

Here we cover the basics of the writing of the essay on discrimination. Weaponize yourself with the tips from pro writers!

What is a discrimination essay?

There are several types of discrimination based on:

• Sexual orientation
• Disability, etc.

Each and every type of discrimination implicates the superiority of a certain group of people over another group of people. One of the main problems here is that many people mess up the notion of discrimination with the notion of prejudice and stereotypes. It is necessary to understand that, as a rule, stereotype and prejudice cause discrimination, but, these notions are not exactly the same.

This theme is controversial, multifaceted, and can be approached from different points of view. Thus, the list of disciplines that can cover issues connected to discrimination includes Psychology, Social Sciences, Political Science, Anthropology, Religion Studies, History, etc.

Racial discrimination essay essentials

The issue of racism is a hot button for American society. Naturally, this issue is widely depicted in the literary works, works of art, movies, etc., so you will definitely find enough research material. The problem here is of another kind. It is essential to make up your mind on the topic.

We have gathered some interesting ideas that you can use for your papers.

Essay on racism and discrimination

First and foremost, it is necessary to set these two notions apart: racism and racial discrimination are not the same. In fact, you will write a cause-and-effect essay where racism will be a cause, and racial discrimination will be the effect. Or, vice versa, you can approach this topic another way. Indicate that discrimination is a much broader notion than racism.

Consequently, racism is one of the manifestations of discrimination. Both approaches are correct, so the choice is yours. Select the one that seems more interesting to you and start working!

Racial discrimination in the workplace essay

A workplace is a place where all types of discrimination appear from time to time, so it provides a fertile field for the research. For example, you can dedicate the essay on racial discrimination to the issue of prejudice in this sphere.

Thus, as a rule, employers tend to hire white people to do intellectual labor and black people to do physical work. A heavy accent or poor knowledge of English can also become a stumbling block on the way to a good job.

The best sources to search for information are the laws and social programs aimed to protect workers from unfair treatment.

So you can make an insight into the current situation with labor legislation, what steps are taken to eliminate the racial discrimination at work and evaluate their efficiency. Another idea for the essay dedicated to the work issues is your solutions to them with solid argumentation.

Anti-racism paper

As the issue of racism is old as the hills, the search for the sound solution also takes different shapes and forms. There are many policies, movements, activists, and even scientific investigations aimed to prove that all people have similar physiology and development despite the race.

Here you can discuss the activities of the anti-apartheid movements (and, obviously, explain what apartheid is), or to discuss the influence of a particular anti-racist activist on the certain movement or event.

Racial discrimination in media

If you are an attentive TV viewer, this topic won’t need any further explanation. All you need is a thorough analysis of a cast of characters of any TV show or movie.

Thanks to racial prejudice, African Americans are typically criminals or hip hop musicians (often both), and Asian Americans are nerds with no communicational skills. All main roles are played by white people almost without exception.

Even Disney cartoons are not an exception!

If to compare Aladdin and Jafar, for example, it becomes clear that positive hero has whiter and more regular features, and the main villain has a more exotic appearance, though both characters are supposed to be of Arabic appearance.

Another idea for a thematic prejudice and discrimination essay is the negative effects of racial discrimination in media. Or, if you want a challenging task, try to search for some positive effects of racism in media.

Racial discrimination in literary works

The first one that comes to mind is, obviously, Othello. It is a brilliant example of the consequences of intolerance and the belief that one race is superior to others.

Another great discussion point is the aptitude of “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” in the school program. The text of this novel is filled with offensive, racist words and may seem abusive, so can the cultural values overweight the offense?

Or you may discuss the issues connected with Uncle Tom’s Cabin. On the one hand, this novel had a great influence on the start of the American Civil War. On the other, the novel is filled with racial stereotypes.

Gender discrimination essay ideas

Unequal treatment of men and women is evidenced in the Bible, let alone less famous sources. The situation started to change only in the 20th century with the development of the women’s rights movement. Still, in many countries, women’s rights are often neglected or abused.

The main types of gender discrimination are:

• Remuneration

Educational gender discrimination

Perhaps, it is the most popular topic for a college discrimination essay. Here you can talk about the preference to male students in the scholarship programs or admissions.

Do not forget to find enough statistics!

Gender discrimination in the workplace

There are at least three main issues that any woman can face with the attempt to find a job. First and foremost, when there are two candidates for a position, a man and a woman, an employer is more likely to choose a man. The next issue is sexual harassment.

According to the statistics, almost half of employed American women faced sexual , verbal, or physical harassment at work. Also, the very possibility to become pregnant and then take a maternity leave drives away employers.

Remuneration issues

It is a well-known fact that women get 25% less money than men for an equal amount of work. You can offer a solution to this issue or pay more attention to the statistics.

Essay on discrimination outline

As any other academic paper, this essay calls for proper planning and clear and logical structure. You will have to divide the paper into three parts: the intro, body, and conclusion.

As a result, the sample outline for gender discrimination in the workplace essay will look like this:

• Definition of discrimination
• Gender discrimination as a part of the discrimination
• Historical review + examples
• Labor legislation and its inefficiency + examples
• Current situation + possible solutions
• Restatement of the main idea
• Call to action

Starting discrimination essay introduction

The best way to start the intro, in this case, is to find some impressive statistics that highlight the scale of the issue. For example, 77% of women and 34% of men faced verbal sexual harassment at work according to the online survey by Stop Street Harassment.

Then you have to provide the background for your work. And the intro should be finished by the thesis statement on discrimination, aka the main idea of the text.

For example, inefficient labor legislation fails to protect women’s rights in the workplace.

Writing the body of the essay

The first paragraph s dedicated to the historical aspect of the problem. Thus, you show that the issue is not new, yet, still has no proper solution.

The second paragraph contains all your research about the legislation that should protect women’s equal rights with men and shows the void of laws. You will have to support this thought with real-life examples taken from trustworthy sources.

The last body paragraph provides your point of view on the solution to the problem.

Writing the discrimination essay conclusion

Usually, this section summarizes all the main ideas expressed in the paper. Then you restate the thesis statement and make a call-to-action aimed to leave an aftertaste after reading it.

The list of the most interesting discrimination essay topics

• LGBT discrimination essay: homophobia.
• Are there any racist ideas in Charles Darwin’s works?
• The differences in racism against men and women.
• Will racism ever disappear?
• Can religion cause racism?
• The problem of reverse discrimination.
• Is feminism relevant today?
• The concept of cultural racism.
• The problem of racism in the “Shape of Water” by Guillermo Del Toro.
• The issue of racism in “Green Mile” by Steven King.

Check out well-written discrimination essay examples

The theory is always helpful, but it’s always better to see the visual example. You can search for top-notch essay samples at a reliable custom writing service and use them as a source of inspiration.

On balance…

The issue of discrimination is one of the front burner issues for any society. The range of topics is huge, so as the problem itself, so you have plenty of variants to choose from. Search for relevant info, pay attention to planning and formatting and create a writing masterpiece!

And if you cannot complete this task on your own, feel free to ask professionals for help! Sometimes it is the wisest solution that helps to save tons of time and energy.

No inspiration to write the essay? Well, our professional writers are always inspired to offer you a helping hand! Click the button to learn more.

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Thesis Statements

What this handout is about.

This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.

Introduction

Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)

How do I create a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a “working thesis” that presents a basic or main idea and an argument that you think you can support with evidence. Both the argument and your thesis are likely to need adjustment along the way.

Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming .

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following :

• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question. If the prompt isn’t phrased as a question, try to rephrase it. For example, “Discuss the effect of X on Y” can be rephrased as “What is the effect of X on Y?”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is likely to  be “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s okay to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

Suppose you are taking a course on contemporary communication, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: “Discuss the impact of social media on public awareness.” Looking back at your notes, you might start with this working thesis:

Social media impacts public awareness in both positive and negative ways.

You can use the questions above to help you revise this general statement into a stronger thesis.

• Do I answer the question? You can analyze this if you rephrase “discuss the impact” as “what is the impact?” This way, you can see that you’ve answered the question only very generally with the vague “positive and negative ways.”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not likely. Only people who maintain that social media has a solely positive or solely negative impact could disagree.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? No. What are the positive effects? What are the negative effects?
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? No. Why are they positive? How are they positive? What are their causes? Why are they negative? How are they negative? What are their causes?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? No. Why should anyone care about the positive and/or negative impact of social media?

After thinking about your answers to these questions, you decide to focus on the one impact you feel strongly about and have strong evidence for:

Because not every voice on social media is reliable, people have become much more critical consumers of information, and thus, more informed voters.

This version is a much stronger thesis! It answers the question, takes a specific position that others can challenge, and it gives a sense of why it matters.

Let’s try another. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

You begin to analyze your thesis:

• Do I answer the question? No. The prompt asks you to analyze some aspect of the novel. Your working thesis is a statement of general appreciation for the entire novel.

Think about aspects of the novel that are important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

• Do I answer the question? Yes!
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not really. This contrast is well-known and accepted.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? It’s getting there–you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation. However, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? Not yet. Compare scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions and anything else that seems interesting.
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?”

After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. 2018. The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing , 8th ed. New York: Pearson.

Ruszkiewicz, John J., Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. 2010. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers , 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Origins of Racial Discrimination Thesis

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

The history of racial discrimination should not be determined by slavery only as its origins expand in time and forms, including ancient civilizations’ differences, religious and geographical diversity, and political regimes, affecting American society.

Annotated Bibliography

Bailey, Z. D., Feldman, J. M., & Bassett, M. T. (2021). How structural racism works – Racist policies as a root cause of US racial health inequities. New England Journal of Medicine, 384 (8), 768-773.

In their article published in 2021, Bailey et al. define racism as a durable feature of American society and underline the importance of understanding its structural basis. American police continue killing civilians of the color of their skin more often than in other countries. Racist policies founded in the 18 th century became the root cause of inequalities in health care, education, and other spheres. Despite such limitations as statistical data being left out, I will use this article to support the historical evaluation of racism in the United States and add ineffective policing to the origins of racism.

Bowser, B. P. (2017). Racism: Origin and theory. Journal of Black Studies, 48 (6), 572-590.

In 2017, Bowser introduced a review of racial discrimination as a concept with its specific theoretical development. Being coined at the beginning of the 20 th century, racism was significantly revised in the 1930s (antisemitism) and the 1960s (civil rights activists). Race relations are never simple, and activist movements prove the burden of racism in America. The theory of racism has to be reconsidered from the point of view of European Americans and White elites. I will add this study to my list even if it is limited to theoretical aspects only, as it contains the analysis of historical events that represent institutional and cultural racism.

Hanchard, M. G. (2018). The specter of race: How discrimination haunts western democracy . Princeton University Press.

This book by Hanchard was published in 2018 to examine various democratic institutions that lead to unequal and questionable ideas like slavery or discrimination. Racial hierarchies and social movements were rooted in ancient Greece, the Persian Wars, and Athenian culture and were based on religious beliefs. The author leaves statistics and current examples out but focuses on past political events and racial regimes to define the origins of racial discrimination in America. I will use Hanchard’s findings to strengthen my historical evaluation of the topic.

Mejia, R., Beckermann, K., & Sullivan, C. (2018). White lies A racial history of the (post) truth. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 15 (2), 109-126.

The results of the 2016 presidential elections provoked Mejia et al. to create an article about racial amnesia and publish it in 2018. The authors want to clarify why racial concepts denied years ago become acceptable today and use the post-truth concept. I will rely on the findings of this article to show how general ignorance about black experiences affects American politics and society. Although this work is limited to one election, attention to the Marxist approach and historical materialism reveals critical racial histories.

Rattansi, A. (2021). Racism: A very short introduction (2 nd ed). Oxford University Press.

In 2021, Rattansi published a book to show that racism is not only a social problem with its roots in wrong decisions and injustice. The author explains the origins of racism from biological, cultural, and political perspectives and offers extensive discussions about the topic. I find this book a good source for my study as it discusses cultural and color-blind forms of racism and Islamophobia as reasons for racial discrimination.

Seth, V. (2020). The origins of racism: A critique of the history ideas. History and Theory, 59 (3), 343-368.

In 2020, Seth created the article to criticize the history of racial ideas and the origins of racism globally. The goal is to introduce the analysis of ancient, medieval, and early modern events and show that contemporary politics become the origins of current racial problems. This article will be used in my future project to show that past experiences are not always as critical as current decisions.

Small, M. L., & Pager, D. (2020). Sociological perspectives on racial discrimination. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34 (2), 49-67.

Small and Pager published their article in 2020 to demonstrate that historic discrimination has serious consequences in today’s society. Although their study is limited to the 19 th century only, the recognition of the real estate and federal law’s impact on race relationships makes this source current and valuable. I will read the article to add several economic factors as the origins of racial discrimination in America.

Bowser, B. P. (2017). Racism: Origin and theory . Journal of Black Studies, 48 (6), 572-590.

Mejia, R., Beckermann, K., & Sullivan, C. (2018). White lies A racial history of the (post) truth . Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 15 (2), 109-126.

Seth, V. (2020). The origins of racism: A critique of the history ideas . History and Theory, 59 (3), 343-368.

Small, M. L., & Pager, D. (2020). Sociological perspectives on racial discrimination . Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34 (2), 49-67.

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IvyPanda. (2023, January 22). Origins of Racial Discrimination. https://ivypanda.com/essays/origins-of-racial-discrimination/

"Origins of Racial Discrimination." IvyPanda , 22 Jan. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/origins-of-racial-discrimination/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Origins of Racial Discrimination'. 22 January.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Origins of Racial Discrimination." January 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/origins-of-racial-discrimination/.

1. IvyPanda . "Origins of Racial Discrimination." January 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/origins-of-racial-discrimination/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Origins of Racial Discrimination." January 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/origins-of-racial-discrimination/.

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The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets

Persistent racial inequality in employment, housing, and a wide range of other social domains has renewed interest in the possible role of discrimination. And yet, unlike in the pre–civil rights era, when racial prejudice and discrimination were overt and widespread, today discrimination is less readily identifiable, posing problems for social scientific conceptualization and measurement. This article reviews the relevant literature on discrimination, with an emphasis on racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer interactions. We begin by defining discrimination and discussing relevant methods of measurement. We then provide an overview of major findings from studies of discrimination in each of the four domains; and, finally, we turn to a discussion of the individual, organizational, and structural mechanisms that may underlie contemporary forms of discrimination. This discussion seeks to orient readers to some of the key debates in the study of discrimination and to provide a roadmap for those interested in building upon this long and important line of research.

Persistent racial inequality in employment, housing, and other social domains has renewed interest in the possible role of discrimination. Contemporary forms of discrimination, however, are often subtle and covert, posing problems for social scientific conceptualization and measurement. This article reviews the relevant literature on racial discrimination, providing a roadmap for scholars who wish to build on this rich and important tradition. The charge for this article was a focus on racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer interactions, but many of the arguments reviewed here may also extend to other domains (e.g., education, health care, the criminal justice system) and to other types of discrimination (e.g., gender, age, sexual orientation). We begin this discussion by defining discrimination and discussing methods for measuring discrimination. We then provide an overview of major findings from studies of discrimination in employment, housing, and credit and consumer markets. Finally, we turn to a discussion of the individual, organizational, and structural mechanisms that may underlie contemporary forms of discrimination.

WHAT IS DISCRIMINATION?

According to its most simple definition, racial discrimination refers to unequal treatment of persons or groups on the basis of their race or ethnicity. In defining racial discrimination, many scholars and legal advocates distinguish between differential treatment and disparate impact, creating a two-part definition: Differential treatment occurs when individuals are treated unequally because of their race. Disparate impact occurs when individuals are treated equally according to a given set of rules and procedures but when the latter are constructed in ways that favor members of one group over another ( Reskin 1998 , p. 32; National Research Council 2004 , pp. 39–40). The second component of this definition broadens its scope to include decisions and processes that may not themselves have any explicit racial content but that have the consequence of producing or reinforcing racial disadvantage. Beyond more conventional forms of individual discrimination, institutional processes such as these are important to consider in assessing how valued opportunities are structured by race.

A key feature of any definition of discrimination is its focus on behavior. Discrimination is distinct from racial prejudice (attitudes), racial stereotypes (beliefs), and racism (ideologies) that may also be associated with racial disadvantage (see Quillian 2006 ). Discrimination may be motivated by prejudice, stereotypes, or racism, but the definition of discrimination does not presume any unique underlying cause.

HOW CAN WE MEASURE DISCRIMINATION?

More than a century of social science interest in the question of discrimination has resulted in numerous techniques to isolate and identify its presence and to document its effects ( National Research Council 2004 ). Although no method is without its limitations, together these techniques provide a range of perspectives that can help to inform our understanding of whether, how, and to what degree discrimination matters in the lives of contemporary American racial minorities.

Perceptions of Discrimination

Numerous surveys have asked African Americans and other racial minorities about their experiences with discrimination in the workplace, in their search for housing, and in other everyday social settings ( Schuman et al. 2001 ). One startling conclusion from this line of research is the frequency with which discrimination is reported. A 2001 survey, for example, found that more than one-third of blacks and nearly 20% of Hispanics and Asians reported that they had personally been passed over for a job or promotion because of their race or ethnicity ( Schiller 2004 ). A 1997 Gallup poll found that nearly half of all black respondents reported having experienced discrimination at least once in one of five common situations in the past month ( Gallup Organ. 1997 ). Further, the frequency with which discrimination is reported does not decline among those higher in the social hierarchy; in fact, middle-class blacks are as likely to perceive discrimination as are working-class blacks, if not more ( Feagin & Sikes 1994 , Kessler et al. 1990 ). Patterns of perceived discrimination are important findings in their own right, as research shows that those who perceive high levels of discrimination are more likely to experience depression, anxiety, and other negative health outcomes ( Kessler et al. 1990 ). Furthermore, perceived discrimination may lead to diminished effort or performance in education or the labor market, which itself gives rise to negative outcomes ( Ogbu 1991 ; Steele 1997 ; Loury 2002 , pp. 26–33). What remains unclear from this line of research, however, is to what extent perceptions of discrimination correspond to some reliable depiction of reality. Because events may be misperceived or overlooked, perceptions of discrimination may over- or underestimate the actual incidence of discrimination.

Reports by Potential Discriminators

Another line of social science research focuses on the attitudes and actions of dominant groups for insights into when and how racial considerations come into play. In addition to the long tradition of survey research on racial attitudes and stereotypes among the general population (cf. Schuman et al. 2001 , Farley et al. 1994 ), a number of researchers have developed interview techniques aimed at gauging propensities toward discrimination among employers and other gatekeepers. Harry Holzer has conducted a number of employer surveys in which employers are asked a series of questions about “the last worker hired for a noncollege job,” thereby grounding employers’ responses in a concrete recent experience (e.g., Holzer 1996 ). In this format, race is asked about as only one incidental characteristic in a larger series of questions concerning this recent employee, thereby reducing the social desirability bias often triggered when the subject of race is highlighted. Likewise, by focusing on a completed action, the researcher is able to document revealed preferences rather than expressed ones and to examine the range of employer, job, and labor market characteristics that may be associated with hiring decisions.

A second prominent approach to investigating racial discrimination in employment has relied on in-depth, in-person interviews, which can be effective in eliciting candid discussions about sensitive hiring issues. Kirschenman & Neckerman (1991) , for example, describe employers’ blatant admission of their avoidance of young, inner-city black men in their search for workers. Attributing characteristics such as “lazy” and “unreliable” to this group, the employers included in their study were candid in their expressions of strong racial preferences in considering low wage workers (p. 213; see also Wilson 1996 , Moss & Tilly 2001 ). These in-depth studies have been invaluable in providing detailed accounts of what goes through the minds of employers—at least consciously— as they evaluate members of different groups. However, we must keep in mind that racial attitudes are not always predictive of corresponding behavior ( LaPiere 1934 , Allport 1954 , Pager & Quillian 2005 ). Indeed, Moss & Tilly (2001) report the puzzling finding that “businesses where a plurality of managers complained about black motivation are more likely to hire black men” (p. 151). Hiring decisions (as with decisions to rent a home or approve a mortgage) are influenced by a complex range of factors, racial attitudes being only one. Where understanding persistent racial prejudice and stereotypes is surely an important goal in and of itself, this approach will not necessarily reveal the extent of discrimination in action.

Statistical Analyses

Perhaps the most common approach to studying discrimination is by investigating inequality in outcomes between groups. Rather than focusing on the attitudes or perceptions of actors that may be correlated with acts of discrimination, this approach looks to the possible consequences of discrimination in the unequal distribution of employment, housing, or other social and economic resources. Using large-scale datasets, researchers can identify systematic disparities between groups and chart their direction over time. Important patterns can also be detected through detailed and systematic case studies of individual firms, which often provide a richer array of indicators with which to assess patterns of discrimination (e.g., Castilla 2008 , Petersen & Saporta 2004 , Fernandez & Friedrich 2007 ).

Discrimination in statistical models is often measured as the residual race gap in any outcome that remains after controlling for all other race-related influences. Differences may be identified through the main effect of race, suggesting a direct effect of race on an outcome of interest, or through an interaction between race and one or more human capital characteristics, suggesting differential returns to human capital investments on the basis of race ( Oaxaca 1973 ; National Research Council 2004 , chapter 7). The main liability of this approach is that it is difficult to effectively account for the multitude of factors relevant to unequal outcomes, leaving open the possibility that the disparities we attribute to discrimination may in fact be explained by some other unmeasured cause(s). In statistical analyses of labor market outcomes, for example, even after controlling for standard human capital variables (e.g., education, work experience), a whole host of employment-related characteristics typically remain unaccounted for. Characteristics such as reliability, motivation, interpersonal skills, and punctuality, for example, are each important to finding and keeping a job, but these are characteristics that are often difficult to capture with survey data (see, for example, Farkas & Vicknair 1996 , Farkas 2003 ). Complicating matters further, some potential control variables may themselves be endogenous to the process under investigation. Models estimating credit discrimination, for example, typically include controls for asset accumulation and credit history, which may themselves be in part the byproduct of discrimination ( Yinger 1998 , pp. 26–27). Likewise, controls for work experience or firm tenure may be endogenous to the process of employment discrimination if minorities are excluded from those opportunities necessary to building stable work histories (see Tomaskovic-Devey et al. 2005 ). While statistical models represent an extremely important approach to the study of race differentials, researchers should use caution in making causal interpretations of the indirect measures of discrimination derived from residual estimates. For a more detailed discussion of the challenges and possibilities of statistical approaches to measuring discrimination, see the National Research Council (2004 , chapter 7).

Experimental Approaches to Measuring Discrimination

Experimental approaches to measuring discrimination excel in exactly those areas in which statistical analyses flounder. Experiments allow researchers to measure causal effects more directly by presenting carefully constructed and controlled comparisons. In a laboratory experiment by Dovidio & Gaertner (2000) , for example, subjects (undergraduate psychology students) took part in a simulated hiring experiment in which they were asked to evaluate the application materials for black and white job applicants of varying qualification levels. When applicants were either highly qualified or poorly qualified for the position, there was no evidence of discrimination. When applicants had acceptable but ambiguous qualifications, however, participants were nearly 70% more likely to recommend the white applicant than the black applicant (see also Biernat & Kobrynowicz’s 1997 discussion of shifting standards). 1

Although laboratory experiments offer some of the strongest evidence of causal relationships, we do not know the extent to which their findings relate to the kinds of decisions made in their social contexts—to hire, to rent, to move, for example—that are most relevant to understanding the forms of discrimination that produce meaningful social disparities. Seeking to bring more realism to the investigation, some researchers have moved experiments out of the laboratory and into the field. Field experiments offer a direct measure of discrimination in real-world contexts. In these experiments, typically referred to as audit studies, researchers carefully select, match, and train individuals (called testers) to play the part of a job/apartment-seeker or consumer. By presenting equally qualified individuals who differ only by race or ethnicity, researchers can assess the degree to which racial considerations affect access to opportunities. Audit studies have documented strong evidence of discrimination in the context of employment (for a review, see Pager 2007a ), housing searches ( Yinger 1995 ), car sales ( Ayres & Siegelman 1995 ), applications for insurance ( Wissoker et al. 1998 ), home mortgages ( Turner & Skidmore 1999 ), the provision of medical care ( Schulman et al. 1999 ), and even in hailing taxis ( Ridley et al. 1989 ).

Although experimental methods are appealing in their ability to isolate causal effects, they nevertheless suffer from some important limitations. Critiques of the audit methodology have focused on questions of internal validity (e.g., experimenter effects, the problems of effective tester matching), generalizability (e.g., the use of overqualified testers, the limited sampling frame for the selection of firms to be audited), and the ethics of audit research (see Heckman 1998 , Pager 2007a for a more extensive discussion of these issues). In addition, audit studies are often costly and difficult to implement and can only be used for selective decision points (e.g., hiring decisions but not training, promotion, termination, etc.).

Studies of Law and Legal Records

Since the civil rights era, legal definitions and accounts of discrimination have been central to both popular and scholarly understandings of discrimination. Accordingly, an additional window into the dynamics of discrimination involves the use of legal records from formal discrimination claims. Whether derived from claims to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the courts, or state-level Fair Employment/Fair Housing Bureaus, official records documenting claims of discrimination can provide unique insight into the patterns of discrimination and antidiscrimination enforcement in particular contexts and over time.

Roscigno (2007) , for example, analyzed thousands of “serious claims” filed with the Civil Rights Commission of Ohio related to both employment and housing discrimination. These claims document a range of discriminatory behaviors, from harassment, to exclusion, to more subtle forms of racial bias. [See also Harris et al. (2005) for a similar research design focusing on federal court claims of consumer discrimination.] Although studies relying on formal discrimination claims necessarily overlook those incidents that go unnoticed or unreported, these records provide a rare opportunity to witness detailed descriptions of discrimination events across a wide range of social domains not typically observed in conventional research designs.

Other studies use discrimination claims, not to assess patterns of discrimination, but to investigate trends in the application of antidiscrimination law. Nielsen & Nelson (2005) provide an overview of research in this area, examining the pathways by which potential claims (or perceived discrimination) develop into formal legal action, or conversely the many points at which potential claims are deflected from legal action. Hirsh & Kornrich (2008) examine how characteristics of the workplace and institutional environment affect variation in the incidence of discrimination claims and their verification by EEOC investigators. Donohue & Siegelman (1991 , 2005 ) analyze discrimination claims from 1970 through 1997 to chart changes in the nature of antidiscrimination enforcement over time. The overall volume of discrimination claims increased substantially over this period, though the composition of claims shifted away from an emphasis on racial discrimination toward a greater emphasis on gender and disability discrimination. Likewise, the types of employment discrimination claims have shifted from an emphasis on hiring discrimination to an overwhelming emphasis on wrongful termination, and class action suits have become increasingly rare. The authors interpret these trends not as indicators of changes in the actual distribution of discrimination events, but rather as reflections of the changing legal environment in which discrimination cases are pursued (including, for example, changes to civil rights law and changes in the receptivity of the courts to various types of discrimination claims), which themselves may have implications for the expression of discrimination ( Donohue & Siegelman 1991 , 2005 ).

Finally, a number of researchers have exploited changes in civil rights and antidiscrimination laws as a source of exogenous variation through which to measure changes in discrimination (see Holzer & Ludwig 2003 ). Freeman (1973 , see table 6 therein), for example, investigates the effectiveness of federal EEO laws by comparing the black-white income gap before and after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Heckman & Payner (1989) use microdata from textile plants in South Carolina to study the effects of race on employment between 1940 and 1980, concluding that federal antidiscrimination policy resulted in a significant improvement in black economic status between 1965 and 1975. More recent studies exploiting changes in the legal context include Kelly & Dobbin (1998) , who examine the effects of changing enforcement regimes on employers’ implementation of diversity initiatives; Kalev & Dobbin (2006) , who examine the relative impact of compliance reviews and lawsuits on the representation of women and minorities in management positions; and a volume edited by Skrentny (2001) , which examines many of the complex and unexpected facets related to the rise, expansion, and impact of affirmative action and diversity policies in the United States and internationally.

Although no research method is without flaws, careful consideration of the range of methods available helps to match one’s research question with the appropriate empirical strategy. Comparisons across studies can help to shed light on the relative strengths and weaknesses of existing methodological approaches (see National Research Council 2004 ). At the same time, one must keep in mind that the nature of discrimination may itself be a moving target, with the forms and patterns of discrimination shifting over time and across domains (see Massey 2005 , p. 148). These complexities challenge our traditional modes of operationalization and encourage us to continue to update and refine our measures to allow for an adequate accounting of contemporary forms of racial discrimination.

IS DISCRIMINATION STILL A PROBLEM?

Simple as it may be, one basic question that preoccupies the contemporary literature on discrimination centers around its continuing relevance. Whereas 50 years ago acts of discrimination were overt and widespread, today it is harder to assess the degree to which everyday experiences and opportunities may be shaped by ongoing forms of discrimination. Indeed, the majority of white Americans believe that a black person today has the same chance at getting a job as an equally qualified white person, and only a third believe that discrimination is an important explanation for why blacks do worse than whites in income, housing, and jobs ( Pager 2007a ). Academic literature has likewise questioned the relevance of discrimination for modern-day outcomes, with the rising importance of skill, structural changes in the economy, and other nonracial factors accounting for increasing amounts of variance in individual outcomes ( Heckman 1998 , Wilson 1978 ). Indeed, discrimination is not the only nor even the most important factor shaping contemporary opportunities. Nevertheless, it is important to understand when and how discrimination does play a role in the allocation of resources and opportunities. In the following discussion, we examine the evidence of discrimination in four domains: employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer markets. Although not an exhaustive review of the literature, this discussion aims to identify the major findings and debates within each of these areas of research.

Although there have been some remarkable gains in the labor force status of racial minorities, significant disparities remain. African Americans are twice as likely to be unemployed as whites (Hispanics are only marginally so), and the wages of both blacks and Hispanics continue to lag well behind those of whites (author’s analysis of Current Population Survey, 2006). A long line of research has examined the degree to which discrimination plays a role in shaping contemporary labor market disparities.

Experimental audit studies focusing on hiring decisions have consistently found strong evidence of racial discrimination, with estimates of white preference ranging from 50% to 240% ( Cross et al. 1989 , Turner et al. 1991 , Fix & Struyk 1993 , Bendick et al. 1994 ; see Pager 2007a for a review). For example, in a study by Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004) , the researchers mailed equivalent resumes to employers in Boston and Chicago using racially identifiable names to signal race (for example, names like Jamal and Lakisha signaled African Americans, while Brad and Emily were associated with whites). 2 White names triggered a callback rate that was 50% higher than that of equally qualified black applicants. Further, their study indicated that improving the qualifications of applicants benefited white applicants but not blacks, thus leading to a wider racial gap in response rates for those with higher skill.

Statistical studies of employment outcomes likewise reveal large racial disparities unaccounted for by observed human capital characteristics. Tomaskovic-Devey et al. (2005) present evidence from a fixed-effects model indicating that black men spend significantly more time searching for work, acquire less work experience, and experience less stable employment than do whites with otherwise equivalent characteristics. Wilson et al. (1995) find that, controlling for age, education, urban location, and occupation, black male high school graduates are 70% more likely to experience involuntary unemployment than whites with similar characteristics and that this disparity increases among those with higher levels of education. At more aggregate levels, research points to the persistence of occupational segregation, with racial minorities concentrated in jobs with lower levels of stability and authority and with fewer opportunities for advancement ( Parcel & Mueller 1983 , Smith 2002 ). Of course, these residual estimates cannot control for all relevant factors, such as motivation, effort, access to useful social networks, and other factors that may produce disparities in the absence of direct discrimination. Nevertheless, these estimates suggest that blacks and whites with observably similar human capital characteristics experience markedly different employment outcomes.

Unlike the cases of hiring and employment, research on wage disparities comes to more mixed conclusions. An audit study by Bendick et al. (1994) finds that, among those testers who were given job offers, whites were offered wages that were on average 15 cents/hour higher than their equally qualified black test partners; audit studies in general, however, provide limited information on wages, as many testers never make it to the wage setting stage of the employment process. Some statistical evidence comes to similar conclusions. Cancio et al. (1996) , for example, find that, controlling for parental background, education, work experience, tenure, and training, white men earn roughly 15% more than comparable blacks (white women earned 6% more than comparable black women). Farkas & Vicknair (1996) , however, using a different dataset, find that the addition of controls for cognitive ability eliminates the racial wage gap for young black and white full-time workers. According to the authors, these findings suggest that racial differences in labor market outcomes are due more to factors that precede labor market entry (e.g., skill acquisition) rather than discrimination within the labor market (see also Neal & Johnson 1996 ).

Overall, then, the literature points toward consistent evidence of discrimination in access to employment, but less consistent evidence of discrimination in wages. Differing methodologies and/or model specification may account for some of the divergent results. But there is also reason to believe that the processes affecting access to employment (e.g., the influence of first impressions, the absence of more reliable information on prospective employees, and minimal legal oversight) may be more subject to discriminatory decision making than those affecting wages. Further, the findings regarding employment and wages may be in part causally related, as barriers to labor market entry will lead to a more select sample of black wage earners, reducing measured racial disparities (e.g., Western & Pettit 2005 ). These findings point to the importance of modeling discrimination as a process rather than a single-point outcome, with disparities in premarket skills acquisition, barriers to labor market entry, and wage differentials each part of a larger employment trajectory and shaped to differing degrees by discrimination.

Residential segregation by race remains a salient feature of contemporary American cities. Indeed, African Americans were as segregated from whites in 1990 as they had been at the start of the twentieth century, and levels of segregation appear unaffected by rising socioeconomic status ( Massey & Denton 1993 ). Although segregation appears to have modestly decreased between 1980 and 2000 ( Logan et al. 2004 ), blacks (and to a lesser extent other minority groups) continue to experience patterns of residential placement markedly different from whites. The degree to which discrimination contributes to racial disparities in housing has been a major preoccupation of social scientists and federal housing agents ( Charles 2003 ).

The vast majority of the work on discrimination in housing utilizes experimental audit data. For example, between 2000 and 2002 the Department of Housing and Urban Development conducted an extensive series of audits measuring housing discrimination against blacks, Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans, including nearly 5500 paired tests in nearly 30 metropolitan areas [see Turner et al. (2002) , Turner & Ross (2003a) ; see also Hakken (1979) , Feins & Bratt (1983) , Yinger (1986) , Roychoudhury & Goodman (1992 , 1996 ) for additional, single-city audits of housing discrimination]. The study results reveal bias across multiple dimensions, with blacks experiencing consistent adverse treatment in roughly one in five housing searches and Hispanics experiencing consistent adverse treatment in roughly one out of four housing searches (both rental and sales). 3 Measured discrimination took the form of less information offered about units, fewer opportunities to view units, and, in the case of home buyers, less assistance with financing and steering into less wealthy communities and neighborhoods with a higher proportion of minority residents.

Generally, the results of the 2000 Housing Discrimination Study indicate that aggregate levels of discrimination against blacks declined modestly in both rentals and sales since 1989 (although levels of racial steering increased). Discrimination against Hispanics in housing sales declined, although Hispanics experienced increasing levels of discrimination in rental markets.

Other research using telephone audits further points to a gender and class dimension of racial discrimination in which black women and/or blacks who speak in a manner associated with a lower-class upbringing suffer greater discrimination than black men and/or those signaling a middle-class upbringing ( Massey & Lundy 2001 , Purnell et al. 1999 ). Context also matters in the distribution of discrimination events ( Fischer & Massey 2004 ). Turner & Ross (2005) report that segregation and class steering of blacks occurs most often when either the housing or the office of the real estate agent is in a predominantly white neighborhood. Multi-city audits likewise suggest that the incidence of discrimination varies substantially across metropolitan contexts ( Turner et al. 2002 ).

Moving beyond evidence of exclusionary treatment, Roscigno and colleagues (2007) provide evidence of the various forms of housing discrimination that can extend well beyond the point of purchase (or rental agreement). Examples from a sample of discrimination claims filed with the Civil Rights Commission of Ohio point to the failure of landlords to provide adequate maintenance for housing units, to harassment or physical threats by managers or neighbors, and to the unequal enforcement of a residential association’s rules.

Overall, the available evidence suggests that discrimination in rental and housing markets remains pervasive. Although there are some promising signs of change, the frequency with which racial minorities experience differential treatment in housing searches suggests that discrimination remains an important barrier to residential opportunities. The implications of these trends for other forms of inequality (health, employment, wealth, and inheritance) are discussed below.

Credit Markets

Whites possess roughly 12 times the wealth of African Americans; in fact, whites near the bottom of the income distribution possess more wealth than blacks near the top of the income distribution ( Oliver & Shapiro 1997 , p. 86). Given that home ownership is one of the most significant sources of wealth accumulation, patterns that affect the value and viability of home ownership will have an impact on wealth disparities overall. Accordingly, the majority of work on discrimination in credit markets focuses on the specific case of mortgages.

Available evidence suggests that blacks and Hispanics face higher rejection rates and less favorable terms in securing mortgages than do whites with similar credit characteristics ( Ross & Yinger 1999 ). Oliver & Shapiro (1997 , p. 142) report that blacks pay more than 0.5% higher interest rates on home mortgages than do whites and that this difference persists with controls for income level, date of purchase, and age of buyer.

The most prominent study of the effect of race on rejection rates for mortgage loans is by Munnell et al. (1996) , which uses 1991 Home Mortgage Disclosure Act data supplemented by data from the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, including individual applicants’ financial, employment, and property background variables that lenders use to calculate the applicants’ probability of default. Accounting for a range of variables linked to risk of default, cost of default, loan characteristics, and personal and neighborhood characteristics, they find that black and Hispanic applications were 82% more likely to be rejected than were those from similar whites. Critics argued that the study was flawed on the basis of the quality of the data collected ( Horne 1994 ), model specification problems ( Glennon & Stengel 1994 ), omitted variables ( Zandi 1993 , Liebowitz 1993 , Horne 1994 , Day & Liebowitz 1996 ), and endogenous explanatory variables (see Ross & Yinger 1999 for a full explication of the opposition), although rejoinders suggest that the race results are affected little by these modifications ( Ross & Yinger 1999 ; S.L. Ross & G.M.B. Tootell, unpublished manuscript).

Audit research corroborates evidence of mortgage discrimination, finding that black testers are less likely to receive a quote for a loan than are white testers and that they are given less time with the loan officer, are quoted higher interest rates, and are given less coaching and less information than are comparable white applicants (for a review, see Ross & Yinger 2002 ).

In addition to investigating the race of the applicant, researchers have investigated the extent to which the race of the neighborhood affects lending decisions, otherwise known as redlining. Although redlining is a well-documented factor in the origins of contemporary racial residential segregation (see Massey & Denton 1993 ), studies after the 1974 Equal Credit Opportunity Act, which outlawed redlining, and since the 1977 Community Reinvestment Act, which made illegal having a smaller pool of mortgage funds available in minority neighborhoods than in similar white neighborhoods, find little evidence of its persistence ( Benston & Horsky 1991 , Schafer & Ladd 1981 , Munnell et al. 1996 ). This conclusion depends in part, however, on one’s definition of neighborhood-based discrimination. Ross & Yinger (1999) distinguish between process-based and outcome-based redlining, with process-based redlining referring to “whether the probability that a loan application is denied is higher in minority neighborhoods than in white neighborhoods, all else equal” whereas outcome-based redlining refers to smaller amounts of mortgage funding available to minority neighborhoods relative to comparable white neighborhoods. Although evidence on both types of redlining is mixed, several studies indicate that, controlling for demand, poor and/or minority neighborhoods have reduced access to mortgage funding, particularly from mainstream lenders ( Phillips-Patrick & Rossi 1996 , Siskin & Cupingood 1996 ; see also Ladd 1998 for methodological issues in measuring redlining).

As a final concern, competition and deregulation of the banking industry have led to greater variability in conditions of loans, prompting the label of the “new inequality” in lending ( Williams et al. 2005 , Holloway 1998 ). Rather than focusing on rejection rates, these researchers focus on the terms and conditions of loans, in particular whether a loan is favorable or subprime ( Williams et al. 2005 , Apgar & Calder 2005 , Squires 2003 ). Immergluck & Wiles (1999) have called this the “dual-mortgage market” in which prime lending is given to higher income and white areas, while subprime and predatory lending is concentrated in lower-income and minority communities (see also Dymski 2006 , pp. 232–36). Williams et al. (2005) , examining changes between 1993 and 2000, find rapid gains in loans to under-served markets from specialized lenders: 78% of the increase in lending to minority neighborhoods was from subprime lenders, and 72% of the increase in refinance lending to blacks was from subprime lenders. Further, the authors find that “even at the highest income level, blacks are almost three times as likely to get their loans from a subprime lender as are others” (p. 197; see also Calem et al. 2004 ). Although the disproportionate rise of subprime lending in minority communities is not solely the result of discrimination, some evidence suggests that in certain cases explicit racial targeting may be at work. In two audit studies in which creditworthy testers approached sub-prime lenders, whites were more likely to be referred to the lenders’ prime borrowing division than were similar black applicants (see Williams et al. 2005 ). Further, subprime lenders quoted the black applicants very high rates, fees, and closing costs that were not correlated with risk ( Williams et al. 2005 ). 4

Not all evidence associated with credit market discrimination is bad news. Indeed, between 1989 and 2000 the number of mortgage loans to blacks and Hispanics nationwide increased 60%, compared with 16% for whites, suggesting that some convergence is taking place ( Turner et al. 2002 ). Nevertheless, the evidence indicates that blacks and Hispanics continue to face higher rejection rates and receive less favorable terms than whites of equal credit risk. At the time of this writing, the U.S. housing market is witnessing high rates of loan defaults and foreclosures, resulting in large part from the rise in unregulated subprime lending; the consequences of these trends for deepening racial inequalities have yet to be fully explored.

Consumer Markets

Relative to employment, housing, and credit markets, far less research focuses on discrimination in consumer transactions. Nevertheless, there are some salient disparities. A 2005 report by New Jersey Citizen Action using data from two New Jersey lawsuits found that, between 1993 and 2000, blacks and Hispanics were disproportionately subject to financing markup charges at car dealerships, with minority customers paying an average of $339 more than whites with similar credit histories. Harris et al. (2005) analyze federal court cases of consumer discrimination filed from 1990 to 2002, examining the dimensions of subtle and overt degradation (including extended waiting periods, prepay requirements, and higher prices, as well as increased surveillance and verbal and/or physical attacks) and subtle and overt denial of goods and services. They report cases filed in hotels, restaurants, gas stations, grocery/food stores, clothing stores, department stores, home improvement stores, and office equipment stores filed by members of many racial minority groups. Likewise, Feagin & Sikes (1994) document the myriad circumstances in which their middle-class African American respondents report experiences of discrimination, ranging from poor service in restaurants to heightened surveillance in department stores to outright harassment in public accommodations. Together, these studies suggest that discrimination in consumer markets continues to impose both psychic and financial costs on minority consumers.

Much of the empirical work on discrimination in consumer markets has focused specifically on the case of car purchases, which, aside from housing, represent one of the most significant forms of personal consumption expenditures ( Council of Economic Advisers 1997 , table B-14). 5 Ayres & Siegelman (1995) conducted an audit study in Chicago in which testers posed as customers seeking to purchase a new car, approaching dealers with identical rehearsed bargaining strategies. The results show that dealers were less flexible in their negotiations with blacks, resulting in a significant disparity in the ultimate distribution of prices (relative to white men, black men and black women paid on average $1132 and $446 more, respectively) ( Ayres 1995 ). Although analyses using microdata have come to more mixed conclusions about the relevance of race in actual car purchase prices (see Goldberg 1996 , Morton et al. 2003 ), the audit evidence suggests that simply equating information, strategy, and credit background is insufficient to eliminate the effects of race on a customer’s bargaining position.

Although much of the literature on consumer discrimination focuses on the race of the individual customer, a few studies have also investigated the effects of community characteristics on the pricing of goods and services. Graddy (1997) , for example, investigated discrimination in pricing among fast food chains on the basis of the race and income characteristics of a local area. Using information about prices from over 400 fast food restaurants, matched with 1990 census data for zip code–level income, race, crime, and population density, and controlling for a host of neighborhood, business, and state-level characteristics, the author finds that a 50% increase in a zip code’s percent black is associated with a 5% increase in the price of a meal, corresponding to roughly 15 cents per meal. The study is a useful example of how discrimination, especially in consumer markets, might be examined as a function of segregated residential patterns, suggesting a more contextualized approach to studying discrimination (see also Moore & Roux 2006 ).

Evidence of consumer discrimination points to a range of situations in which minority customers receive poorer service or pay more than their white counterparts. Although few individual incidents represent debilitating experiences in and of themselves, the accumulation of such experiences over a lifetime may represent an important source of chronic stress ( Kessler et al. 1990 ) or distrust of mainstream institutions ( Feagin & Sikes 1994 , Bobo & Thompson 2006 ). Indeed, the cumulative costs of racial discrimination are likely to be far higher than any single study can document.

WHAT CAUSES DISCRIMINATION?

Measuring the prevalence of discrimination is difficult; identifying its causes is far more so. Patterns of discrimination can be shaped by influences at many different levels, and the specific mechanisms at work are often difficult to observe. Following Reskin (2003) , in this discussion we consider influences that operate at the individual, organizational, and societal level. Each level of analysis contains its own range of dynamics that may instigate or mediate expressions of discrimination. Although by no means an exhaustive catalog, this discussion provides some insight into the range of factors that may underlie various forms of discriminatory behavior.

Intrapsychic Factors

Much of the theoretical work on discrimination aims to understand what motivates actors to discriminate along racial lines. Although internal motivations are difficult to measure empirically ( Reskin 2003 ), their relevance to the understanding and conceptualization of discrimination has been central ( Quillian 2006 ). Classical works in this area emphasized the role of prejudice or racial animus as key underpinnings of discrimination, with feelings and beliefs about the inferiority or undesirability of certain racial groups associated with subsequent disadvantaging behavior ( Allport 1954 , Pettigrew 1982 ). Conceptualizations of prejudice range from individual-level factors, such as an authoritarian personality ( Adorno et al. 1950 ) or a “taste for discrimination” ( Becker 1957 ), to more instrumental concerns over group competition and status closure ( Blumer 1958 , Blalock 1956 , Jackman 1994 , Tilly 1998 ).

Scholars have characterized changes in the nature of racial prejudice over the past 50 years—as expressed through racial attitudes— as shifting toward the endorsement of equal treatment by race and a repudiation of overt forms of prejudice and discrimination ( Schuman et al. 2001 ). Some, however, question the degree to which these visible changes reflect the true underlying sentiments of white Americans or rather a more superficial commitment to racial equality. Theories of “symbolic racism” ( Kinder & Sears 1981 ), “modern racism” ( McConahay 1986 ), and “laissez-faire racism” ( Bobo et al. 1997 ), for example, each point to the disconnect between attitudes of principle (e.g., racial equality as an ideal) and policy attitudes (e.g., government action to achieve those ideals) as indicative of limited change in underlying racial attitudes (but see Sniderman et al. 1991 for a countervailing view). These new formulations of prejudice include a blending of negative affect and beliefs about members of certain groups with more abstract political ideologies that reinforce the status quo.

Whereas sociological research on prejudice is based largely on explicit attitudes measured through large-scale surveys, psychologists have increasingly turned to measures of implicit prejudice, or forms of racial bias that operate without conscious awareness yet can influence cognition, affect, and behavior ( Greenwald & Banaji 1995 , Fazio & Olson 2003 ). Experiments in which subjects are unconsciously primed with words or images associated with African Americans reveal strong negative racial associations, even among those who consciously repudiate prejudicial beliefs. Whereas the links between explicit and implicit forms of prejudice and between implicit prejudice and behavior remain less well understood, the presence of widespread unconscious racial biases has been firmly established across a multitude of contexts (see Lane et al. 2007 ).

Parallel to the study of racial prejudice (the more affective component of racial attitudes) is a rich history of research on racial stereotypes (a more cognitive component). Whereas many general racial attitudes have shifted toward more egalitarian beliefs, the content and valence of racial stereotypes appears to have changed little over time ( Devine & Elliot 1995 , Lane et al. 2007 ). 6 White Americans continue to associate African Americans with characteristics such as lazy, violence-prone, and welfare-dependent and Hispanics with characteristics such as poor, unintelligent, and unpatriotic ( Smith 1991 , Bobo & Kluegel 1997 ). Culturally embedded stereotypes about racial differences are reflected in both conscious and unconscious evaluations ( Greenwald & Banaji 1995 ) and may set the stage for various forms of discriminatory treatment ( Farley et al. 1994 ).

Researchers differ in perspectives regarding the cognitive utility and accuracy of stereotypes. Whereas many social psychologists view stereotypes as “faulty or inflexible generalization[s]” ( Allport 1954 ), economic theories of statistical discrimination emphasize the cognitive utility of group estimates as a means of dealing with the problems of uncertainty ( Phelps 1972 , Arrow 1972 ). Group-level estimates of difficult-to-observe characteristics (such as average productivity levels or risk of loan default) may provide useful information in the screening of individual applicants. Although some important research questions the accuracy of group-level estimates (e.g., Bielby & Baron 1986 ), the mechanism proposed in models of statistical discrimination—rational actors operating under conditions of uncertainty—differ substantially from those based on racial prejudice. Indeed, much of the literature across the various domains discussed above attempts to discern whether discrimination stems primarily from racial animus or from these more instrumental adaptations to information shortages (e.g., Ayres & Siegelman 1995 ).

The various factors discussed here, including prejudice, group competition, modern racism, stereotypes, and statistical discrimination, represent just a few of the varied intrapsychic influences that may affect discrimination. It is important to emphasize, however, that the behavioral manifestation of discrimination does not allow one readily to assume any particular underlying intrapsychic motivation, just as a lack of discrimination does not presume the absence of prejudice (see Merton 1970 ). Continued efforts to measure the processes by which internal states translate into discriminatory action [or what Reskin (2003) calls a shift from “motives” to “mechanisms”] will help to illuminate the underlying causes of contemporary racial discrimination.

Organizational Factors

Beyond the range of interpersonal and intrapsychic factors that may influence discrimination, a large body of work directs our attention toward the organizational contexts in which individual actors operate. Baron & Bielby’s (1980) classic article established a central role for organizations in stratification research, arguing for a framework that links “the ‘macro’ and ‘micro’ dimensions of work organization and inequality” (p. 738). More recent theoretical and empirical advances in the field of discrimination have maintained a strong interest in the role of organizations as a key structural context shaping inequality.

Tilly’s (1998) analysis of durable inequality emphasizes the importance of organizational dynamics in creating and maintaining group boundaries. “Durable inequality arises because people who control access to value-producing resources solve pressing organizational problems by means of categorical distinctions” (p. 8). Although actors “rarely set out to manufacture inequality as such,” their efforts to secure access to valued resources by distinguishing between insiders and outsiders, ensuring solidarity and loyalty, and monopolizing important knowledge often make use of (and thereby reinforce the salience of) established categories in the service of facilitating organizational goals (p. 11). Tilly’s analysis places organizational structure at the center stage, arguing that “the reduction or intensification of racist, sexist, or xenophobic attitudes will have relatively little impact on durable inequality, whereas the introduction of new organizational forms … will have great impact” (p. 15). In line with these arguments, an important line of sociological research has sought to map the dimensions of organizational structures that may attenuate or exacerbate the use of categorical distinctions and, correspondingly, the incidence of discrimination ( Vallas 2003 ).

Much of the empirical literature exploring organizational mechanisms of discrimination has focused specifically on how organizational practices mediate the cognitive biases and stereotypes of actors ( Baron & Pfeffer 1994 ). Indeed, Reskin (2000) argues that “the proximate cause of most discrimination is whether and how personnel practices in work organizations constrain the biasing effects of… automatic cognitive processes” (p. 320). Petersen & Saporta (2004) take a bolder stance, starting with the assumption that “discrimination is widespread, and employers discriminate if they can get away with it” (p. 856). Rather than asking why employers discriminate, then, these authors look to the “opportunity structure for discrimination” (in their case, features of job ladders within organizations) that allow or inhibit the expression of discriminatory tendencies (pp. 855–56).

In the following discussion, we briefly consider several important themes relevant to the literature on organizational mechanisms of discrimination. In particular, we examine how organizational structure and practices influence the cognitive and social psychological processes of decision makers (the role of formalized organizational procedures and diversity initiatives), how organizational practices create disparate outcomes that may be independent of decision makers (the role of networks), and how organizations respond to their broader environment.

The role of formalization

One important debate in this literature focuses on the degree to which formalized organizational procedures can mitigate discrimination by limiting individual discretion. The case of the military ( Moskos & Butler 1996 ), for example, and the public sector more generally ( DiPrete & Soule 1986 , Moulton 1990 ) provide examples in which highly rationalized systems of hiring, promotion, and remuneration are associated with an increasing representation of minorities, greater racial diversity in positions of authority, and a smaller racial wage gap. Likewise, in the private sector, formal and systematic protocols for personnel management decisions are associated with increases in the representation of racial minorities ( Reskin et al. 1999 , Szafran 1982 , Mittman 1992 ), and the use of concrete performance indicators and formalized evaluation systems has been associated with reductions in racial bias in performance evaluations ( Krieger 1995 , Reskin 2000 ).

Individual discretion has been associated with the incidence of discrimination in credit markets as well. For example, Squires (1994) finds that credit history irregularities on policy applications were often selectively overlooked in the case of white applicants. Conversely, Gates et al. (2002) report that the use of automated underwriting systems (removing lender discretion) was associated with a nearly 30% increase in the approval rate for minority and low-income clients and at the same time more accurately predicted default than traditional methods. These findings suggest that formalized procedures can help to reduce racial bias in ways that are consistent with goals of organizational efficiency.

At the same time, increased bureaucratization does not necessarily mitigate discriminatory effects. According to Bielby (2000) , rules and procedures are themselves subject to the influence of groups inside and outside the organization who “mobilize resources in a way that advances their interests,” with competition between groups potentially undermining the neutrality of bureaucratic procedures ( Bielby 2000 , p. 123; see also Ross & Yinger 2002 , Acker 1989 ). Additionally, there is evidence that formalized criteria are often selectively enforced, with greater flexibility or leeway applied in the case of majority groups ( Wilson et al. 1999 , Squires 1994 ). Likewise, indications of racial bias in performance evaluations cast doubt on the degree to which even formalized assessments of work quality can escape the influence of race ( McKay & McDaniel 2006 ). The degree to which formalization can reduce or eliminate discrimination, thus, remains open to debate, with effects depending on the specific context of implementation.

Diversity initiatives

Since the passage of Title VII in the 1964 Civil Rights Act, most large organizations have taken active steps to signal compliance with antidiscrimination laws. Deliberate organizational efforts to address issues of discrimination (or the perception thereof), either in disparate treatment or disparate impact, often are labeled as diversity initiatives, and these practices are widespread. Winterle (1992) cites a 1991 survey of organizations demonstrating that roughly two-thirds provided diversity training for managers, half provided a statement on diversity from top management, and roughly one-third provided diversity training for employees and/or had a diversity task force (see also Wheeler 1995 , Edelman et al. 2001 ). Not all such initiatives, however, have any proven relationship to actual diversity outcomes. Kalev et al. (2006) examine the efficacy of active organizational efforts to promote diversity, focusing specifically on three of the most common organizational practices: the implementation of organizational accountability by creating new positions or taskforces designed specifically to address diversity issues, managerial bias training, and mentoring and network practices. They find that practices designed to increase organizational authority and accountability are the most effective in increasing the number of women and minorities in management positions. Networking and mentoring programs appear somewhat useful, whereas programs focused on reducing bias (e.g., diversity training) have little effect. These results suggest that organizational initiatives to reduce racial disparities can be effective, but primarily when implemented with concrete goals to which organizational leadership is held accountable. 7

Taking a broader look at race-targeted employment policies, Holzer & Neumark (2000) investigate the effects of affirmative action on the recruitment and employment of minorities and women. They find that affirmative action is associated with increases in the number of recruitment and screening practices used by employers, increases in the number of minority applicants and employees, and increases in employers’ tendencies to provide training and formal evaluations of employees. Although the use of affirmative action in hiring is associated with somewhat weaker credentials among minority hires, actual job performance appears unaffected.

The role of networks

In addition to examining how organizational policies and practices shape the behavior of decision makers and gatekeepers, researchers must acknowledge that some mechanisms relevant to the perpetuation of categorical inequality might operate independently of the actions of individuals. Indeed, many organizational policies or procedures can impose disparate impact along racial lines with little direct influence from individual decision makers. The case of networks represents one important example. The role of networks in hiring practices is extremely well documented, with networks generally viewed as an efficient strategy for matching workers to employers with advantages for both job seekers (e.g., Granovetter 1995 ) and employers (e.g., Fernandez et al. 2000 ). At the same time, given high levels of social segregation (e.g., McPherson et al. 2001 ), the use of referrals is likely to reproduce the existing racial composition of the company and to exclude members of those groups not already well represented ( Braddock & McPartland 1987 ). In an analysis of noncollege jobs, controlling for spatial segregation, occupational segregation, city, and firm size, Mouw (2002) finds that the use of employee referrals in predominantly white firms reduces the probability of a black hire by nearly 75% relative to the use of newspaper ads. 8 Petersen et al. (2000) using data on a high-technology organization over a 10-year period find that race differences in hiring are eliminated when the method of referral is considered, suggesting that the impact of social networks on hiring outcomes is strong and may be more important than any direct action taken by organization members. Irrespective of an employer’s personal racial attitudes, the use of employee referrals is likely to reproduce the existing racial composition of an organization, restricting valuable employment opportunities from excluded groups (see also Royster 2003 , Waldinger & Lichter 2003 ).

Networks and network composition may matter not only for the purposes of obtaining information and referrals for jobs, but also within jobs for the purposes of informal mentoring, contacts, and relevant information important to advancement ( Ibarra 1993 , Grodsky & Pager 2001 ). Mechanisms of homosocial reproduction, or informal preferences for members of one’s own group, can lead to network configurations of informal mentorship and sponsorship that contribute to the preservation of existing status hierarchies ( Kanter 1977 ; see also Elliot & Smith 2001 , Sturm 2001 ). The wide-ranging economic consequences that follow from segregated social networks corresponds to what Loury (2001 , p. 452) refers to as the move from “discrimination in contract” to “discrimination in contact.” According to Loury, whereas earlier forms of discrimination primarily reflected explicit differences in the treatment of racial groups, contemporary forms of discrimination are more likely to be perpetuated through informal networks of opportunity that, though ostensibly race-neutral, systematically disadvantage members of historically excluded groups.

Organizations in context

Much of the research discussed above considers the organization as a context in which decisions and procedures that affect discriminatory treatment are shaped. But organizations themselves are likewise situated within a larger context, with prevailing economic, legal, and social environments conditioning organizational responses ( Reskin 2003 ). When labor markets expand or contract, organizations shift their recruitment and termination/retention strategies in ways that adapt to these broader forces (e.g., Freeman & Rodgers 1999 ). When antidiscrimination laws are passed or amended, organizations respond in ways that signal compliance ( Dobbin et al. 1993 ), with the impact of these measures varying according to shifting levels or strategies of government enforcement ( Kalev & Dobbin 2006 , Leonard 1985 ). At the same time, organizations are not merely passive recipients of the larger economic and legal context. In the case of the legal environment, for example, organizations play an active role in interpreting and shaping the ways that laws are translated into practice. Edelman (1992) , Dobbin et al. (1993) , and Dobbin & Sutton (1998) have each demonstrated ways in which the U.S. federal government’s lack of clear guidance regarding compliance with antidiscrimination laws and regulations allowed organizations to establish and legitimate their own compliance measures. According to Edelman (1992 , p. 1542), “organizations do not simply ignore or circumvent weak law, but rather construct compliance in a way that, at least in part, fits their interests.” Organizational actors, then, can wind up playing the dual role of both defining and demonstrating compliance, with important implications for the nature, strength, and impact of antidiscrimination laws and likewise for the patterns of discrimination that emerge in these contexts.

Organizations occupy a unique position with respect to shaping patterns of discrimination. They mediate both the cognitive and attitudinal biases of actors within the organization as well as the influence of broader economic and legal pressures applied from beyond. Recognizing the specific features of organizational action that affect patterns of discrimination represents one of the most important contributions of sociological research in this area. To date, the vast majority of organizational research has focused on the context of labor markets; investigations of organizational functioning in other domains (e.g., real estate, retail sales, lending institutions) would do much to further our understanding of how collective policies and practices shape the expression of discrimination.

Structural Factors

The majority of research on discrimination focuses on dynamics between individuals or small groups. It is easiest to conceptualize discrimination in terms of the actions of specific individuals, with the attitudes, prejudices, and biases of majority group members shaping actions toward minority group members. And yet, it is important to recognize that each of these decisions takes place within a broader social context. Members of racial minority groups may be systematically disadvantaged not only by the willful acts of particular individuals, but because the prevailing system of opportunities and constraints favors the success of one group over another. In addition to the organizational factors discussed above, broader structural features of a society can contribute to unequal outcomes through the ordinary functioning of its cultural, economic, and political systems (see also National Research Council 2004 , chapter 11). The term structural discrimination has been used loosely in the literature, along with concepts such as institutional discrimination and structural or institutional racism, to refer to the range of policies and practices that contribute to the systematic disadvantage of members of certain groups. In the following discussion, we consider three distinct conceptualizations of structural discrimination, each of which draws our attention to the broader, largely invisible contexts in which group-based inequalities may be structured and reproduced.

A legacy of historical discrimination

This first conceptualization of structural discrimination stands furthest from conventional definitions of discrimination as an active and ongoing form of racial bias. By focusing on the legacies of past discrimination, this emphasis remains agnostic about the relevance of contemporary forms of discrimination that may further heighten or exacerbate existing inequalities. And yet, the emphasis on structural discrimination—as opposed to just inequality— directs our attention to the array of discriminatory actions that brought about present day inequalities. The origins of contemporary racial wealth disparities, for example, have well-established links to historical practices of redlining, housing covenants, racially targeted federal housing policies, and other forms of active discrimination within housing and lending markets (e.g., Massey & Denton 1993 ). Setting aside evidence of continuing discrimination in each of these domains, these historical practices themselves are sufficient to maintain extraordinarily high levels of wealth inequality through the intergenerational transition of advantage (the ability to invest in good neighborhoods, good schools, college, housing assistance for adult children, etc.) ( Oliver & Shapiro 1997 ). According to Conley (1999) , even if we were to eliminate all contemporary forms of discrimination, huge racial wealth disparities would persist, which in turn underlie racial inequalities in schooling, employment, and other social domains (see also Lieberson & Fuguitt 1967 ). Recent work based on formal modeling suggests that the effects of past discrimination, particularly as mediated by ongoing forms of social segregation, are likely to persist well into the future, even in the absence of ongoing discrimination (see Bowles et al. 2007 , Lundberg & Startz 1998 ).

These historical sources of discrimination may become further relevant, not only in their perpetuation of present-day inequalities, but also through their reinforcement of contemporary forms of stereotypes and discrimination. As in Myrdal’s (1944) “principle of cumulation,” structural disadvantages (e.g., poverty, joblessness, crime) come to be seen as cause, rather than consequence, of persistent racial inequality, justifying and reinforcing negative racial stereotypes (pp. 75–78). Bobo et al. (1997 , p. 23) argue that “sharp black-white economic inequality and residential segregation…provide the kernel of truth needed to regularly breathe new life into old stereotypes about putative black proclivities toward involvement in crime, violence, and welfare dependency.” The perpetuation of racial inequality through structural and institutional channels can thus be conducive to reinforcing negative racial stereotypes and shifting blame toward minorities for their own disadvantage (see also Sunstein 1991 , p. 32; Fiske et al. 2002 ).

Contemporary state policies and practices

This second conceptualization of structural discrimination accords more with conventional understandings of the term, placing its emphasis on those contemporary policies and practices that systematically disadvantage certain groups. Paradigmatic cases of structural discrimination include the caste system in India, South Africa under apartheid, or the United States during Jim Crow—each of these representing societies in which the laws and cultural institutions manufactured and enforced systematic inequalities based on group membership. Although the vestiges of Jim Crow have long since disappeared in the contemporary United States, there remain features of American society that may contribute to persistent forms of structural discrimination (see Massey 2007 , Feagin 2006 ).

One example is the provision of public education in the United States. According to Orfield & Lee (2005 , p. 18), more than 60% of black and Latino students attend high poverty schools, compared with 30% of Asians and 18% of whites. In addition to funding disparities across these schools, based on local property taxes, the broader resources of schools in poor neighborhoods are substantially limited: Teachers in poor and minority schools are likely to have less experience, shorter tenure, and emergency credentials rather than official teaching certifications ( Orfield & Lee 2005 ).At the same time, schools in high poverty neighborhoods are faced with a greater incidence of social problems, including teen pregnancy, gang involvement, and unstable households ( Massey & Denton 1993 ). With fewer resources, these schools are expected to manage a wider array of student needs. The resulting lower quality of education common in poor and minority school districts places these students at a disadvantage in competing for future opportunities ( Massey 2006 ).

A second relevant example comes from the domain of criminal justice policy. Although evidence of racial discrimination at selective decision points in the criminal justice system is weak ( Sampson & Lauritsen 1997 ), the unprecedented growth of the criminal justice system over the past 30 years has had a vastly disproportionate effect on African Americans. 9 Currently, nearly one out of three young black men will spend time in prison during his lifetime, a figure that rises to nearly 60% among young black high school dropouts ( Bonczar & Beck 1997 , Pettit & Western 2004 ). Given the wide array of outcomes negatively affected by incarceration—including family formation, housing, employment, political participation, and health—decisions about crime policy, even when race-neutral in content, represent a critical contemporary source of racial disadvantage ( Pattillo et al. 2003 , Pager 2007b , Manza & Uggen 2006 ).

These examples point to contexts in which ostensibly race-neutral policies can structure and reinforce existing social inequalities. According to Omi & Winant (1994) , “through policies which are explicitly or implicitly racial, state institutions organize and enforce the racial politics of everyday life. For example, they enforce racial (non)discrimination policies, which they administer, arbitrate, and encode in law. They organize racial identities by means of education, family law, and the procedures for punishment, treatment, and surveillance of the criminal, deviant and ill” (p. 83). Even without any willful intent, policies can play an active role in designating the beneficiaries and victims of a particular system of resource allocation, with important implications for enduring racial inequalities.

Accumulation of disadvantage

This third category of structural discrimination draws our attention to how the effects of discrimination in one domain or at one point in time may have consequences for a broader range of outcomes. Through spillover effects across domains, processes of cumulative (dis)advantage across the life course, and feedback effects, the effects of discrimination can intensify and, in some cases, become self-sustaining.

Although traditional measures of discrimination focus on individual decision points (e.g., the decision to hire, to rent, to offer a loan), the effects of these decisions may extend into other relevant domains. Discrimination in credit markets, for example, contributes to higher rates of loan default, with negative implications for minority entrepreneurship, home ownership, and wealth accumulation ( Oliver & Shapiro 1997 ). Discrimination in housing markets contributes to residential segregation, which is associated with concentrated disadvantage ( Massey & Denton 1993 ), poor health outcomes ( Williams 2004 ), and limited educational and employment opportunities ( Massey & Fischer 2006 , Fernandez & Su 2004 ). Single point estimates of discrimination within a particular domain may substantially underestimate the cumulative effects of discrimination over time and the ways in which discrimination in one domain can trigger disadvantage in many others.

In addition to linkages across domains, the effects of discrimination may likewise span forward in time, with the cumulative impact of discrimination magnifying initial effects. Blau & Ferber (1987) , for example, point to how the channeling of men and women into different job types at career entry “will virtually ensure sex differences in productivity, promotion opportunities, and pay” (p. 51). Small differences in starting points can have large effects over the life course (and across generations), even in the absence of continuing discrimination [for a rich discussion of cumulative (dis)advantage, see DiPrete & Eirich (2006) ].

Finally, anticipated or experienced discrimination can lead to adaptations that intensify initial effects. Research points to diminished effort or valuation of schooling ( Ogbu 1991 ), lower investments in skill-building ( Farmer & Terrell 1996 ), and reduced labor force participation ( Castillo 1998 ) as possible responses to perceived discrimination against oneself or members of one’s group. These adaptations can easily be coded as choices rather than constraints, as characteristics to be controlled for in estimates of discrimination rather than included as one part of that estimate. And yet, for an understanding of the full range of effects associated with discrimination, these indirect pathways and self-fulfilling prophesies should likewise be examined (see Loury 2002 , pp. 26– 33).

A focus on structural and institutional sources of discrimination encourages us to consider how opportunities may be allocated on the basis of race in the absence of direct prejudice or willful bias. It is difficult to capture the structural and cumulative consequences of discrimination using traditional research designs; advances in this area will require creative new approaches (see National Research Council 2004 , chapter 11). Nevertheless, for an accurate accounting of the impact of discrimination, we must recognize how historical practices and contemporary policies may contribute to ongoing and cumulative forms of racial discrimination.

Discrimination is not the only cause of racial disparities in the United States. Indeed, persistent inequality between racial and ethnic groups is the product of complex and multifaceted influences. Nevertheless, the weight of existing evidence suggests that discrimination does continue to affect the allocation of contemporary opportunities; and, further, given the often covert, indirect, and cumulative nature of these effects, our current estimates may in fact understate the degree to which discrimination contributes to the poor social and economic outcomes of minority groups. Although great progress has been made since the early 1960s, the problem of racial discrimination remains an important factor in shaping contemporary patterns of social and economic inequality.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Barbara Reskin, Douglas Massey, Frank Dobbin, and Lincoln Quillian for their generous comments and suggestions. Support for this research came from grants from NSF (SES-0547810) and NIH (K01-HD053694). The second author also received support from an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship.

1 Dovidio & Gaertner (2000) also examined changes over time, comparing parallel data collected at two time points, 1989 and 1999. Although the level of self-reported prejudice declined significantly over the decade, the extent of discrimination did not change.

2 Field experiments that rely on contact by mail (rather than in person) are referred to as correspondence studies. Although these studies are typically limited to a more restricted range of job openings than are in-person audit studies, and although the signaling of race is some what more complicated (see Fryer & Levitt 2004 for a discussion of the race-class association among distinctively African American names), these studies are not vulnerable to the concerns over experimenter effects that are relevant in in-person studies (see Heckman 1998 ). For a review of correspondence studies in international contexts, including a range of ethnic groups, see Riach & Rich (2002) .

3 Asian renters and homebuyers experienced similar levels of consistent adverse treatment, though the effects were not statistically significant for renters. The highest levels of discrimination among the groups was experienced by Native American renters, for whom reduced access to information comprised the bulk of differential treatment ( Turner & Ross 2003a , b ).

4 See Stuart (2003) for a useful discussion of how economic risk became defined in the mortgage lending industry and how this approach has impacted discrimination.

5 There is also a growing literature in economics that focuses on online auctions (e.g., eBay®), allowing researchers to test theories about consumer discrimination in more highly controlled (but real-world) environments (e.g., List 2004 ).

6 Indeed, social psychological research points to the hardwired tendency toward categorization, with preferences for in-groups and the stereotyping of out–groups a natural outgrowth of human cognition ( Fiske 1998 ). Although the social context certainly shapes the boundaries of social groups and the content of stereotypes, this cognitive impulse likely contributes to the resilience of social categorization and stereotypes ( Massey 2007 ).

7 Note, however, that the creation of new positions for diversity management may have its own disadvantages, inadvertently diverting minority employees away from more desirable management trajectories. Collins (1989 , 1993 ), for example, finds that upwardly mobile blacks are frequently tracked into racialized management jobs or into jobs that specifically deal with diversity issues, with black customers, or with relations with the black community. According to Collins, these jobs are also characterized by greater vulnerability to downsizing and fewer opportunities for advancement.

8 Mouw (2002) does not find evidence that this sorting process affects aggregate employment rates, although the segregation of job opportunities is itself associated with racial differences in job quality and stability ( Parcel & Mueller 1983 ).

9 The case of drug policy and enforcement is one area for which evidence of direct racial discrimination is stronger (see Beckett et al. 2005 , Tonry 1995 ).

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

The authors are not aware of any biases that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.

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The harmful effects of discrimination : a meta-analysis of research

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• Fent, Randa.
• Duder, Sydney (Supervisor)
• This thesis is designed to examine the effects of discrimination on its target. It aims to investigate the psychological, physical, perceptual and behavioral responses that individuals exhibit when faced with racist, sexist and heterosexist as well as other types of discriminatory acts. Through meta-analytic procedures, findings from existing studies investigating the impact of discrimination on the target were gathered and their average effect sizes calculated. A total of 50 empirical studies were identified, from which 84 effect sizes were derived. Using homogeneity analysis techniques, the studies' effect sizes were compared and analyzed. The results show significant heterogeneity in the overall mean effect size (0.38) of discrimination. Subsequent moderator variable investigations indicated that among discrimination acts, sexism had the highest mean effect size (0.64), while among the responses to discrimination, the perceptual factor showed the highest mean effect size (0.65). Additional moderator variables' investigations resulted in significant differences between Canadian and American settings in terms of discrimination acts and responses.
• Discrimination -- Psychological aspects.
• Sexism -- Psychological aspects.
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•  https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/8w32r738t
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Racism Essay: Topics, Samples, & Writing Guide

Racism is a very spread yet complicated topic for students of all levels. Any essay about racism should include a clear introduction, solid body arguments, and a consistent conclusion.

You are lucky to have encountered this article because our experts have prepared all the necessary answers.

Here, we provide you with a most detailed writing guide. You’ll find out how to start and continue writing and what each part of an essay should include. You will also get an impressive number of inspiring topics and a couple of samples to top it up.

You need to write a racism definition essay? We’ve got that too. Let’s go!

• ✒️ Racism Essay Writing

📚 269 Racism Essay Topics

💡 racism essay examples, ✒️ racism essay writing guide.

It doesn’t matter whether you have to write a racism argumentative essay or a persuasive one – the principles are the same.

Read this short guide to get a clear idea of an excellent essay about racism once and for all.

Essay on Racism- Step 1: Choose the Topic

Generally speaking, to choose a topic about racism, consider the basics. Your issue has to be acute, narrow, unique, and containing a conflict.

• If you catch yourself thinking: “Well, racism is too broad an issue, how am I supposed to write about it?” don’t worry! First, go through this mini-guide and then dive into the racism essay topics compilation below. If it’s not enough, try our Free Essay Topic Generator .

Essay on Racism – Step 2: Research

To create a racism essay, you should read a great scope of literature. Study the issue from different angles to find out the range of opinions.

• There are many excellent sources with all kinds of information about racism. It can be a good TedTalk video where a speaker elaborates on a specific topic. Or scholarly articles with comprehensive research and methodologies.

Essay on Racism – Step 3: Outline

Every assignment can contain individual demands to meet. For example, argumentative essay topics on racism must include particular evidence in the body. For a racism definition essay, it’s not necessary.

• Nevertheless, you should be familiar with the primary principles of essay outlining. Study them in the sections below.

I. Racism Essay Introduction

It’s essential to draw your audience’s attention first. A good introduction may start with a hook, including some statistics or disturbing facts. Racism topics for research papers have plenty of opportunities to operate a good hook.

Once you get the readers’ attention, introduce background information. Let your reader get familiar with what you are writing. The introduction usually ends with a thesis statement and a brief and sharp phrasing of an issue.

II. Racism Essay Body

The body of your essay on racism is the part where you unfold and prove your thesis statement . Usually, the body consists of three paragraphs with supporting arguments. However, the central part may depend on a particular type of essay.

For example, an argumentative essay requires drawing a solid argumentation and backing it up with evidence. This is necessary to do with each of the body paragraphs.

III. Racism Essay Conclusion

The final touch of your essay is a conclusion. Usually, you need just one paragraph, but it depends on the essay requirements.

A reasonable conclusion suggests that you clarify the significance of your arguments. Remember that you don’t want to duplicate everything you said. Your task is to summarize the information.

Answer the questions that appeared in the beginning and offer a solution to the problem.

You can find a conclusion example in our “To Kill a Mockingbird” racism essay sample below.

We’ve reached the best part of the article. If you have to write an essay on racism and discrimination, here you go!

Choose any of these inspiring essay topics and start writing.

Racism Definition Essay

A definition essay implies that you reveal the essence of a concept or phenomenon. You can refer to definitions from different sources or make your own.

Looking through our racism essay examples, you can understand what should be in such an essay.

Let’s have a closer look.

• Identify the concept of racism. What does it include? What do we have to consider while talking about racism? Give examples of decent and poor definitions of racism.
• What is racial prejudice? Speak on how the mistreatment of the notion can lead to communication problems. How do different people understand this concept?
• Reveal the essence and meaning of the concept of white privilege. How did it appear? Speak on different opinions towards it.
• What is racial equity? What is the opposite term for it? Search for the definitions in scholarly works. Also, try to build your definition and explain how you see racial equity.
• Speak on different types of racism. What is systemic racism? What are institutional and individual racism? Explain the definition of structural racism.
• Ethnicity: what is it, and how does it differ from a race?
• Cultural appropriation: What is it, and why can it have a negative effect?
• Race and your community.
• How should the concept of national values be understood?
• Explain the meaning of internalized racism.
•  What is the essence of racial and cultural diversity?
• From the very beginning: Explore various definitions of race.
• Social science and the origins of race.
• Microaggression acts: What is it, and why are they dangerous?
• What is racial trauma from the psychological point of view?
• Immigration and ethnic relations in the US.
• Societal disparities: The essence, types, and impact on racial relations.
• What is “culture”? What constituents does it have?
• Ku Klux Klan: History and essence of the most notorious racist organizations.
• Native Americans: Who are they, and what is happening now?
• Discrimination in the United States of America.
• Tell about BAME communities in Great Britain.
• The history of the Black Power Movement, its leaders, and ideas.
• The meaning of gender and race.
• Bias and prejudice: reveal the meaning of these notions.
• Institutional discrimination and racism.
• Analyze explicit and implicit racial prejudices.
• Define the term “discrimination” within the racism issues.
• Environmental racism and justice.
• What were the reasons for racism to appear?
• Antisemitism: History and impact on society and individuals.
• Defining unconscious racism.
• Tell about the most racist societies.
• Explore racist ideas in Ancient Greece.
• Racism and discrimination: The church vision and teaching.
• Martin Luther King Jr: Life, ideas, and death.
• Reveal the essence of such a concept as “post-racial.”
• The concept of race: Social science.
• Social distance scale in terms of racism.
• Harlem Renaissance: was it an anti-racist call or just art?
• National cultural identity: The essence and connection to racism.
• Implicit association test: Measuring attitudes toward race and ethnicity.
• Tell about the concepts of genocide and segregation.
• The role of the conflict theory in the framework of racism.
• Ethnic groups and discrimination.
• The significance of assimilation in the fight against racism.
• Write about the personality theory concerning racism.
• The phenomenon of inter-racism in the society.

Racism Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay suggests that an author points out their opinion and proves its validity. In other words, with the help of arguments, the authors support their points of view.

Within the discourse of racial issues, there are diverse opinions. Topics for the research paper in an argumentative style you’ll find below.

• The extension of racism terms. Think of the importance of adjusting the language to social needs. Why is racism much more than it’s said in dictionaries?
• The racial equality progress didn’t improve much since the slavery abolition. Explore the statistics that prove it and the opinions of racial minorities representatives.
• Why is it essential to work together against racism? Elaborate on the role of communities in combating racial issues. Can each of us contribute to the situation improvement?
• The role of psychology in dismantling racism is enormous. How does psychology help understand the nature of bias? Explore how the psychological treatment approaches help address racism and its consequences.
• The Internet is a place where racism is widespread. Explore the impact that cyberbullying by race has on people. Why is it essential to control violent acts online?
• Criminal justice discrimination: Foster v. Chatman.
• Why witnessing racist behavior without acting against it is dangerous?
• African Americans’ civil rights: The role of the federal government and the Supreme Court.
• Academic racism: Why should philosophical works be revised?
• A belief that physical differences define a human must disappear.
• Teaching culturally and ethnically diverse learners in science classroom.
• The role of fashion editorials in embracing different cultures.
• The impact of slavery on identities of African Americans in the run-up to the Civil War.
• Tell about different racist establishments and why we need to stop them.
• How to fight racial discrimination appearing in the healthcare system?
• Nazi ideas didn’t stay in the past: They are still here and poisonous.
• Racial and cultural inequities in health.
• Facing racism can be disastrous for mental health.
• Can racism be considered a mental illness?
• Racial bias and racial profiling in law enforcement.
• Tell about racism among Latino people in Mexico.
• Cultural, ethnic, and gender differences at the workplace.
• What are the disastrous effects of racism?
• Racism is one of the evilest human sins.
• Will racism be a usual thing in the US forever?
• What is better for a country: A racist or anti-racist president?
• Mexican Americans’ struggle for integrated schools in the civil rights era.
• It’s time people of color took the domination in the US.
• The issue of race and ethnic groups.
• Will racial discrimination lead the world to a global war?
• Is Donald Trump a racist?
• Is it a crime to be a racist?
• How does racism spread among children and teens?
• Racial injustice and its impact on employees.
• Racism has different faces: Trade war.
• Are native Americans racists or victims of discrimination?
• Flint poisoning: Environmental racism and racial capitalism.
• What do racial discrimination and Holocaust have in common?
• How skin complexion affects African Americans.
• Does a person become a racist from childhood?
• Racial prejudices can’t be considered a sin due to religious beliefs.
• Race and class in the US criminal justice system.
• Do racial trait differences define a person?
• The decision to grant freedom to African Americans: Pros and cons.
• Does racism do anything good to society?
• The Trans-Atlantic African slave trade: What are the impacts and who is to blame?
• Why does racism still exist?
• Racial, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic issues in psychology.
• Is there any cure for racism?
• Radical Republicans and African Americans during Reconstruction.
• There should be anti-racism lessons in schools.
• Light, camera, action: Racism in cinematography is thriving.
• Gender and race discrimination at workplaces.

Racism Persuasive Essay

In a persuasive essay , you should prove a particular point of view and make the audience agree with it. It means using both facts and emotions to reach the goal.

Writing a racism essay, you can use some striking facts and stories. You can be sure there are a lot of provoking situations you’d like to talk about.

• Native Americans should be free of suffering. We took their lands off them and must stop suppressing their culture. Why are reservations sadistic? What can we do to help?
• Shaking hands, increased heart rate, anxiety, low self-esteem, and chronic stress. These are only a part of all consequences of racist aggression. What else should minorities’ representatives experience to make privileged white people wake up?
• Asians deserve better: Explore the question of racist prejudice against Asian people. They often get poorly treated and disrespected, but we rarely discuss it. Is it high time we changed this?
• The Ku Klux Klan is still alive and breathing. Why in the 21st century should we face the terrible legacy of this hate group? Should the government control it more? What can we do to eliminate it?
• Police brutality and racism: Why are these two concepts so interrelated in the USA? Can we do anything about it in a peaceful way? How can deaths from police violence be prevented?
• Native American women face discrimination that has to be stopped.
• Black neighborhoods are problematic, and it’s only our fault.
• Jim Crow and segregation era’s implications for modern African American history.
• Facts: There are no reasons or excuses for racism.
• Racist (like any other discriminative) advertisements should be abolished.
• Black Lives Matter: Racial perspectives on social media.
• Should there be special anti-racist training for school teachers?
• The problem of racism in the US.
• Why is it not enough to embrace different cultures on Netflix shows?
• African Americans and the American Revolution.
• George Floyd is an innocent man who died because of racism.
• Are the United States in real crisis in terms of racial inequality?
• Why is keeping silent one of the major missteps in addressing racism?
• Are all hate crimes in the US based on racism?
• Discrimination in the criminal justice system: Why we should address this issue.
• Race doesn’t serve any purpose in modern society.
• The African American women stereotyping in media.
• “Irishness”: Tell why this concept should be considered racist.
• Racism and sexism: does racial discrimination have gender preferences?
• Islamophobia is another type of racial discrimination.
• How to prevent African American males from dropping out of high school.
• There are a lot of social processes that support racism.
• Race-related stress makes society dysfunctional.
• Immigration and racial profiling and the role of law enforcement.
• The segregation of Native Americans is wrong in its roots.
• The African American civil rights movement history: Its effects on today’s America.
• Neglecting racism issues brings corruption to society.
• Social media have a significant influence on the perception of racism.
• Should people become more compassionate towards racial minorities?
• African American teachers in segregated schools in the US.
• Sex workers face racial discrimination, and it’s a problem.
• What is wrong with commercials and advertisements in terms of racism?
• List of privileges and ways I have experienced and demonstrated racism.
• The mental health of people of color suffers a lot from racism.
• Educators shouldn’t spread myths about races.
• The historical progression of African Americans.
• The civil rights movement: History and impact.
• Discrimination against minority groups, races, and ethnic groups.
• Was Barack Obama proof that there is no racism in the US?
• Key events in African American civil rights movement and their impact.
• How can each of us fight racism in everyday life?
• Problem of discrimination in nursing .
• Can racism be justified in any case?
• Women in hijabs shouldn’t suffer from discrimination.

Racism Topics for Research Paper

Here you can find deeper topics for your research paper on racism and discrimination. The approach of this type is more serious and scientific.

• Ethnic differences in mental health service use.
• Analyze unfair judicial practices concerning racial prejudices.
• Elaborate on Desmond Tutu’s words about injustice.
• Hispanic Americans facing discrimination.
• Explore the racism manifestations in various establishments: In football, in schools, in sports, and in the workplace.
• Ethnicity and religion impact on the second language acquisition of Muslims males.
• The race theory: What do we know about it?
• Immigration and racism in Canada.
• President Lyndon Johnson said: “If you can convince the lowest white man he’s better than the best-colored man, he won’t notice you’re picking his pocket.” How can these words be interpreted?
• Racial struggles in Detroit during riots of 1967.
• Disparities in COVID infections: How racial inequality affects health care?
• Racial profiling and its use at police stops and in crime reduction.
• What are the actions political leaders should take to address racism?
• The effects of police racial profiling on people’s attitudes.
• Study the question of oversimplification of racism in the US.
• Black lives matter: What changes did this establishment bring to society?
• The fashion industry and racism: have the attitudes changed over the last 20 years?
• Race and crime: Is there a correlation?
• Why are Black Americans more inclined to die from cancer and heart diseases?
• Ethnic minority group investigation: Mexican Americans.
• Pregnancy-related death causes and racism: Why Black women are treated differently?
• Africans in America – the growth of slavery in the 1600s and 1700s.
• Are there any ways to low down the infant death mortality rate among Black kids?
• Policy: Overcoming racial profiling.
• Compare the range of racist attitudes in Canada and the USA.
• Has race relations improved since the Civil War?
• How does the individual approach win over generalizing in racial issues discussions?
• Shifting morality in race and education.
• Make a review of three books on inclusion and embracing diversity.
• How does racism reflect in hiring and promotion practices?
• What perspectives does the US have in terms of racial equality?
• Racial discrimination of African Americans during Jim Crow’s era.
• Why do middle-class Black Americans have worse health conditions than white working-class citizens?
• The evolving role of HBCUs in resolving racial tensions.
• Explore the history of racism in the USA.
• African American history: Lost and rewritten.
• Tell about the prominent figures who toiled against racism.
• How can education be made more equitable for students of color?
• How did Darwin’s research influence racism?
• Ethnic minorities and the graduate labour market.
• For which groups is racism beneficial?
• Social status of African-Americans during 1920-2000.
• How is racism reflected in pop culture?
• How racial segregation contributes to concentrated poverty in minority communities.
• What are the consequences of racism in sports?
• The African-American struggle for civil rights in Texas.
• How does systemic racism reflect in political institutions?
• Racism impact on African-American communities in the US.
• Elaborate on Martin King Jr’s impact on racial equality.
• Race discrimination: Aspects and effects.
• Explore the history of racism in the UK.
• Racial tensions in contemporary America.
• Tell about the impact of racial discrimination on workers in the 50s.
• Ethnicity studies in counseling for schizophrenia.
• Does racism slow down the progress in society?
• What did Fidel Castro do to eliminate discrimination in Cuba?
• How is poverty in black neighborhoods connected with racism?
• Chinese Americans: History and discrimination.
• Do anthropological studies improve the situation with racism?
• African American women obtaining higher education.
• Explore the history of racism in Australia.
• Discuss the heritage and value of African American literature.
• How has police brutality been revealed for the recent ten years?
• Racial and ethnic minorities in the United States and their health care problems.
• Explore the essence of scientific racism.
• Terrorism, race, and the criminal justice in America.
• The effects of ethnic stratification on social institutions.
• Incarceration rates among racial & ethnic minorities.
• Write about social constructions of “race” and “racism.”
• Racial discrimination practices in recruitment and selection.
• What is the impact of racism and antisemitism on society?
• Equal opportunities and gender, age and race in the UK.

Racism Essay Topics in Literature

Art, culture, and literature are susceptible to any social phenomena. You can always trace the sociocultural background in the works of art. In this section, we’ve got literature topics for a racism definition essay and other types of paper.

To Kill a Mockingbird Racism Essay Topics

• Hypocrisy and racism – how are they connected in the novel? Explore the underneath reasons for racial prejudice in Maycomb, such as vacancy of thought and lack of empathy.
• Institutional racism in the novel “To Kill a Mockingbird.” Is it fair to consider the book an anti-racist moral call while written from a privileged white perspective?
• Racism is everywhere: Speak on how institutional racism is seen at Scout’s school . Why do teachers showcase discriminatory behavior instead of tolerance and justice to children?
• “Cry about the hell white people give colored folks, without even stopping to think that they’re people, too.” Is it possible to grow up from sensitive children into sensitive adults?
• Seventeen shots in the back, the end: Why don’t we observe the feelings, grief, and thoughts of Black people in the novel? For instance, Tom Robinson, his wife, and children, Calpurnia – their personalities are hardly revealed.
• Did Tom Robinson have a chance to be pleaded innocent?
• What is wrong with the missionary tea party?
• How Harper Lee’s life is reflected in To Kill a Mockingbird ?
• Is Atticus Finch a role model for any white man?
• What are the ways Harper Lee shows prejudices in her novel?
• Compare the situation with racism back in the 1930s with the current state of things.
• What is the drama of the Dolphus Raymond family?
• Describe how Black characters are depicted in the book.
• Analyze Aunt Alexandra’s character, her racist prejudices, and narrow-mindedness.
• Is “To Kill a Mockingbird” a racist or anti-racist book?
• Boo Radley: How does prejudice reflect on white citizens?

Racism in Othello Essay Topics

• Explore the difference between racism depiction in Shakespeare’s play and movies. How did different directors avoid racism topic in their films? Why is it a problem?
• Analyze the portrayal of Othello in the play: The cruel, dull Moor, the Other. What attitude of a man of color is perceived through these characteristics?
• Explore Othello’s self-perception depicted by Shakespeare. Why is it problematic that he expresses insecurity due to his blackness? What is wrong with the way the author presents Othello’s self-hatred?
• “There is no racism without language,” – said Derrida . Analyze the language means used in the play to reflect racial prejudices: thick lips, an old black ram, and others.
• Othello: The racial issues in the play.
• How does the character of Brabantio express racism?
• Talk about racist and sexist issues in the play.
• How can racial discrimination ruin the lives of two people in love?
• Why is “Othello” a tragedy of racial conflict more than jealousy?
• What are the different forms in which racism shows up in the play?
• The Otherness of Othello: Is it racism or a literary device?
• How are the racist views in England reflected in the play?
• Is Shakespeare’s portrayal of a Black man adequate?
• Can we say that the main protagonist of the play was a racist?
• Why “Othello” is a controversial play in terms of racism?

Racism in Huckleberry Finn Essay Topics

• Explore and analyze the literary critics of “Huckleberry Finn.” Why was the book banned and censored for years? Is it coarse, ill-cultured, and obscene?
• An absolute masterpiece: Analyze the positive reviews on the book by Lionel Trifling and T. S. Eliot. What impact does this critique have on the perception of the novel?
• Desegregation and the civil rights movement . Tell about social events that co-occurred with including the book into the school curricula.
• Racism affects and distorts the morality of both aggressors and victims. Explore how the author exposes this idea in the novel.
• Huck Finn is fighting with dissonance in his mind. He is sympathetic towards people of color and shows a racist attitude at the same time. What does this tell us about?
• How is the hypocrisy of middle-class society shown in the book?
• Satire in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn : Should we accuse Mark Twain of racism?
• “Racially offensive tone”: what were the reasons for the book’s struggle with censorship?
• Describe how the Black characters are depicted in the novel.
• A slave owner and a Christian: reveal the racist character of Mrs. Watson in the novel.
• Can we call a book racist for the repetition of the word ‘nigger’ in it?
• What lessons can be learned from the story of Huck Finn?
• How does Mark Twain show the derogatory impact of racism on society?
• How do the feelings of guilt and shame help Huck to get mature?
• Can we say that Mrs. Judith Loftus is sympathetic to people of color?
• Why is Huck’s Pap not only the greatest villain but also a dreadful racist?

Not to beat around the bush, here’re actual race essay examples. Our experts have chosen two very different topics to demonstrate how broad your opportunities are.

Racism Definition Essay: on Racism and Discrimination

If there is a choice to speak about racism or not, it’s better to speak. Maybe, this way, we could change the sad statistics which say the relations between white and Black Americans are at their lowest point for the recent twenty years. To speak of racism and discrimination, one should clearly understand their meaning, origin, and changes. However, it’s not that easy to say what racism is because it has numerous faces. First of all, it’s a problem, inducing disparities, violence, misunderstanding, and suffering. Besides, we reckon, the word ‘prejudice’ reflects the essence of racial discrimination. Thus, we can say that discrimination based on racial differences is prejudiced mistreatment of a person of color. The very thought of bias due to a particular skin color or hair texture seems absurd. However, the issue is enormous and old. Racially ill philosophy appeared a long time ago. People have believed that physical and biological traits define personal ones for hundreds of years. This is another reason it’s so difficult to get rid of racism – it’s an ancient evil. Thriving in the times of colonization, racism has spread greatly by the 18th century. North American and European colonizers had to make up some beliefs that could eliminate contradictions. They proclaimed America as the country of human equality and dignity and enslaved African folks simultaneously. Thus, the idea of dehumanization of those who were enslaved seemed an escape. That’s why it’s vital to understand the roots of racism and all its faces to combat it successfully. The first step is to admit the issue and take off the disguise it may hide under.

To Kill a Mockingbird Racism Argumentative Essay

“I think there’s just one kind of folks. Folks.” These words, said by a little girl, must be a lesson to all adults living in a world full of prejudices. Indeed, how come people still judge each other by skin color or hair texture after hundreds of years of cultured society? The book teaches humanism, justice, and kindness, although not all of its characters are kind and fair. However, we can learn a lot about racism issues that unfortunately didn’t lose their acuteness. The point is that racial discrimination is disastrous and devastating. It should be eliminated from the very basics of human minds and souls. It’s pretty disappointing to watch such a dramatic plot unfolding in the south of 20 century America. People there were used to racial discrimination due to historical context. However, we can see that racism is a surface issue under which there are many others. The reason for prejudice lies in the narrow-mindedness and lack of sympathy. Vacancy of thought and rigidness don’t allow people to act fair-hearted. If we recollect Aunt Alexandra feeling sympathetic towards the non-existence tribe somewhere in Africa, we can notice how detached from the real things she is. Her tunnel vision doesn’t let her see what happens around: for example, that accusation of the innocent Black man goes pretty well with her. The huge drama is that a decaying community prefers to escape from the problems like poverty, dullness, and outdated traditions. People blame someone for their physical difference to keep a blind eye on their shortcomings. We definitely should become more educated, not only in practical knowledge but also in terms of humanism and emotional intelligence. This is the first step to a healthier society.

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Politico – Mark Hansen discusses President Biden’s choices post-debate

On Thursday, President Joe Biden’s debate performance sent Democrats straight into crisis mode: Nothing about his demeanor, from his shaky voice, to his pallid skin, to his meandering answers and head-scratching non sequiturs, served to reassure voters worried that his age meant he wasn’t up for another four years on the job.

On Friday, at a rally in Raleigh, there was a dramatically different Biden on display, energetic and forceful, as he tried to quell the tsunami of panic emanating from his party compatriots — many of whom are wondering if he needs to step down.

Now, Democrats are gaming out whether Biden should withdraw from the race — or if there’s a way he can get back on track and still beat former President Donald Trump.

With that in mind, we reached out to a group of top political thinkers: After Biden’s debate performance, what advice would you give to the president, his inner circle or the Democratic Party about what to do next?

Read more here...

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Ryan Garcia expelled from World Boxing Council after latest online rant

Ryan Garcia has been expelled from the World Boxing Council, marking the latest fallout for the embattled boxer.

World Boxing Council President Mauricio Sulaiman made the announcement on X on Thursday, citing Garcia's bizarre social media behavior, where he repeatedly used racial slurs and made disparaging remarks about George Floyd , a Black man who died in 2020 after a Minneapolis police officer knelt on his neck for more than eight minutes.

"Exercising my authority as president of the WBC, I am hereby expelling Ryan Garcia from any activity with our organization," Sulaiman said. "We reject any form of discrimination. I fear for (Garcia's) well being."

Exercising my authority as president of the WBC , I am hereby expelling Ryan Garcia from any activity with our organization. We reject any form of discrimination. I fear for Ryan well being as he has declined multiple attempts for our help with mental health and substance abuse pic.twitter.com/pCIOH2am7B — Mauricio Sulaiman (@wbcmoro) July 4, 2024

A publicist for Garcia did not immediately respond to request for comment regarding the WBC’s action. A representative for Golden Boy Promotions, which represents Garcia, also did not immediately respond to request for comment.

In addition to his suspension from the WBC, Garcia is also serving a year-long suspension from the New York State Athletic Commission after testing positive for a banned substance  prior to his April fight against Devin Haney , which Garcia won in dominant fashion. Garcia defeated Haney by majority decision after scoring three knock-downs, but his victory has since been changed to a "no contest."

There were questions surrounding Garcia's mental fitness heading into the highly anticipated bout with Haney following erratic behavior online. The latest incident has caused more concern for fans, but Sulaiman said Garcia "declined multiple attempts for our help with mental health and substance abuse."

Last month, Garcia was arrested at the Waldorf Astoria hotel in Beverly Hills for felony vandalism after reportedly causing more than $15,000 in damages to a guest room and the hallway of the hotel, according to the Beverly Hills Police Department.

Promoter Oscar De La Hoya: 'I condemn Ryan's words'

Oscar De La Hoya, the founder of Golden Boy Promotions, which represents Garcia, said, "There is no room for hate or intolerance at my company. Period."

"I condemn Ryan’s words in the strongest terms possible," De La Hoya said in a statement to USA TODAY Sports. "I see that he has apologized, and that is a start — but it is only a start to earn back the trust and respect of those of us who have and continue to support him. We hope Ryan will use the time he has away from the sport to work through the issues he has publicly discussed. We stand ready to help in whatever we can.”

Civil Rights Department Reaches $14.4 Million Settlement with Microsoft Over Alleged Parental and Disability Leave Discrimination

July 3, 2024

For Immediate Release

[email protected]

916-938-4113

Settlement resolves multi-year investigation into allegations of discrimination in compensation related to the use of protected leave under state and federal civil rights laws

SACRAMENTO – The California Civil Rights Department (CRD) today announced reaching a $14,425,000 proposed settlement with the Microsoft Corporation to resolve allegations of retaliation and discrimination against workers based on their use of protected leave, including parental, disability, pregnancy, and family care taking leave. State and federal law prohibits employers from interfering with an employee’s use of protected forms of leave, such as leave to bond with a new child, address a serious health condition, or care for a family member. As part of the settlement, which is subject to court approval, Microsoft has committed to taking a range of proactive steps to prevent future discrimination and provide monetary relief to employees who used protected leave at the company in California between 2017 and 2024.

“Whether it’s to look after a newborn child or take care of your own health, workers generally have the right to take time off without worrying about consequences at work,” said CRD Director Kevin Kish. “By allegedly penalizing employees for taking protected forms of leave, Microsoft failed to support workers when they needed to care for themselves or their families. The settlement announced today will provide direct relief to impacted workers and safeguard against future discrimination at the company. We applaud Microsoft for coming to the table and agreeing to make the changes necessary to protect workers in California.”

The settlement announced today resolves a multi-year investigation into Microsoft over claims of discrimination related to the use of protected leave under California’s Fair Employment and Housing Act, the California Family Rights Act, California’s Pregnancy Disability Leave law, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Americans with Disabilities Act. In a complaint filed by CRD against Microsoft, the department alleged that women and people with disabilities are overrepresented among the group of workers who use these forms of leave and that workers who used protected leave faced unlawful retaliation and discrimination in compensation and promotion opportunities because of their use of the leave. For example, CRD alleged that employees who used protected leave received lower bonuses and unfavorable performance reviews that, in turn, harmed their eligibility for merit increases, stock awards, and promotions. In addition, CRD alleged that Microsoft failed to take sufficient action to prevent discrimination from occurring, altering the career trajectory of women, people with disabilities, and other employees who worked at the company, ultimately leaving them behind.

If approved by the court, the settlement will require Microsoft to:

• Pay $14,200,000 to cover direct relief for workers and $225,000 in costs associated with the department’s enforcement efforts.
• Retain an independent consultant to make recommendations on Microsoft’s personnel policies and practices to ensure managers do not consider time on protected leave in determining annual rewards and promotions.
• Work with the independent consultant to also ensure workers know how to raise complaints in instances where they believe that annual rewards and promotion decisions reflect discrimination or retaliation for the use of protected leave.
• Report annually, via the independent consultant, on compliance with the settlement, including with respect to how complaints of discrimination are received and processed.
• Ensure managers and human resources personnel complete training concerning prohibitions on discrimination based on the use of protected leave.

Individuals who took protected leave and worked at Microsoft in California between May 2017 and the date of the court’s entry of the settlement agreement may be eligible to receive compensation. At this time, no action is needed by individuals covered under the proposed agreement and additional information will be posted on CRD’s website upon approval by the court. If the court approves the settlement, covered workers will receive further information and updates from a settlement administrator.

If you or someone you know has been the victim of employment discrimination, CRD may be able to assist you through its complaint process. General information about CRD’s complaint process and how to file a complaint is available  here . Additional information regarding protections against discrimination and harassment in the workplace is available  here .

The settlement announced today was supported by a number of CRD staff, including Siri Thanasombat, Alexis Alvarez, Chanelle Han, Ameline Gillet, and Robin Blackwell.

A copy of the proposed consent decree is available  here . A copy of the complaint is available  here . The proposed consent decree is subject to court approval.

The California Civil Rights Department (CRD) is the state agency charged with enforcing California’s civil rights laws. CRD’s mission is to protect the people of California from unlawful discrimination in employment, housing, public accommodations, and state-funded programs and activities, and from hate violence and human trafficking. For more information, visit calcivilrights.ca.gov .

View Press Release (PDF) Civil Rights Department Reaches $14.4 Million Settlement with Microsoft Over Alleged Parental and Disability Leave Discrimination

WBC expels boxer Ryan Garcia for reported use of racial slurs

The World Boxing Council, one of the four major boxing governing bodies, expelled boxer Ryan Garcia for “discrimination,” WBC president Mauricio Sulaiman said Thursday on X.

“We reject any form of discrimination. I fear for (Ryan’s) well being as he has declined multiple attempts for our help with mental health and substance abuse,” Sulaiman said.

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Sulaiman did not disclose additional details about the incident. The Associated Press reported Garcia “repeatedly used racial slurs against Black people and disparaged Muslims in comments livestreamed on social media.”

Garcia reportedly tweeted that he was “trolling” and said “sorry if I offended you,” after the expulsion, but the tweet has since been deleted.

Garcia’s attorney did not immediately respond to a request for comment.

Exercising my authority as president of the WBC , I am hereby expelling Ryan Garcia from any activity with our organization. We reject any form of discrimination. I fear for Ryan well being as he has declined multiple attempts for our help with mental health and substance abuse pic.twitter.com/pCIOH2am7B — Mauricio Sulaiman (@wbcmoro) July 4, 2024

On June 19, Garcia said he’s “officially retired” in a string of posts on X. Before his retirement announcement, he listed on X a series of difficulties he’d faced in recent months, including testing positive for the PED ostarine ahead of his upset of WBC super lightweight champ Devin Haney in April.

On June 20, the New York State Athletic Commission suspended Garcia for one year and overturned his win versus Haney for the positive performance-enhancing drug tests. Garcia also forfeited his purse winnings of over $1 million to Golden Boy Promotions and was issued a $10,000 fine by NYSAC.

His expulsion from WBC is the latest event in a tumultuous year for Garcia away from the ring.

In early June, Garcia was arrested on a felony vandalism charge in Beverly Hills after a hotel accused him of property damage.

Before his April fight against Haney, Garcia claimed he was kidnapped by the Illuminati, accused Logan Paul of worshipping Satan, made accusations about Haney’s father and said he was under spiritual attack. Garcia also said he had proof of alien existence and called Elon Musk the Antichrist, among several other concerning claims and allegations online and in podcast appearances.

Required reading

• Ryan Garcia says he’s ‘officially retired’ in string of posts lamenting last several months
• Ryan Garcia stuns boxing world, defeats Devin Haney after months of concerning antics
• Ryan Garcia arrested on felony vandalism charge at Beverly Hills hotel
• Ryan Garcia tested positive for PED ostarine before upsetting Devin Haney, per VADA: Reports

(Photo: Carmen Mandato / Getty Images)

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Jenna West is a staff editor on The Athletic's news team. Before joining The Athletic, she served as a writer and producer for Sports Illustrated's national news desk. Jenna is a graduate of Northwestern University.