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How to Create and Deliver a Research Presentation

Every research endeavor ends up with the communication of its findings. Graduate-level research culminates in a thesis defense , while many academic and scientific disciplines are published in peer-reviewed journals. In a business context, PowerPoint research presentation is the default format for reporting the findings to stakeholders.

Condensing months of work into a few slides can prove to be challenging. It requires particular skills to create and deliver a research presentation that promotes informed decisions and drives long-term projects forward.

Table of Contents

What is a Research Presentation

Key slides for creating a research presentation, tips when delivering a research presentation, how to present sources in a research presentation, recommended templates to create a research presentation.

A research presentation is the communication of research findings, typically delivered to an audience of peers, colleagues, students, or professionals. In the academe, it is meant to showcase the importance of the research paper , state the findings and the analysis of those findings, and seek feedback that could further the research.

The presentation of research becomes even more critical in the business world as the insights derived from it are the basis of strategic decisions of organizations. Information from this type of report can aid companies in maximizing the sales and profit of their business. Major projects such as research and development (R&D) in a new field, the launch of a new product or service, or even corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives will require the presentation of research findings to prove their feasibility.

Market research and technical research are examples of business-type research presentations you will commonly encounter.

In this article, we’ve compiled all the essential tips, including some examples and templates, to get you started with creating and delivering a stellar research presentation tailored specifically for the business context.

Various research suggests that the average attention span of adults during presentations is around 20 minutes, with a notable drop in an engagement at the 10-minute mark . Beyond that, you might see your audience doing other things.

How can you avoid such a mistake? The answer lies in the adage “keep it simple, stupid” or KISS. We don’t mean dumbing down your content but rather presenting it in a way that is easily digestible and accessible to your audience. One way you can do this is by organizing your research presentation using a clear structure.

Here are the slides you should prioritize when creating your research presentation PowerPoint.

1.  Title Page

The title page is the first thing your audience will see during your presentation, so put extra effort into it to make an impression. Of course, writing presentation titles and title pages will vary depending on the type of presentation you are to deliver. In the case of a research presentation, you want a formal and academic-sounding one. It should include:

• The full title of the report
• The date of the report
• The name of the researchers or department in charge of the report
• The name of the organization for which the presentation is intended

When writing the title of your research presentation, it should reflect the topic and objective of the report. Focus only on the subject and avoid adding redundant phrases like “A research on” or “A study on.” However, you may use phrases like “Market Analysis” or “Feasibility Study” because they help identify the purpose of the presentation. Doing so also serves a long-term purpose for the filing and later retrieving of the document.

Here’s a sample title page for a hypothetical market research presentation from Gillette .

2. Executive Summary Slide

The executive summary marks the beginning of the body of the presentation, briefly summarizing the key discussion points of the research. Specifically, the summary may state the following:

• The purpose of the investigation and its significance within the organization’s goals
• The methods used for the investigation
• The major findings of the investigation
• The conclusions and recommendations after the investigation

Although the executive summary encompasses the entry of the research presentation, it should not dive into all the details of the work on which the findings, conclusions, and recommendations were based. Creating the executive summary requires a focus on clarity and brevity, especially when translating it to a PowerPoint document where space is limited.

Each point should be presented in a clear and visually engaging manner to capture the audience’s attention and set the stage for the rest of the presentation. Use visuals, bullet points, and minimal text to convey information efficiently.

3. Introduction/ Project Description Slides

In this section, your goal is to provide your audience with the information that will help them understand the details of the presentation. Provide a detailed description of the project, including its goals, objectives, scope, and methods for gathering and analyzing data.

You want to answer these fundamental questions:

• What specific questions are you trying to answer, problems you aim to solve, or opportunities you seek to explore?
• Why is this project important, and what prompted it?
• What are the boundaries of your research or initiative? 
• How were the data gathered?

Important: The introduction should exclude specific findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

4. Data Presentation and Analyses Slides

This is the longest section of a research presentation, as you’ll present the data you’ve gathered and provide a thorough analysis of that data to draw meaningful conclusions. The format and components of this section can vary widely, tailored to the specific nature of your research.

For example, if you are doing market research, you may include the market potential estimate, competitor analysis, and pricing analysis. These elements will help your organization determine the actual viability of a market opportunity.

Visual aids like charts, graphs, tables, and diagrams are potent tools to convey your key findings effectively. These materials may be numbered and sequenced (Figure 1, Figure 2, and so forth), accompanied by text to make sense of the insights.

5. Conclusions

The conclusion of a research presentation is where you pull together the ideas derived from your data presentation and analyses in light of the purpose of the research. For example, if the objective is to assess the market of a new product, the conclusion should determine the requirements of the market in question and tell whether there is a product-market fit.

Designing your conclusion slide should be straightforward and focused on conveying the key takeaways from your research. Keep the text concise and to the point. Present it in bullet points or numbered lists to make the content easily scannable.

6. Recommendations

The findings of your research might reveal elements that may not align with your initial vision or expectations. These deviations are addressed in the recommendations section of your presentation, which outlines the best course of action based on the result of the research.

What emerging markets should we target next? Do we need to rethink our pricing strategies? Which professionals should we hire for this special project? — these are some of the questions that may arise when coming up with this part of the research.

Recommendations may be combined with the conclusion, but presenting them separately to reinforce their urgency. In the end, the decision-makers in the organization or your clients will make the final call on whether to accept or decline the recommendations.

7. Questions Slide

Members of your audience are not involved in carrying out your research activity, which means there’s a lot they don’t know about its details. By offering an opportunity for questions, you can invite them to bridge that gap, seek clarification, and engage in a dialogue that enhances their understanding.

If your research is more business-oriented, facilitating a question and answer after your presentation becomes imperative as it’s your final appeal to encourage buy-in for your recommendations.

A simple “Ask us anything” slide can indicate that you are ready to accept questions.

1. Focus on the Most Important Findings

The truth about presenting research findings is that your audience doesn’t need to know everything. Instead, they should receive a distilled, clear, and meaningful overview that focuses on the most critical aspects.

You will likely have to squeeze in the oral presentation of your research into a 10 to 20-minute presentation, so you have to make the most out of the time given to you. In the presentation, don’t soak in the less important elements like historical backgrounds. Decision-makers might even ask you to skip these portions and focus on sharing the findings.

2. Do Not Read Word-per-word

Reading word-for-word from your presentation slides intensifies the danger of losing your audience’s interest. Its effect can be detrimental, especially if the purpose of your research presentation is to gain approval from the audience. So, how can you avoid this mistake?

• Make a conscious design decision to keep the text on your slides minimal. Your slides should serve as visual cues to guide your presentation.
• Structure your presentation as a narrative or story. Stories are more engaging and memorable than dry, factual information.
• Prepare speaker notes with the key points of your research. Glance at it when needed.
• Engage with the audience by maintaining eye contact and asking rhetorical questions.

3. Don’t Go Without Handouts

Handouts are paper copies of your presentation slides that you distribute to your audience. They typically contain the summary of your key points, but they may also provide supplementary information supporting data presented through tables and graphs.

The purpose of distributing presentation handouts is to easily retain the key points you presented as they become good references in the future. Distributing handouts in advance allows your audience to review the material and come prepared with questions or points for discussion during the presentation.

4. Actively Listen

An equally important skill that a presenter must possess aside from speaking is the ability to listen. We are not just talking about listening to what the audience is saying but also considering their reactions and nonverbal cues. If you sense disinterest or confusion, you can adapt your approach on the fly to re-engage them.

For example, if some members of your audience are exchanging glances, they may be skeptical of the research findings you are presenting. This is the best time to reassure them of the validity of your data and provide a concise overview of how it came to be. You may also encourage them to seek clarification.

5. Be Confident

Anxiety can strike before a presentation – it’s a common reaction whenever someone has to speak in front of others. If you can’t eliminate your stress, try to manage it.

People hate public speaking not because they simply hate it. Most of the time, it arises from one’s belief in themselves. You don’t have to take our word for it. Take Maslow’s theory that says a threat to one’s self-esteem is a source of distress among an individual.

Now, how can you master this feeling? You’ve spent a lot of time on your research, so there is no question about your topic knowledge. Perhaps you just need to rehearse your research presentation. If you know what you will say and how to say it, you will gain confidence in presenting your work.

All sources you use in creating your research presentation should be given proper credit. The APA Style is the most widely used citation style in formal research.

In-text citation

Add references within the text of your presentation slide by giving the author’s last name, year of publication, and page number (if applicable) in parentheses after direct quotations or paraphrased materials. As in:

The alarming rate at which global temperatures rise directly impacts biodiversity (Smith, 2020, p. 27).

If the author’s name and year of publication are mentioned in the text, add only the page number in parentheses after the quotations or paraphrased materials. As in:

According to Smith (2020), the alarming rate at which global temperatures rise directly impacts biodiversity (p. 27).

Image citation

All images from the web, including photos, graphs, and tables, used in your slides should be credited using the format below.

Creator’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Image.” Website Name, Day Mo. Year, URL. Accessed Day Mo. Year.

Work cited page

A work cited page or reference list should follow after the last slide of your presentation. The list should be alphabetized by the author’s last name and initials followed by the year of publication, the title of the book or article, the place of publication, and the publisher. As in:

Smith, J. A. (2020). Climate Change and Biodiversity: A Comprehensive Study. New York, NY: ABC Publications.

When citing a document from a website, add the source URL after the title of the book or article instead of the place of publication and the publisher. As in:

Smith, J. A. (2020). Climate Change and Biodiversity: A Comprehensive Study. Retrieved from https://www.smith.com/climate-change-and-biodiversity.

1. Research Project Presentation PowerPoint Template

A slide deck containing 18 different slides intended to take off the weight of how to make a research presentation. With tons of visual aids, presenters can reference existing research on similar projects to this one – or link another research presentation example – provide an accurate data analysis, disclose the methodology used, and much more.

Use This Template

2. Research Presentation Scientific Method Diagram PowerPoint Template

Whenever you intend to raise questions, expose the methodology you used for your research, or even suggest a scientific method approach for future analysis, this circular wheel diagram is a perfect fit for any presentation study.

Customize all of its elements to suit the demands of your presentation in just minutes.

3. Thesis Research Presentation PowerPoint Template

If your research presentation project belongs to academia, then this is the slide deck to pair that presentation. With a formal aesthetic and minimalistic style, this research presentation template focuses only on exposing your information as clearly as possible.

Use its included bar charts and graphs to introduce data, change the background of each slide to suit the topic of your presentation, and customize each of its elements to meet the requirements of your project with ease.

4. Animated Research Cards PowerPoint Template

Visualize ideas and their connection points with the help of this research card template for PowerPoint. This slide deck, for example, can help speakers talk about alternative concepts to what they are currently managing and its possible outcomes, among different other usages this versatile PPT template has. Zoom Animation effects make a smooth transition between cards (or ideas).

5. Research Presentation Slide Deck for PowerPoint

With a distinctive professional style, this research presentation PPT template helps business professionals and academics alike to introduce the findings of their work to team members or investors.

By accessing this template, you get the following slides:

• Introduction
• Problem Statement
• Research Questions
• Conceptual Research Framework (Concepts, Theories, Actors, & Constructs)
• Study design and methods
• Population & Sampling
• Data Collection
• Data Analysis

Check it out today and craft a powerful research presentation out of it!

A successful research presentation in business is not just about presenting data; it’s about persuasion to take meaningful action. It’s the bridge that connects your research efforts to the strategic initiatives of your organization. To embark on this journey successfully, planning your presentation thoroughly is paramount, from designing your PowerPoint to the delivery.

Take a look and get inspiration from the sample research presentation slides above, put our tips to heart, and transform your research findings into a compelling call to action.

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How to present a research paper in PPT: best practices

A research paper presentation is frequently used at conferences and other events where you have a chance to share the results of your research and receive feedback from colleagues. Although it may appear as simple as summarizing the findings, successful examples of research paper presentations show that there is a little bit more to it.

In this article, we’ll walk you through the basic outline and steps to create a good research paper presentation. We’ll also explain what to include and what not to include in your presentation of research paper and share some of the most effective tips you can use to take your slides to the next level.

Research paper PowerPoint presentation outline

Creating a PowerPoint presentation for a research paper involves organizing and summarizing your key findings, methodology, and conclusions in a way that encourages your audience to interact with your work and share their interest in it with others. Here’s a basic research paper outline PowerPoint you can follow:

1. Title (1 slide)

Typically, your title slide should contain the following information:

• Title of the research paper
• Affiliation or institution
• Date of presentation

2. Introduction (1-3 slides)

On this slide of your presentation, briefly introduce the research topic and its significance and state the research question or objective.

3. Research questions or hypothesis (1 slide)

This slide should emphasize the objectives of your research or present the hypothesis.

4. Literature review (1 slide)

Your literature review has to provide context for your research by summarizing relevant literature. Additionally, it should highlight gaps or areas where your research contributes.

5. Methodology and data collection (1-2 slides)

This slide of your research paper PowerPoint has to explain the research design, methods, and procedures. It must also Include details about participants, materials, and data collection and emphasize special equipment you have used in your work.

6. Results (3-5 slides)

On this slide, you must present the results of your data analysis and discuss any trends, patterns, or significant findings. Moreover, you should use charts, graphs, and tables to illustrate data and highlight something novel in your results (if applicable).

7. Conclusion (1 slide)

Your conclusion slide has to summarize the main findings and their implications, as well as discuss the broader impact of your research. Usually, a single statement is enough.

8. Recommendations (1 slide)

If applicable, provide recommendations for future research or actions on this slide.

9. References (1-2 slides)

The references slide is where you list all the sources cited in your research paper.

10. Acknowledgments (1 slide)

On this presentation slide, acknowledge any individuals, organizations, or funding sources that contributed to your research.

11. Appendix (1 slide)

If applicable, include any supplementary materials, such as additional data or detailed charts, in your appendix slide.

The above outline is just a general guideline, so make sure to adjust it based on your specific research paper and the time allotted for the presentation.

Steps to creating a memorable research paper presentation

Creating a PowerPoint presentation for a research paper involves several critical steps needed to convey your findings and engage your audience effectively, and these steps are as follows:

Step 1. Understand your audience:

• Identify the audience for your presentation.
• Tailor your content and level of detail to match the audience’s background and knowledge.

Step 2. Define your key messages:

• Clearly articulate the main messages or findings of your research.
• Identify the key points you want your audience to remember.

Step 3. Design your research paper PPT presentation:

• Use a clean and professional design that complements your research topic.
• Choose readable fonts, consistent formatting, and a limited color palette.
• Opt for PowerPoint presentation services if slide design is not your strong side.

Step 4. Put content on slides:

• Follow the outline above to structure your presentation effectively; include key sections and topics.
• Organize your content logically, following the flow of your research paper.

Step 5. Final check:

• Proofread your slides for typos, errors, and inconsistencies.
• Ensure all visuals are clear, high-quality, and properly labeled.

Step 6. Save and share:

• Save your presentation and ensure compatibility with the equipment you’ll be using.
• If necessary, share a copy of your presentation with the audience.

By following these steps, you can create a well-organized and visually appealing research paper presentation PowerPoint that effectively conveys your research findings to the audience.

What to include and what not to include in your presentation

In addition to the must-know PowerPoint presentation recommendations, which we’ll cover later in this article, consider the following do’s and don’ts when you’re putting together your research paper presentation:

• Focus on the topic.
• Be brief and to the point.
• Attract the audience’s attention and highlight interesting details.
• Use only relevant visuals (maps, charts, pictures, graphs, etc.).
• Use numbers and bullet points to structure the content.
• Make clear statements regarding the essence and results of your research.

Don’ts:

• Don’t write down the whole outline of your paper and nothing else.
• Don’t put long, full sentences on your slides; split them into smaller ones.
• Don’t use distracting patterns, colors, pictures, and other visuals on your slides; the simpler, the better.
• Don’t use too complicated graphs or charts; only the ones that are easy to understand.
• Now that we’ve discussed the basics, let’s move on to the top tips for making a powerful presentation of your research paper.

8 tips on how to make research paper presentation that achieves its goals

You’ve probably been to a presentation where the presenter reads word for word from their PowerPoint outline. Or where the presentation is cluttered, chaotic, or contains too much data. The simple tips below will help you summarize a 10 to 15-page paper for a 15 to 20-minute talk and succeed, so read on!

Tip #1: Less is more

You want to provide enough information to make your audience want to know more. Including details but not too many and avoiding technical jargon, formulas, and long sentences are always good ways to achieve this.

Tip #2: Be professional

Avoid using too many colors, font changes, distracting backgrounds, animations, etc. Bullet points with a few words to highlight the important information are preferable to lengthy paragraphs. Additionally, include slide numbers on all PowerPoint slides except for the title slide, and make sure it is followed by a table of contents, offering a brief overview of the entire research paper.

Tip #3: Strive for balance

PowerPoint slides have limited space, so use it carefully. Typically, one to two points per slide or 5 lines for 5 words in a sentence are enough to present your ideas.

Tip #4: Use proper fonts and text size

The font you use should be easy to read and consistent throughout the slides. You can go with Arial, Times New Roman, Calibri, or a combination of these three. An ideal text size is 32 points, while a heading size is 44.

Tip #5: Concentrate on the visual side

A PowerPoint presentation is one of the best tools for presenting information visually. Use graphs instead of tables and topic-relevant illustrations instead of walls of text. Keep your visuals as clean and professional as the content of your presentation.

Tip #6: Practice your delivery

Always go through your presentation when you’re done to ensure a smooth and confident delivery and time yourself to stay within the allotted limit.

Tip #7: Get ready for questions

Anticipate potential questions from your audience and prepare thoughtful responses. Also, be ready to engage in discussions about your research.

Tip #8: Don’t be afraid to utilize professional help

If the mere thought of designing a presentation overwhelms you or you’re pressed for time, consider leveraging professional PowerPoint redesign services . A dedicated design team can transform your content or old presentation into effective slides, ensuring your message is communicated clearly and captivates your audience. This way, you can focus on refining your delivery and preparing for the presentation.

Lastly, remember that even experienced presenters get nervous before delivering research paper PowerPoint presentations in front of the audience. You cannot know everything; some things can be beyond your control, which is completely fine. You are at the event not only to share what you know but also to learn from others. So, no matter what, dress appropriately, look straight into the audience’s eyes, try to speak and move naturally, present your information enthusiastically, and have fun!

If you need help with slide design, get in touch with our dedicated design team and let qualified professionals turn your research findings into a visually appealing, polished presentation that leaves a lasting impression on your audience. Our experienced designers specialize in creating engaging layouts, incorporating compelling graphics, and ensuring a cohesive visual narrative that complements content on any subject.

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How to Make a PowerPoint Presentation of Your Research Paper

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Table of Contents

A research paper presentation is often used at conferences and in other settings where you have an opportunity to share your research, and get feedback from your colleagues. Although it may seem as simple as summarizing your research and sharing your knowledge, successful research paper PowerPoint presentation examples show us that there’s a little bit more than that involved.

In this article, we’ll highlight how to make a PowerPoint presentation from a research paper, and what to include (as well as what NOT to include). We’ll also touch on how to present a research paper at a conference.

Purpose of a Research Paper Presentation

The purpose of presenting your paper at a conference or forum is different from the purpose of conducting your research and writing up your paper. In this setting, you want to highlight your work instead of including every detail of your research. Likewise, a presentation is an excellent opportunity to get direct feedback from your colleagues in the field. But, perhaps the main reason for presenting your research is to spark interest in your work, and entice the audience to read your research paper.

So, yes, your presentation should summarize your work, but it needs to do so in a way that encourages your audience to seek out your work, and share their interest in your work with others. It’s not enough just to present your research dryly, to get information out there. More important is to encourage engagement with you, your research, and your work.

Tips for Creating Your Research Paper Presentation

In addition to basic PowerPoint presentation recommendations, which we’ll cover later in this article, think about the following when you’re putting together your research paper presentation:

• Know your audience : First and foremost, who are you presenting to? Students? Experts in your field? Potential funders? Non-experts? The truth is that your audience will probably have a bit of a mix of all of the above. So, make sure you keep that in mind as you prepare your presentation.

Know more about: Discover the Target Audience .

• Your audience is human : In other words, they may be tired, they might be wondering why they’re there, and they will, at some point, be tuning out. So, take steps to help them stay interested in your presentation. You can do that by utilizing effective visuals, summarize your conclusions early, and keep your research easy to understand.
• Running outline : It’s not IF your audience will drift off, or get lost…it’s WHEN. Keep a running outline, either within the presentation or via a handout. Use visual and verbal clues to highlight where you are in the presentation.
• Where does your research fit in? You should know of work related to your research, but you don’t have to cite every example. In addition, keep references in your presentation to the end, or in the handout. Your audience is there to hear about your work.
• Plan B : Anticipate possible questions for your presentation, and prepare slides that answer those specific questions in more detail, but have them at the END of your presentation. You can then jump to them, IF needed.

What Makes a PowerPoint Presentation Effective?

You’ve probably attended a presentation where the presenter reads off of their PowerPoint outline, word for word. Or where the presentation is busy, disorganized, or includes too much information. Here are some simple tips for creating an effective PowerPoint Presentation.

• Less is more: You want to give enough information to make your audience want to read your paper. So include details, but not too many, and avoid too many formulas and technical jargon.
• Clean and professional : Avoid excessive colors, distracting backgrounds, font changes, animations, and too many words. Instead of whole paragraphs, bullet points with just a few words to summarize and highlight are best.
• Know your real-estate : Each slide has a limited amount of space. Use it wisely. Typically one, no more than two points per slide. Balance each slide visually. Utilize illustrations when needed; not extraneously.
• Keep things visual : Remember, a PowerPoint presentation is a powerful tool to present things visually. Use visual graphs over tables and scientific illustrations over long text. Keep your visuals clean and professional, just like any text you include in your presentation.

Know more about our Scientific Illustrations Services .

Another key to an effective presentation is to practice, practice, and then practice some more. When you’re done with your PowerPoint, go through it with friends and colleagues to see if you need to add (or delete excessive) information. Double and triple check for typos and errors. Know the presentation inside and out, so when you’re in front of your audience, you’ll feel confident and comfortable.

How to Present a Research Paper

If your PowerPoint presentation is solid, and you’ve practiced your presentation, that’s half the battle. Follow the basic advice to keep your audience engaged and interested by making eye contact, encouraging questions, and presenting your information with enthusiasm.

We encourage you to read our articles on how to present a scientific journal article and tips on giving good scientific presentations .

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Writing a Research Report

Aug 06, 2014

770 likes | 1.65k Views

Writing a Research Report. If research was not “written up,” did it really occur?. Writing a Research Report. Academic sociologists conduct research to discover facts, truths, and explanations about the social world. They write research reports to convey theirs and others’ research findings.

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Presentation Transcript

Writing a Research Report If research was not “written up,” did it really occur?

Writing a Research Report • Academic sociologists conduct research to discover facts, truths, and explanations about the social world. • They write research reports to convey theirs and others’ research findings. • Types of Research: Library research refers to gathering information that others have generated. Primary research refers to generating information through data collection, analysis, and reporting findings.

Writing a Research Report • Sociologists’ articles, papers, or research reports come in different forms: • Literature Review: Library research that organizes facts and/or theories others in the sociological community generated (Rarely published) • Research Article or Book: One’s own findings generated by a primary research project that builds on previous research by the sociological community. (Findings from basic research, most common.) • Applied Research Report: One’s findings from a primary research project that evaluates a program without drawing much from previous sociological research. (Findings from applied research, rarely published.) • This class focuses on writing Research Articles.

Writing a Research Report • A sociological article, paper, or report generally covers only one important topic of interest and conveys evidence and interpretations of evidence. • Research reports are NOT creative writing, opinion pieces, poems, novels, letters, musings, memoirs, or interesting to read.

Writing a Research Report • A sociological article, paper, or report about primary research generally takes a structure or form that seems difficult but is intended to help make reading it or using it for research quick and efficient. • A research report has seven components: • Abstract or Summary • Introduction • Review of Literature • Methods • Results • Conclusions and Discussion • References • Note: • Qualitative research reports will vary from what is presented here. • Applied research reports may vary from what is presented here.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Abstract or Summary The abstract or summary tells the reader very briefly what the main points and findings of the paper are. • This allows the reader to decide whether the paper is useful to them. • Get into the habit of reading only abstracts while searching for papers that are relevant to your research. • Read the body of a paper only when you think it will be useful to you.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • 1. Abstract or Summary—an example

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Introduction • The introduction tells the reader: • what the topic of the paper is in general terms, • why the topic is important • what to expect in the paper. • Introductions should: • funnel from general ideas to the specific topic of the paper • justify the research that will be presented later • Introductions are sometimes folded into literature reviews

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • 2. Introduction—an example

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Review of Literature The literature review tells the reader what other researchers have discovered about the paper’s topic or tells the reader about other research that is relevant to the topic. Often what students call a “research paper” is merely a literature review. • A literature review should shape the way readers think about a topic—it educates readers about what the community of scholars says about a topic and its surrounding issues. • Along the way it states facts and ideas about the social world and supports those facts and ideas with evidence for from where they came (empiricism).

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Review of Literature • Literature reviews have parenthetical citations running throughout. These are part of a systematic way to document where facts and ideas came from, allowing the skeptical reader to look up anything that is questionable. • Parenthetical citation is our way of substantiating the claims in our paper, without breaking our flow. • Each citation directs the reader to the references where complete details on sources can be found. Therefore, information such as authors’ first names or titles of works do not need to be written into the text.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Review of Literature • Citations consist of authors’ last names and the year of publication. One finds complete information on sources by looking up last names and dates in alphabetized references—so there’s no need to put all that information in the text. • We have conventions that allow the reader to figure out from where information is coming . Here are some examples of the conventions for citing in text of the literature review: Just pointing out where info came from: • Form: blah blah (Author Year) • Example: … the gays are different (Lee 2004). • More than one article in the same year: • Form: blah blah (Author Yeara) and also blah blah (Author yearb) • Example: …are different (Lee 2004a), but are more pickled (Lee 2004b)

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Review of Literature • We have conventions that allow the reader to figure out from where information is coming . Here are some examples of the conventions for citing in text of the literature review: Where a researcher is quoted: • Form: blah, “Quote quote” (Author Year: Pages) • Example: reveals that “the gays are different.” (Lee 2004: 340). More than one source: • Form: blah blah (Author Year; Author Year) • Example: …bi’s are more adept (Lee 2004; Seymour & Hewitt 1997).

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Review of Literature • We have conventions that allow the reader to figure out from where information is coming . Here are some examples of the conventions for citing in text of the literature review: Using the author’s name in a sentence: • Form: Author (Year) says that… • Example: Lee (2004) claims that girls will rule the world… Quoting a person and using their name: • Form: Author (Year: Pages) says, “Quote quote…” • Example: Lee (2004: 341) says, “Girls are more likely to rule the world…”

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • 3. Review of Literature—examples of citing

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Review of Literature • If an idea is used, but cannot be substantiated by the community of sociologists, the literature review clearly shows that the author is speculating and details the logic of the speculation. • Do NOT discuss irrelevant information. • For example, a paper on attitudes about marijuana attitudes should not detail the multiple uses of hemp such as in clothing, rope, hemp oil and so forth. • The literature review has is written in the author’s voice. The sources of information are not extensively quoted or “copied and pasted.” Instead, the author puts facts and ideas into his or her own words while pointing out from where the information came. • Analogously, if you were discussing the exciting things you learned in a sociology course at a cocktail party, you would use your own words. You would NOT pull out a book or lecture notes and quote these word for word.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Review of Literature • Note: Explaining why social events occur as they do requires use (and testing) of explanations that have worked before. THESE EXPLANATIONS ARE CALLED THEORIES. • Most academic literature reviews have a guiding theory that is used to: • Frame (or help us understand) facts in the literature. • Establish expectations (or hypotheses) for the research. • Justify speculation when no evidence to justify an idea specific to a topic exists in the literature. • Sometimes the whole point of a research project is to: • Determine whether a theory works • Pit two or more theories against each other to see which works better • You will most likely not refer to theories in your papers

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Review of Literature • Quantitative literature reviews typically end with: • Focused declarations of the particular issues the research activity is addressing—ideas about a topic that will be tested with quantitative methods • Research hypotheses Hypotheses are statements of the expected relationship(s) between two (or more) variables For example: “Men will have higher investment income than women.” “Older Americans are more likely to oppose abortion for a woman who doesn’t want her baby because she is poor.”

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • 3. Review of Literature—examples of hypotheses Hypothesis 1. In a new social context, girls will be more sociable than boys—getting more involved with others (interactional commitments) and forming more emotionally close relationships (affective commitments)—across activity domains. Hypothesis 2. Given that commitments to new relationships positively determine identity prominence, and identity prominence positively determines behaviors, if girls are more sociable with newer persons, their identities and behaviors will change more across activity domains. Hypothesis 3. However, girls and boys will experience the same identity processes, meaning that girls and boys with the same sociability in new relationships will have equal identity and behavior changes.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Methods A METHODS SECTION MUST CONTAIN: • Descriptions of Data (Think in terms of: “Who, What, When, Where, Why and How?”) Report: • The Target Population • The Ways Data were Collected: • Sampling • Delivery Methods • Response Rates • Sample sizes resulting from various decisions Such as: • eliminating non-Christians from the sample • using only white respondents

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Methods A METHODS SECTION MUST CONTAIN: • Descriptions of Variables First for dependent, then for independent variables, report: • Names for the variables—make them intuitive! (Do not use GSS variable names.) • Word for word description of the questions. (sociology differs from psychology and medicine) • Final coding scheme—the numbers you assigned to responses.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Methods A METHODS SECTION MUST CONTAIN: • Manipulations of the variables or data For example: • recoding income from 23 uneven intervals to five equivalent categories • removing non-citizens if studying voting patterns • Reflection on ability of data to generalize to the target population • Limitations of Data (omitted cases, biases, etc.) • Analyses that bolster claims that the data are appropriate • Statistical techniques that will be used to test your hypotheses and the statistics program used.

Writing a Research Report 4. Methods

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Results The results section chronicles the outcome of the statistical analyses, assessing whether your hypotheses were correct and why or why not.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Results The results section includes: • Narrative describing most relevant findings • Professional tables showing descriptive and inferential statistics • Tables must be numbered and have a descriptive title • There are conventions for formatting For example: • Asterisks are used to highlight results that are statistically important • All numbers in a column are aligned on decimals

Writing a Research Report 5. Results

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Results The narrative and tables are complementary. • The narrative discusses ONLY VERY IMPORTANT Results and leaves details for tables. • As different outcomes are described in the narrative, reference is made to where the detailed information can be found in the tables. • The tables contain almost all statistical information so that the author does not have to write a narrative for every detail in the analysis.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Results The narrative highlights: • Evaluations of the hypotheses. Were the research hypotheses supported? • Statements about new discoveries or surprises encountered in the analyses

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Conclusions and Discussion This section assesses how one’s research findings relate to what the community of sociologists have accepted as facts. Things that should be done: • Summarize the most salient points of your research (tell the reader what you found out about your topic). • Discuss the general significance of your topic and findings.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • Conclusions and Discussion • Discuss the shortcomings of your study and how these might affect your findings. • Discuss things future researchers should investigate about your topic to advance knowledge about it. • Help the reader gain the knowledge that you think he or she ought to have about the topic. You spent a lot of time exploring the, you should share your expertise.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • References The references are just as important as any other part of your paper. References are the empirical support for claims in a paper that are not directly observed in the research. They are needed for researchers to remain empirical in their descriptions of topics.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • References: Link the paper to the community of scholars, permitting readers to assess the worthiness claims in a paper. Make the research process much more efficient because they make it very easy to look up sources of facts and ideas.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • References Style: Hanging indented Alphabetical on author’s last name (by increasing year within same author) Invert only first author’s name Information within source in an order determined by type of source Article: Last Name, first name, first name last name, and first name last name. Year. “Article title.” Journal Name Volume(number): 1st Page- Last Page. Lee, James Daniel. 2005. “Do Girls Change More than Boys? Gender Differences and Similarities in the Impact of New Relationships on Identities and Behaviors.” Self and Identity 4:131-47. Multiple authors… Kroska, Amy and Sarah K. Harkness. 2008. “Exploring the Role of Diagnosis in the Modified Labeling Theory of Mental Illness.” Social Psychology Quarterly 71:193-208

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • References Book Chapter: Last Name, first name. Year. “Chapter Name.” Pages in the book in Book Name, edited by first name last name. City of Publisher: Publisher. Bianciardi, Roberto. 1997. "Growing Up Italian in New York City." Pp.179-213 in Adult Narratives of Immigrant Childhoods, edited byAna Relles.  Rose Hill, PA: Narrative Press. Book: Last name, first name. Year. Book Name. City of Publisher: Publisher. Stryker, Sheldon. 1980. Symbolic Interactionism: A Social Structural Version. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • References General Social Survey: Davis, James Allan and Smith, Tom W.: General Social Surveys, 1972-2008. [machine-readable data file]. Principal Investigator, James A. Davis; Director and Co-Principal Investigator, Tom W. Smith; Co-Principal Investigator, Peter V. Marsden, NORC ed. Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, producer, 2005; Storrs, CT: The Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, University of Connecticut, distributor. 1 data file (53,043 logical records) and 1 codebook (2,656 pp). Website: Last Name (if available), first name. Year (if available). “Article or web page title.” Journal or Report Name Volume (if available). Retrieved date (http://address). Markowitz, Robin. 1991. “Canonizing the Popular.” Cultural Studies Central. Retrieved October 31, 2001 (http://culturalstudies.net/canon.htm). Note: Do your best to replicate this style in the case of missing information. If there is no author, use the title in that position. Always have a retrieved date and website address.

Writing a Research Report • A research report has seven components: • 7. References—an example

Writing a Research Report Some General Points • Make accurate sociological claims in your paper. Stake out positions—a kind of, “I think I have the answer to this issue,” position. • Cite facts to support your sociological claims. • If you can, use theories to support your sociological claims. • Every declaration or “fact claim” must be cited or overtly posed as speculation.

Writing a Research Report Some General Points • Anticipate your reader’s questions as you write: • help the reader understand why your topic is important • demonstrate to the reader that you adequately investigated your topic • help them anticipate what you’ll say next—everything you say should seem reasonable to say • While writing, keep thinking “The point is to: (1) establish hypotheses (2) describe how to test the hypotheses (3) give results of tests, and (4) discuss what the reader should believe about the world.”

Writing a Research Report Some General Points • There is no right answer in a research paper—Just approximate representations of the truth that are closer or further away from that truth. • The truth is: • From “Community of Scholars”: What they said about your topic in the journals, books, and other publications • From you: What your methods and analyses revealed about the topic.

Writing a Research Report Finally…Avoiding Plagiarism • What is it? • All knowledge in your head has either been copied from some place or originally discovered by you. • Most knowledge was copied. • This is true in most settings. General knowledge is copied. Most teachers’ lectures are copied knowledge. • Human culture would not exist without our keen ability to copy! • Humans are natural copiers, but that is not what is meant by the term “plagiarism.”

Writing a Research Report • The Elements of Style endorses imitation as a way for a writer to achieve his own style: • The use of language begins with imitation . . . The imitative life continues long after the writer is on his own in the language, for it is almost impossible to avoid imitating what one admires. Never imitate consciously, but do not worry about being an imitator; take pains instead to admire what is good. Then when you write in a way that comes naturally, you will echo the halloos that bear repeating. Copied from: http://www.answers.com/topic/writing-style-1

Writing a Research Report Finally…Avoiding Plagiarism • What is it? • Among other things, plagiarism refers to taking others’ work and representing it as if it were your own. • In academics this is bad because with plagiarism: • One cannot assess students’ development accurately • The person who makes his or her livelihood by scholarly pursuit is being robbed of credit • It masks the lineage of ideas and facts. “Plagiarism is to academics as Enron-accounting is to corporate America.”

Writing a Research Report Finally…Avoiding Plagiarism Lineage of Ideas: • Original sources of research are all the proof we have for some facts. Without the “paper trail” of academic thought: • People could pass incorrect ideas off as facts • We would have to keep “re-proving” things. • The contexts that generated facts and ideas get lost. • Research becomes highly inefficient as it becomes incredibly difficult to find “full information” on a topic.

Writing a Research Report Finally…Avoiding Plagiarism • To avoid plagiarism: • Document every source for information that is not “general knowledge”—this includes facts and ideas. • Cite every time a fact or idea is used unless it is clear that one citation is referring to a group of facts or ideas. • If you quote material, put quotation marks around the quoted stuff and include a page number within the citation. • It is alright to paraphrase material, but you still have to cite from where the paraphrased material came. • When in doubt, cite the source. Improper citing is grounds for failure on the course paper.

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30+ Best Research Presentation Templates for PowerPoint (PPT)

Finding the right PowerPoint template plays an important part in getting your message across to the audience during a presentation. And it’s especially true for research presentations.

Using the right colors, graphs, infographics, and illustrations in your slides is the key to delivering information more effectively and making your presentation a success.

Today, we handpicked a great collection of research presentation PowerPoint templates for you to make the perfect slideshows for various types of research papers and studies.

Whether you’re preparing for a presentation at a school, event, or conference, there are templates in this list for all purposes. Let’s dive in.

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Science & Research Presentation PowerPoint Template

This PowerPoint template is a perfect choice for preparing a research presentation to share your scientific findings and reports.

The template has 30 unique slides with unlimited color options. There are a few infographics included in the slideshow as well.

Why This Is A Top Pick

The presentation has a very modern and creative design where you can showcase your data and information in an attractive way. You won’t be making boring research presentations ever again.

Labvire – Research Presentation PowerPoint Template

Labvire is another modern PowerPoint template you can use for various types of research presentations. It’s also ideal for laboratory-related research presentations. The template has fully customizable slide layouts with editable charts, graphs, and more. You can choose from more than 40 unique slide designs as well.

Novalabs – Science Research PowerPoint Template

Novalabs PowerPoint template features a highly visual and attractive design. The template includes 36 different slides that feature large image placeholders for adding a more visual look to your presentations. There are lots of editable graphics, shapes, and tables included in the template too. Feel free to customize them however you like.

Research & Development PowerPoint Template

The minimal and clean design of this PowerPoint template makes it a great choice for delivering more effective research presentations. With fewer distractions in each slide, you’ll be able to convey your message more easily. The template comes with 30 unique slides. You can change the colors, fonts, and shapes to your preference as well.

Marketing Research Presentation PowerPoint Template

When talking about research presentations, we can’t forget about marketing research. Most sales and marketing meetings usually include a sophisticated marketing research presentation. This PowerPoint template will help you design those research presentations without effort. It includes a total of 150 slides, featuring 30 unique slides in 5 different color schemes.

Free Business Market Research Presentation Template

This is a free PowerPoint template designed for making business market research presentations. It gives you 27 different and fully customizable slides to create professional slideshows for your business meetings.

Free Business Data Analysis & Research Presentation

With this PowerPoint template, you can create colorful and creative business research and data analysis presentation without any design skills. It includes 35 unique slides with lots of infographics and editable shapes. The template is free to use as well.

Lernen – Research Thesis PowerPoint Presentation

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Aristo – Research Academic PowerPoint Presentation

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Biosearch – Science Research PowerPoint Template

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Neolabs – Laboratory & Science Research PPT

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Free Business Cost Analysis PowerPoint Template

This is a free PowerPoint and Google Slides template that comes with 35 unique slides. It’s ideal for making research presentations related to business financials.

Research & Case Study PowerPoint Template

Create the perfect case study presentation using your research data with this PowerPoint template. It includes a modern slide design with infographics and charts for effectively presenting your data.

Liron Labs – Laboratory Research PowerPoint Template

Another PowerPoint template for laboratory research presentations. This template includes 15 useful slide layouts with editable graphics, free fonts, and image placeholders. You can edit and customize the colors and text as well.

Research Thesis PowerPoint Template

Make an attractive and creative research thesis presentation using this PowerPoint template. There are over 30 unique slides in this template. You can either use dark or light color themes to create your presentations.

Colorful Thesis Research PowerPoint Template

If you want to make your research presentations look more colorful and creative, this PowerPoint template is for you. It has 15 different slides with fully customizable layouts. It has editable shapes, free fonts, and image placeholders too.

Free Data Analysis Research PowerPoint Template

This PowerPoint template is also free to download. You can also customize it using PowerPoint or Google Slides. This template is ideal for marketing agencies and teams for presenting research and data analysis.

Laboratory & Science Research PowerPoint Template

You can make more convincing and unique lab research presentations using this PowerPoint template. It features a creative design that will easily attract the attention of your audience. You can use it to make various other science and research presentations too. The template includes 30 unique slides.

The Biologist – Research Presentation PowerPoint Template

Just as the name suggests, this PowerPoint template is designed with biology and science-related presentations in mind. It includes many useful slide layouts that can be used to make various types of research presentations. There are 30 different slide designs included in this template with editable shapes and colors.

Modern Science & Research PowerPoint Template

If you’re looking for a PowerPoint template to create a modern-looking research presentation, this template is perfect for you. It features a collection of modern and attractive slides with lots of space for including images, icons, and graphs. There are 30 unique slides in the template with light and dark color themes to choose from.

Marketing Report & Research PowerPoint Template

This PowerPoint template doubles as both a research and report slideshow. You can use it to create various marketing reports as well as marketing research presentations. It comes with 30 slides that feature minimal and clean designs. It includes lots of editable charts, infographics, and tables as well.

Market Research Presentation PowerPoint Template

Another modern PowerPoint template for making market research presentations. This template includes 25 unique slides with master slides, image placeholders, and editable colors. The template is ideal for marketing agencies and corporate businesses.

Free Academic Research Thesis PowerPoint Template

This free PowerPoint template is designed for defending your academic research thesis dissertation. Needless to say, it’s a useful template for academics as well as teachers. The template features 23 unique slide layouts with customizable designs.

Free Economics Research Thesis Presentation Template

You can use this free template to create thesis and research presentations related to economics. It’s useful for academic students and gives you the freedom to choose from 21 slide layouts to make your own presentations.

Labia – Research Presentation Powerpoint Template

Labia is a research presentation template made for professionals. It comes with a set of modern slides with multipurpose designs. That means you can customize them to make many different types of research presentations. There are 30 unique slides included in this template that come in 5 different color themes.

Medical Research Infographics & Powerpoint Slides

You’ll be using lots of charts, graphs, and infographics in your presentations to showcase data in visual form. Not to mention that visuals always work well for attracting the audience’s attention. You can use the infographic slides in this template to create better research presentations. Each slide features a unique infographic with animated designs.

Foreka – Biology Education & Research Presentation PPT

Foreka is a PowerPoint template made for educational presentations, especially for covering topics related to biology. But it can also be customized to present your research presentations. The slides have very useful layouts that are most suitable for making research slide designs. There are 30 slides included with light and dark color themes.

Maua – Aesthetic Business Research PowerPoint Template

This PowerPoint template is suitable for making elegant and stylish business reports and business research presentations. It’s especially great for making background research and competitor research slideshows. The template comes with 30 slides featuring master slides, image placeholders, and more.

World Data Scientist Powerpoint Presentation Template

You can use this PowerPoint template to create research presentations for many different types of topics, industries, and projects. The template includes lots of data-centric slides where you can easily showcase your data in visual form. There are 30 unique slides included with the template as well.

Free SWOT Analysis Infographics PowerPoint Template

SWOT analysis is a commonly used methodology in business research presentations. With this free PowerPoint template, you can create stylish SWOT analysis infographics for your presentations. It includes SWOT infographics in 30 different styles.

Free Market Research Presentation Infographics PPT

This is a collection of free PowerPoint slides that feature various styles of infographics you can use in your business and market research presentations. There are 30 different infographic slides included in this template. You can edit, change colors, and customize them however you like.

Sinara – Science & Research Powerpoint Template

Sinara is a brilliant PowerPoint template you can use to craft a professional presentation for science-related research and reports. It’s available in 3 different color schemes as well as the option to customize the colors to your preference. The template comes in light and dark themes too.

Political Science and Research PowerPoint Template

This PowerPoint template will be quite useful to political science and international relations students. It features a total of 150 slides you can use to create attractive presentations for your research and methodologies. There are slides in 5 different color schemes.

How to Make a Research Poster in PowerPoint

We bet you didn’t know that you could actually design posters in PowerPoint. Well, you can and it’s very easy to do so.

The easiest way to make a poster in PowerPoint is to use a pre-made template like the one above.

You can easily copy one of the slides from a template, and resize the slide dimensions to create a vertical poster. Then add a title with a few lines of text and you’ll have yourself a poster.

Or, if you want to craft a poster from scratch, you can read our complete guide on how to create posters in PowerPoint with step-by-step instructions.

For more useful presentation templates, be sure to check out our best educational PowerPoint templates collection.

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Top 10 Research Report Templates with Samples and Examples

Mayuri Gangwal

Without persistent search and double-checking of facts, knowledge faces the danger of stagnation. The process of research, a systematic way of learning new things and arranging knowledge is central to human existence. Be it medicine, transport, health, logistics or even education and many other fields, research is the unsung hero of progress.

Research provides critical insights that guide decision-making and strategy formulation. It is what helps organizations understand customer preferences and competitive landscapes, allowing innovation to flower.

Market research, however, is challenging as businesses are overwhelmed with data. Sorting and extracting information from vast data can be overwhelming. Another significant challenge that hinders in-depth research efforts is limited resources.

SlideTeam Templates help businesses streamline their research process and resolve the above-listed pain points. These provide updated information on the latest market trends and customer behavior. Also, our templates encompass details, making them an indispensable tool across industries.

Download our 100% editable and customizable templates to harness the power of well-structured research presentations.

Do you want to learn more about qualitative research report templates and market research report templates? We offer bet-in-class templates to ease your workload and increase efficiency, if you click on the links above.

Let’s explore these templates now!

Template 1: Market Research Report for Food Industry

This template offers a comprehensive view of the US food market. It identifies vital market trends, competitive landscapes, and economic indicators. It also helps businesses estimate their GDP and revenue by employing SWOT and PESTEL analysis. Moreover, it presents an Industry 4.0 action plan to overcome manufacturing challenges.

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• Published: 30 March 2024

Cigarette craving in virtual reality cue exposure in abstainers and relapsed smokers

• Benedikt Schröder 1 ,
• Agnes Kroczek 2 , 3 ,
• Leon O. H. Kroczek 1 ,
• Ann-Christine Ehlis 2 , 4 ,
• Anil Batra 2 , 3 , 4 &
• Andreas Mühlberger   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8352-0946 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  7538 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Cue exposure therapy (CET) in substance-use disorders aims to reduce craving and ultimately relapse rates. Applying CET in virtual reality (VR) was proposed to increase its efficacy, as VR enables the presentation of social and environmental cues along with substance-related stimuli. However, limited success has been reported so far when applying VR-CET for smoking cessation. Understanding if effects of VR-CET differ between future abstainers and relapsing smokers may help to improve VR-CET. Data from 102 participants allocated to the intervention arm (VR-CET) of a recent RCT comparing VR-CET to relaxation in the context of smoking cessation was analyzed with respect to tolerability, presence, and craving during VR-CET. Cue exposure was conducted in four VR contexts (Loneliness/Rumination, Party, Stress, Café), each presented twice. Relapsed smokers compared to abstainers experienced higher craving during VR-CET and stronger craving responses especially during the Stress scenario. Furthermore, lower mean craving during VR-CET positively predicted abstinence at 6-month follow-up. Attempts to improve smoking cessation outcomes of VR-CET should aim to identify smokers who are more at risk of relapse based on high craving levels during VR-CET. Specifically measuring craving responses during social stress seems to be well suited to mark relapse. We propose to investigate individualized treatment approaches accordingly.

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Introduction.

Craving is a diagnostic criterion for substance-use disorders according to DSM-5 and is defined as longing or urge for the substance, which can occur at any time but is more likely in an environment where the substance was previously obtained or consumed 1 . Most theoretical models of addiction consider craving as a central motivational component of ongoing substance use and closely linked to relapse 2 . Among smokers, craving is typically increased in the presence of smoking-related stimuli 3 , rises in phases of abstinence 4 , and is reported as the most distressing symptom of a smoking cessation attempt 2 . However, as reviewed for several substance-use disorders 5 and also specifically with respect to smoking 6 , there are inconsistent results as to whether craving is able to predict relapse. Tiffany et al. 2 (p. 181) suggest that conflicting findings might be explained partly by the fact that the association of craving with maintained substance use and relapse only exists when “the conditions of craving assessment and/or induction are maximally representative of the natural expression of craving.” However, this representativeness is limited in clinical settings by the fact that they do not provide a typical context of consumption.

Cue reactivity (CR) is a motivational response to drug-related cues and is considered a core characteristic of addiction as drug consumption is strongly influenced by cues (e.g. environments, objects, emotions) previously associated with the drug's effects through classical conditioning 7 . CR consists of three modalities: a physiological reaction, a behavioral reaction (e.g. drug-seeking), and craving 8 . Of these, self-reported craving is most commonly used as a measure of CR and was found to be a stronger indicator of CR than physiological variables 7 .

Drawing from the successful treatment of anxiety disorders through exposure 9 , cue exposure therapy (CET) has been proposed in the treatment of substance use disorders to reduce CR and ultimately the probability of relapse since both disorders have in common that conditioning processes were proposed to be responsible for their maintenance and to be targeted during treatment 10 .

CET aims to reduce the conditioned response (i.e. craving) to conditioned stimuli (e.g. smoking paraphernalia) through extinction learning, which is supposed to be achieved by repeated confrontation with the conditioned stimuli without smoking 9 . Despite this plausible treatment rationale, CET has not yet proven to be a consistently effective intervention in the treatment of substance use disorders 11 , 12 , 13 . A possible cause for this could be that traditional CET in substance use disorders usually presents substance-related stimuli in a clinical setting in the form of images, videos, or tactile objects such as wine glasses or bongs, which is accompanied by relatively low ecological validity 14 . It has been argued that this limitation might be overcome by applying CET in virtual reality (VR-CET) because in addition to substance-associated objects, environments and social contexts, including interactions (e.g. consumption offers) and emotional triggers, can be presented that more closely reflect real-life situations 15 , thus promoting both cue and contextual extinction 9 , 14 . This is important as craving usually increases due to a complex combination of environmental cues, emotional states, reactivation of autobiographical experiences, and sensory information 16 . Accordingly, VR cue exposure reliably induced craving across various substance use disorders including nicotine 17 .

Early treatment studies supported the feasibility of VR-CET in smoking cessation and found concomitant decreases in craving 18 and lower smoking rates and craving in smokers receiving VR-CET and nicotine replacement therapy compared to nicotine replacement therapy alone 19 . In addition, a preliminary study with a small sample size compared cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) alone with VR-CET alone and found both treatments comparably effective 20 . Another study, though without a control group, reported that VR-CET reduced the number of smoked cigarettes per day, carbon monoxide in exhaled air, and craving across exposure sessions 21 . Surprisingly, however, a recent RCT with a long follow-up period found that CBT combined with VR-CET was not superior to CBT alone in terms of abstinence rates and thus could not demonstrate specific efficacy of VR-CET 22 . A question important for understanding the effect of VR-CET that has so far remained unaddressed in the aforementioned VR-CET studies, is whether individuals who later achieve abstinence differ in terms of their craving from those who do not. In addition, there is a lack of research examining potentially relevant aspects of VR-CET aside from craving such as emotion induction, self-efficacy, presence, and tolerability.

The goal of the present study was to identify possible differences in the course of craving during VR-CET in future successful abstainers compared to relapsing smokers in order to obtain indications for future improvements of VR-CET, and to clarify the predictive ability of craving in ecologically valid contexts. In addition, we aimed to evaluate the scenarios used for VR-CET in terms of emotion induction, presence, and tolerability.

We hypothesize that smokers who relapse within 6 months after completing treatment in principle experience stronger craving in VR-CET than those who maintain abstinence. We additionally hypothesize that craving during VR-CET is predictive for future medium-term relapse.

Design and participants

This study analyzes data from participants allocated to the intervention arm of a bicentric RCT (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03707106), which investigated the efficacy of cue exposure therapy in virtual reality (VR-CET) in the context of smoking cessation. In this RCT, VR-CET was compared to an unspecific relaxation intervention (control group). Both arms were incorporated into an already evaluated cognitive-behavioral smoking cessation group therapy. The study protocol 23 and the primary results are reported elsewhere. All participants provided written informed consent, and the RCT was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Medicine at the University Hospital of Tuebingen (no. 836/2016BO1) and by the Ethics Committee of the German Psychological Society (DGPs) (no. AM022017). The study was conducted according to the approved procedures. Inclusion criteria were being between 18 and 70 years of age and smoking a minimum of 10 cigarettes daily for at least 2 years. Exclusion criteria were pregnancy, participation in another smoking cessation program within 6 months before assignment, current diagnosis of a psychiatric disease including current depression or substance use disorder (other than nicotine), and lifetime diagnosis of psychosis, bipolar affective disorder or posttraumatic stress disorder.

The intervention arm included a total of 122 randomized participants of which 102 participants received the allocated VR-CET (n = 20 dropped out before the start of the intervention). As the present study focuses on the processes during VR-CET, the current sample consists of the 102 participants who received VR-CET, including 43 female (42.2%) and 59 male smokers (57.8%) aged M = 45.67 years (SD = 13.40; range 20–68 years). On average participants attended three out of a total of four VR-CET appointments (M = 3.00, SD = 1.03). Prior to starting smoking cessation, participants in the analyzed sample reported to smoke M = 17.93 cigarettes per day (SD = 5.81) and they scored at M = 4.46 points (SD = 2.04) on the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence 24 (FTND). The mean age at smoking initiation was 17.44 years (SD = 4.78). The exhalation carbon monoxide (CO) level at the beginning of smoking cessation was M = 17.23 (SD = 11.09). Among this sample, 24 participants (23.5%) remained continuously abstinent 6 months after treatment while 78 participants (76.5%) relapsed (intention to treat). Prior to the smoking cessation intervention, abstainers and relapsed smokers did not differ significantly in terms of cigarettes per day ( p  = 0.739), FTND scores ( p  = 0.169), age of regular smoking onset ( p  = 0.713), age at time of study inclusion ( p  = 0.849), and CO level at the first appointment of smoking cessation ( p  = 0.647). In addition, abstainers and relapsed smokers did not differ significantly regarding gender ( p  = 0.317).

During treatment, in the days before the first VR-CET session, 81 participants were abstinent (validated by results of < 10 ppm in CO measurement) and 16 participants still smoked. In the days before the second VR-CET session, 71 participants were abstinent and 5 participants smoked. In the days before the third VR-CET session, 64 participants were abstinent and 8 participants smoked. In the days before the fourth VR-CET session, 61 participants were abstinent and 9 participants smoked.

Apparatus and VR scenarios

VR was presented with the VIVE Pro head-mounted display (HMD; HTC Corporation, Taoyuan, Taiwan). Integrated headphones played the sound. Hardware to run the VR included the NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1080 Ti graphics card (Nvidia Corporation, Santa Clara, CA, United States), the Intel(R) Core(TM) i7-7740X CPU @ 4.30 GHz (Intel Corporation, Santa Clara, CA, United States), 16 GB DDR4 RAM, and the Samsung SSD 850 hard disc (Samsung Group, Suwon, South Korea). The VR environment was controlled using CyberSession Research 5.8 (VTplus GmbH, Würzburg, Germany). Participants used a gamepad (F710 Wireless Gamepad, Logitech international S.A., Apples, Switzerland) to navigate within the VR. Experimenters were able to follow participants' view and audio via a separate computer screen and speaker (set to the lowest volume and turned in the direction of the investigators away from the participants to avoid double hearing of the audio for participants).

A total of four virtual environments were presented, each lasting between approx. 13 and 18 min. All environments included standardized pre-recorded instructions that were played via the headphones. Two of the VR environments described below (Loneliness/Rumination and Stress) were created using the Steam Source engine (Valve Corporation, Bellevue, WA, United States) at the Department of Psychology (Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy) at the University of Regensburg. Another two VR environments (Party and Café) were created with Unreal Engine 4 (Epic Games, Raleigh, NC, United States) by VTplus GmbH (Würzburg, Germany).

Each VR environment contained three-dimensional smoking-related stimuli (e.g. cigarette packs, loose cigarettes, lighters, ashtrays). The cigarette packets were individually configured to the participants' preferred smoking brand from a list of 21 tobacco brands. If the own brand was not included, the preferred brand among the existing brands was selected. The RCT did not assess how frequently this occurred. Inquiries among investigators indicated that the participants' own brand was mostly available for selection in VR, which is supported by the fact that the brands available for selection included the 9 largest cigarette brands in Germany in terms of market share 25 .

Development of VR environments was based on a survey of participants in a smoking cessation course 23 . In the following we describe the four VR scenarios used for cue exposure in detail (see Fig.  1 for screenshots of the scenarios). (1) Loneliness/Rumination: Before the VR session, investigator and participant select the most burdensome concern from the participant's daily life based on results of the German version of the Worry Domains Questionnaire 26 (WDQ-D) already completed at baseline. After putting on the HMD, the participants are instructed to explore the VR environment consisting of a living room and a balcony freely for one minute using the gamepad. Participants are then assisted in sitting down and are instructed to describe the selected concern and the associated mood, thoughts, feelings, and physical experiences. They are further instructed to ruminate on the selected concern (worry induction). Participants sit alone on a sofa while smoking paraphernalia (cigarette pack, lighter, six loose cigarettes) are displayed on a table in front of them. In the direction of the participants' view, there is a window facade with an open door to a roofed balcony. On a table on the balcony an ashtray is placed and there is another pack of cigarettes and a lighter. Rain is visible and audible through the windows. Slow piano music comes from a stereo. Following worry induction, participants are instructed to inspect the smoking paraphernalia in detail (specifically to perceive the color of the lighter, the color and the logo of the cigarette pack, and to count the number of cigarettes). The scenario lasts approx. 18 min. (2) Party: Participants are immersed in a virtual barbecue party and are informed that they will receive cigarette offers and that their task is to firmly refuse them. Initially, participants are given one minute to freely navigate within the VR environment. After that, the participants are assisted to sit down. In VR, participants are placed at a table together with five virtual agents (two female, three male), three of whom are currently smoking. Two other characters also light a cigarette in the course of the scenario. Three characters drink beer, one red wine, and one water. There are cigarette packs, lighters, and ashtrays on the table. The terrace is surrounded by a garden, a barbecue is next to the table, and the sun is shining. The smokers talk about the pleasure of smoking and how well smoking fits the current situation. One character offers the only character not yet smoking a cigarette, which the character refuses on the grounds that he has recently quit smoking. One smoking character replies that he had already tried to quit, but wonders why he should put himself through this strain when he enjoyed smoking so much. While the four smoking characters continue to talk about the pleasurable aspects of smoking, the previously declining character changes his mind saying he wants a cigarette after all and starts to smoke as well. Over the course of this scenario, participants receive four offers of cigarettes, at about 3.5, 6, 6.5 and 7 min after the start of the scenario. Overall, the scenario lasts approx. 13 min. (3) Stress: This scenario is based on the Trier Social Stress Test paradigm 27 (TSST), which has already been able to generally induce psychosocial stress in previous VR adaptations 28 and also specifically in smokers 29 . In the present adaptation, participants begin this scenario in a standing position in an office space. In the room there is a desk and several chairs. One end of the room consists of a glass front with an open door to a terrace surrounded by trees. On the terrace the sun is shining and one character is smoking next to a floor-standing ashtray. Additionally, there is a closed opaque door next to which hangs a sign that states "Interviews". Participants are again informed that they should decline cigarette offers during the course of the scenario. They are further informed that they participate in an interview for their dream job and should now prepare to give a talk about their own strengths and their particular suitability for the job. It is announced that this talk would subsequently be presented to an application committee of three psychologists trained in behavioral observation. The participants are also informed that there are three other applicants, one of whom is currently in the interview room, another is smoking on the terrace, and one has not yet arrived. After two minutes of preparation time, the third applicant enters the room, mentions how nervous she is, notices the character smoking on the terrace and states that she now also needs a cigarette. Before going to the terrace, she also offers a cigarette to the participant. Once the offer is declined, she answers that she has enough cigarettes in case the participant wants one later and starts smoking next to the character already standing on the terrace. Next, a character from the interview room approaches the participant and informs that the preparation time is over and that she is now accompanying the participant to the committee. Participants are then led into the interview room and are asked to stand in front of a committee (three persons) and a camera. Subsequently, participants perform their presentation for two minutes while standing in front of the expressionless committee. If participants finish their presentation before the end of the two minutes, one committee member asks to continue the presentation stating there is still time available (triggered by the investigator). Upon completing the presentation, a previously unannounced arithmetic task is introduced by the committee. Participants are instructed to continuously subtract 17 from 2023 and to calculate as quickly and correctly as possible. The arithmetic task lasts two minutes and participants are prompted by the committee to start over at 2023 if they made a mistake. After these tasks, participants find themselves together with the two smoking competitors on the terrace. The competitors talk about the relaxing and rewarding effect of smoking during this stressful situation and one competitor offers the participant a cigarette a total of three times, at about 4, 10 and 10.5 min after the start of the scenario. Overall, the scenario lasts approx. 17 min. (4) Café: Participants begin this scenario standing on a terrace of a café and are informed that they will receive cigarette offers which they should refuse firmly. Participants are given one minute to freely navigate within the VR environment. Next, the participants are assisted to sit down at a table of the café. Four characters (two female, two male) are already sitting at the table. On the table there are plates with cakes, cups, two ashtrays, two cigarette packs and lighters. The weather is good. A park and a lake are visible in the background. The characters first talk about the beautiful weather, about the nice atmosphere at the lake, and about the delicious cake and coffee. They further talk about how well-fitting cigarettes and coffee are and the four characters start smoking. One character offers the participant a cigarette. After the participant's refusal, the characters express their opinion that one should not forbid oneself every pleasure in life and that smoking is part of the enjoyment at that particular moment. More conversation follows about a previous overnight stay together at a mountain hut, where they had always gone out together to smoke. In addition, they talk about earlier bar visits when it was still allowed to smoke in bars and how pleasant those times were without smoking restrictions. They state, that for them, smoking is associated with freedom, which they do not want to be taken away. During the conversation described above, the first offer of cigarettes is followed by an additional two offers. The offers occur at about 3, 4.75 and 9.25 min after the start of the scenario. Overall, the scenario lasts approx. 16 min.

Screenshots of the virtual environments used for cue exposure. Persons depicted are virtual agents and not real persons.

This description focuses on the VR-CET intervention arm (see Fig.  2 for a schematic overview). The overall procedure of the RCT can be found elsewhere 23 . After random allocation to VR-CET, a 6-week group-based cognitive behavioral smoking cessation program 30 , 31 started in group sizes of 6 to 8 participants and with weekly appointments. Each group session lasted 90 min and was scheduled for late afternoon or evening. In session 2, the treatment rationale for CET was introduced. In addition, session 2 involved scheduling a date to quit smoking in the upcoming week prior to session 3. VR-CET took place individually in sessions 3 to 6 and lasted an additional 40 min per session. With two VR systems per study center, part of the participants completed the VR-CET before the group session and part of them afterwards. VR-CET took place in a separated room for each participant. The investigator being in the same room as the participant repeated the CET rationale, assisted in putting on the HMD, informed about steering in VR, selected the tobacco brand, noted the participants' answers to rating questions, and controlled the VR. Controlling the VR involved starting and stopping of the VR session as well as reacting to the participants' voice by continuing to the next part of the VR scenario by button press whenever interactions between the participants and the VR such as rejecting cigarette offers took place. Each VR-CET session included the successive completion of two scenarios. VR-CET started with the scenarios Loneliness/Rumination and Party, followed by Stress and Café in session 4. Session 5 was identical to session 3, while session 6 was identical to session 4. After each VR session, participants completed the VR-related questionnaires.

Sequence of treatment weeks and VR-CET sessions.

Measures of the RCT included in the present analysis consist of questionnaires, rating questions, and the clinical outcome measure.

Questionnaires: At study inclusion, participants completed a demographic questionnaire, a smoking questionnaire documenting smoking history and current smoking behavior, the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence 24 (FTND), and the German version of the Worry Domains Questionnaire 26 (WDQ-D). After each session of VR-CET, the experience of presence during VR was measured with the Igroup Presence Questionnaire 32 (IPQ). The potential occurrence of cybersickness symptoms (i.e. headache, nausea, vertigo) was assessed with a brief version of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire 33 (SSQ-b).

Ratings: All rating questions should be answered by the participants with a number between 0 (lowest rating) and 100 (highest rating). To check whether the scenarios induced the target emotions (worry in Loneliness/Rumination, stress in Stress, and sociability in Party and Café), the intensity of each emotion was rated at the end of each scenario using the following questions: “How worried were you in the situation?”, “How stressed were you in the situation?”, and “How much sociability did you feel in the situation?”. Craving ratings (4 to 6 ratings depending on the scenario) were presented before, during (e.g. after having received cigarette offers) and after each session of VR-CET with the question “How strong is your current desire to smoke a cigarette?”. At the end of each VR scenario, an additional craving rating phase existed with a total of 8 craving ratings conducted at 30-s intervals during which the VR environment continued to be presented. If the study participants' answer was 0 two times in a row, the remaining questions of the craving rating phase were skipped. For the analysis, the remaining values following a two-time response of 0 were set to 0. In the course of the scenarios Loneliness/Rumination, Party and Café, craving was rated a maximum of 12 times each, and in the Stress scenario a maximum of 14 times. Each scenario included an initial craving rating at the beginning (rating 1). In Loneliness/Rumination this was followed by a craving rating after describing the selected concern (rating 2), a craving rating after ruminating over the concern (rating 3), and a further rating after inspecting the smoking paraphernalia (rating 4). Ratings 5 to 12 consisted of the concluding craving rating phase. In Party, following the initial craving rating, further ratings took place after the first, second, and fourth cigarette offer (rating 2 to 4). Ratings 5 to 12 were again the final craving rating phase. In Café, the initial rating was followed by ratings that took place after each of the three cigarette offers (rating 2 to 4). Ratings 5 to 12 were again the final craving rating phase. In Stress, after the initial rating (rating 1), further ratings were asked for after the first cigarette offer (rating 2), after being informed about the end of the preparation time (rating 3), after the completion of the interview in front of the committee consisting of the presentation and arithmetic task (rating 4), and after the second and third cigarette offer (ratings 5 and 6). Ratings 7 to 14 were the final craving rating phase. In addition to the IPQ, which measured presence after each VR session (i.e. after two VR scenarios), presence ratings were also presented at the end of each VR scenario using the phrase “Between 0 and 100, how strongly do you agree with the following statement: In the computer-generated world, I had the impression of being there. 0 means not at all and 100 means very strongly.” Finally, the question “How confident are you not to smoke in a similar situation?” was used to rate self-efficacy.

Clinical outcome: Continuous abstinence was assessed 6 months after the end of treatment adhering to Russel Standard 34 (RS). RS includes self-reported smoking less than 5 cigarettes during the follow-up period and results of carbon monoxide (CO) measurement below 10 ppm at final follow-up.

Data reduction and statistical analysis

The lme4 package (v.1.1–34) 35 was used to analyze linear mixed-effects models in the R environment (v.4.3.1). The random effects structure was determined with model convergence as a requirement and based on Likelihood ratio tests 36 . F -tests with Satterthwaite approximations for degrees of freedom 37 were used to evaluate significance for main effects and interactions in linear mixed-effects models. Post-hoc tests were conducted with the R package emmeans (v.1.8.7) 38 and corrected for multiple comparisons according to Holm 39 .

For a manipulation check, ratings regarding emotion induction were modeled by including the main effects emotion (treatment coding: Worry = reference, Stress, Sociability) and scenario (treatment coding: Loneliness/Rumination = reference, Party, Stress, Café) as well as their interaction as fixed effects. Random intercepts were included per participant and s cenario was included as random slope per participant in the final model.

Self-efficacy ratings were modeled by including the main effects scenario (treatment coding: Loneliness/Rumination = reference), presentation (coding: first = reference, second) and group (coding: abstainers = reference, relapsed smokers), as well as their interactions as fixed effects. Random intercepts were included per participant in the final model.

Presence ratings were modeled by including the main effects scenario (treatment coding: Loneliness/Rumination = reference), presentation (coding: first = reference), and group (coding: abstainers = reference), as well as their interactions as fixed effects. Random intercepts were included per participant, and s cenario and presentation were included as random slopes per participant in the final model.

Craving ratings were modeled by including the main effects scenario (treatment coding: Loneliness/Rumination = reference), presentation (coding: first = reference), group (coding: abstainers = reference), and within-scenario time (modelled as orthogonal polynomials relating to linear and quadratic effects of test position within a session). The linear effect of within-scenario time describes the linear course of craving within a scenario. To have the additional possibility to model the steepness of the increase and decrease of craving within a scenario, we also included the quadratic effect of within-scenario time (referred to as within-scenario time 2 ). In addition, the model included the interactions of presentation , scenario , group and within-scenario time (linear and quadratic). In the final model, random intercepts were included per participant and random slopes were included for s cenario , presentation and their interaction. In addition to the main analysis of craving, which included all participants, we conducted an exploratory analysis of craving with the same model, however including only abstinent participants at the time of each VR session. This aimed to account for the fact that some participants were still smoking after the planned quit day (see section Design and Participants above), which might alter craving and bias results.

To analyze the prognostic value of craving during VR-CET on abstinence/relapse, two binomial logistic regression models were calculated in R. In the first model, mean craving across all VR-CET sessions was entered as a predictor. To additionally investigate whether the extent of craving reduction had predictive value, a second model was tested in which the average difference between maximum and last craving rating across VR-CET sessions was entered as a predictor. Likelihood ratio tests were used for overall model estimations. In case of significant model estimations, the model was applied to predict abstinence/relapse based on an optimal cut-off for the craving marker (i.e. simultaneously maximizing specificity and sensitivity), which was calculated with the R package OptimalCutpoints (v.1.1–5) using the Youden index method 40 . In the prediction, participants with values above the optimal threshold were classified as relapsing, participants with values less than or equal to the threshold as abstinent.

The remaining statistical analyses were performed with SPSS 26 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, United States). SSQ-b results and presence ratings were non-normally distributed (tested by Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests and visual inspection of the histograms) and non-parametric testing (Wilcoxon test, Spearman correlation) was used. Alpha level was 5% in all statistical analyses.

Emotion induction of VR scenarios

For the purpose of a manipulation check we analysed whether induced emotion differed as a function of VR scenario. The linear mixed-effects model revealed a significant interaction between emotion and scenario , F (6, 1491.80) = 106.61, p  < 0.001, indicating that different scenarios induced different emotions. Follow-up pairwise comparisons indicated that the emotions targeted in each scenario were rated significantly higher than the remaining two emotions (for descriptives see Table 1 ). In Loneliness/Rumination, worry was significantly higher than stress (b = 8.71, SE  = 2.35, t (1416) = 3.71, p  < 0.001) and sociability (b = 35.33, SE  = 2.35, t (1417) = 15.01, p  < 0.001). In Party, sociability was significantly higher than worry (b = 26.47, SE  = 2.35, t (1418) = 11.25, p  < 0.001) and stress (b = 17.15, SE  = 2.35, t (1417) = 7.30, p  < 0.001). In the Stress scenario, stress was higher than worry (b = 20.13, SE  = 2.51, t (1416) = 8.03, p  < 0.001) and sociability (b = 27.69, SE  = 2.52, t (1418) = 10.98, p  < 0.001). Finally, in Café, sociability was higher than worry (b = 28.87, SE  = 2.53, t (1417) = 11.41, p  < 0.001) and stress (b = 25.83, SE  = 2.53, t (1417) = 10.21, p  < 0.001). Supplementary Table S1 provides a full model summary.

Self-efficacy in VR scenarios

When asked to rate their confidence about not smoking in a similar (real) situation, participants reported high self-efficacy in the scenarios across both presentations with Café descriptively receiving the highest ratings ( M  = 82.62, SD  = 60.07), followed by Stress ( M  = 80.00, SD  = 18.20), Loneliness/Rumination ( M  = 75.88, SD  = 22.93), and Party ( M  = 70.38, SD  = 24.16). The linear mixed-effects model yielded neither significant main effects for scenario , F (3, 507.23) = 2.05, p  = 0.101, presentation, F (1, 532.10) = 0.98, p  = 0.323, or group, F (1, 98.99) = 2.65, p  = 0.106, nor significant interactions ( p s > 0.201). Supplementary Table S2 provides a full model summary.

Presence during VR

Another analysis investigated the effect of abstinence group, VR scenario, and number of presentation (first, second) on presence ratings in the virtual environment. The linear mixed-effects model revealed significant main effects for scenario , F (3, 96.11) = 9.24, p  < 0.001, and presentation , F (1, 64.37) = 33.28, p  < 0.001 (for descriptives see Table 2 ). Main effect group and interactions were not significant ( p s > 0.110). Follow-up tests for the main effect scenario indicated that Loneliness/Rumination received significantly higher presence ratings than Stress (b = 10.37, SE  = 2.84, t (84.8) = 3.66, p  = 0.002) and Café (b = 8.73, SE  = 2.55, t (82.1) = 3.43, p  = 0.003), whereas Loneliness/Rumination and Party did not differ significantly (b = − 1.76, SE  = 2.29, t (84.4) = − 0.77, p  = 0.853). Party received significantly higher presence ratings than Stress (b = 12.13, SE  = 2.46, t (81.9) = 4.93, p  < 0.001) and Café (b = 10.49, SE  = 2.50, t (82.4) = 4.20, p  < 0.001). Stress and Café did not differ significantly (b = − 1.64, SE  = 2.05, t (76.5) = − 0.77, p  = 0.853). With respect to the main effect presentation , follow-up tests indicated that presence decreased significantly from the first to the second run of each scenario (Loneliness/Rumination: b = 10.55, SE  = 2.92, t (233) = 3.62, p  < 0.001; Party: b = 11.92, SE  = 2.90, t (235) = 4.11, p  < 0.001; Stress: b = 11.87, SE  = 3.20, t (251) = 3.71, p  < 0.001; Café: b = 9.05, SE  = 3.21, t (253) = 2.82, p  = 0.005). Supplementary Table S3 provides a full model summary.

To assess presence across VR sessions, we furthermore used the IPQ (range from − 3 to 3). Presence as measured with the IPQ was M = 0.18 (SD = 1.06) in session 1 of VR-CET, M = − 0.31 (SD = 1.17) in session 2, M = − 0.36 (SD = 1.29) in session 3, and M = − 0.31 (SD = 1.28) in session 4. To validate presence ratings for each scenario, we averaged the single-item ratings of each scenario presented within one VR session and compared these values to the IPQ scores of each VR session by conducting Spearman correlation coefficients. This yielded significant and large positive correlations between the presence measured by single-item ratings and the presence measured via IPQ, indicating the validity of the single-item ratings (session 1: r (95) = 0.70, p  < 0.001; session 2: r (78) = 0.79, p  < 0.001; session 3: r (62) = 0.83, p  < 0.001; session 4: r (60) = 0.82, p  < 0.001).

Tolerability of VR scenarios

Across the scenarios, symptoms of simulator sickness such as headache (M = 0.33, SD = 0.46), nausea (M = 0.18, SD = 0.40), and vertigo (M = 0.56, SD = 0.61) were reported to a low degree, indicating good tolerability of the VR scenarios. The scale for each symptom category ranged from 0 (no symptoms at all) to 3 (severe symptoms). Future abstainers and relapsed smokers did not differ significantly with regard to the severity of symptoms ( p s > 0.455).

Course of craving during VR-CET

The linear mixed-effects model for craving ratings yielded significant main effects of group , presentation , scenario , within-scenario time , and within-scenario time 2 , significant two-way interactions of presentation  ×  scenario , presentation  ×  within-scenario time , presentation  ×  within-scenario time 2 , and scenario  ×  within-scenario time , and significant three-way interactions of presentation  ×  scenario  ×  within-scenario time , presentation  ×  group  ×  within-scenario time , and scenario  ×  group  ×  within-scenario time 2 (statistical results shown in Table 3 ). All other effects were not significant.

The main effect group indicated that smokers who relapse experience stronger craving throughout VR-CET than those who maintain abstinence, thus confirming our hypothesis (see Fig.  3 for an overview of craving ratings during the course of the VR-CET; for a presentation of craving by scenario, including specific events within the scenarios, see supplementary Fig. S1).

Within and between scenario craving ratings during the course of the VR-CET for abstainers and relapsed smokers. Fifth and tenth craving rating is marked on the x-axis for each scenario. Error bars show standard errors.

In the following, we first describe the additional effects that include the factor group , second the effects that include the factor presentation (without group ), and third the effects that include the factor scenario (without group and presentation ).

Post hoc tests for the three-way interaction of presentation  ×  group  ×  within-scenario time indicated that, relative to relapsed smokers, abstainers tended to have stronger linear decreases in craving in the first presentation of scenarios, b = − 3.43, SE  = 1.62, t (6580) = − 2.11, p  = 0.069 ( p  = 0.035 without adjustment for multiple comparisons), whereas this effect was not significant for the second presentation (b = 2.32, SE  = 1.92, t (6601) = 1.21, p  = 0.228). Post hoc tests for the three-way interaction of scenario  ×  group  ×  within-scenario time 2 indicated that the quadratic trend of within-scenario time was stronger in relapsed smokers relative to abstainers in the stress scenario, b = 4.95, SE  = 1.86, t (6571) = 2.67, p  = 0.031, whereas this effect was not significant in the remaining three scenarios ( p s > 0.320). This means that relapsed smokers showed more craving directly following the stress induction.

Post hoc tests with respect to the interaction of presentation  ×  scenario indicated that craving during the first presentation was significantly higher compared to the second presentation for all scenarios (Loneliness/Rumination: b = 16.35, SE  = 2.75, t (86.8) = 5.95, p  < 0.001; Party: b = 17.92, SE  = 2.45, t (83.7) = 7.32, p  < 0.001; Stress: b = 6.18, SE  = 2.37, t (65.2) = 2.60, p  = 0.023; Café: b = 5.02, SE  = 2.24, t (70.4) = 2.24, p  = 0.028) and that this decrease was more pronounced in the scenarios Loneliness/Rumination and Party than in Stress and Café (Loneliness/Rumination compared with Stress: b = 10.17, SE  = 3.61, t (72.6) = 2.82, p  = 0.019; Loneliness/Rumination compared with Café: b = 11.34, SE  = 3.48, t (76.9) = 3.26, p  = 0.007; Party compared with Stress: b = 11.74, SE  = 3.29, t (69.4) = 3.57, p  = 0.003; Party compared with Café: b = 12.91, SE  = 3.28, t (70.8) = 3.93, p  = 0.001; no significant differences for comparisons of Loneliness/Rumination and Party, p  = 1.000, and Stress and Café, p  = 1.000). The interactions of presentation  ×  within-scenario time and presentation  ×  within-scenario time 2 , indicate that the linear and quadratic course of craving differed across presentations. Post hoc comparisons revealed that the second presentation of scenarios resulted in smaller linear decreases in craving, b = − 6.37, SE  = 1.26, t (6596) = − 5.07, p  < 0.001, and in terms of the quadratic effect, in a flatter increase and decrease of craving, b = 3.46, SE  = 1.22, t (6580) = 2.83, p  = 0.005. In addition, the three-way interaction of presentation  ×  scenario  ×  within-scenario time indicates that the presentation  ×  within-scenario time effect described above, differed between scenarios. Whereas in Loneliness/Rumination, the difference in the linear course of craving between first and second presentation was not significant, b = 4.84, SE  = 2.58, t (6583) = 1.88, p  = 0.060, for all three remaining scenarios, stronger linear decreases of craving were observed in the first compared to the second presentation (Party: b = − 16.67, SE  = 2.62, t (6597) = − 6.36, p  < 0.001; Stress: b = − 7.24, SE  = 1.88, t (6620) = − 3.84, p  < 0.001; Café: b = − 6.43, SE  = 2.86, t (6608) = − 2.25, p  = 0.060).

The interaction of scenario  ×  within-scenario time results from a more negative linear decrease of craving in Party compared to Stress, b = − 9.33, SE  = 1.62, t (6611) = − 5.78, p  < 0.001, in Party compared to Café, b = − 5.20, SE  = 1.94, t (6609) = − 2.68, p  = 0.030, in Loneliness/Rumination compared to Stress, b = − 5.87, SE  = 1.60, t (6607) = − 3.68, p  = 0.001, and in Café compared to Stress, b = − 4.13, SE  = 1.71, t (6621) = − 2.42, p  = 0.0495. Finally, the main effect scenario results from higher craving in Loneliness/Rumination than in Stress, b = 7.57, SE  = 1.90, t (79.7) = 3.98, p  < 0.001, in Loneliness/Rumination than in Café, b = 9.91, SE  = 1.86, t (73.5) = 5.33, p  < 0.001, in Party than in Stress, b = 5.63, SE  = 1.77, t (80.8) = 3.18, p  = 0.006, and in Party than in Café, b = 7.97, SE  = 1.55, t (75.6) = 5.13, p  < 0.001. Loneliness/Rumination and Party ( p  = 0.204), and Stress and Café ( p  = 0.129) did not differ significantly. Supplementary Table S4 provides a full model summary.

An identical analysis, including only abstinent participants at the time of each VR session, is detailed in the supplementary materials (see Table S5 and Fig. S2) and yielded basically similar results.

Predictive ability of craving on abstinence

Two binomial logistic regressions with mean craving across all VR-CET sessions and with the difference between maximum craving and the final craving rating averaged across all VR-CET sessions as predictors for the likelihood of abstinence at 6-month follow-up were performed. The overall model evaluation for the first model using mean craving as a predictor was statistically significant, χ 2 (1) = 12.69, p  < 0.001, R 2 N  = 0.176. Mean craving was positively associated with relapse ( β  = 0.058, SE  = 0.019, z  = 2.98, p  = 0.003, OR = 1.06). Applying Youden’s criterion yielded an optimal cut-off for mean craving of M  > 12.63 for predicting relapse. This way, the model correctly classified 17 of 24 future abstainers (70.8% specificity) and 55 of 78 future relapsing smokers (70.5% sensitivity) resulting in overall 72 of 102 correct classifications (70.6% accuracy).

The overall model evaluation for the second model using the difference between maximum and final craving rating as a predictor was statistically not significant, χ 2 (1) = 0.691, p  = 0.406, R 2 N  = 0.010.

To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first to analyze craving ratings during VR-CET prospectively with regard to subsequent abstinent and relapsing smokers. In addition, we investigated further parameters of the VR-CET scenarios, namely emotion induction, self-efficacy, presence, and tolerability, which might influence their efficacy.

The analysis of craving across the virtual exposure sessions with respect to future abstainers and relapsed smokers revealed three interesting patterns: First, future relapsed smokers showed generally higher craving than future abstainers which also predicted relapse. Second, relapsed smokers showed stronger increases in craving elicited by the Stress scenario than abstainers. Third, abstainers tended to down-regulate craving faster within the first presentation of scenarios. Regarding the first aspect, smokers that relapsed within 6 months after end of treatment showed higher craving levels than future abstainers during VR-CET. While craving generally decreased across VR-CET (which is in line with previous reports 21 , 22 and also consistent with the CE rational), it remained consistently higher in relapsing smokers. This is in line with previous findings from the neuroimaging literature, which found increased brain activation in substance use disorders with respect to substance-related cues in cue-reactivity tasks in relapsing individuals relative to individuals who remained abstinent 41 . Additionally, our results are consistent with an analysis of several nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) trials, which found that low craving was associated with a higher likelihood of sustained abstinence 42 . The differences found in craving between future abstainers and relapsing smokers appear even more relevant as the two groups did not significantly differ in any other smoking parameter such as cigarettes per day, Fagerström score or carbon monoxide levels. Furthermore, high craving was a significant prognostic factor for higher relapse probability. This effect was small, however, demonstrating the need for further research in identifying additional predictors of relapse. As reviewed by Wray et al. 6 , cue-induced craving during classical cue-reactivity assessment was only rarely a significant predictor of treatment outcome in previous studies, which contrasts our finding. One reasons for this difference could be, in accordance with the argumentation of Tiffany et al. 2 , the higher correspondence of the situation of the craving assessment and real-life situations by using VR. Therefore, the predictive effect of craving may be still larger if presence in VR could be further increased. Another reason could be that the VR-CET sessions took place after the smoking cessation program’s planned quit date, thus craving during VR-CET was assessed in a phase in which the majority of the participants had achieved abstinence. This could have been beneficial for the prognostic capacity of craving, as it was argued that the combination of substance-related cues and abstinence is better suited for detecting craving as an indicator of relapse than during periods of nicotine saturation 43 . Taken together, the first pattern implies that participants with high craving should be considered a high-risk group for relapse and therapy should be individualized accordingly. This could include both increased discussion of coping strategies for craving in the CBT component of treatment and possibly a stronger recommendation of additional NRT.

Second, future relapsed smokers showed a stronger craving response to the stress induction in the Stress scenario than future abstainers. This suggests that reducing the craving response to stress should be an important therapeutic goal in smoking cessation, which is in line with previous research underscoring the particular role of stress by reporting that stress increases cigarette craving and promotes relapse 44 , 45 . The fact that craving amplitudes generally attenuate across presentations is consistent with the rational of CE and suggests that reducing the craving response to stress may be achieved by further runs of the Stress scenario. In addition, participants with a strong craving response to stress might benefit from an intensification of stress management and the development of further coping strategies as part of the CBT component of smoking cessation. Future trials should examine whether these considerations translate into higher efficacy of VR-CET.

Third, the linear decrease in craving within a scenario significantly differed as a function of whether a scenario was presented for the first or the second time and whether participants would remain abstinent. Thus, the linear within-scenario decrease in craving may affect treatment success as future abstainers tended to down-regulate their craving more quickly. However, this finding should be treated with caution for three reasons. First, whereas there was a trend of faster craving regulation by future abstainers in the first presentation of scenarios, this was not the case with respect to the second presentation (although floor effects in the second presentation may have contributed). Second, this three-way interaction did not show up significantly in the supplementary analysis that included only abstainers at the time of VR-CET as linear within-scenario craving reductions of future abstainers and relapsed smokers were more similar than in the main analysis. And third, the importance of the role of within-scenario craving decrease is reduced by the fact that the regression analysis examining the difference from maximum craving to the last craving rating did not significantly predict abstinence.

As part of the VR-CET, participants were confronted with a variety of smoking related situations. The Loneliness/Rumination scenario featured an intensive cue exposure with detailed observation of smoking paraphernalia while simultaneously inducing worry. The Party scenario, like the Stress and Café scenario, included interactions with smoking characters who offered cigarettes to the participants, whereby the presence of alcoholic beverages and witnessing a relapse were distinctive features. The stress scenario required participants to complete a job application presentation and an unannounced math task while smoking was presented as a beneficial coping strategy and reward by other characters. Finally, the Café scenario included coffee as a typical smoking associated stimulus and a conversation of smokers about smoking as a feeling of freedom and enjoyment in life. These scenarios were able to induce the specific intended emotions (worry, stress, sociability), which demonstrates the usefulness of VR for CET as it enables the presentation of substance-related cues in emotional contexts thus increasing ecological validity compared to traditional CET paradigms. This is in line with previous research that found VR to be generally effective in inducing emotions 46 and showed that different emotional states can be induced with relative distinctness 47 . With regard to the general decline in craving across the VR scenarios, we can only speculate whether certain elements of the scenarios were particularly important or whether it was the variety that was decisive (see also limitations below on order effects). However, the Stress scenario stands out because of the most pronounced increase in craving after the stress task, which only disappeared for future abstainers in the second run. Particularly the elements of stress relief and reward after completing a task, which are not present in the other scenarios, may lead to this sharper increase in craving. This notion is in line with Fagerström 48 who emphasizes the importance of the rewarding function of smoking.

In terms of self-efficacy, participants reported high levels of confidence in not smoking in similar situations in the future for all scenarios without significant differences between future abstainers and relapsed smokers. This conviction is understandable because treatment-seeking participants must exhibit a certain level of self-efficacy expectancy to enroll in treatment in the first place, because the majority of participants had already achieved abstinence at the time of VR-CET, and because the question about self-efficacy was asked at the end of the scenario, which virtually had just been successfully completed without smoking. Nevertheless, the results suggest that therapists should remain cautious and not base therapeutic actions on self-efficacy as the majority of participants later relapsed, although self-efficacy was high during VR-CET.

With respect to presence (the sense of being there), VR scenarios generated moderate levels of presence. Party and Loneliness/Rumination induced significantly higher levels of presence than Café and Stress, and presence generally decreased in the second compared to the first presentation of scenarios. Both measures of presence (single item rating and IPQ) were highly correlated, indicating validity of the single item measure. Presence is regarded as an indicator of felt similarity to real-life situations 9 , therefore high presence is desirable to generalize the learning experiences within VR to real life. Higher presence could be achieved through the ongoing graphical progress in the field of VR 49 . In addition, tactile (e.g. feeling a real table of a café in front of oneself), olfactory (e.g. smell of tobacco, smoke, coffee, barbecue), and auditory (audio renderings which simulate room acoustics and spatial sound) sensory modalities could be added to increase the observed moderate presence in future applications. The differences between the scenarios in terms of experienced presence probably mainly reflect the decrease in presence over several sessions, since the earlier scenarios generated higher presence than the later scenarios. It is a known phenomenon that stronger emotional experience is associated with higher presence, which is explained by increased arousal 49 . In this respect, the reduction in presence over time may be explained by decreasing arousal with repeated VR-CET through habituation processes. Although presented first, the relatively high level of presence in Loneliness/Rumination is somewhat surprising given that it is the only scenario without interaction with virtual agents. However, in this scenario, the aforementioned auditory aspect might have additionally contributed to the experienced presence through the sound of rain and music. It is noticeable that despite high emotional arousal in the Stress scenario, the experience of presence was comparatively lower. We suppose that there may have been a lower felt similarity to real-life situations as participants are likely to be exposed to other stressful situations in their daily lives. This intensive stress induction, which tends to be more distant from everyday life, nonetheless led to craving reductions over the course of the treatment and enabled future abstainers and relapsing smokers to be distinguished. Future studies could investigate whether the approach of the present study or the induction of a more moderate but everyday stress would result in higher presence and be more favorable for use in VR-CET. While presence is an important parameter in VR research, it will often not be feasible to assess presence with questionnaires (e.g. in case of multiple ratings) and these have the potential disadvantage of assessing presence retrospectively when immersion in VR has already ended. In this regard, our results support the further use of single item ratings during VR as a more economical alternative.

Finally, regarding tolerability, VR-CET sessions were well tolerated with no evidence that this could account for differences in treatment success.

An important limitation of the current study is that the data analyzed derive from a treatment study primarily designed to evaluate the efficacy of VR-CET as an additional intervention to group CBT compared with a relaxation procedure and group CBT. In this respect, we cannot rule out the possibility that the observed craving reductions are due to causes other than VR-CET, such as effects of CBT alone, or to the simple progression of time. These explanations nevertheless seem unlikely as they cannot explain the within scenario craving reductions, because VR-CET alone led to craving reductions in a previous study 21 , and because cue-induced craving usually increases and not decreases following abstinence, a phenomenon called incubation of craving 50 . An additional limitation is the likely occurrence of order effects with respect to presence and craving as scenarios were presented in a uniform order without counterbalancing. As an example, despite the significantly higher craving in Party than in Café, we cannot conclude that this is due to content differences of the scenarios (the presence of alcoholic beverages produces higher craving than coffee could be such a content interpretation), because Café was chronologically always presented after Party. We therefore refrained from interpreting such direct scenarios comparisons. Future studies could use our scenarios in a counterbalanced design to further examine these content differences.

In conclusion, we found evidence that smokers who relapse within 6 months exhibit higher levels of craving during VR-CET than do smokers who maintain abstinence and that craving during VR-CET predicts relapse. Furthermore, we found that craving responses evoked by the Stress scenario were discriminative with respect to future abstinence as relapsing smokers reacted with stronger craving. Attempts to improve VR-CET and ultimately smoking cessation outcomes, should aim to identify smokers who are more at risk of relapse based on their persistently high craving levels and individualize smoking cessation accordingly. Additionally, particular emphasis should be placed on the strength of the craving response to stress, which may be lowered by further therapeutic efforts applying stress-inducing scenarios.

Data availability

The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Data was analyzed by BS and LK under consultation of AM, AK, and ACE. BS wrote the first draft of the manuscript, which was finalized with substantial contributions of all remaining authors. All authors reviewed the manuscript and have approved its final version and its submission.

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Schröder, B., Kroczek, A., Kroczek, L.O.H. et al. Cigarette craving in virtual reality cue exposure in abstainers and relapsed smokers. Sci Rep 14 , 7538 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58168-7

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2020 March 1.4 2020 April 1.2 2020 May 1.2 2020 June 1.6 2020 July 1.7 2020 August 0.7 2020 September 1.1 2020 October 1.2 2020 November 0.8 2020 December 1 2021 January 1.6 2021 February 1.8 2021 March 1.9 2021 April 1.9 2021 May 2.1 2021 June 2 2021 July 1.4 2021 August 2.4 2021 September 2.7 2021 October 3.4 2021 November 5.2 2021 December 5.7 2022 January 6.4 2022 February 6.2 2022 March 9.7 2022 April 9.6 2022 May 8.8 2022 June 8.6 2022 July 10.3 2022 August 12 2022 September 14.5 2022 October 14.3 2022 November 9.9 2022 December 9.6 2023 January 7.6 2023 February 8 2023 March 4.4 2023 April 5.2 2023 May 6.1 2023 June 5.7 2023 July 4.6 2023 August 3 2023 September 0.2 2023 October -0.4 2023 November 1.6 2023 December 1.2 2024 January 3.2 2024 February 2.8 2024 March 3.1 2024 April 2.7 2024 May 2.7 Inflation year month Inflation (year-on-year % change of the CPI) 2019 January 2.2 2019 February 2.6 2019 March 2.8 2019 April 2.9 2019 May 2.4 2019 June 2.7 2019 July 2.5 2019 August 2.8 2019 September 2.6 2019 October 2.7 2019 November 2.6 2019 December 2.7 2020 January 1.8 2020 February 1.6 2020 March 1.4 2020 April 1.2 2020 May 1.2 2020 June 1.6 2020 July 1.7 2020 August 0.7 2020 September 1.1 2020 October 1.2 2020 November 0.8 2020 December 1 2021 January 1.6 2021 February 1.8 2021 March 1.9 2021 April 1.9 2021 May 2.1 2021 June 2 2021 July 1.4 2021 August 2.4 2021 September 2.7 2021 October 3.4 2021 November 5.2 2021 December 5.7 2022 January 6.4 2022 February 6.2 2022 March 9.7 2022 April 9.6 2022 May 8.8 2022 June 8.6 2022 July 10.3 2022 August 12 2022 September 14.5 2022 October 14.3 2022 November 9.9 2022 December 9.6 2023 January 7.6 2023 February 8 2023 March 4.4 2023 April 5.2 2023 May 6.1 2023 June 5.7 2023 July 4.6 2023 August 3 2023 September 0.2 2023 October -0.4 2023 November 1.6 2023 December 1.2 2024 January 3.2 2024 February 2.8 2024 March 3.1 2024 April 2.7 2024 May 2.7

Price changes in various product groups.

In addition to the inflation rate, CBS also publishes price changes for a number of product groups as part of its flash estimate. These product groups are aggregations of spending categories for a particular theme, such as ‘all services’. The price change of all categories in the CPI will be published on 11 June.

New method for measuring energy prices

Hicp flash estimate.