genetic engineering homework

10.1 Cloning and Genetic Engineering

Learning objectives.

• Explain the basic techniques used to manipulate genetic material
• Explain molecular and reproductive cloning

Biotechnology is the use of artificial methods to modify the genetic material of living organisms or cells to produce novel compounds or to perform new functions. Biotechnology has been used for improving livestock and crops since the beginning of agriculture through selective breeding. Since the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, and particularly since the development of tools and methods to manipulate DNA in the 1970s, biotechnology has become synonymous with the manipulation of organisms’ DNA at the molecular level. The primary applications of this technology are in medicine (for the production of vaccines and antibiotics) and in agriculture (for the genetic modification of crops). Biotechnology also has many industrial applications, such as fermentation, the treatment of oil spills, and the production of biofuels, as well as many household applications such as the use of enzymes in laundry detergent.

Manipulating Genetic Material

To accomplish the applications described above, biotechnologists must be able to extract, manipulate, and analyze nucleic acids.

Review of Nucleic Acid Structure

To understand the basic techniques used to work with nucleic acids, remember that nucleic acids are macromolecules made of nucleotides (a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base). The phosphate groups on these molecules each have a net negative charge. An entire set of DNA molecules in the nucleus of eukaryotic organisms is called the genome. DNA has two complementary strands linked by hydrogen bonds between the paired bases.

Unlike DNA in eukaryotic cells, RNA molecules leave the nucleus. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is analyzed most frequently because it represents the protein-coding genes that are being expressed in the cell.

Isolation of Nucleic Acids

To study or manipulate nucleic acids, the DNA must first be extracted from cells. Various techniques are used to extract different types of DNA ( Figure 10.2 ). Most nucleic acid extraction techniques involve steps to break open the cell, and then the use of enzymatic reactions to destroy all undesired macromolecules. Cells are broken open using a detergent solution containing buffering compounds. To prevent degradation and contamination, macromolecules such as proteins and RNA are inactivated using enzymes. The DNA is then brought out of solution using alcohol. The resulting DNA, because it is made up of long polymers, forms a gelatinous mass.

RNA is studied to understand gene expression patterns in cells. RNA is naturally very unstable because enzymes that break down RNA are commonly present in nature. Some are even secreted by our own skin and are very difficult to inactivate. Similar to DNA extraction, RNA extraction involves the use of various buffers and enzymes to inactivate other macromolecules and preserve only the RNA.

Gel Electrophoresis

Because nucleic acids are negatively charged ions at neutral or alkaline pH in an aqueous environment, they can be moved by an electric field. Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate charged molecules on the basis of size and charge. The nucleic acids can be separated as whole chromosomes or as fragments. The nucleic acids are loaded into a slot at one end of a gel matrix, an electric current is applied, and negatively charged molecules are pulled toward the opposite end of the gel (the end with the positive electrode). Smaller molecules move through the pores in the gel faster than larger molecules; this difference in the rate of migration separates the fragments on the basis of size. The nucleic acids in a gel matrix are invisible until they are stained with a compound that allows them to be seen, such as a dye. Distinct fragments of nucleic acids appear as bands at specific distances from the top of the gel (the negative electrode end) that are based on their size ( Figure 10.3 ). A mixture of many fragments of varying sizes appear as a long smear, whereas uncut genomic DNA is usually too large to run through the gel and forms a single large band at the top of the gel.

Polymerase Chain Reaction

DNA analysis often requires focusing on one or more specific regions of the genome. It also frequently involves situations in which only one or a few copies of a DNA molecule are available for further analysis. These amounts are insufficient for most procedures, such as gel electrophoresis. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to rapidly increase the number of copies of specific regions of DNA for further analyses ( Figure 10.4 ). PCR uses a special form of DNA polymerase, the enzyme that replicates DNA, and other short nucleotide sequences called primers that base pair to a specific portion of the DNA being replicated. PCR is used for many purposes in laboratories. These include: 1) the identification of the owner of a DNA sample left at a crime scene; 2) paternity analysis; 3) the comparison of small amounts of ancient DNA with modern organisms; and 4) determining the sequence of nucleotides in a specific region.

In general, cloning means the creation of a perfect replica. Typically, the word is used to describe the creation of a genetically identical copy. In biology, the re-creation of a whole organism is referred to as “reproductive cloning.” Long before attempts were made to clone an entire organism, researchers learned how to copy short stretches of DNA—a process that is referred to as molecular cloning. The technique offered methods to create new medicines and to overcome difficulties with existing ones. When Lydia Villa-Komaroff, working in the Gilbert Lab at Harvard, published the first paper outlining the technique for producing synthetic insulin, diabetes researchers and patients received new hope in fighting the disease. Insulin at that time was only produced using pig and cow pancreases, and the life-saving substance was often in short supply. Synthetic insulin, once mass produced, would solve that problem for many patients. These early discoveries led to the "BioTech Boom," and spurred continued research and funding for newer and better ways to improve health.

Molecular Cloning

Cloning allows for the creation of multiple copies of genes, expression of genes, and study of specific genes. To get the DNA fragment into a bacterial cell in a form that will be copied or expressed, the fragment is first inserted into a plasmid. A plasmid (also called a vector in this context) is a small circular DNA molecule that replicates independently of the chromosomal DNA in bacteria. In cloning, the plasmid molecules can be used to provide a "vehicle" in which to insert a desired DNA fragment. Modified plasmids are usually reintroduced into a bacterial host for replication. As the bacteria divide, they copy their own DNA (including the plasmids). The inserted DNA fragment is copied along with the rest of the bacterial DNA. In a bacterial cell, the fragment of DNA from the human genome (or another organism that is being studied) is referred to as foreign DNA to differentiate it from the DNA of the bacterium (the host DNA).

Plasmids occur naturally in bacterial populations (such as Escherichia coli ) and have genes that can contribute favorable traits to the organism, such as antibiotic resistance (the ability to be unaffected by antibiotics). Plasmids have been highly engineered as vectors for molecular cloning and for the subsequent large-scale production of important molecules, such as insulin. A valuable characteristic of plasmid vectors is the ease with which a foreign DNA fragment can be introduced. These plasmid vectors contain many short DNA sequences that can be cut with different commonly available restriction enzymes . Restriction enzymes (also called restriction endonucleases) recognize specific DNA sequences and cut them in a predictable manner; they are naturally produced by bacteria as a defense mechanism against foreign DNA. Many restriction enzymes make staggered cuts in the two strands of DNA, such that the cut ends have a 2- to 4-nucleotide single-stranded overhang. The sequence that is recognized by the restriction enzyme is a four- to eight-nucleotide sequence that is a palindrome. Like with a word palindrome, this means the sequence reads the same forward and backward. In most cases, the sequence reads the same forward on one strand and backward on the complementary strand. When a staggered cut is made in a sequence like this, the overhangs are complementary ( Figure 10.5 ).

Because these overhangs are capable of coming back together by hydrogen bonding with complementary overhangs on a piece of DNA cut with the same restriction enzyme, these are called “sticky ends.” The process of forming hydrogen bonds between complementary sequences on single strands to form double-stranded DNA is called annealing . Addition of an enzyme called DNA ligase, which takes part in DNA replication in cells, permanently joins the DNA fragments when the sticky ends come together. In this way, any DNA fragment can be spliced between the two ends of a plasmid DNA that has been cut with the same restriction enzyme ( Figure 10.6 ).

Plasmids with foreign DNA inserted into them are called recombinant DNA molecules because they contain new combinations of genetic material. Proteins that are produced from recombinant DNA molecules are called recombinant proteins . Not all recombinant plasmids are capable of expressing genes. Plasmids may also be engineered to express proteins only when stimulated by certain environmental factors, so that scientists can control the expression of the recombinant proteins.

Reproductive Cloning

Reproductive cloning is a method used to make a clone or an identical copy of an entire multicellular organism. Most multicellular organisms undergo reproduction by sexual means, which involves the contribution of DNA from two individuals (parents), making it impossible to generate an identical copy or a clone of either parent. Recent advances in biotechnology have made it possible to reproductively clone mammals in the laboratory.

Natural sexual reproduction involves the union, during fertilization, of a sperm and an egg. Each of these gametes is haploid, meaning they contain one set of chromosomes in their nuclei. The resulting cell, or zygote, is then diploid and contains two sets of chromosomes. This cell divides mitotically to produce a multicellular organism. However, the union of just any two cells cannot produce a viable zygote; there are components in the cytoplasm of the egg cell that are essential for the early development of the embryo during its first few cell divisions. Without these provisions, there would be no subsequent development. Therefore, to produce a new individual, both a diploid genetic complement and an egg cytoplasm are required. The approach to producing an artificially cloned individual is to take the egg cell of one individual and to remove the haploid nucleus. Then a diploid nucleus from a body cell of a second individual, the donor, is put into the egg cell. The egg is then stimulated to divide so that development proceeds. This sounds simple, but in fact it takes many attempts before each of the steps is completed successfully.

The first cloned agricultural animal was Dolly, a sheep who was born in 1996. The success rate of reproductive cloning at the time was very low. Dolly lived for six years and died of a lung tumor ( Figure 10.7 ). There was speculation that because the cell DNA that gave rise to Dolly came from an older individual, the age of the DNA may have affected her life expectancy. Since Dolly, several species of animals (such as horses, bulls, and goats) have been successfully cloned.

There have been attempts at producing cloned human embryos as sources of embryonic stem cells. In the procedure, the DNA from an adult human is introduced into a human egg cell, which is then stimulated to divide. The technology is similar to the technology that was used to produce Dolly, but the embryo is never implanted into a surrogate carrier. The cells produced are called embryonic stem cells because they have the capacity to develop into many different kinds of cells, such as muscle or nerve cells. The stem cells could be used to research and ultimately provide therapeutic applications, such as replacing damaged tissues. The benefit of cloning in this instance is that the cells used to regenerate new tissues would be a perfect match to the donor of the original DNA. For example, a leukemia patient would not require a sibling with a tissue match for a bone-marrow transplant. Freda Miller and Elaine Fuchs, working independently, discovered stem cells in different layers of the skin. These cells help the skin repair itself, and their discovery may have applications in treatments of skin disease and potentially other conditions, such as nerve damage.

Visual Connection

Why was Dolly a Finn-Dorset and not a Scottish Blackface sheep?

Genetic Engineering

Using recombinant DNA technology to modify an organism’s DNA to achieve desirable traits is called genetic engineering . Addition of foreign DNA in the form of recombinant DNA vectors that are generated by molecular cloning is the most common method of genetic engineering. An organism that receives the recombinant DNA is called a genetically modified organism (GMO). If the foreign DNA that is introduced comes from a different species, the host organism is called transgenic . Bacteria, plants, and animals have been genetically modified since the early 1970s for academic, medical, agricultural, and industrial purposes. These applications will be examined in more detail in the next module.

Link to Learning

Watch this short video explaining how scientists create a transgenic animal.

Although the classic methods of studying the function of genes began with a given phenotype and determined the genetic basis of that phenotype, modern techniques allow researchers to start at the DNA sequence level and ask: "What does this gene or DNA element do?" This technique, called reverse genetics , has resulted in reversing the classical genetic methodology. One example of this method is analogous to damaging a body part to determine its function. An insect that loses a wing cannot fly, which means that the wing’s function is flight. The classic genetic method compares insects that cannot fly with insects that can fly, and observes that the non-flying insects have lost wings. Similarly in a reverse genetics approach, mutating or deleting genes provides researchers with clues about gene function. Alternately, reverse genetics can be used to cause a gene to overexpress itself to determine what phenotypic effects may occur.

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Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering involves modifying (changing) an organism’s genome by introducing a gene from another organism to produce a desired characteristic. Examples of this are:

Insulin-producing gene

• The gene that produces insulin can be inserted into bacteria. Those bacteria can then mass-produce insulin to treat people with diabetes.

Vitamin A rice

• A lack of vitamin A can lead to blindness.
• A lot of communities that were lacking in vitamin A were found to use rice as the core of their diet.
• Therefore, a gene that produced vitamin A was taken from bacteria and added to rice, producing rice (golden rice) that was rich in Vitamin A.

Genetic engineering happens like this:

Cut the gene out

• Enzymes are used to “cut” a desired gene out of a chromosome.

Cut a vector

• The same enzyme is used to “cut” a vector. The Vector is usually a bacterial plasmid (loop of DNA) or virus.

Gene inserted

• The vector is used to insert the gene into the required cells.

Delivering gene

• If the gene is delivered into cells before they have differentiated (at the egg or embryo stage), all cells in the developed organism will have the gene and show the characteristic.

1 Cell Biology

1.1 What's in Cells?

1.1.1 Types of Cells

1.1.2 Properties of Prokaryotes

1.1.3 Standard Form

1.1.4 Standard Form - Calculations

1.1.5 Addition in Standard Form - Calculations

1.1.6 Subtraction in Standard Form - Calculations

1.1.7 Multiplication in Standard Form - Calculations

1.1.8 Division in Standard Form - Calculations

1.1.9 Animal Cells

1.1.10 Plant Cells

1.1.11 Differences Between Animal & Plant Cells

1.1.12 Bacterial Cells

1.1.13 Types of Cells HyperLearning

1.1.14 Cell Specialisation in Animals

1.1.15 Sperm Cells

1.1.16 Nerve Cells

1.1.17 Muscle Cells

1.1.18 Cell Specialisation in Plants

1.1.19 Microscopy

1.1.20 Developments in Microscopy

1.1.21 Microscope Practical

1.1.22 Microscopy - Calculations

1.1.23 Culturing Microorganisms

1.1.24 Contamination

1.1.25 Avoiding Contamination

1.1.26 Calculating Bacteria

1.1.27 Calculating Bacteria - Calculations

1.1.28 End of Topic Test - What's in Cells?

1.1.29 Exam-Style Questions - Cell Structure & Microscopy

1.2 Cell Division

1.2.1 Chromosomes

1.2.2 The Cell Cycle

1.2.3 Mitosis

1.2.4 Exam-Style Questions - Mitosis & Cell Cycle

1.2.5 Stem Cells

1.2.6 Use of Stem Cells

1.2.7 Disadvantages of Stem Cells

1.3 Transport in Cells

1.3.1 Diffusion

1.3.2 Factors Affecting Diffusion

1.3.3 Surface Area : Volume

1.3.4 Surface Area : Volume - Calculations

1.3.5 Exchange Surfaces

1.3.6 Examples of Exchange Surfaces

1.3.7 Osmosis

1.3.8 Osmosis Practical

1.3.9 Active Transport

1.3.10 Transport in Cells

1.3.11 End of Topic Test - Cell Division & Transport

1.3.12 Grade 9 - Cell Transport

2 Organisation

2.1 Principles of Organisation

2.1.1 Cells & Tissues

2.1.2 Organs

2.1.3 Organ Systems

2.1.4 Organisms

2.2 Enzymes

2.2.1 Enzymes

2.2.2 Enzymes HyperFlashcards

2.2.3 Rate of Reaction

2.2.4 Calculating Rate of Reaction

2.2.5 Rate of Reaction - Calculations

2.2.6 Digestion

2.2.8 Examples of Digestive Enzymes - Amylase

2.2.9 Examples of Digestive Enzymes - Protease

2.2.10 Examples of Digestive Enzymes - Lipase

2.2.11 Testing for Biological Molecules

2.2.12 End of Topic Test - Organisation & Enzymes

2.2.13 Grade 9 - Enzymes

2.2.14 Exam-Style Questions - Enzymes

2.3 Circulatory System

2.3.1 Types of Blood Vessel

2.3.2 Blood Vessels - Arteries

2.3.3 Blood Vessels - Capillaries

2.3.4 Blood Vessels - Veins

2.3.5 The Heart - Structure

2.3.6 The Heart - Function

2.3.7 Important Blood Vessels

2.3.8 Double Circulatory System

2.3.9 Gas Exchange

2.3.10 Gas exchange - Calculations

2.3.11 Alveoli

2.3.12 Blood Components

2.3.13 Platelets

2.3.14 Red Blood Cells

2.3.15 White Blood Cells

2.3.16 End of Topic Test - Circulatory System

2.4 Non-Communicable Diseases

2.4.1 Health Issues

2.4.2 Disease Interactions

2.4.3 Sampling

2.4.4 Sampling - Calculations

2.4.5 Risk Factors

2.4.6 Examples of Risk Factors

2.4.7 Risk Factor Graphs

2.4.8 Coronary Heart Disease

2.4.9 Heart Valve Disease

2.4.10 Heart Failure

2.4.11 Treating Heart Disease

2.4.12 Cancer

2.4.13 Cancer Risk Factors

2.4.14 End of Topic Test - Non-Communicable Diseases

2.4.15 Exam-Style Questions - Coronary Heart Disease

2.5 Plant Tissues, Organs & Systems

2.5.1 Plant Tissues

2.5.2 Leaves

2.5.3 Transpiration

2.5.4 Rate of Transpiration

2.5.5 Measuring Transpiration

2.5.6 Translocation

2.5.7 Transpiration Tissues

2.5.8 Stomata

2.5.9 Premium Knowledge - Transpiration

2.5.10 End of Topic Test - Plants

2.5.11 Exam-Style Questions - Plant Tissues

3 Infection & Response

3.1 Communicable Disease

3.1.1 Spreading Disease

3.1.2 Viruses

3.1.3 Other Pathogens

3.1.4 Human Defence Systems

3.1.5 Human Defence Systems 2

3.1.6 Grade 9 - Immune System

3.1.7 Antibiotics

3.1.8 Drug Development

3.1.9 Drug Testing

3.1.10 Drug Testing / Efficacy - Calculations

3.1.11 End of Topic Test - Communicable Diseases

3.1.12 Exam-Style Questions - Microorganisms & Disease

3.2 Monoclonal Antibodies

3.2.1 Producing & Using Monoclonal Antibodies

3.2.2 Grade 9 - Monoclonal Antibodies

3.3 Plant Diseases

3.3.1 Diseases & Defence

3.3.2 Identifying Disease

3.3.3 End of Topic Test - Antibodies & Plant Disease

4 Bioenergetics

4.1 Photosynthesis

4.1.1 Photosynthesis

4.1.2 Photosynthesis 2

4.1.3 Photosynthesis - Calculations

4.1.4 Photosynthesis Experiments

4.1.5 Grade 9 - Photosynthesis Experiment

4.1.6 Exam-Style Questions - Rate of Photosynthesis

4.2 Respiration

4.2.1 Respiration

4.2.2 Respiration - Calculations

4.2.3 Exercise

4.2.4 Respiration HyperLearning

4.2.5 End of Topic Test - Photosynthesis and Respiration

4.2.6 Exam-Style Questions - Anaerobic Respiration

5 Homeostasis & Response

5.1 Homeostasis

5.1.1 Homeostasis

5.1.2 Homeostasis & Negative Feedback

5.1.3 Exam-Style Questions - Exercise & Homeostasis

5.2 The Human Nervous System

5.2.1 The Nervous System

5.2.2 The Nervous System HyperFlashcards

5.2.3 Synapses

5.2.4 Reflexes

5.2.5 Exam-Style Questions - Nervous System

5.2.6 The Brain

5.2.7 Eye Anatomy

5.2.8 Eye Function

5.2.9 Control of Body Temperature

5.2.10 Warming Up & Cooling Down

5.2.11 Body Temperature HyperLearning

5.2.12 End of Topic Test - Human Nervous System

5.3 Hormonal Coordination in Humans

5.3.1 Endocrine System

5.3.2 Thyroxine & Adrenaline

5.3.3 Blood Glucose

5.3.4 Diabetes

5.3.5 Control of Water Balance

5.3.6 Urine

5.3.7 Dialysis

5.3.8 Transplants

5.3.9 Puberty

5.3.10 Menstruation

5.3.11 Contraception

5.3.12 Contraception 2

5.3.13 Hormones for Infertility

5.3.14 End of Topic Test - Homeostasis & Hormones

5.3.15 Grade 9 - Hormonal Coordination

5.3.16 Exam-Style Questions - Hormones & Contraception

5.4 Plant Hormones

5.4.1 Plant Hormones

5.4.2 Plant Hormones 2

5.4.3 End of Topic Test - Hormones

6 Inheritance, Variation & Evolution

6.1 Reproduction

6.1.1 Reproduction

6.1.2 Reproduction 2

6.1.3 Genome

6.1.5 Protein Synthesis

6.1.6 Genetic Inheritance

6.1.7 Genetic Crosses

6.1.8 Inherited Disorders

6.1.9 Inherited Disorders 2

6.1.10 Genetic Crosses - Calculations

6.1.11 Genome Screening & Sex Determination

6.1.12 End of Topic Test - Reproduction

6.1.13 Exam-Style Questions - DNA & Genetics

6.2 Variation & Evolution

6.2.1 Variation & Evolution

6.2.2 Selective Breeding

6.2.3 Selective Breeding 2

6.2.4 Genetic Engineering

6.2.5 Uses of Genetic Modification

6.2.6 Cloning

6.2.7 Cloning 2

6.2.8 End of Topic Test - Variation & Evolution

6.2.9 Exam-Style Questions - Selective Breeding

6.3 Genetics & Evolution

6.3.1 Natural Selection

6.3.2 Speciation

6.3.3 Evidence for Evolution

6.3.4 Genetics & Extinction

6.3.5 Grade 9 - Evolution

6.4 Classification

6.4.1 Classification of Living Organisms

6.4.2 Classification of Living Organisms 2

6.4.3 End of Topic - Genetics & Classification

7.1 Adaptations & Interdependence

7.1.1 Communities

7.1.2 Communities 2

7.2 Organisation of Ecosystems

7.2.1 Population Dynamics

7.2.2 Environmental Change

7.2.3 Assessing Ecosystems

7.2.4 Assessing Ecosystems - Calculations

7.2.5 The Cycling of Materials

7.2.6 Decay

7.2.7 Decay Practical

7.2.8 End of Topic Test - Organisation of Ecosystems

7.2.9 Grade 9 - Ecosystems

7.2.10 Exam-Style Questions - Decomposition

7.3 Biodiversity

7.3.1 Human Interactions with Ecosystems

7.3.2 Human Interactions with Ecosystems 2

7.3.3 Greenhouse Gases

7.3.4 Greenhouse Gases 2

7.3.5 Hardest Questions - Humans & the Environment

7.3.6 End of Topic Test - Adaptations & Biodiversity

7.4 Trophic Levels

7.4.1 Trophic Levels

7.4.2 Trophic Levels 2

7.4.3 Transfer efficiency - Calculations

7.4.4 Premium Knowledge - Trophic Levels & Food Chains

7.4.5 Exam-Style Questions - Food Chains

7.5 Food Production

7.5.1 Food Production

7.5.2 Farming & Fishing

7.5.3 Food Production - Calculations

7.5.4 End of Topic Test - Food & Trophic Levels

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NEW AQA GCSE Trilogy (2016) Biology - Selective Breeding & Genetic Engineering Homework

Subject: Biology

Age range: 14-16

Resource type: Worksheet/Activity

Last updated

24 April 2024

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his task is designed for the NEW AQA Trilogy Biology GCSE, particularly the 'Inheritance, variation & evolution’ SoW.

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NEW AQA GCSE Biology - 'Inheritance, Variation & Evolution' lessons

This bundle of resources contains 12 lessons which meet all learning outcomes within the 'Inheritance, Variation & Evolution’ unit for the NEW AQA Biology Specification. Lessons include: 1. Types of reproduction 2. Variation 3. Meiosis 4. Selective Breeding 5. Genetic Engineering 6. Inherited Disorders 7. Gene Expression & Inheritance 8. DNA & Protein Synthesis 9. Ethics of gene technologies 10. Evolution by natural selection 11. Evidence of evolution 12. Evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria 13. Evolution & Extinction The lessons contain a mix of differentiated activities, progress checks, extra challenge questions and exam questions plus more than one opportunity, per lesson, for self/peer red-pen assessment of tasks.

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