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Islam is the Complete Code of Life

Islam is a constituent part of life. It tells us how to manage all activities of life in a sound and ethical way. Everyone can easily understand the Quran and follow the footsteps of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW), to the best of his or her ability. Allah assured that He will accept the deeds that each soul has the ability to offer: “On no soul does Allah place a burden greater than it can bear.” (Quran 2:286)

Islam established a clear system of worship, laws about how to live life, civil rights, political rights, social issues and rights, laws of marriage and divorce, inheritance rights and all others which we are dealing in our daily life routine. It is not for the mosque only; it is for daily life, a guide to life in all its aspects. As we know Islam is a guide to life in all its aspects so it keeps away a Muslim from the confusion of any type because Islam is logical and rational.

Islam conducts a Muslim’s life in all its aspects. That’s why it is not only a religion but also a way of life. It surely states that righteous conduct must be followed by belief in Allah. The Quran says:  “For those who believe and work deeds of righteousness is a reward that will never (fail).” (Quran 41:8)

The lines mentioned below explain some examples of Islam being a complete Islamic code of life by showing the instructions related to different areas of life.

• How to behave with Non-Muslims:  Those who don’t accept Islam and we can say those who are nonbelievers are called Non-Muslims. Allah (SWT) teaches Muslims to treat them kindly and respectfully. Let these people believe what they want to don’t be rude to them. Those who are rude and offensive are disliked by Allah.
• About Forgiveness:  Allah loves those who forgive others mistakes. He asked people to forgive others if they want to be loved by Allah Almighty. We have so many examples of forgiveness from the life of Prophet Muhammad (SAW), He (SAW) always forgave his enemies.
• About Justice with Others: Justice is an important principle of life because when injustice overrule, corruption is the result which can vanish everything. Allah (SWT) advised Muslims to do justice correctly in all aspects of life.
• For Spiritual Life: Islamic code of life tells us about Salah, Fasting, Zakat, Pilgrimage, love for Allah and His Messenger, love for truth and humanity for the sake of Allah, trust in Allah at all times and doing well for the sake of Allah. Islam provides us guidance about all these things and also many others which not mentioned here.
• Family Life: Family is a human social group whose members are bound together by the bond of blood ties and/or marital relationship and nothing else. Marriage is a religious duty on all who are capable of meeting its responsibilities. Each member of the family has rights and obligations. Islamic code of life teaches us about the fulfillment of their rights and we should fulfill all rights respecting to each individual.
• Honest Dealing in Trading:  Allah Almighty says in Quran:

“O you who believe! Stand out firmly for Allah, as witnesses to fair dealing, and let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be just: and fear Allah. For Allah is well-acquainted with all that you do.” (Quran 5:8)

From above verse, we can conclude that Allah teaches us about doing Justice in all aspects of life whether its business or any other thing. We should be careful while doing trading, buying and selling in our daily life so that we are not doing unjust with anyone.

• Prohibition of Bribery:   Allah says in Quran :

“And do not eat up your property among yourselves for vanities, nor use it as a bait (bribe) for the judges, with the intent that you may eat up a little of (other) people’s property.” (Quran 2:188)

From above-mentioned verse of Quran, we conclude that we should keep away from bribery it is disliked by Allah (SWT).

These are some points which we have mentioned in this article about Islam is a complete code of life. There are so many other things in our life about which Islam gave us guidance how to live a life in a proper Islamic way. May Allah (SWT) give us chance to live our lives according to teachings of Islam and follow the islamic code of life.

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Al-Bar MA, Chamsi-Pasha H. Contemporary Bioethics: Islamic Perspective [Internet]. Cham (CH): Springer; 2015. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-18428-9_3

Contemporary Bioethics: Islamic Perspective [Internet].

Chapter 3 the origins of islamic morality and ethics.

Published online: May 28, 2015.

Islam differs from many other religions in providing a complete code of life. It encompasses the secular with the spiritual, the mundane with the celestial. Man is the vicegerent of God on earth “Behold thy Lord said to the Angels: I will create a vicegerent (khalifa) on earth” (Q. 2:30). The satanic claim to superiority is the source of arrogance. Islam considers it the worst sin since through arrogance all other sins are committed. Freeing humanity from the original sin, empowering human beings, and giving them full responsibility of their actions is the message of the Qur’an : “Every soul will be held responsible for what it had done” (Q. 74:38)—is the essence of morality and ethics in Islam.

The Objectives of the Religious Law (The Shari’ah)

The value of man.

Islam differs from many other religions in providing a complete code of life. It encompasses the secular with the spiritual, the mundane with the celestial. Man is the vicegerent of God on earth “Behold thy Lord said to the Angels: I will create a vicegerent (khalifa) on earth” (Q. 2:30). He endowed Adam with knowledge of all things, as the Qur’an relates: “And He taught Adam the names-all of them” (Q. 2:31). The Angels had no knowledge of those things. Accordingly, Adam was on a higher level than the angels. It was for this reason that God commanded the angels to bow in obeisance for Adam: We said to the Angels prostrate before Adam; so they prostrated except for Iblies (Satan, the Devil) who is from the Jinn. “He refused and was arrogant and became a disbeliever” (2:34). Allah said: What prevented you from prostrating (to Adam) when I commanded you? (Iblies) said: “I am better than him. You created me from fire and created him from clay” (Q. 17:12).

Our Lord, we have wronged ourselves; and if You do not forgive us and have mercy upon us, we will be surely among the losers (Q. 7:23).

O children of Adam, let not Satan tempt you as He removed your parents from Paradise. We have made the devils allies to those who do not believe (Q. 7:27).

Will you take him (Satan) and his descendents as allies other than Me, while they are enemies to you? Wretched it is for the wrongdoers as exchange (Q. 18:50).

Freeing humanity from the original sin, empowering human beings, and giving them full responsibility of their actions is the message of the Qur’an : “Every soul will be held responsible for what it had done” (Q. 74:38)—is the essence of morality and ethics in Islam.

In the previous chapter, the subject of predestination and free will was fully discussed. We now need to turn our attention to the philosophy of Islamic religious law by closely exploring the Purposes of the Shari’ah (maqasid).

• The Aims of Islamic Religious Law

Preservation of Faith (din)

Preservation of Life (al-nafs)

Preservation of Mind (al-‘aql)

Preservation of Progeny (al-nasl)

Preservation of Honor (al-‘irdh)

Preservation of Property (al-mal)

Anything that is deleterious to the above should be avoided, and anything that will preserve the above is meritorious and should be done.

Ibn Qayyim [ 1 ] said: “Al-Shari’ah fundamentals are built on keeping the interests (masalih) of the people during this life and hereafter. These objectives are built on justice, mercy, wisdom and interest of the creatures. Therefore, any situation which perverts from justice to injustice, from mercy to cruelty, from wisdom and utility to chaos and futility is outside the scope of Shari’ah.”

The aims of Shari’ah were discussed fully by Muslim scholars 1,000 years ago. For instance, Imam al-Juwayni (d 478/1185) said: “The aims of Shari’ah are nothing but the interests of the entire humanity [ 2 ].” Imam alGhazali (d 505/1111) discussed al-maqasid under the principle of the public interest [ 3 ]. Imam al-Tufi (d 716/1316) defined public good as the way that fulfills the objectives of the teachings of God and His Prophet, and that public interest may be taken as even more important than what we might understand from textual proof based on Islamic revelatory sources like the Qur’an or the Sunna [ 4 ].

The objectives of the Shari’ah could be divided into three parts [ 4 ]:

Necessities (daruriyat) : These include preservation of faith, life, mind, progeny, property. They are essential for life, religion, and community.

Needed Things (hajiyat) : These are needed for the community, or for persons. They can live without procuring them, but they are recognized needs for the welfare of society and individuals.

Recommended (tahsiniyat) : They are also needed by the society or individuals to make life more comfortable and, more beautiful, and try to reach the level of satisfaction and happiness for both the individual and society.

Common aims which involve the necessities and the needs of individuals and public, and justice, universality, and making things easy when obstacles arise.

Partial aims which search for the telos or rationale of certain texts of the Qur’an or Hadith . An example is the prohibition of wine, the rationale is intoxication, and henceforth any intoxicant substance, e.g., spirits, beer, or even drugs that can cause intoxication are all considered prohibited.

Special aims which seek the interests of children, or wives or family as a whole; or means that will deter criminals from inflicting their crimes; or means that will prevent mismanagement of contracts; or prerogatives of persons or companies that will end in harming the whole community.

Contemporary Muslim scholars stress the interest of the communities rather than the interests of individuals or certain groups. Many would expand their view to humanity anywhere. Instead of the Islamic emancipation of slaves, which is no more relevant nowadays, they stress liberty (freedom), as a wider scope which involves all human beings [ 6 , 7 ]. Sheikh Mohammed AlGhazali (d 1996) called for making justice and liberty in the forefront of aims of Islamic teachings [ 8 ]. Sheikh Yusuf al-Qardawi (born 1926) called for the dignity of humans, purifying the human soul from its vices, the equality of women, building human cooperation for a just non-belligerent new world as the most salient topics of aims of the Shari’ah [ 9 ].

It is important to emphasize that intention (niyya) is very important in any deed in Islam. The Prophet said: “Deeds are judged by intention [ 10 ].” An action though maybe good apparently, but done with bad intention will be judged by God on the Day of Judgement, and will be punished. On the contrary, if someone intends to do a good deed, but when performing it, he unintentionally produced some harm, then he will be pardoned. The prayer in the Qur’an touches upon this theme: “Our Lord do not impose blame upon us if we have forgotten or erred” (Q. 2/286). The Muslim community should not accept injustice or tyranny. The Qur’an states clearly: “Let there be a community among you who call to the good, enjoin the right and forbid the wrong. They are the ones who have success” (Q. 3:104). In a tradition reported on the authority of the Prophet he said: “The highest form of striving (in God’s path, the jihad) is to speak up for truth in the face of a ruler who deviates from the right path [ 11 ].” He also said: “If any of you sees something evil, he should set it right by his hand; if he is unable to do so then by his tongue, and if he is unable to do even that, then within his heart-but this is the weakest form of faith [ 12 ].” In addition, he said: “If people see a wrongdoer, but do not try to stop him, it is most likely that God will punish them all [ 13 ].”

The point to be stressed is that justice should be the norm in Muslim communities, and if injustice and aberration occur it should be corrected. However, during Islamic history, the despots ruled over with injustice and tyranny. Many revolutions were crushed, as we have alluded to in the previous chapter (revolution of al-Husayn, and his grandson Zaid ibn Ali Zain Abdeen ibn al-Husayn, the revolts of the Kharijites, and so on). The Sunni school discouraged revolutions, since they led to more bloodshed, tyranny, and despotism. However, they legitimized the revolution that was successful.

• The Importance of the Preservation of the Five Objectives

And say: The truth is from your Lord, so whoever wills let him believe; and whoever wills let him disbelieve (Q. 18:29). Are you going (O Muhammad) to compel the people to believe? (Q. 10:99). You are not in control of them (Q. 88:22). And do not argue with the People of the Book (Scripture) except in a way that is best… and say: We believe in that which has been revealed to us and revealed to you. And our God and your God is one, and we are Muslim (in submission) to Him (Q. 29:46).

The Qur’an is replete with such verses, which promote freedom of religion. Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Sabians were all given the Freedom of Faith. Similarly Magians, Hindus, and Buddhists and all idol worshipers outside Arabia, were never forced to adopt Islam. The Muslim conquerors of Persia, India, Afghanistan, and Central Asia found different religions, but they were all given freedom of religion and faith. Similarly Muslims conquering Egypt, North Africa, and Sudan gave all these different populations freedom of faith, and even freedom to have their own laws. The head of Jews (Ga’on) was ruling over the Jews in Baghdad and every Muslim capital. Similarly the Patriarch of Alexandria ruled over Copts of Egypt, and Patriarch of Antioch ruled over the Christians of Syria. Not only that they ruled in religious matters, but they also ruled on family affairs, litigations, and over all their mundane affairs if they wished to present their cases to their leaders.

The Qur’an says: When the Jews came to the Prophet to adjudicate in a case of a Jewish woman who committed adultery, the Qur’an responded in these words: “But how is that they come to you for judgment while they have the Torah, in which is the judgment of God (which was stoning for adultery). Then they turn away, (even) after that; but those are not in fact believers (in Torah)” (Q. 5:43). The Jews said to themselves let us go to Muhammad in this case of adultery. If he gave a judgment other than stoning (which is the rule of Torah) accept it, but if he insists on Torah rule, then abandon it.

And God told the Prophet: “Judge between them or turn away from them. And if you turn away from them-never will they harm you at all. If you judge, judge between them with justice. Indeed God loves those who act justly” (Q. 5/42).

They were given the choice to have their own judges; but if they came to you O Muhammad (PBUH) (or any Muslim judge) then judge with justice. The Jews in Medina had a peaceful pact with the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), but they didn’t keep their pact. Some of them tried to assassinate him, while others tried to bewitch him and even poison him, but many remained peaceful. A hypocrite stole a shield, and when he was accused of stealing, he threw the shield into his Jewish neighbor’s house, and accused the Jew of stealing the shield. His family supported him, and the Prophet was swayed to believe him when they found the shield in the house of the Jew.

We have revealed to you the Book in truth so you may judge between the people by that which God has shown you. And do not be for the deceitful an advocate. And do not argue on behalf of those who deceive themselves. God loves not that who is a sinful deceiver. They conceal their evil from the people, but not from God. He is with them (in His knowledge) when they spend the night conspiring and preparing their unacceptable speech. Here you are arguing on their behalf in this worldly life but who will argue for them on the Day of Resurrection, or who will (then) be their advocate? Whoever does a wrong or wrongs himself but then seeks forgiveness of Allah will find Allah Forgiving and Merciful. And whoever earns (commits) a sin only earns against himself…But whoever earns an offense or a sin then blames it on an innocent (person) he has taken upon himself a slander and manifest sin. Was it not for the favor of Allah upon you (O Muhammad) and His Mercy, a group of them would have misled you. But they do no mislead except themselves and they will not harm you at all.

Do not let the hatred of a people prevent you from being just. Be just that is near to righteousness and fear Allah, for Allah knows well whatever you do (Q. 5:8).

The Qur’an allowed Muslim males to marry females from the people of the Book (Jews and Christians) and allowed their food with the exception of pork and wine. (Q. 5:5). The Prophet himself married Safiya, the daughter of Huyai bin Akhtab, the Chief of the Jews, who was killed fighting the Prophet in the Battle of Khaybar. The Prophet gave her the choice of accepting Islam so that he could marry her, or remaining in Judaism and he could free her and send her to her relatives. She chose Islam and marriage with the Prophet after she saw his kindness and charity. She became one of the wives of the Prophet and a mother of all the believers through out the ages.

The ruler of Egypt sent Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) Mariya, the Copt as a concubine. She adopted Islam and joined his house and became the mother of his son Ibrahim who died in early childhood. The court physicians from the time of the Umayyad dynasty in 680 until Muhammad Rashad, the last Caliph of the Ottoman Empire, were mostly Christians, Sabians, or Jews. Very few Muslims became court physicians. These non-Muslim court physicians amassed great wealth and influence. Bacht Yushu, the court physician of Harun al-Rashid (the Abbasid Caliph) had great influence on the caliph, and many ministers and leaders sought his intercession with the caliph. The vizier in the Umayyad dynasty and other rulers in Spain, was on many occasions a Jew or a Christian. Similarly, in Abbasid caliphate many Sabians, Christians, and Jews held important posts in the government. The Fatimids of Egypt (also ruled Syria, Hijaz, and Yemen) were fond of Jews, Christians, and many of their administrators were non-Muslims. Some of these ministers became Isma’lite Shi’ites and became leaders in this sect. Such was Ya’qub (Jacob) ibn Killis who was also the prime minster of the Fatimid caliph al-Mu’iz and his son al-‘Aziz (Nizar). Saladdin had in his court many physicians (six Jews, six Christians and six Muslims) their Chief being Musa ibn Maymun (Miamonides).

Because of that We ordained for the Children of Israel that if anyone killed a person not in retaliation of murder, or (and) to spread mischief in the land—it would be as if he killed all mankind, and if anyone saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of all mankind (Q. 5:32).

Diya (literally means compensation for loss) blood fine: which is the value of 100 camels of different ages (or 200 cows or 2000 sheep) to be paid to the the family of the deceased. ’Umar ibn al-Khattab, the caliph, decided it would be 1,000 gold dinars in areas where camels are not available [ 14 ]. The compensation should be paid by the adult male members of the tribe (clan) of the killer (aqila), as they should bear with him this heavy burden. If a killer does not have that support then the caliph Omar made the administration to provide that. Muslim scholars today, allow insurance policy, since the tribal support and the caliphal administration are not available nowadays. This applies also to unintentional death or injury in medical practice [ 15 ];

Manumission, i.e., emancipation of a slave. If not available, as is the case today, then;

Fasting for two consecutive months to show his repentance for causing the death of an innocent person, though unintentionally. Murder, i.e., intentional killing, is punished by capital punishment unless the family or any one of them agrees to pardon the criminal. “O you who have believed, prescribed for you, is legal retribution for those murdered-the free for the free, the slave for the slave, and the female for the female. But if any remission is made by the brother of the slain, then grant any reasonable demand; and compensate him with handsome gratitude… In law of retribution (qisas) there is saving of life to you, O you men of understanding” (Q. 2:178–179)

Preservation of life entails seeking remedy, and that requires knowledge of medicine. Imam Shafi’i (d 204H/820 CE) said that knowledge (science) has two main branches: One of religion and the second of human body (al ilm ilman ilm al adyan and ilm alabdan). It is incumbent of the Muslim community to produce health professionals, and it is considered a sin for the whole community if they do not produce the required number of healthcare professionals. Ibn Sina (d 428H/1037 CE) in his poem “Al-‘arjuza fi al-tib” defined medicine aim as “preservation of health and restoring it when it is lost [ 16 ].” He defined medicine in his textbook “Al-Qanun” as “the science, which studied the body of man in health and disease, its aim being to preserve health, ward off disease, and restore health when it is lost [ 17 ]. Abubaker Al Rhazi (d 932 CE) defined medicine as the science, which keeps and promotes the health when it is there, and restore it when it is lost [ 18 ].” It is noteworthy that they emphasized the preservation and promotion of health, which was unfortunately neglected to a great extent in modern medicine. Only recently have health authorities started to implement some measures in health preservation and promotion. Curative medicine brings more money, while health preservation and promotion gives the companies and health professionals little money, if any.

Al Izz ibn Abdul Salam, a renowned Islamic jurist (d 660H/1243 CE) in his book “Qawa’id al Ahkam (Basics of Rulings) [ 19 ],” said: “The aim of medicine, like the aim of Shari’ah (Islamic law), is to procure the maslaha (utility or benefit) of human beings, bringing safety and health to them and warding off the harm of injuries and ailments, as much as possible.” He also said: “The aim of medicine is to preserve health; restore it when it is lost; remove ailment or reduce its effects. To reach that goal it may be essential to accept the lesser harm, in order to ward off a greater one; or lose a certain benefit to procure a greater one [ 20 ].” This is a very pragmatic attitude, which is widely accepted, in Islamic jurisprudence, and it is frequently applied in daily practice in all fields including medicine.

Seeking Remedy [ 21 ]

Islam considers disease as a natural phenomenon, and a type of tribulation that expiates sin. However, man should seek remedy. The Qur’an puts it succinctly: “And when I fall ill it is He who cures me” (Q. 26:80). Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) ordered Muslims to seek remedy when they fall ill. He said, “Never Allah sent a disease without sending its cure” (AlBukhari) [ 22 ]. He also said, “O servants of Allah, seek remedy for Allah in His glory did not put a disease without putting for it its cure [ 23 ],” “Some will know that cure while others will not [ 24 ].” He himself sought remedy and described medicaments of his time to his family and followers.

The jurists declared that seeking remedy may be obligatory in life-saving situations, or when there is an infectious disease that will affect the whole community. The person infected cannot abstain from treating his ailment, if it is available. In non-lifesaving situations and when there is no harm of communicable disease, seeking remedy is commendable and encouraged. However, in futile cases, it may be reprehensible (makrooh). It may be haram, i.e., prohibited if it involves sorcery, divination, or talismans as it encroaches on Islamic faith (creed).

It is also prohibited if it involves killing animals, using pork, blood, or alcohol. Only when no alternative medicament is available should these substances be allowed, and it should be prescribed by a trusted Muslim physician [ 25 ]. Not only should human life be respected and preserved, but also animals (not used for food) should be treated well and preserved. The Prophet (PBUH) said: “A man went into Paradise because he gave water to a thirsty dog” [ 26 ]. Similarly: “A prostitute of Bani Israel was forgiven and entered Paradise, as she gave water to a thirsty dog” [ 27 ]. On the other hand, a woman was thrown into the Hellfire because she incarcerated a cat until it died of thirst and hunger [ 28 ]. He also said: In every animal with a liver, there is recompense if you do good to them [ 27 ].

(III) Preservation of A’ql (Mind, Intellect, Reason, Sanity)

And in your creation and all the creatures He has spread about, there are signs for people who use their minds (reason) (Surah AlJa’athiya 45/4). There are signs for people who use their minds (reason) (Surah AnNahl 16/10–12).

The Qur’an has many verses (ayas), which extol using our minds (reason). But alas those who refuse their faculties of reason (intellect, mind, thinking) will be transgressors and abode Hell. “They say: if only we had really listened and used our minds (reason), we would not have been companions of the Blaze” (Surah AlMulk 67/10).

The mind (reason, a’ql, intellect, thinking faculty) should be used to reflect on creatures of the Lord and His signs all over. We are endowed with this great faculty, with which we can acquire knowledge, make inventions and build civilizations, and above all live harmonious life with justice, equity, and fraternity. However, man misuses this great faculty and spreads mischief and does evil. Preservation of a’ql (mind, intellect, reason) is the third most important aim of Islamic teachings. Masking these faculties by liquor or drugs is prohibited and is reprehensible. Unfortunately, our great faculty of mind could be perturbed and swayed by egotistic, devilish desires, which will end in corruption on land and sea. Anything that will corrupt our minds should be prevented and that will help engender a non-belligerent peaceful just world.

The squanderers are the brothers of devils (Surah AlIsra 17/27) Do not spend wastefully (Surah AlIsra 17/26)

Those who waste or squander their wealth should be prevented from squandering, as the wealth is not for them alone. It is the wealth of the nation: “To those weak of understanding (squandering their fortune), do not give them your property (in fact their property, but the community has to supervise how it is spent), which God made you to supervise; but feed them and clothe them, and speak to them words of kindness and justice” (Surah AlNisa 4/5).

Usually two of the relatives or acquaintances of the squanderer complain to the court and provide evidence of his mismanagement of wealth. The court will study the case, and if the plaintiff is proved right, then the court will take custody of the property (fortune, wealth) and appoint controllers. If such a thing happened to the debacle of 2008, where mismanagement was rife, the world would have been saved from the economic plight and depression. Islam prevents all devious transactions, usury, selling of imagined virtual values, and what is called derivatives. In fact, most financial transactions of the world banks and bourses are considered illegitimate and invalid if controlled by Islamic Shar’iah. Many of the industries will be banned, e.g., wine and spirit industry, breweries, tobacco industry, sex industry, gambling, etc., to name a few of the harmful deleterious industries. The world would be saved economically, financially, health wise, and global peace and justice will be forthcoming.

(V) Preservation of Progeny : Anything that is going to harm the progeny or lineage is prohibited. The structure of the family is a cornerstone of society, and marriage is the only recognized institution for procreation. Procreation outside wedlock is not allowed. Fornication, adultery, sodomy, and all sexual perversions are not allowed. Same-sex marriage, incest, child, and wife abuse are all condemned, and appropriate measures taken to prevent such heinous actions and transgressors and perpetrators should be deterred by appropriate punishment. If sexual relations outside wedlock become widespread, then sexually transmitted diseases will increase and new plagues will appear, e.g., AIDS pandemic. Most cases of abortion are done for girls and ladies outside wedlock. Abortion by itself is harmful to the pregnant woman.

Islam allows abortion for certain medical reasons, e.g., serious disease of the expectant mother that makes continuation of pregnancy hazardous to her health or even to her life. Similarly, if there is a severe congenital anomaly, then abortion will be allowed if agreed upon by a committee of gynecologists. This subject will be discussed in a separate chapter, later on. Anything that affects the progeny, e.g., smoking by parents, especially during pregnancy or lactation is considered prohibited (haram). In fact, smoking tobacco was considered “haram” prohibited, since its appearance in Islamic countries (about 500 years ago) and I (MA) compiled a book on most of these Fatwas until the end of the twentieth century [ 29 ]. There is nowadays a consensus among Islamic scholars to consider smoking as “haram” prohibited, as it is deleterious to health and kills 5 million persons annually as claimed by WHO.

• Fundamentals of Islamic Jurisprudence (Usul al Fiqh)

All the laws (ahkam = plural of hokom) of Islam are built on the sources of Qur’an , Sunnah . The scholars of Islam if they reach a consensus on a certain point, then it is called ijma and becomes an important source. However, ijma is built on a text of the Qur’an or Sunnah, which may be evident or implied. There are many other sources of different Islamic Schools that we will discuss here after a quick explanation about the Qur’an and Sunnah.

1. The Glorious Qur’an : The literal word of God, revealed to Muhammad (PBUH) by the Archangel Gabriel which continued for 23 years (lunar) intermittently from the month of Ramadhan (July 609 CE) when Muhammad (PBUH) reached the age of 40 when he was meditating in the Cave of Hira in a mountain of Makkah (now called Jabel al Noor) until a few months before his death.

The first verse (aya) and Surah was Iqra (Recite/Read) “Read! In the Name of your Lord, Who has created (all that exists). Has created man from Alaqah (morsel that clings to the womb) and your Lord is the Most Generous, Who has taught (the writing) by the pen [the first person to write was Prophet Idrees (Enoch)], Has taught man that which he knew not.” (Q. 96:1–5)

When the Qur’an was collected and compounded this Surah AlAlaq is Chapter (Surah) 96 in the Qur’an. It is not put in chronological order; the arrangement of the verses (ayas) and chapters (Surahs) were done according to the orders of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) himself, which were directed by the Archangel Gabriel.

The last verse is Surah Al-Ma’ida 5:3: “Today I have perfected your religion for you, and I have completed my blessings upon you, and I have approved Islam for your religion.” Some Scholars of Islam quote Surah 2 Al-Baqarah/Aya 281, as the last aya (verse) of the Holy Qur’an , “And fear a day wherein you shall be returned to Allah, and every soul shall be paid in full what it has earned, and they shall not be treated unjustly.” More than half of the Qur’an (19/30) was revealed in Makkah during the first 13 years. The rest (11/30) was revealed in Medina in the last 10 years of the life of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). The Qur’an revealed in Makkah were usually short Surahs (chapters) that stressed the dogma of monotheism, the life after death, the Day of Judgment, the salient fundamentals of Islam, while the Qur’an revealed in Medina came in long chapters (Surahs), e.g., AlBaqarah, AlImran, AlNisa, AlMa’ida, and so forth. It has lengthy ayas, regulations of life during war, prohibition of usury, details of how to write and witness contracts, laws of inheritance, prohibition of Alkhamir (intoxicants), certain foods (pork, carrion, blood, and whatever is slaughtered for idols). It gives more detail for a settled community with a formation of government, jurisdiction, and law.

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) himself did not write or read, but he ordered a group of companions both in Makkah and Medina to write whatever ayas (verses) or Surahs (chapters) of Qur’an were revealed. Around 40 of the companions (Sahaba) wrote the Qur’an on leather, parchments, tables of stones, ribs of palm branches, and broad big bones (scapulae) especially of camels.

Many of the Sahaba (companions) by the end of the life of the Prophet (PBUH) compounded their own book of Qur’an in leather and pieces of parchment, the most notorious being Ali ibn Abi Talib the cousin of the Prophet and his son in law who married Fatima the daughter of the Prophet (PBUH). He was the first male to adopt Islam, which he did when he was a child of about 10 years, as he was reared in the house of Muhammad (PBUH). Abdulla ibn Ma’soud, an early Muslim from the Mekkan period has also his own collection “Masahaf ibn Ma’sood.” From Medina, Zaid ibn Thabit and many others were well-known scribes (writers of the Qur’an). Hundreds of Muslims learn the Qur’an by heart.

When Abubakr al Siddiq became Khalifa, after the death of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), he waged wars against the Apostates of Arabia, and many of those pious who know Qur’an by heart, were killed in the battles. Omar was afraid that Qur’an would be lost if more of these Sahaba (companions) were killed and suggested the collection of Qur’an, which Abubakr agreed to and did. The whole collection of parchments, leather, bones, etc., were kept with Hafsa bint Omar, one of the wives of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). At the time of the third Khalifa Othman ibn Affan, some Muslims read the Qur’an and pronounced it in their own dialect (Arab tribes have as many dialects as their number). Othman collected the Sahaba (companions) and all agreed to write the Qur’an on the pronunciation of Quraish, the tribe of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) himself.

Uthman commissioned seven copies, and each copy was sent to a certain locality, e.g., Egypt, Iraq Basra & Kofah, Yemen, Makkah, and of course Medina. This final compilation of Qur’an was made in 30H/650 CE. The ayas (verses) of the whole Qur’an are 6,232 and the words 77,934 with 90 Surahs (chapters) classified as Mekkan and 24 (lengthy) as of Medina. The verses dealing with religious ordinances of jurisprudence are around 500 verses only. Any translation of the Glorious Qur’an, in any language, is not considered Qur’an. It is a translation of the meaning of the Qur’an according to the knowledge and acumen of the translator. It never has the sanctity of the Qur’an, and cannot be used for recitation in prayers. Only Arabic language is the language of the Qur’an. All Muslims all over the world recite the Qur’an in Arabic in their prayers, and try to understand the meaning in a translation in their language.

Many Muslims, who even do not know Arabic, learn the whole Qur’an by heart and recite it in beautiful correct recitation!! This is one of the wonders of the Holy Qur’an. God, Exalted be His Name, said: “And We have certainly made the Qur’an easy for remembrance; so is there any who will remember?”. (Q. 54:17)

The beauty of the language of the Qur’an is immutable, and its rhythm is suitable for remarkably beautiful recitations, admired by those who even do not know Arabic. The art of calligraphy was created by Qur’an’s writers.

The Qur’an is the soul of the Muslim, and the center of his artistic attitudes. At the same time, it is the text from which all the ahkam (rulings) of Islamic jurisprudence are derived from. Only the knowledgeable scholar who is a master of Arabic language, who knows the meaning of every aya (verse), derived from the explanation of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), and his companions, and who knows when and where these ayas (verses) were revealed. Knowing the circumstances makes his understanding deep and henceforth his derivation of ahkam (rulings of jurisdiction) proper. He should know the historical appearance of these verses (ayas), so that he will know Naskh (abrogation of certain rules). The prohibition of Khamr (wine) took 3 years in Medina [ 30 ]. Alcohol was indispensable in the life of pre-Islamic Arabs. Tensions were high, tribal feuds, and fights were the norm, and for trivial causes, cousin tribes would fight each other to near annihilation. Family was disrupted. The Arabs considered liquor as a source of joy, benevolence, good food, and indispensable tool for keeping good health. A’isha, the youngest wife of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), was quoted in Al-Bukhari [ 31 ] to have said: “If the Qur’an first told the Arabs not to drink wine and not to gamble or perform fornication or adultery, they would have said: “No, we cannot comply.” The Qur’an kept putting in their hearts the fear and love of God, the description of the life hereafter with its paradise and Garden of Eden for those who obey, and Hell and its fire for those who rebel, until their hearts softened. Then they were commanded to stop drinking wine, adultery and gambling and they complied with.”

Even then wine was not abruptly prohibited. The first verse was in Surah Al-Nahl 16/67, “And the fruits of the palms and the vines, you take therefrom an intoxicant, and provision fair. Surely in that there is a sign for a people who understand.” This verse merely contrasted, “A provision fair (Rizqan Hasanan) with an intoxicant, thus indicating the difference [ 32 ]… The next verse to be revealed on the subject of wine was Surah AlBaqarah 2/219: “They question you concerning wine and gambling. Say: In both is heinous sin and uses for men, but the sin in them is more heinous than the usefulness.” The third verse to be revealed on the subject was when one of the companions (Abdul Rehman ibn Owf) led the congregation in prayers, while he was inebriated. He made hideous mistakes in reciting the Holy Qur’an in his prayers [ 33 ]. Surah Al-Nisa 4/43 says: “Oh who believe do not pray when you are drunken until you know what you are saying.” As Muslim prayers are all over the day from dawn to night prayers (Isha’), there is little time to drink except after Isha’ (night) prayers. That was called by Arabs “Al Ghabuq.” Certainly it reduced the consumption of alcohol in Medina. The final blow to wine drinking was delivered when a feast was held between Ansar of Medina and Muhajereen of Makkah was celebrated and Khamr was served. Once intoxicated they started boasting, followed by fighting with the bones of the feast. Later when they were restored to their senses, they were depressed and felt sinful and ashamed. At this point, the Qur’an appeared and announced that gambling and intoxicant liquors were henceforth prohibited for all Muslims through all ages. Surah AlMa’ida 5/90–91: “Satan wants only to cast among you enmity and hatred by means of AlKhamr (intoxicating liquor) and games of chance (gambling) to turn you away from prayer. Will you not then desist?” They cried: “O Allah we have desisted.”

Anas ibn Malik (the servant of the Prophet said: “When wine was banned, the Arabs were still loving wine, and nothing was more difficult for them than to conform to prohibition. However, they conformed well. Every one of us who had wine at his home brought it out in the street and threw it away. For many days the lanes of Medina swelled of the intoxicant liquor [ 34 ].” Ever since that fateful day, Muslims—in general—all over the world have abided by the prohibition, and accordingly they are the least affected by alcoholism problems. Though Muslims constituted different nations and cultures, the majority of them kept their abstinence through the ages. This is due to the gradual prohibition of wine, step-by-step, which in 3 years succeeded to convert the Muslim Arabs who loved wine as a source of joy, magnanimity, courage, and indispensable tool of keeping good health, and using it as a medicament when they got ill. The USA Prohibition Act, the 18th Amendment Act of January 16, 1919 proclaimed “that after one year from ratification of this article, the manufacture, sale or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into or the exportation thereof from the United States and all the territories subject to its jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited” [ 35 , 36 ]. The US government and law enforcement agencies tried hard to implement this act, but alas after 14 years of prohibition (1920–1933), the 18th Amendment Act was repealed by the 21st Amendment of December 5, 1933 [ 35 , 36 ]. Alcohol prohibition lost the battle and no attempt to revise the concept of legal prohibition is likely to be tried again in USA or Europe or anywhere in the world except in Islamic countries.

The gradual prohibition of AlKhamr in Medina (3 years) time was amazingly successful, while the USA of the twentieth century miserably failed.

Arnold Toynbee in his book “Civilization on Trial [ 37 ]” said: “Islamic spirit…may be expected to manifest itself in…a liberation from alcohol which was inspired by religious conviction, and which was therefore able to accomplish what could never be enforced by the external sanction of an alien law…Here, then, in the foreground of the future we can remark…valuable influences which Islam may exert upon the cosmopolitan proletariat of a Western society that has cast its net round the world.”

And now suddenly people have never before been able to hear this message (of Islam), hear it, and believe it, and are changed…(Islam) has been able to do what generations of welfare and housing projects and playgrounds have failed to do: to heal and redeem drunkards and junkies, to convert people who have come out of prisons and keep them out, to make men chaste and women virtuous, and to invest both male and female with pride and serenity that hang about them like unfailing light.

The miracle had taken place again. The Arabs of Jahiliyyah were changed by the Islamic faith. Similarly, the new converts in USA and elsewhere are changing. The eternal problem of alcohol dependence is being solved today as it was solved 1,400 years ago by a few verses (ayas) of the Qur’an which were revealed in 3 consecutive years, using events that make the effect of the gradual prohibition deep and effective.

If this is called “naskh” abrogation of the Qur’an , then it is a most benevolent and wise order, in order to change and redeem people without need for law enforcement, which fails in the end, as being exemplified by the failure of the Prohibited Act of Alcohol in USA (1920–1933). Now we can understand the advantages of this “naskh” abrogation with this vivid example of alcohol prohibition in the Qur’an. Unfortunately, some Western scholars (called Orientalists) tried their best to criticize the Qur’an for this so called ‘ Naskh .”

The waiting period (the period for which a woman would abstain from remarrying after death of her husband) was mentioned in Surah AlBaqarah 2/240 as one year for which she will have full sustenance. But she was given the choice if she gets out of her deceased husband house, she will lose the sustenance. The repealing verse (aya) was made by the same Surah AlBaqarah Verse 234, which made it only 4 months and 10 days. This explains that the Arab custom for widow idda, was one year, and abrupt change in their custom would cause consternation. Once they had deeper faith, it was changed to the new regulation, which would help the widow to feel for certain if she is pregnant, i.e., quickening which usually occurs at 4 lunar months and 10 days.

Another example of naskh (abrogation, repeal) is the Qur’anic injunction, which orders Muslims to fight their enemy even if the enemy number is 10 times the number of Muslims. Surah AlAnfal 8/65 reads, “O Prophet, urge on the believers to fight. If there be twenty of you, patient men, they will overcome two hundred; if there be a hundred of you, they will overcome a thousand unbelievers for they are a people who understand not.”

It was repealed by the next aya (verse) (Surah 8/66), “Now God has lightened it for you, knowing that there is weakness in you. If there be a hundred of you, patient men, they will overcome two hundred; if there be of you a thousand, they will overcome two thousand, by the leave of God; God is with the patient.”

Anyhow, the scholar of Islam who can formulate Hokom “rule” should be well-versed and knowledgeable of both Arabic language and Qur’anic studies. He must be also well versed in Sunnah .

Sunnah Qawliyah the Sayings of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)

Sunnah Fi’liyiah, i.e., the deeds and acts of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)

Sunnah Taqririyah, e.g., sayings and deeds of others, which reached the Prophet and he approved of it (approvals).

Whatever the Prophet (PBUH) said, did, or approved, was compiled and collected later on in different books of Sunnah . At the time of the Prophet (PBUH) only a few of the Sahaba (companions) wrote some of the Sunnah, i.e., Ali ibn Abi Talib who wrote the amounts of compensations, Abdullah ibn Amr ibn Al-As who wrote many traditions, and Abdullah ibn ‘Umar ibn Al-Khattab who wrote few hadiths.

The Prophet (PBUH) himself was wary not to mix the tradition with the Qur’an . Similarly Abubakr and ‘Umar were more worried, lest the Qur’an be intermingled with Sunnah or Hadith . After 30H/650 CE when ‘Uthman finalized the compilation of the Holy Qur’an, the danger of mixing Hadith with the Qur’an became less likely. It was only at the time of the pious caliph ‘Umar ibn Abd al-‘aziz (101H/703 CE) that the collection of Hadith started, since by this time there was no risk of mixing or mistaking the Hadith with Qur’an.

Imam Malik ibn Anas of Medina (93–179H/d777 CE) wrote his famous book al-Muwatta, which contained more than 300 Hadiths plus his rulings (hokom) in many Fiqh questions. In the third century of Hijra the most well-known Sunni compilations of Hadith appeared. Musnad Ahmed ibn Hanbal contained about 30,000 Hadiths. The compilation was according to the narrator of the Hadith at time of Sahaba (companions of the Prophet [PBUH]). This was followed by Sahih AlBukhari (the most authentic book narrators of Hadith. The compilation of Muslim is better organized than AlBukhari). AlBukhari (194–256H died 870 CE) and Muslim (206–261H/d875 CE), were contemporaries; and both travelled widely to investigate meticulously the correctness of the narratives and the authenticity of the chain of transmitters (isnad). The Sunan of Tirmithi, Abu Da’ud, AlNasa’i and ibn Maja appeared in the fourth century of Hijra.

To the Shia the leading compilation is Al-Kafi by Mohammed bin Yaq’ub Al-Kulayni (d329 H). The chain of narrators is different from the Sunni group, usually including Ahl Al-Bait, i.e., the descendants of Ali and Fatima. But there is great similarity in the substance of Hadith (Al Mat’n) in all Islamic sects, viz, Sunni, Zahiri , Zaidi, Ja’fari , and Ibadi. There are of course some differences in the substance, but they are usually minor ones, especially regarding Fiqh (jurisprudence). The differences are more salient in some aspects of dogma (already discussed in the previous chapter). The Science of Hadith (Ilm AlHadith) emerged to scrutinize the chain of narrators, i.e., Sanad, and the substance of the Hadith, i.e., AlMat’n. The chain of narrators (4 or 5) from AlBukhari or Muslim or Ahmed ibn Hanbal (and somewhat more by those coming a century later), goes back to the Prophet (PBUH) himself. If the Sahabi (companion) of the Prophet (PBUH) is dropped the Hadith is called Mursal, i.e., of weak narration, unless supported by other Hadiths.

The Musnad Variety Falls into Three Varieties

Mutawatir, i.e., narrated “uninterruptedly” by several narrators on the authority of the Prophet, followed by several narrators down to the compiler, i.e., Al-Bukhari, Muslim, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, and so on. These are considered the most authentic as it is related by a group of narrators in each epoch of time. Accordingly, it becomes certain that the report is from Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), or the act has been done by him, e.g., the five prayers.

Mashhur (well known) which was narrated by more than one narrator, but not reaching in number that of Mutawatir.

Khabar Al-Wahid, i.e., narrated by one of the companions and then by one or two of the following class until it reaches the compiler.

These are also divided into sahih (correct) or hasan (good) or da’if (weak) and refuted. In matters of dogma, the Qur’an and Mutawatir tradition are obligatory to follow, while in jurisprudence and actual verdict, on different subjects, the mutawatir, mashhur, and khabar al wahid are used; but the chain of narrators must be accepted in a khabar al-wahid (narrated by one person in each class of narrators).

III. IJMA is defined as the juristic consensus of all competent jurists after the death of the Prophet (PBUH). It was possible to have all Sahaba (companions) scholars in Medina at the time of Abubakr, ‘Umar and part of the time of ‘Uthman. Afterwards, the Sahaba dispersed in many places, e.g., Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Persia, etc., and some claim that ijma after the time of the Sahaba is almost impossible to reach as the Muslim Scholars were in widely scattered places, and their consensus was difficult to reach. Many jurists including Hanbalis and others accept the agreement of the four righteous caliphs (the Rashidun) as tantamount to binding ijma. Others considered the followed fatwas of the Sahaba (juridical opinions) as ijma. Imam Malik considered the practice of Medina people since the time of Abubakr, the 1st Caliph (Khalifa) to his time, as a legitimate source of Islamic jurisprudence, as the people of Medina, lived with the Prophet and Sahaba, and their practice tallies with this important source. Therefore, Amm-aal Ahl AlMadina “The Practice of Medina People” is a legitimate source for Imam Malik. Other jurists, for instance, Imam Shafi, did not agree to that, and the practice of Medina people should be supported by Qur’an , Sunnah or ijma to be considered as a source. Jurists agreed that an expressed ijma is binding (if there is an expressed agreement of every single qualified jurist). However, Hanafi jurists considered the silence of the jurists to a particular opinion as an effective implied agreement if the silent jurist is acquainted with the issue and sufficient time has passed to research and express his opinion [ 39 ].

Both consultation and using juristic reason (ijtihad) are normal preliminaries for arriving to a binding consensus. The Kholafa Rashideen, the four righteous caliphs, (Orthodox Caliphs) consulted the Sahaba on whatever a novel issue that arose. If they all agree to one opinion, then it is considered ijma that has to be accepted by all coming generations of jurists. However, if ijma is on an issue of war and peace, or of a political situation that is going to change, it is not considered binding for future generations of jurists.

IV. Qiyas (Analogy, Syllogism)

Dr. Isam Ghanem in his concise book “Outlines of Islamic Jurisprudence” [ 39 , 40 ] discussed the Qiyas lucidly and succinctly. I will quote him here:

In its widest sense, the use of human reason in the elaboration of the law was termed ijtihad (“effort” or “exercise” of one’s own judgment) and covered a variety of mental processes, ranging from the interpretation of texts to the assessment of the authenticity of Traditions. Qiyas or analogical reasoning, then, is a particular form of ijtihad, the method by which the principles established by the Qur’an , Sunna , and ijma’ are to be extended and applied to the solution of problems not expressly regulated therein. Qiyas (analogical deduction) must have its starting point in a principle of the Qur’an, Sunna, or ijma’ and cannot be used to achieve a result which contradicts a rule established by any of these three primary material sources.

When a new case or issue presents itself, reasoning by analogy with an original case covered by the Qur’an , the Sunna or ijma; is possible provided the effective cause of ‘illa is common to both cases, e.g., wine is prohibited by the texts, and the ‘illa” ( cause) is intoxication. Therefore, spirits are prohibited by qiyas because they also cause drunkeness. So the prohibition is extended by analogy.

The majority of Muslims, including the four major Sunni schools, accept qiyas as a legitimate method of deducing rules of law. Indeed Caliph ‘Umar in his famous letter to his Judge? Qadi in Kufa (Iraq), Abu Musa al- Ash’ari , wrote “Study similar cases and evaluate the situation by analogy,” which is a clear direction to judges to reason by analogy where applicable. The Prophet approved Mu’adh bin Jabal’s use of judicial opinion where no text in the Qur’an or the Sunna covered the point in issue.

V. 59, S. al-Nisa’ (Women—Chap. 4) reads: “Obey God and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. If you should quarrel on anything refer it to God and the Messenger”. The istidlal or guidance provided is that if no rule obtains, then go back to the texts to deduce a rule.

V. 43, S. al-‘Ankabut (The Spider—Chap. 29) reads: “And these similitudes We put forward for mankind, but none will understand them except those who have knowledge (of Allah and His Signs, etc.). (Q. 29:43)

Thus the four pillars of qiyas are:-

An original subject (asl)

The object of the analogy, being a new subject (far’)

The effective cause (reason) common to both subjects (‘illa)

The rule arrived at by qiyas (hukm)

intoxication

prohibition

This is the Hanafi position. Other schools invoke the hadith “all intoxicants are Khamr” (related by Ibn ‘Umar and compiled by Abu Da’ud and Ahmad). In other words spirits and beer are prohibited by the hadith as far as most schools are concerned.

The following are leading examples:

The Qur’an (V. 9, S. al-Jum’a—Friday—Chap. 62) prohibits sale transactions after the last call to the Friday prayer. The rule is extended by qiyas to other transactions which distract Muslims from the Friday prayer.

The hadith deprives a killer from sharing in the inheritance of his victim. This rule is extended to the law of bequests. English law developed the same rule by case law.

Jurists also talk of categories of qiyas. Thus where the ‘illa is more evident in the new case the rule is more applicable to it than to the original case. Where the cause if less evident, then the rule is extended only if the similarity is sufficient to justify the extension of the rule (hukm). This is simply a matter of degree or relativity, e.g., the ‘illa in the case of whisky is stronger than that in the original case, wine, and so the rule is extended and applied a fortiori.

The Zahiri School does not recognize qiyas (analogy) as a source of Islamic Jurisprudence. The Shiite Jaafri School do not accept Qiyas , though they accept a similar source, which they call aql (reason). Similarly the Ibadiyya use what they call ra’y (opinion = reason). Both in fact use Qiyas under a different name. Some of the Mu’tazila, like Ibrahim bin Sayyar, refused Qiyas like the Zahiris (including ibn Hazm of Andalusia).

We have discussed the sources of Islamic religious law above in brevity and now we will discuss the other subsidiary sources for Islamic Jurisprudence briefly.

• Subsidiary Sources

These subsidiary sources concentrate on public interest (utility) viz istihsan ( Hanafi School) and al-Masalih al-Mursala ( Maliki School). Another source is Sadd ul-Dhara’i, i.e., blocking ways and means that will cause change or evasion of Shari’ah rules. Istishab, i.e., accepting what is already there, e.g., the legal presumption of innocence until the proof of guilt is established. All things are halal and allowed in the absence of prohibition, and so forth. Urf is the custom of any group or community; and is accepted unless it violates a clear “nass,” i.e., a verse of the Qur’an , or Hadith (sayings of the Prophet (PBUH) or ijma (of the companions of the Prophet (PBUH) or all the scholars of Islam on a certain issue and so forth). Fatwa al-Sahabi is the decision of the companion of the Prophet.

The laws of the People of the Book, which was not abrogated by Islamic teachings, could be used as a source of Islamic jurisprudence. Not all the Schools of Islamic Jurisprudence agree on all these subsidiary sources, but the differences are minor. The Hanafi School use what they call Istihsan while the Maliki use the “AlMasaleh alMursalah,” both of which look after public interest and accept utility. All the schools accept al Urf. The Fatwa of alSahabi: (Decision of the Companion) could be chosen from several Fatwa’s of different companions. Even then the jurists are not obliged to follow the Fatwa’s of the companions, unless the consensus is reached (Ijma) and then becomes obligatory to follow.

• Al Maslaha and al-Masalih al-Mursalah*

Al- Maslaha (the public and personal interest) is a major aim in Islamic teachings. It is not limited to this life, but to the hereafter. All the Islamic jurists who wrote on Usul al Fiqh (the principles, bases or fundamentals of Islamic Jurisprudence) wrote extensively on Maslaha. However, Imam Malik (d 179 AH/896 CE) of Medina was the first to write on al-Masalih al-Mursalah which takes care of public interest.

We will first discuss very briefly the Maslaha , and then discuss al-Masalih al-Mursalah (unspecified or unrestricted interests).

Abu Al Ma’ali al-Juwayni (d 478 AH/1085 CE) wrote his book, “al Burhan fi usul al Fiqh ” (The Proof in the Fundamentals in Islamic Jurisprudence). “He was the first to introduce the theory of levels of necessity in a way that is similar to today’s familiar theory”, as Dr. Jasser Auda says in his book “Maqasid alShari’ah as a Philosophy of Islamic Law” [ 41 ]. He suggested five levels and the purpose (aim) of Islamic Law which are: The Protection of Faith, Souls (life), Minds (aql), Private Parts (al ourat) and Property (al mal). He also wrote another book called Ghiyath alUmam (The Salvage of Nations) which concentrated on Usul al Fiqh (Fundamentals of Islamic Jurisprudence) and Maqasid AlShari’ah (The Aims of Islamic Teachings) [ 41 ].

Abu Hamid al Ghazali (d 505 AH /1111 CE) [ 41 ]

Al Ghazali, the student of al-Juwayni was even more prominent than his mentor. He wrote profusely on Usul and alMaqasid in his books, “alwageez, alwaseet, albaseet and alMustasfa (the purified source). He was the one who put the necessities of maqsid (aims of shari’ah) as preservation of (1) faith (2) soul (life) (3) mind (4) offspring (progeny) (5) property, which are similar to his teacher al-Juwayni, except that he replaced alawrat (private parts) with offspring.

Al Ghazali differentiated between the true masalih and the imagined masalih (almawhumah) [ 41 ]. AlGhazali said: “ Maslaha means fulfilling what Shari’ah was meant for: The purpose of Shari’ah is preservation of (1) Deen (faith) (2) Nafs (soul or life) (3) Aql (mind) (4) Nasl (offspring), (5) Mal (property, wealth). Anything that threatens them is mafsadah (corruption) and warding off is maslaha [ 42 ].

Al-Izz ibn Abdul Assalam (d 660 AH /1209 CE) [ 41 ] is another great jurist of Islam. His book, “Qaw’id al Ahkam fi Masalih al Anam” is a very important reference on the subject of Masalih, Maqasid, and Mafasid. Besides extensive investigation of the concepts of maslaha (interest) and mischief or corruption (mafsada), al-Izz ibn Abdul Assalam linked the validity of rulings to their purposes. He said, “It is unlawful to overlook any common good or support any act of mischief in any situation, even if you have no specific evidence from the script, consensus or analogy [ 41 ].”

Ibn alQayyim (d 748 AH /1347 CE) [ 41 ]

Ibn alQayyim is his book, “I’lam alMuwaqqi’in an Rabi alAmeen” [ 43 ] said: “Shari’ah is based on wisdom and achieving people’s welfare in this world and the afterlife (hereafter). Shari’ah is all about justice, mercy, wisdom, and good. Thus any ruling that replaces justice with injustice, mercy with its opposite (cruelty), common good with mischief or wisdom with nonsense is a ruling that does not belong to Shari’ah, even if it is claimed to be so according to some interpretation” [ 43 ].

Abu Ishaq al-Sha’tibi (d 790 AH /1388 CE) [ 41 ]

Al-Sha’tibi built on al-Juwayni and al-Ghazali structure of necessities, but he was the most extensive writer on maqasid (aims of Shari’ah) up to recent times. His book, “al Muwafaqat fi usu’l alShari’ah (Congruencies in the Fundamentals of Shari’ah) is the classic reference in this subject. AlSha’tibi considered the maqasid (aims) as an integral part of the Fundamentals of Islamic Jurisprudence (Usu’l al fiqh). He even considered almaqasid as the fundamentals of religion, basic rules of the law, and universals of belief (usu’l aldin wa qaw’aid alShari’ah wa Kulliyat al milhah) [ 44 ].

Al-Shatibi considered the purpose (aim) of Shari’ah is to secure the interest (maslaha) of the individual and community, which he put under the three titles (1) Essentials (Dharurat) (2) Needs (Hajayat) (3) Luxuries or complementaries (Tahsinat). We have already discussed these above.

Al-Tufi (d 716 H /1316 CE) a Hanbali jurist who gave Maslaha precedence even over the implication or some understanding of the specific script and defined alMaslaha as what fulfils the purpose of legislation [ 45 ]. Many jurists wrote extensively on Maslaha (public and private interest and on unrestricted interest (al-Maslaha al-Mursalah). The search for public interest is given different names in different Mazhab, e.g., Hanafis call it Istihsan , Malikis call it Maslaha Mursala (singular) or Masalih (plural) and the Hanbalis call it istislah (seeking the best solution for the general interest). The Malikis, e.g., Ibn Rushed (Averros) and Hanbalis, e.g., Ibn Qudama occasionally use the term Istihsan (like the Hanafi ’s) [ 39 ].

Al- Shafi’i rejects this source as he takes the view that it could open the door to the unrestricted use of fallible human opinion that many contradict the clear texts of Qur’an and Sunnah . Shafii jurists say that they look after maslaha (public interest) and avoid mafsada, even when the matter is not mentioned either in the Qur’an or Sunnah, by using Qiyas (analogy, syllogism) especially if they do not stick to the strict regulations and rules of Qiyas [ 39 ]. All the rules and regulations put by a Muslim government, which are not arrived at by the studying of the Qur’an, Sunnah, Ijma, or Qiyas could be resolved by resorting to alMasalih alMursalah (the unrestricted, unspecified public interest). For example, the traffic laws are easily brought under the Masalih alMursala.

The Malikis relaxed the degree of moral probity (adala) required of a witness in communities where the strictly desirable degree is exceptionally rare [ 39 ]. The hadd (law) of amputation for theft is not applied even if all the evidence and criteria are satisfied provided there was famine which forced people to steal. The Shafii would apply the same rule, because Omar (the 2nd Caliph) ruled not to amputate thieves at the time of famine. The Shafii accepts the Fatwa of Sahabi (Companion of the Prophet (PBUH) but not by way of Istihsan or Maslaha Mursalah [ 39 ]).

The important thing in accepting Maslaha Mursalah or Istihsan that it should not in any way contradict an ordinance derived from the Qur’an , Sunnah , or ijma. The eating of meat, which has not been slaughtered in accord with the rules, is only permissible where no other food is available; the extreme example being the eating of animal corpses in dire need and starvation. However, the human corpse is not allowed to eat, as some jurists deemed it a poison [ 39 ]. If Muslim prisoners of war are used by the enemy as a shield, then it is allowed to aim at them their arrows, if the enemy is going to cause disastrous defeat for the Muslim community, and if there is no other way of avoiding the Muslim prisoners. But if the Muslim community is not in danger then it is not allowed to kill the Muslim prisoners used as a shield by the enemy.

‘Umar ibn al-Khatab ordered the spilling of the adulterated milk, as a punishment that would prevent deceit, and the sale of adulterated milk. ‘Umar also erected state prisons. These are clear uses of almasalih almursalah. Malik gave several fatwas which are based on public interest [ 39 ], e.g., (1) The Muslim ruler may exact additional taxes from the wealthy in emergencies and time of need (2) the Khalifa (Caliph) does not have to be the most meritorious claimant, otherwise strife will be inevitable.

Murad Hoffman in his book, “Islam the Alternative [ 46 ] commented on Maslaha used by Islamic jurists by the following: “It is clear that Islamic Law thus remained flexible enough to take into account the requirements of public interst, but it was also open to reception of some pre-Islamic customs.”

Istihasan : is used by the Hanafi School which means equitable preference or seeking the most just solution. It is defined as equitable preference to find a just solution. It is the preference of a ruling other than the one arrived by qiyas (analogy), when the rule is found to be harsh or contrary to the custom [ 47 ]. The Istihsan needs not to contravene a text of the Qur’an or Sunnah or ijma.

Examples of Istihsan [ 39 ]

Bay’ al-Wafa (a sale subject to future redeem was allowed because of the practical need for such transaction). The prospective borrower sells his property back when he repays the price. The borrower gets by way of loan the price (to be repaid) and the lender gets the use of the property as a consideration or a quid pro quo [ 39 ]. The physician is allowed to see the private parts even of a woman if there is a need in order to examine her and treat her.

A divorce in death or sickness does not deprive the wife from her share in the inheritance, because the husband is trying to evade his obligation. The divorce is called the divorce of an escapee. The Hanafis maintain that entitlement of the divorcee last during the idda (the husband died before she finished her idda, i.e., the waiting period). The Hanbalis maintain that she will be entitled even after idda, if she is not remarried; while the Malikis accord the right to participate in the inheritance even if she is remarried provided the praepositus (the dying husband) did not recover in between the illness and his ultimate death [ 39 ].

Istishab : means legal presumption of continuances or the rule of evidence. The presumption in the laws of evidence that a state of affairs known to exist in the past continues to exist until the contrary is proven. The legal presumption of innocence until the proof of guilt is established is based on Istishab [ 39 ]. Things are presumed halal (allowed) in the absence of prohibition. A debt is presumed to subsist until its discharge is evidenced. A marriage is presumed to continue until its dissolution becomes known.

Doubt does not vitiate the validity of ibadat, e.g., if a man is certain that he made ablution, but doubts that he passed a flatus, he can do prayers without redoing ablution. A judge (Qadi) will presume ownership from valid deeds until the contrary is proven. Similarly if a person is missed in war or long travel and no news are coming he is called “mafqu’d,” his wife remains tied to matrimonial bond until the court issues a decree to the contrary, namely death after due enquiries. All the Islamic Schools of Fiqh accept Istishab, with minor differences in the details.

Urf and A’da

Urf embodies custom tradition, local habit, and trade or professional code. In litigations over negligence or medical errors, the professional code, and the opinion of the specialists in the field will identify negligence from expected side effects of the medical or surgical treatment. Similarly, when there is a difference of opinion between the expenses of certain operation or medical management, the Urf (custom) in that country and location will be resorted to Urf is also recognized by all Schools of Islamic Jurisprudence. All customary (Urf) are valid as long as there is no provision in the matter in the texts ( Qur’an or Sunnah ) or other primary sources. The cardinal rule being that urf must not contradict any other clear rule of Islamic Law.

Presents by a fiancé to his fiancée do not form part of dower.

In partnership deeds, if the shares are not specified, then there is a presumption of equality.

In the sale of immovable property the title to buildings, trees, etc., on the land passes to the buyer.

Actually in all professions there was a head of that profession (part of muhtasib functions) who would decide what the Urf (custom) decided when there were differences. Contracts to manufacture (fabricate) furniture or build a house will be controlled by the Urf decided, when there is difference, by the guild or the muhtasib (the Supervisor of the markets) or umda (mayor). The Maliki School gives more rope to custom than the other Schools of Fiqh , but all of them accept Urf as a valid source unless it contravenes a clear Islamic Law of the Qur’an , Sunnah , or Ijma.

Sadd al-Dhara’i

Al-Dhara’i literally means causes, reasons, or means. Sadd: means closing the door or removing the cause. The blocking of ways in the face of evasion of the Shari’a rules to prevent the achieving of illegal ends, even if the method involved is legal is the essence of Sadd al-Dhara’i [ 39 ]. It is in a way similar to al- Maslaha al-Mursalah which sometimes closes the door and sometimes opens the door to keep Shari’ah Law.

The paying of ransom to free Muslim prisoners of war is permitted and encouraged, even though such payments boost the finance of the enemy.

The paying of specific money annually to the enemy in order to keep peace with him, when the enemy is much stronger than the Muslim government. However, the Muslim government or community must strive to build its forces, so that it can repel the enemy and stop paying levies to him.

The prohibition of the cursing of idols and false gods of other religions that will be retaliated by cursing of Allah.

This last example is clearly an Islamic, Qur’anic injunction.

An official in the Islamic government is not allowed to receive gifts from the public, as long as he is in office. Any gift is considered as a bribe.

Monopolies of essential commodities is not allowed.

The digging of a well in the way of people without putting walls or barriers on it, is not allowed as it may cause children or animals to fall in it. During night there should be some light so that people do not tumble over it.

There are many other examples such as biya alajal, i.e., buying a certain good (car or house) at a higher fixed price, if it is to be paid in installments over a certain time (1 year or more). The increment of the price may look like usury (interest), but it is not. The owner will lose some benefit if he sells the house or car, and the ownership will be transferred to the buyer.

He will not be able to regain his property, even if the buyer failed to pay the remaining installments. The court will decide on the matter and if the buyer is capable of paying, he will be forced to pay, but if he is not capable of paying he will be helped by the community or government from zakat or other sources.

Shar’min Qablana (The Laws of Previous People of the Book)

The laws of previous People of the Book may be accepted when there is no other source that we can use to arrive at a decision. Most of the laws of Moses in Torah (Nomos) are either accepted clearly by the Qur’an or Sunnah or abrogated [ 48 ]. If there is no other source, e.g., Ijma, Qiyas , or the subsidiary sources, then it is allowed to use the law of the People of the Book, if it is not abrogated by Islamic teachings.

• Notes and References

Open Access This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

• Cite this Page Al-Bar MA, Chamsi-Pasha H. Contemporary Bioethics: Islamic Perspective [Internet]. Cham (CH): Springer; 2015. Chapter 3, The Origins of Islamic Morality and Ethics. 2015 May 28. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-18428-9_3
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Introduction to Islam: An Online Text

M. Cherif Bassiouni

Introduction

The purpose of this book is to convey to a non-Muslim audience an understanding of Islam, its history, culture, and contribution to civilization.

The mix of an easy-to-read text and visual representations including maps, charts, pictures, and drawings with informative captions explains the important message of Islam in a way that the reader will hopefully find thoughtful and appealing. Relevant verses of the Qur'an and sayings of the Prophet (Hadith) have been included where appropriate, as support for the narrative, and their interspersing sets out their relevant importance. The Arabic text of the Qur'an was also included because no translation can do it justice.

Most of the Qur'an quotes were translated by me in reliance upon several published translations, especially The Holy Qur'an translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali (Khalil Al-Rawaf, 1946). My translation was done with a view to make the non-Arabic reader better understand the intended meaning.

This is both an informative and an artistic book which covers many aspects of Islam: religious, historical, geographic, social, legal, political, economic, cultural, scientific, and artistic. These aspects are dealt with in a way which at times may seem cursory but this does not forsake accuracy or depth.

The primary goal of this book is to inform those who know little or nothing about Islam and to enhance their understanding. As an educator that is all I can ask for and as a Muslim, that is all I can aspire to. But as a member of the family of humankind I would feel gratified if this book can lead to a better understanding among peoples of the world and thus contribute to peace and harmony in our universe. Whether all or some of these expectations will be fulfilled is some thing the reader will have to judge.

M. Cherif Bassiouni Chicago, September 1988-H. 1409

In the Beginning

The religion of islam, islamic law - the shariah, schools of thought in islam, the social system and morality of islam, economic aspects of islam, islamic civilization, the present and the future, about the author, acknowledgements.

It is estimated that there are over 900 million Muslims today. Many live in the Arab World (estimated at 120 million), but many more live in countries such as Iran, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, China, the USSR, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad, and Sudan. An estimated 3 million Muslims reside in the United States.

The world's three monotheistic faiths—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—were born and developed in that small region called the Middle East. Abraham was born in the city of Ur, Mesopotamia (Iraq), some 1900 years before Jesus was born in Bethlehem (Palestine). Muhammad was born in Mecca (Saudi Arabia) in 570 A.D. Moses lived in Egypt, as did Jesus for a brief period in his infancy; Muhammad traveled throughout the Arabian Peninsula.

The Middle East straddles Africa and Asia Minor It is bordered on the north from Turkey to Tunisia by the Mediterranean. To the southeast it is bordered by the Indian Ocean, which encircles the Arabian Peninsula, and to the east by the mountains of Iran and Turkey. To the west of Egypt lies the Sahara Desert. The races which inhabited these territories were the Semites, Hammites, Aryans, and the Indo-Europeans.

The Middle East region is the cradle of all the ancient civilizations. The oldest of these civilizations, the Egyptian, extended over five millennia. The fourth millennium B.C. witnessed the birth of the great civilizations along the Tigris-Euphrates valley (Turkey, Syria, Iraq). The Nile-centered Egyptian civilization was largely self-contained; those of the Tigris-Euphrates valley had more frequent contacts with other civilizations. As a result, they were periodically transformed as they came in contact with different cultures and peoples. The most important of these ancient civilizations were the Sumerian, Mesopotamian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Assyro-Babylonian, Aramean, Phoenician, Carthagenian, Canaanite, Hebrew, Philistine, Chaldean, Hurrian, Hittite, Kassite, and Mitani. Their peoples spoke a number of languages including Akkadian, Aramaic, Syriac, Sumerian, Hebrew (the language of the Torah), and Arabic (the language of the Qur'an).

In the first century BC the Greeks and then the Romans through conquest established their presence in the region. Then from the seventh to the eighteenth centuries AD the Arabs extended their presence to Europe and Asia. The ebb and flow of their conquests enriched the cultures with which they came in contact through the intermingling of peoples and the transfer of values and knowledge. The richness of Arab Islamic culture in the arts and sciences and the dissemination of Arab Islamic culture throughout the Mediterranean basin and Asia Minor and into Europe and portions of Asia and Africa has served to make it one of the foundations of today's civilizations.

He it is who created the heavens and the earth in six days; then mounted the throne. He knoweth all that entereth therefrom and all that cometh down from the sky and that ascendeth therein; and He is with you wheresoever ye may be. And Allah is Seer of what ye do. Qur'an 57:4

Prophet Muhammad and the Birth of Islam

The word "Islam" is derived from the same root as the words salaam (peace) and silm (the condition of peace). Islam means to abandon oneself in peace. A Muslim, consequently, is one who in peace gives or surrenders himself or herself to God. Islam means accepting the faith freely—heart, mind, and soul. Surrendering to Islam, as a result, means giving oneself to belief without reservation, accepting the tenets of faith, and following both the letter and the spirit of the Qur'an's prescriptions.

Abraham, also called "The Patriarch," is the most important of the early prophets to the Jews, Christians, and Muslims. He founded, in what is now Mecca, the first temple in the world for the worship of a single god. He was also the father of lsma'il (Ishmael) and Ishaq (Isaac). The descendants of Isaac ultimately formed what became the Hebrew tribes. The tribes of the Arabian Peninsula, the descendants of Isma'il, were the first people to become Muslims.

Until the 7th century the entire area of the Arabian Peninsula bordered on the west by the Red Sea, on the east by the Gulf, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Fertile Crescent (now Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, portions of Palestine and Jordan) was inhabited for the most part by nomadic tribes. There were three Jewish tribes in Yathrib near Madina and others in Yemen. There were also a few Christians in the north and west of the Peninsula and in Yemen. Most of the inhabitants, however, were pagans. Muhammad was known to meditate in the solitude of the desert. He frequently visited a cave called Hira just outside Mecca. During one of his meditations—he was 40 years old at the time—he received the first of his revelations from God. The Qur'an identifies the bearer of the message as the angel Gabriel, who commanded the Prophet Muhammad to read. When Muhammad responded that he didn't know how, Gabriel replied, "Read in the name of your Lord Who created man from a clot of blood..." In this way Muhammad became the bearer of the divine message.

Proclaim! (or Read!) In the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created— Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,— He Who taught (the use of) the Pen... Qur'an 96:1-5

In Islam there can be no confusion or doubt that Muhammad was a man, and only a man, chosen by the Creator to fulfill a divine mission as a prophet. Muhammad's mission was literally to "read" what Allah had ordered and ordained, nothing more. The Prophet received his revelations from God, sometimes in solitude sometimes in the presence of others. Words flowed from his mouth in a way that others described as inspired. This was Muhammad's wahy (divine inspiration or revelation). Muslims believe that the Qur'an is the Word of Allah expressed through the revelations to the Prophet.

Among the Arab tribes, the most powerful and noble was the Quraysh, into which Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib was born on Monday at dawn on the 12th of Rabi' Awal (the year 571 in the common era calendar). That year was known as the year of the Elephant—the year the Abyssinians invaded Mecca to destroy the Ka'ba. The year received its name from the fact that the army of the Abyssinians was supported by elephants!

According to tradition, the Prophet Muhammad is a direct descendent of Ishma'el, the son of Abraham. Muhammad's mission was presaged by the deliverance of his father, 'Abd Allah, after he had been chosen for sacrifice. The story is this. 'Abd Allah had nine brothers, but he was the favorite son. His father 'Abd al-Muttalib was in charge of the well of the pilgrims. When the water of the well, Zamzam, dried up, he was at a loss as to what to do. He was advised to make offerings to the gods of one of his sons. Muhammad's father was chosen by lot. Reluctant to carry out the act, 'Abd Allah's father beseeched the pagan priests to spare his favorite son. They suggested that camels be offered in his stead. It took one hundred camels to satisfy the gods. The well filled again, and the life of 'Abd Allah was spared. This recalls the saying of the Prophet: "I am the son of the sacrificed..."

After his birth, as was the custom of the Arabs, Muhammad was given to a wet nurse, a nomad named Halimah as-Sa'diyah, to learn the ways of the desert early on in life. She recounted the following story about the Prophet. When the boy was four years old, two men dressed in white came, took the child, and removed something black from his chest. This story is often used to interpret Surah 94, Verses 1-3, of the Qur'an, which reads: "Have we not Expanded thee thy breast?, And removed from thee thy burden, the which did gall Thy back?"

At the age six, Muhammad lost his mother, Aminah of the clan of az-Zuhrah. 'Abd al-Muttalib cared for him until the age of eight. His uncle, Abu Talib raised him, and taught him caravan trade after the death of his grandfather. Over the years Muhammad earned the name al-Amin—the honest—for his rare qualities of character.

The history of the Prophet, his deeds and sayings, were at first memorized by his companions and passed on as oral record. They were first comprehensively recorded by the historian Ishaq ibn Yasar (ca. 768). Later the deeds and sayings of the Prophet (the Hadith), the circumstances surrounding their occurrence, and the evidence of those who first witnessed and reported them to others were recorded by a number of scholars. The most authoritative is al-Bukhari. His text is still relied upon today.

Interior of the Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem. The uppermost inscription in the dome is a Qur'anic verse which begins, "God there is no god but He, the Living, the Self-Subsisting Eternal...." The lower inscription, above the windows, records the restoration of the building by Saladin in the late 12th century. (Aramco World Magazine, September-October 1996; photo Peter Sanders). The Spread of lslam

After discussing his message secretly with his wife, Khadijah, his cousin Ali, and his friend Abu Bakr, the Prophet decided in the year 622 to leave Mecca, where he had lived in some danger. He migrated to Yathrib (later Madina), whose inhabitants had invited him to come and spread his message. For this reason the history of the Islamic community is considered to have been formally born on the night of the hejira, the night of migration, when the Prophet departed Mecca for Madina. The city became the caliphate seat until Damascus replaced it in the year 661. The people of Madina embraced Islam, and gradually, through a series of both military engagements and acts of diplomacy, Muhammad was able to reenter Mecca and to spread the word of Islam throughout the Arabian Peninsula.

The beginning of the risala, the message from a transcendental perspective, might be said to have begun with Creation, which is when God ordained things to be. From a temporal perspective, however, it began with the first revelation of the Prophet.

After the death of the Prophet in 632 AD, his message spread north of the peninsula into Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Palestine, and Persia. In 638, after the battle of Yarmouk against the Romans, the victorious Arab Muslims entered Palestine. The Romans, during their occupation of Palestine—particularly after their occupation of Jerusalem— had destroyed the Jewish temple and expelled the Jews from Jerusalem in 70 AD They had subsequently prevented freedom of religion for Jews and Christians in Palestine until Constantine officially recognized Christianity in the fourth century.

It must be noted that the official church of Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire), at al-Roum, was equally oppressive as its pagan forebearers. In particular, it vigorously suppressed the Eastern Christian churches of Syria and the Coptic Church of Egypt. However, since Muslims were by the Qur'an's mandate obligated to respect the "People of the Book," their predecessors in receiving divine revelation, they established a covenant with Christians and Jews. Earlier, when the Prophet had migrated to Madina in 622, he had entered into an agreement with the Jewish tribes of Yathrib (later called Madina) when he had journeyed to that city. However, when they joined forces with the Meccans against him, he was forced to turn against them. This brief episode did not harm subsequent Muslim Jewish relations.

Umar ibn al-Khattab was the second elected khalifa or caliph (successor) after the death of the Prophet. He was the head of state of the Muslim nation at the time. About to enter Jerusalem in 638 after his forces had triumphed over the Romans at the Battle of Yarmouk, Umar descended from his horse and called at the gates of the city for all of the leaders of the Christian Church to meet him there. Addressing their elder, Bishop Sophronious, he made the historic Covenant of Umar, requiring all Muslims forever to guarantee Christians freedom of religion, use of their houses of worship, and the right of their followers and pilgrims to visit their holy places. Umar also rescinded the Roman decree banishing Jews from Jerusalem and pledged to protect their freedom of religious practice. The Covenant of Umar was, in effect, the first international guarantee of the protection of religious freedom.

Islam then spread to Egypt in 641 and to all of North Africa by 654. Until the Middle Ages, Islam was present from southern France to China—virtually the entire known world. The spread of Islam was due in part to the military prowess of the Muslim forces. But the message the Muslims were spreading and the manner in which they administered the conquered regions were their strongest asset. They brought with them not only a new and uplifting faith but a system of government which was honest and efficient. They established a civilization that was to flourish for hundreds of years.

Man reads the Qur'an atop an old fort in Hunza, a remote valley in the the Karakorum Mountains in northern Pakistan, possibly the highest outpost of Islam in the world. (Aramco World Magazine, January-February 1983; photo S. M. Amin).

By establishing freedom of religion and religious practice for Christians and Jews, they made the followers of these two faiths their principal allies in the countries they sought to enter. In Egypt, for example, it was the Archbishop of the Coptic Church who invited the Muslims to free Egypt from the Roman occupiers in 641. The Coptic Church had been established by St. Mark shortly after the death of Jesus. However, it had been persecuted on religious grounds by the Byzantine Church ever since the Council of Chalcedon had declared monophysitism a heresy in 451. Promises of Coptic support caused Umar ibn al-Khattab to send Amr ibn al-As, the leader of the Muslim forces, into Egypt. With less than 2,000 men, Amr defeated the 12 Roman legions stationed there. The support given the Muslims by the Copts of Egypt insured the success of the campaign.

Although the primary objective of Muslim administration in every new territory was the establishment and propagation of Islam. Muslims also brought to the conquered peoples more effective government administration with a high level of motivation, integrity, and service. Frequently they ended tyrannies that had long existed in many of these countries, liberating rather than subjugating the population.

Throughout the history of Muslim rule, relations between Muslims, Christians, and Jews varied. The Muslims as a rule used leaders drawn from the indigenous population in public administration and did not seek to destroy the local identity of the various areas in which they became implanted. This is why centuries later, notwithstanding the fact that much of the Arab portion of the Islamic nation had been absorbed into the Turkish Ottoman Empire, most of these areas continued to be separate regions with their own institutions, leaders, and particular characteristics. Thus, for example, Egypt and Morocco were entities administered most of the time by their own people. They enjoyed a territorial, administrative, and cultural identity distinct from other regions of Islam. The concept of Ummah or nation of Islam never precluded regional and local identity. Islam did not seek to impose radical cultural changes. In fact, because of the flexibility of Islam, it readily became part not only of the belief of the people but of the popular culture.

Islam was also spread by Muslim merchants throughout the known world along the ancient trade routes. People readily converted to a simple religion that appealed to individualism, dignity, logic, and reason. Moreover, it didn't require an organized clergy or the power of a state to propagate or enforce it.

The spread of Islam was halted in France in the year 732 at the battle of Poitiers, but it continued to expand into parts of Asia (e.g., into what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, parts of the Soviet Union, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and China) and into Africa. After the eleventh century, a succession of power struggles among Muslim leaders, as well as regional jealousies and a resurgence of Christian power in the West and in Byzantium, caused the Islamic nation to weaken. The Christian crusades of the eleventh and twelfth centuries battered the Islamic nation, although they were finally brought to an end in 1187 by the famous Muslim general leader of the Ayyubi dynasty of Egypt, Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi. The Ottoman Turkish Empire's expansion was stopped at Vienna in 1683. By the fifteenth century, however, the Arab portion of the Islamic nation had become part of the Ottoman Turkish Empire, which in turn broke apart and was ultimately dismantled by the Western European allies after World War I. Thereafter, the Arab Muslim world fell under the colonial occupation of France and England. Each country in the Arab region obtained its independence from England and France between the years 1922 and 1965, except for Palestine.

A variety of factors brought about the decline of the Islamic state between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. But the spread of the faith continues even today. The clarity, simplicity, and logic of the faith embodied in its tenets and religious practices are its principal attractions. In addition, the emphasis on individual responsibility and personal commitment as well as the absence of an organized clergy, makes Islam readily transmittable. As the Qur'an states Allah is closer to each one than his own jugular vein.

An historical chronology of the Islamic state and its various rulers follows. It shows the temporal reach and geographic spread of Islamic influence. Islam is a complex political, historical, social, and economic phenomenon; it can be studied and interpreted from a variety of philosophical, historical, and social perspectives. As a faith, however, Islam continues to speak to the modern world irrespective of its other meanings. What constitutes the Ummah, the Community of Islam, is not the existence of a political structure but the conscious acceptance of its Muslim participants of Allah's will and their mission on earth.

Mosque at Panfilov, Kazakstan, near the Chinese border. The facade is typical of the austere Islamic architecture of Central Asia, while the minaret is shaped like an ornate Chinese pagoda. (Aramco World Magazine, July-August 1988; photo Tor Eigeland). We have honoured the sons of Adam; provided them with transport on land and sea; given them for sustenance things good and pure; and conferred on them special favours, above a great part of our Creation. Qur'an 17:70

It was We who created man, and We know that dark suggestions his soul makes to him: for We are nearer him than (his) jugular vein. Qur'an 50:16

Islam in Andalusia The history of Islam in Spain is the history of one of the most brilliant Islamic civilizations the world has known, the "Golden Caliphate" of the Umayyads. The caliphate was founded by Abd al-Rahman, the sole surviving member of the Umayyad dynasty of Damascus. He had been forced to flee for his life with a younger brother when the Abbasids of Baghdad overthrew the Umayyads as the ruling dynasty in 750. His brother was captured and killed. But, enduring great hardship and peril, Abd al-Rahman—a tall, red-haired, poet warrior was able to make his way to Spain and Cordoba, the leading city, to claim his rightful position as the surviving head of the Umayyad dynasty.

Islam had come to Spain or to "Al-Andalus" as it was known to its Moorish rulers a scant 40 years before when in 710 a raiding party led by a Berber officer, Tariq ibn Malik, crossed the narrow eight mile straight separating Africa from Europe. Less than a year later an invading force of 7,000 men led by Tariq ibn Ziyad landed at Gibraltar (in Arabic "Jabal Tariq" or the Mountain of Tariq). And by 718—despite some initial resistance from the Visigoth Christian rulers and their King, Roderick— nearly the whole of the Iberian peninsula was firmly under Muslim control.

So begins the story of the rise of a caliphate that was to become the cultural center of western Islam and seat of learning for Christian Europe. Abd al-Rahman was not able to consolidate his rule for 20 years, since his claim to rule did not go uncontested either in Baghdad or Cordoba. Thus Cordoba's era of splendor really began with his successors, principally Abd al-Rahman II. It was he who imported fashion and culture from the East and set the foundations for the later cultural flowering. He even recruited scholars from the East by offering handsome inducements to overcome their initial reluctance to live in so provincial a city.

By the time of Abd al-Rahman III (912-61), the culture and civilization of Islam in Al-Andalus were in full bloom. Cordoba was a large and vibrant metropolis with a population of roughly 500,000 persons (compared to 40,000 for Paris at the time). There was a university and some 70 libraries containing hundreds of thousands of volumes. Al-Hakim II's library alone contained some 400,000 books, whereas the library of the monastery of St. Gall, had only a few volumes. Science, philosophy, and the arts flourished. The greatest minds in every discipline and from all over Europe and the Levant journeyed to Cordoba to study and learn.

The greatest of these scholars made enduring contributions to science and letters. Many have become familiar to students in the west under their Latin names, men such as the philosopher Averroes (Ibn Rushd), the mathematicians Arzachel (al-Zarqali) and Alpetragius (al-Bitruji), and the physician Avenzoar (Ibn Zuhr) to name a few.

Perhaps the most notable of all contributions of Muslim scholars to science lay in the field of medicine. Muslim physicians made important additions to the body of knowledge which they inherited from the Greeks. Ibn al-Nafis, for example, discovered the lesser circulation of the blood hundreds of years before Harvey. Al-Zahrawi wrote a masterwork on anatomy and dissection, the Tasrif, which was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona and became a standard text in European medical schools throughout the Middle Ages. Ibn Baitar wrote a famous work on drugs called Collection of Simple Drugs and Food. This work served for centuries as an invaluable reference guide to medicinal plants native to Spain and North Africa.

The greatest contribution of Muslim medicine—as it was in other fields—was to distinguish science from pseudo-science. Indeed, in an era of pervasive superstition and ignorance, the great achievement of Islamic scholars was to place the study of medicine and other subjects on a scientific footing. The West didn't achieve a comparable clarity of vision until the Enlightenment. The strongly rationalist orientation of Islamic scholars was especially pronounced in Andalusia, where new scientific developments and fashions coming from the East were often viewed with suspicion. Ibn Hazm, a prominent 11th century Andalusian scholar, put the matter this way. "Those," he said, "who advocate the use of talismans, alchemy, astrology, and other black arts are shameless liars." This pervasively rationalist attitude did much to recommend Islamic science to the rest of the world.

It is a quirk of history that, after periods of exceptional cultural brilliance, periods of decline and decay seem to come most quickly. So it was in Andalusia. With Abd al-Rahman III's successor, the effective but unpopular al-Mansur, the long decline of Muslim rule in Andalusia began. The vibrancy and energy of the culture was sapped by internal strife, as minor Muslim principalities revolted, and by the long and costly effort against the Christian reconquista. Muslim religious vigor was periodically renewed by successive Almoravid and Almohad invasions, but the culture was never again to attain the heights it had during the Golden Caliphate.

By 1248 the stronghold in Seville had fallen, and the area of Spain under Muslim control was reduced to the Kingdom of Granada. There, miraculously, Islamic culture survived and prospered for more than two and a half centuries. Ironically, however, it was most likely the Ottoman capture of Constantinople in 1453 that sealed Granada's fate. Soon after, fueled by the Christian fear of Islam, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile—the future patrons of Christopher Columbus—brought the curtain down on one of the most remarkable and glorious civilizations inspired by Islam. The date was January of 1492.

The Creator has periodically chosen human beings to reveal His messages to humankind. Indeed, the Qur'an refers to many Prophets such as Abraham, Noah, David, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and Jesus. These messages and revelations culminated in Islam and in Muhammed as the last Prophet. The historical evolution and incorporation of prior messages into Islam are clearly stated in the Qur'an. Thus Islam is not a new religion. The Qur'an refers to Islam as the religion of Abraham, Jacob, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. It is simply the last of the divine messages to reach humankind through Prophet Muhammad, who was chosen by the Creator as the bearer of his last and all-encompassing revelation. This explains why there exists a strong link between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Christians and Jews are referred to in the Qur'an as the "People of the Book" because they are the recipients of the messages of the Creator through Moses and the Old Testament prophets and through Jesus, who is believed in Islam to be the fruit of a miracle birth by the Blessed Virgin Mary.

The Qur'an (literally, recitation) contains 114 chapters revealed to the Prophet during a period of 23 years from 609 to 632, the year of his death. The divine revelations were manifested in divine inspiration, which the Prophet sometimes uttered in the presence of his companions. His words were passed on in the oral tradition of his Arabic culture. Some forty years after his death they were transcribed in the written form that has been preserved to date without change. The 114 Suwar (plural of Surah) chapters were revealed to Muhammad in Mecca and Madina. They vary in length. The Qur'an is arranged not in the chronological order of its revelation but according to the length of each Surah. The longest is first, and the shortest last. No one throughout the history of Islam has challenged the accuracy of the Qur'an.

The Arabian peninsula had a long tradition of literary achievement: Prose and poetry of all types were widely cultivated. The original miracle of the Qur'an, however, is its enduring literary achievement. Many people refuse to believe that any human being, particularly an illiterate man, could have produced it. indeed, the belief that the message was revealed by God contributed to the early conversion to Islam of the pagan tribes in the Arabian peninsula. The fact that Prophet Muhammad was a trustworthy person and that his early followers were people whose rectitude was well- established and enduring among the various Arab tribes also contributed to early conversions.

The Qur'an is written in such a way that it evokes profound emotions in the reader. The analogies, maxims, and stories provide imagery of great "psychological moment." full of an elan which imparts an uplifting sense of great destiny in life and lasting fulfillment in heaven. The richness of its form and content invites constant rereading. Moral values are intertwined with history, and the details of daily life are based on a continuum with life in the hereafter. Its topics range from the most specific to the most general and include the past and future, life on earth, and existence of the soul after death. its topics cover all aspects of human interaction as well as relations between man and his Creator. It is, in short, a comprehensive and integrated guide to life.

A man studies a copy of the Qur'an as he sits by a carved column in the Upper Swat village of Bahrain, south of Kalam, Pakistan. (Aramco World Magazine, January-February 1997; photo Luke Powell).

Say, Oh Muslims, we believe in Alllah and that which is revealed unto Abraham and Isma'il and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes and that which Moses and Jesus received and that which the Prophet received from the Lord. We make no distinction between any of them and unto them we have surrendered. (We are Muslims.) Qur'an 2:136

The Three Fundamental Unities of Islam: God, Humankind, and Religion

Islam is a universal faith for all times, all places, and all peoples. It is predicated on the belief that there is but one God, Allah, the Creator of the universe and of humankind. The Qur'an opens with the words, "In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate." Mercy and compassion are his principal qualities. The relationship which exists between God and His creation is based on one religion. These fundamental unities are the foundation of faith.

The Qur'an refers to the creation of the earth and other celestial bodies out of the darkness of chaos. Scientific theories that hive evolved about the creation highlight the unity of the universe. If God created this unique universe and shaped humankind to inhabit it, it follows that God would also have communicated with humankind through a single religion, even though it be in successive revelations. Islam is the last and most all- encompassing message of God.

If one believes that there is but one humankind which is part of a single universe created by one God, then one believes in an interrelationship among all created things. Religion in this context is a set of rules that regulate the relationship between the Creator and the created and establish the basis of accountability in the hereafter. It also sets forth the framework for permissible economic, social and political systems and formulates the principles and rules through which people should deal with one another. In effect, it provides a variety of prescriptions and guidelines as well as inspiration.

In this respect, Islam is very much a law-oriented religion. It provides the guidelines and principles upon which laws and regulations can be established. The influence of Islam must not be viewed in a narrowly legalistic light but rather as providing a framework which guarantees basic fairness and justice to all.

Islam is holistic, requiring that its followers have iman (faith) to fulfill the requirements of its religious tenets. The Muslim is required to express his Ibada, service to Allah, through his deeds, conduct, and words. The Qur'an enjoins that Muslims do good and abjure evil. Life in this world is a passage, and the eternal soul shall be judged by the Almighty on Judgment Day by intentions as well as by deeds. Reward and punishment shall be meted out in heaven and hell, but Allah is merciful to those who repent and do good. Repentance and mercy are among Islam's great themes.

"Islam is built on five (pillars) testifying that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, performing the prayers, paying the zakat, making the pilgrimage to the House, and fasting in Ramadan." The Prophet's Hadith

Bearing Witness to the One and Only God (shehada)

Allah in Arabic implies the one and only true God, the beginning and the end of everything, neither born nor giving birth. The Qur'an states that He is beyond human description, but is referred to in the Qur'an by ninety-nine attributes, such as the merciful, the compassionate, the forgiving. Together with the command to bear witness and acknowledge the singularity, centrality, unity, and uniqueness of God, the believer is enjoined to confess that Muhammad is God's messenger and prophet.

Religious Tax (zakat)

Although required by the Qur'an, zakat is specified in detail only in the practice and teachings of the Prophet and in later interpretations. It is the payment of a certain percentage of one's income to support the needy and to fulfill other objectives of the community. While this can be rightly equated to a combination of taxation and charity, zakat is different from sadaqa, charity, which is equally mandated by the Qur'an but left to the discretion of the individual Muslim, depending upon circumstances. Sadaqa is both tangible and intangible a kind word, for example, may be a form of Sadaqa. But Zakat is tangible. It is paid at the end of the Ramadan fast. Non-Muslims, the people of the book (Christians and Jews), are not required to pay Zakat but another tax, called Jizyah.

Fasting during Ramadan (siyam)

Fasting from dawn to sunset during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month in the Islamic lunar calendar, is required of those whose health permits. (The Islamic lunar calendar is 11 days shorter than the Gregorian calendar, thus the annual shift of Ramadan's occurrence in relationship to the Gregorian calendar.) It is a complete fast, requiring that nothing be taken into the body but needed medication. During Ramadan there is an emphasis on piety and religious observances. Those who are ill or traveling do not have to fast during Ramadan but must compensate by fasting and by contributing to the Zakat.

Ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, That ye may (learn) self-restraint,... Qur'an 2:183

The Pilgrimage (hajj)

The pilgrimage to Mecca once in one's lifetime is required of all those who have the physical and financial ability to make the journey. The practice derives from the divine mandate given Muhammad to rebuild the first temple of worship to God in Mecca. The pilgrimage requirement makes this desert city a gathering place for people from all parts of the world once a year. The rituals of the hajj were established by the Prophet. They emphasize repentance, resulting in forgiveness by God. The practice also strengthens the bond among the faithful from all walks of life and regions of the world. It is performed during the Islamic lunar month of Dhu al-hijja.

Makkah al-Mukarramah—"Makkah the Honored"—was the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad in 570. Within today's city, at the center of the Sacred Mosque is the focal point of Islamic prayer worldwide—the Ka'ba. The 15-meter-high (48'), roughly cubical structure was first built as a place for worship of the one God by Ibrahim (Abraham) and Isma'il (Ishmael), and it is thus a physical reminder of the links between Islam and the dawn of monotheism, between the Qur'an and previous revelations, and between the Prophet Muhammad and earlier Messengers of God. (Aramco World Magazine, January-February 1999; photo Peter Sanders).

And remember Abraham and Isma'il raised the foundations of the House (With this prayer): "Our Lord! Accept (this service) from us: For Thou art the All-Hearing, the All-knowing. Qur'an 2:127

Prayers (salat)

The Qur'an does not state the number and manner of prayers; these were established by the Prophet. The required individual prayers are said five times a day: at dawn, noon (when the sun is at the center of the sky), afternoon (when the sun is halfway to sunset) sunset, and night (after sunset but before sunrise). The only required communal prayer is the Friday noon prayer. Like the Christians' Sunday or the Jews' Sabbath, Muslims consider Friday the last day of Creation.

Prayers can also be communal; that is, in fact, the preferred way. When so conducted, the prayers are led by an im am, who is usually either a person schooled in Islam or simply one among the group who is more knowledgeable, older, or recognized by the others as being especially pious.

Muslims stand shoulder to shoulder and kneel a number of times, depending on whether it is the morning prayer (twice) or the late-night prayer (four times). Standing shoulder to shoulder, irrespective of status in life, symbolizes equality before God. In Islam, as the Prophet said, no man is better than another save for his piety, which only Allah can judge. At each kneeling, the Muslim places his forehead on the ground, a symbol of the equality of all men, humility, worship of the Creator, and the fact that from earth we come and to earth we return. All praying Muslims face Mecca, where the Ka'ba is located. It is the qibla (the direction) which provides unity and uniformity for all Muslims. At an earlier time, it was the practice to face Jerusalem, the second holiest city in Islam. The Ka'ba holds the remnants of Abraham's temple.

In the only European nation with a Muslim majority, Albania's population again throngs to the mosques since the downfall of Communism in 1990. (Aramco World Magazine, July-August 1992; photo Larry Luxner). The imam does not necessarily have any special religious status in Sunni tradition just because he is the prayer leader However, he could be a person whose schooling or training conferred on him special status, as is the case with the ulema (or scholars, plural of alem). One attains this status after having pursued an extensive education in theology throughout secondary, college, and graduate study at a theological university.

Before prayers, Muslims are required to perform ablutions, which include washing the face, arms, and feet in a ritual prescribed by the Prophet. This is not only for the purposes of cleanliness, but to provide a break from prior activity. Before ablutions and prayers, a Muslim must confirm within himself his intention to pray.

The prayers are usually announced by means of a summons or call to prayer (the adhan) by the muadhin, who chants or intones it. There is no particular religious status conveyed by this responsibility; the muadhin is usually a pious member of the community who has a particularly strong or resonant voice. The call to prayer starts with "Allahu akbar" (God is great), words frequently used by Muslims either in prayers or in other contexts as a reaffirmation of the oneness and omnipotence of the Creator. The expression "al-hamdu lillah" (thanks be to God) is also among the phrases most commonly used by Muslims. They are used in any situation in which a grateful or thankful response is apposite. They are a reminder that God's will and bounty are everything.

The mosque is a symbol of the uncompromising nature of Islamic monotheism. It has a distinctive architecture, which includes a minaret for the call to prayer. It does not contain any images that might be associated with religious idolatry, which Islam forbids. The architecture of mosques built over fourteen centuries in various parts of the Muslim world is an unsurpassed artistic legacy. The floors of mosque are sometimes covered with straw mats or rugs. Muslims remove their shoes before entering so as not to soil the place where they touch their foreheads to the floor to pray.

Let there be no no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from Error: whoever rejects evil and believes in God hath grasped the most trustworthy hand-hold, that never breaks. And God heareth and knoweth all things. Qur'an 2:256

"The best of you are those who have the most excellent morals." The Prophet's Hadith

The Qur'an is the principal source of Islamic law, the Sharia. It contains the rules by which the Muslim world is governed (or should govern itself) and forms the basis for relations between man and God, between individuals, whether Muslim or non-Muslim, as well as between man and things which are part of creation. The Sharia contains the rules by which a Muslim society is organized and governed, and it provides the means to resolve conflicts among individuals and between the individual and the state.

There is no dispute among Muslims that the Qur'an is the basis of the Sharia and that its specific provisions are to be scrupulously observed. The Hadith and Sunna are complementary sources to the Qur'an and consist of the sayings of the Prophet and accounts of his deeds. The Sunna helps to explain the Qur'an, but it may not be interpreted or applied in any way which is inconsistent with the Qur'an.

Copy-boards held safely out of view on their heads, students in Djenné, Mali recite a Qur'an passage from memory. (Aramco World Magazine, September-October, 1991; photo Brynn Bruijn). Though there are other sources of law—i.e., ijma', (consensus), qiyas, (analogy), ijtihad, (progressive reasoning by analogy)—the Qur'an is the first and foremost source, followed by the Hadith and Sunna. Other sources of law and rules of interpretation of the Qur'an and the Hadith and Sunna follow in accordance with a generally accepted jurisprudential scheme.

And nor shall we be punishing until we had sent them an Apostle. Qur'an 17:15

The Qur'an contains a variety of law-making provisions and legal proscriptions interspersed throughout its chapters (suwar) and verses (ayat). A number of rules exist for interpreting these provisions, such as the position of a given ayah within the context of the surah, which in turn is interpreted in accordance with its place in the sequence of revelations, its reference to other revelations, and its historical context in relation to particular conditions which existed at the time of the given revelation. These and other rules are known as the science of interpretation (ilm usul aI-fiqh). According to these rules, for example, one initially is to refer to a specific provision and then to a general provision dealing with a particular situation. No general provision can be interpreted to contradict a specific provision, and a specific rule will supersede a general proposition. A general provision, however, is always interpreted in the broadest manner, while a specific provision is interpreted in the narrowest manner. Reasoning by analogy is permitted, as are applications by analogy, except where expressly prohibited. Simplicity and clear language are always preferred. Similarly, the clear spirit of certain prescriptions cannot be altered by inconsistent interpretations. A policy-oriented interpretation within the confines of the rules of jurisprudence is permissible and even recommended, as is the case with the doctrine of ijtihad (progressive reasoning by analogy).

"Avoid condemning the Muslim to Hudud whenever you can, and when you can find a way out for the Muslim then release him for it. If the Imam errs it is better that he errs in favor of innocence (pardon) than in favor of guilt (punishment)." The Prophet's Hadith

"Were people to be given in accordance with their claim, men would claim the fortunes and lives of (other) people, but the onus of proof is on the claimant and the taking of an oath is incumbent upon him who denies." The Prophet's Hadith

Muslim scholars do not consider Islam to be an evolving religion, but rather a religion and legal system which applies to all times. It is, therefore, the application that is susceptible to evolution. Indeed, the provisions of the Qur'an are such that by their disciplined interpretation, with the aid of the Hadith and Sunna and other sources of interpretation, Islam can, as intended, provide the solution to contemporary social problems.

Fourteen centuries ago Islam was a spiritual, social, and legal revolution. Its potential for effecting progress remains unchanged. This is essentially the belief of enlightened fundamentalist Muslims. Islamic fundamentalism is not, therefore, a regressive view of history and contemporary reality. Islam at the height of its civilization, between the seventh and eleventh centuries, was neither repressive nor regressive. It was a progressive, humanistic, and legalistic force for reform and justice.

Lo! Allah commandeth you that ye restore deposits to their owners, and , if ye judge between mankind, that ye judge justly. Lo! comely is this which Allah admonisheth you. Lo! Allah is ever Hearer, Seer. Qur'an 4:58

Islamic jurisprudence has developed over fourteen centuries. Over that span of time, various schools of jurisprudence have emerged, each with its own interpretation and application of the Sharia. Many schools splintered farther, creating schools following different interpretive approaches and applications.

The flourishing abundance of ideas and views attests to the intellectual depth and breadth of Islamic jurisprudence. However, nothing precludes a given state from codifying the Sharia so as to provide for more certainty of the law and clarity and consistency in its application. Many Muslim states have done so, the most advanced being Egypt, where the presence of the thousand-year-old Al-Azhar University (originally devoted solely to Islamic studies but now to all disciplines) and centuries of legal tradition have converged to make Islamic law a source of inspiration for the entire Muslim world.

The interior of the Prophet's Mosque at Madinah with its qiblah, or prayer niche, which indicates the direction of Makkah. (Aramco World Magazine, November-December, 1991; photo Abdullah Dobais). The Sunni and the Shia

The Sunni tradition, which today comprises approximately 85-90 percent of all Muslims, differs from Shia tradition, which comprises the remainder of the Muslim world. The distinction between the two traditions essentially derives from different approaches to governance. The Sunni believe, based on specific provisions of the Qur'an and the Sunna, that the Muslim people are to be governed by consensus (ijma') through an elected head of state, the khalifa, according to democratic principles. The Shia, however, believe that the leader of Islam, whom they refer to as the imam rather than the khalifa, must be a descendant of the Prophet. The concept is the basis for a hereditary hierarchy in the Shia tradition.

The Shia movement dates from the period when a group of Muslims wanted Ali ibn abu Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, to become the khalifa instead of Abu Bakr, who had been elected the first khalifa following the death of Muhammad in 632. They advanced his candidacy on the basis of heredity. However, they were out voted. Ali ultimately became the fourth khalifa, succeeding Uthman, who succeeded Umar, who succeeded Abu Bakr. But Ali was overthrown by the rebellion of Muawia, the governor of Syria, whose seat was in Damascus. Muawia rebelled against Ali because he attributed the assassination of his kinsman Uthman to Ali's followers. Ali was subsequently assassinated after losing the Tahkim (arbitration) to Muawia. His followers then constituted what would today be cal led a political party to reinstate him and to secure succession to the Khalifa.

In 680 Hussain, one of Ali's sons, led a number of Muslims who were then rebelling against the ruling khalifa to try to establish in the area between Iran and Iraq a caliphate based on heredity from the Prophet. However, Hussain was lured into Iraq, and there at a place called Karbala he and his followers were massacred. Hussain's martyrdom spurred the Shia movement in Iraq and Iran. The anniversary of Karbala is commemorated every year by the Shia population. In Iran, in particular, it is conducted by means of a large popular demonstration in which people publicly weep and flagellate themselves as a sign of their remorse.

The political rift between followers of the principle of election and those favoring descent from the Prophet generated some other differences between Sunni and Shia approaches to jurisprudence. For example, the Shia view the sayings of Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet, and his cousin Ali (Fatima's husband), the fourth khalifa of the Islam, as equally authoritative as the Sunna of the Prophet. The Sunni do not. There are other differences involving the structure of Islam, such as existence of an organized Shia clergy, which does not exist in the Sunni tradition. Among them the Shia allow the imam much wider latitude in government than the Sunni ever could in light of the principles of consensus and equality. The most important of all differences between Sunni and Shia relates to the interpretation of the Qur'an. The Sunni look more to the letter of the Qur'an; the Shia look more to its spirit. In Arabic the distinction is referred to as al-dhaher (the apparent) versus al-baten (the hidden) meaning of the Qur'an. Thus the Shia religious hierarchy plays a determining role in interpreting the Qur'an. This role reinforces their spiritual and temporal influence in Shia society.

O ye who believe! Be steadfast witness for Allah in equity, and let not hatred of any people seduce you that ye deal not justly. Deal justly, that is nearer to your duty. Observe your duty to Allah. Lo! Allah is informed of what we do. Qur'an 5:8

And hold fast, All together, by the rope which God (stretches out for you), and be not divided among yourselves; and remember with gratitude God's favour on you; For ye were enemies and He joined your hearts in love, so that by His grace, Ye became brethren; And ye were on the brink of the pit of fire, and He saved you from it. Thus doth God make His signs clear to you: that ye may be guided. Qur'an 3:103

Sunni Jurisprudence

The Sunni follow any one of four major schools on jurisprudence founded by imams ibn Hanbal, abu Hanifa, Malek, and el-Shafei, scholars of the ninth to eleventh centuries. These schools, referred to respectively as the Hanbali, Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafei, are followed by different Muslim states either entirely or in part. Egypt is traditionally Maliki. Saudi Arabia is traditionally Hanbali, although the country follows more closely the teachings of imam Muhammad Abdal-Wahab, a Hanbali reformer of the early 1800's. Even though there are differences in interpretation of the Sharia among these authorities, they are all recognized as valid.

In its most glorious period, from the seventh to the thirteenth centuries, Islam produced a legal system founded on scientific knowledge and nurtured by a faith that has endured the test of time. But during that period it was ijtihad (progressive reasoning by analogy) which produced the most far-reaching developments. Reformers like ibn Taymiyah (late 1200's) was one of many great jurist-philosophers who opened new horizons in the knowledge and understanding of Islam's application to the needs of society. But in the twelfth century, ijtihad was pronounced ended by some theologians of the time. They argued that all was to be known was known. Consequently, Islamic jurisprudence became somewhat stagnant until its contemporary resurgence under the aegis of Al-Azhar scholars and other modern reformers of the last two centuries, such as al-Ghazali, al-Afghani, and Muhammad Abdu. Contemporary jurisprudential developments continue the work begun in past ages, meeting individual requirements and collective demands for resolving the problems and conflicts of modern life, while remaining compatible with Islam.

Laila and Majnun from the famous poem by Jami, 1571. (Aramco World Magazine, March-April 1987; photo Ergun Çagatay) Sufism

The Sufi movement is a mystical strain in Islam which reflects the need of individuals to transcend formal religious practices in order to attain higher levels of spiritual fulfillment. The Sufis are represented in all schools of thought in Islam and found in all Muslim communities. Because of its mystical, spiritual character, Sufism appeals more to individuals and small groups. It does not constitute either a sect or a school of thought, but is rather a spiritual or transcendental practice which persists despite criticism from orthodox theologians. Sufis believe they follow the Prophet's mysticism, particularly during the Meccan period of the revelations. Thus, in their practices there is much meditation and solitary or group recitation of prayers and incantations of their own religious formulas. They seek a life of ascetic pietism, shunning worldly pleasures and seeking the inward purity of a relationship with God through love, patience, forgiveness, and other higher spiritual qualities.

The tomb in Lahore of Data Ganu Bakhsh, one of the many sufis who brought Islam to Asia by peaceful means. (Aramco World Magazine, November-December, 1991; photo Nik Wheeler). Their influence on the development of Islam is more significant than is usually recognized. Their ascetic piety and rigidly ethical conception of Islamic society have influenced generations of Muslims. They have also had from time to time strong political influence. What characterizes Sufis the most is their "inwardism" or belief that the Sharia only regulates external conduct, whereas inward feelings are matter strictly between each person and the Creator. Because of their emphasis on the love of God, they have developed the doctrine of Tawakul (reliance on God), which is central to the relationship between Man and God. Sufism also has had a significant impact on the practical aspects of administering a state.

An important Hadith (saying) of the Prophet is that religion is not what one formally or ritualistically practices but how one deals with others. It is therefore not sufficient to be pious without performing deeds which demonstrate one's beliefs. It is reported that the Prophet once entered a mosque and saw at prayer a venerable old man with a long white beard. He was told that the man was in the mosque all day long, worshipping and dispensing the words of Allah to others. The Prophet then asked how he earned his living and was told that a merchant, not known for his piety, supported him. The Prophet remarked that of the two, the merchant was indeed the more worthy.

Every Muslim is the recipient, guardian, and executor of God's will on earth; his responsibilities are all encompassing. A Muslim's duty to act in defense of what is right is as much part of his faith as is his duty to oppose wrong. The Prophet once said, "If someone among you sees wrong he must right it by his hand if he can (deed, conduct, action). If he cannot, then by his tongue (speak up, verbally oppose); if he cannot, then by his gaze (silent expression of disapproval); and if he cannot, then in his heart. The last is the minimum expression of his conviction (faith, courage)."

Living the faith is ibada, service to God through service to humankind.

A view inside the ninth-century Karaouine Mosque, Fez, Morocco. (Aramco World Magazine, May-June 1993; photo Nik Wheeler).

By no means shall ye attain righteousness unless ye give (freely) of that which ye love; and whatever ye give, of a truth God knoweth it well. Qur'an 3:92

The preservation of a social order depends on each and every member of that society freely adhering to the same moral principles and practices. Islam, founded on individual and collective morality and responsibility, introduced a social revolution in the context in which it was first revealed. Collective morality is expressed in the Qur'an in such terms as equality, justice, fairness, brotherhood, mercy, compassion, solidarity, and freedom of choice. Leaders are responsible for the application of these principles and are accountable to God and man for their administration. It is reported that a man went to Umar, the second khalifa, to talk to him. It was nighttime, and a candle burned on Umar's desk. Umar asked the man if what he wanted to discuss was personal. The man said that it was, and Umar extinguished the candle so as not burn public funds for a private purpose. Leaders in Islam, whether heads of state or heads of family or private enterprise, have a higher burden or responsibility than others.

There is a relation in Islam between individual responsibility and the rights and privileges derived from membership in the community. Individual obligations must be met before one can claim a portion from the community of which he is part. Each member of a society must fulfill his own obligations and rely on others to fulfill theirs before that society can acquire the necessary reservoir of social rights and privileges which can then be shared by all. The notions of brotherhood and solidarity not only impose upon the community the duty to care for' its members, but also require each person to use his initiative to carry out individual and social responsibilities according to his ability.

And to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, And throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the God-fearing. Qur'an 2:177

"Whosoever of you sees an evil action, let him change it with his hand; and if he is not able to do so, then with his tongue; and if he is not able to do so, then with his heart—and that is the weakest of faith." The Prophet's Hadith

The equality of all Muslims is emphasized repeatedly throughout the Qur'an. It is because of that concept that Islam under the Sunni tradition does not have an ordained clergy. There is a direct relationship between every man and his Creator, and there can be no intermediary. This particular closeness between the individual and God is paramount in belief as well as in practice.

It is frequently argued that Islam is not a religion that provides for full equity among Muslims. Indeed, because Islam makes distinctions between men and women; not all rights and privileges available to men are available to women. For example, a male Muslim inherits twice the share of the female, but then a male relative has the financial responsibility to care for a needy female relative. Also, a male Muslim has the right to unilaterally divorce his wife, while she can only divorce her husband through a judge's determination. Custody of children from a divorce is given the mother, boys till age 9 and girls till age 12. Thereafter custody reverts to the father, provided that he is fit. However, the fact that there is not absolute parity in all rights and privileges does not mean that women do not share an overall equality with men. It must also be noted that certain social practices in some Muslim countries are not required by Islam, but have simply evolved in the course of time as a result of indigenous cultural factors.

Islam differentiates between Muslims and non-Muslims and between the "People of the Book" (dhimmi) and others. Only Muslims have the right to elect the khalifa. In judicial matters the oath of the Muslim prevails over that of the non-Muslim. There are therefore some differences between males and females in Islam, between Muslims and Dhimmis, and Muslims and non-Dhimmis.

One of almost 300 mosques on the Tunisian island of Jerba. These glimmering, whitewashed structures dominate the landscape, their colors shift with the changing light, and their flights of architectural fantasy seem to come in an infinite variety. (Aramco World Magazine, July-August 1994; photo Nik Wheeler). Individual Responsibility

The search for justice is one of the continuing quests of humankind. It is the quest that is prescribed by the Qur'an for every Muslim. Social and individual justice are evolving concepts which depend largely upon a variety of external considerations. Above all, Islam seeks to inculcate within every Muslim the need to seek justice and to apply it to himself as well as to others. Because Muslims believe that God is the beginning and the end of everything, all is preordained by Qadar (divine will). Qadar does not imply inaction, but, rather, acceptance. It requires the strength to change what can be changed and the fortitude to accept what cannot.

Individual responsibility is a cornerstone of Islam. Every Muslim is accountable to his Creator for what he himself does or fails to do—as well as for others for whom he may be accountable—and for things that he has control over. As in Western legal codes, individual responsibility is predicated on the intent and motive of the actor in light of his ability to do good and to avoid evil or harm to others. Thus Islam believes in free will, and to the extent that this exists a person is responsible for its exercise in the framework of Islamic morality. But the relativity of human justice is not to be confused with the absoluteness of divine justice whose application every Muslim expects without fail on judgment day. Because of the Muslim's belief in accountability in the hereafter, his oath is valid evidence in any judicial or extra-judicial process.

Serve God, and join not any partners with Him; and do good—To parents, orphans, those in need, neighbours who are near, neighbours who are strangers; the companion by your side, the way-farer (ye meet), and what your right hands possess: For God loveth not the arrogant, the vainglorious;— Qur'an 4:36

"Actions are but by intention and every man shall have but that which he intended." The Prophet's Hadith

"None of you (truly) believes until he wishes for his brother what he wishes for himself." The Prophet's Hadith

Forbearance and Forgiveness

A Muslim is accountable for what he does and what he fails to do in accordance with not only the letter but also the spirit of the law. However, even though Islam imposes a number of very rigid requirements and appears formalistic and inflexible, one of the basic premises of the relationship among Muslims, and between Muslims and others, is derived from one of the basic premises of the relationship between a Muslim and his Creator, namely, forbearance and forgiveness.

In one of the Prophet's Hadiths it is stated that a person could do such evil during his lifetime that there might be between him and the doors to hell only one step and then he could repent and ask for God's forgiveness and do one good deed and enter heaven. By the same token, a person may during his life do so much good as to be one step removed from heaven and then do one evil deed that would be sufficient to earn him hell. The meaning of the Hadith is to emphasize that, even though a person may do good throughout his life, he should never be absolutely certain that the good he has done all along is sufficient to carry him through; he should not forget that one bad deed could overcome all the good ones. Conversely, a person who has done evil all his life may repent even at the last moment and with one good deed earn paradise.

The element of forbearance and forgiveness has to be predicated on knowledge, awareness, and truth. Forbearance and forgiveness depend on the believer's recognition and acceptance of what he has done and his genuine repentance with an intent not to repeat the misdeed. That is why Muslims are encouraged to forgive the bad deeds of others committed against them.

Allah is described in the Qur'an as the Forgiving and the Merciful. Everything is forgivable by Allah except Shirk (the negation of the existence of the Singularity, Uniqueness and Oneness of the Creator.) Even so the mercy of God is infinite. A man was once brought to the Prophet for trial because he denied the existence of God. Upon review of the facts, it appeared that the man was in despair over a personal tragedy. He had been found in the desert throwing his spear to the sky and screaming that he wanted to kill God for the injustice that he had suffered. The Prophet replied, "Is it not enough that he acknowledged the existence of God to want to kill him?." The man was set free.

Women in Islam

As in most of the nomadic tribes of the ancient world, women were deemed unimportant in pre-Islamic Arabia. Indeed, in a society shaped by the rigors of desert life, women were relegated to the margins of community life.

The advent of Islam fundamentally altered the status of women in several ways. First, and most importantly, it overturned tradition by according women equal status before Allah. No longer were women denied a human face. Their souls like the souls of men were precious to Allah. They, like men, were worthy of dignity and respect. As a result of this new status and the revolution it worked on Arab society—women became pillars of early Muslim society and were counted among its strongest supporters. Several women—notably Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad and wife of Ali, the fourth caliph—even played important roles in the propagation of the faith. To the Shia, for example; Fatimah is an authoritative source of the Prophet's sayings and deeds.

Tibetan Muslim sisters in the doorway of their home in Lhasa. (Aramco World Magazine, January-February 1998; photo Kevin Bubriski). The status of women under Islam also altered as a consequence of the spread of the religion itself. As Islam became a world religion and its influence spread the character of Arab society changed, requiring that women take a larger role in society. As men hurriedly left their flocks and businesses to fight for Islam, women readily assumed the burdens and responsibilities of the home.

The Prophet set an example for the treatment of women in marriage through his relationship with his first wife Khadijah. Although fifteen years his elder, Muhammad remained a faithful and devoted husband for twenty-six years, contrary to the tradition of polygamy which prevailed at the time in Arabia. After her death Muhammad remarried, but he always remembered Khadijah with love and spoke of her with reverence. Khadijah was, in fact, Muhammad's first convert to Islam and his strongest supporter in the struggle to establish the new faith.

Aishah bint abu Bakr (613-678) was Muhammad's favorite wife of later years. Noted for her education and intelligence, in particular her ability to read and write, she was often consulted about the teachings of the Prophet after his death. She played an important role in the life of the early community, most famously by opposing the succession of Ali after the death of Uthman, the third khalifa.

Behold! the angels said: "O Mary! God giveth thee glad tidings of a word from Him: his name will be Christ Jesus, the son of Mary, held in honour in this world and the hereafter and of (the company of) those nearest to God;... Qur'an 3:45

The new, elevated status of women is apparent in numerous Qur'anic proscriptions which set out women's rights and obligations. On protecting the dignity and self-respect of women, for example, the Qur'an is emphatic and unequivocal: One of the seven hudud crimes is maligning a woman's reputation.

O Mankind: Be careful of your duty to your Lord who created its mate and from them twain hath spread abroad a multitude of men and women. Be careful of your duty toward Allah in who ye claim (your rights) of one another. Qur'an 4:1

O mankind! Lo! We have created you male and female and have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one another. Lo! The noblest of you in the sight of Allah is the best in conduct. Qur'an 49:13

"Jahimah came to the Prophet, said 'O Messenger of Allah! I intended that I should enlist in the fighting force and I have come to consult thee.' He said: 'Then stick to her, for paradise is beneath her two feet.'" The Prophet's Hadith

"The most perfect of the believers in faith is the best of them in moral excellence, and the best of you are the kindest of you to their wives." The Prophet's Hadith

The Qur'an, of course, acknowledges and makes provision for differences between men and women. Indeed, on these differences is erected an elaborate structure of individual and social rights and obligations. Some appear inequitable on the surface but on examination reveal a deeper logic and reasonableness. A man, for example, stands to inherit twice as much as a woman, but then he must provide for his own wife and family and relatives should the need arise.

The same holds true of traditional rules of dress and behavior. Women are enjoined to cover their bodies (except for the face and hands) and lower their gaze in the presence of men not related to them. Moreover, although women and men are subject to the same religious obligations—such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage to Mecca—women pray separately from men. Nonetheless, these rules of dress and behavior—however restrictive they may appear to Western eyes—serve a social function. In societies which by tradition provide few protections outside the family, they insure a woman's integrity and dignity. For that reason, too, men are enjoined to lower their eyes before women and to be appropriately covered from above the chest to the knees.

In other areas, women enjoy a strict parity with men. A woman's right to own property is just as absolute as a man's. Male kin cannot handle a woman 5 financial interests without her permission. A woman must specifically consent to marriage and cannot be forced to accept a husband she does not approve of. In cases of divorce—in a prominent departure from traditional practice—women have exclusive guardianship rights over children up to early puberty. Although a husband has the right to divorce his wife unilaterally—a right not shared by women—a wife can divorce her husband on specific legal grounds by court order.

In education, too, women have the same rights as men. In contemporary Muslim society, in fact, women have attained the same levels of education as men and in many countries occupy positions of power and influence.

Nothing in Islam prevents a woman from accomplishing herself or attaining her goals. Societies may erect barriers, but nothing in the spirit of the Qur'an subjugates women to men. In time, of course, social barriers will disappear—as they are disappearing now—because Muslim women will expect and demand it. As a result, it can only be expected that women will play an increasingly larger role in Islamic society and surpass the contributions of early Muslim women.

The parties should either hold Together on equitable terms, Or separate with kindness. Qur'an 2:229

Lo! Allah enjoineth (orders) justice (or injustice) and kindness (or unkindness) and to give to (one's) kinsfolk... Qur'an 16:90

"What did the Prophet do when in his house? She said, 'He served his wife." The Prophet's Hadith

The Islamic Calendar

The Islamic calendar is unique among the major calendars of the world. Unlike the Gregorian calendar and others based on the astronomical solar year—the length of time it takes for the earth to revolve around the sun—the Islamic calendar is based on the lunar year.

The lunar calendar is comprised of 12 lunar months like the calendar based on the solar year. However, since each month begins and ends with the new moon—a period lasting 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 2.8 seconds—each lunar year contains only 354 days (or 355 on leap years) as opposed to 365 and 1/4 days for the astronomical year. There are 11 leap years in every cycle of 30 years, the intercalated day always being added to the last day of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the year.

As a consequence of the fewer number of days in the lunar year, the lunar calendar is unrelated to the progression of the seasons. The month of Rajab, for example, could occur in summer in one year and the middle of winter 15 years later. Relative to the solar year, the lunar calendar progresses by 10 or 11 days each year so that 33 Muslim years are approximately equal to 32 Gregorian years.

The difference in the length of the lunar year accounts for some of the difficulty in converting dates from the Islamic (Hijri or "Hijrah") system to the Gregorian and vice versa. The following equation can be used to calculate the Hijrah year in which the corresponding Gregorian year began:

A.D. = 622 + (32/33 x A.H.)

The Islamic calendar was devised in the seventh century in response to the exigencies of governing the far-flung Abbasid empire. It also was created, not incidentally, to glorify the triumph of the new religion. Other calendars in use at the time were tied to other states and religions, and so, the historian al-Biruni tells us, the caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab decided to develop a new calendar based on the advent of Islam, taking July 16, 622 A.D., the date of the Hijrah or the Prophet's sojourn from Mecca to Madina, as the starting point of the calendar of the Muslim era.

The Muslim months are: Muharram Jumada al-Awwal Ramadan Safar Jumada al-Thani Shawwal Rabi' al-Awwal Rajab Dhu al-Qi'dah Rabi' al-Thani Sha'ban Dhu al-Hijjah

The following holidays are observed among Muslim communities throughout the world: 'Id al-Fitr, also known as the Little Feast, marks the end of the great fast of Ramadan. It occurs on the first day of the month of Shawwal. 'Id al-Adha, the Feast of Sacrifice, also known as the Great Feast, falls seventy days after 'Id al-Fitr, on the 10th of the month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Ra's al-Sannah, New Year's Festival, falls on the first day of the month of Muharram. Mawlid an-Nabi, the Prophet's Birthday, is celebrated on the 12th day of the month of Rabi' al-Awwal. Lailat al Isra' wa al-Mi'raj, this festival commemorates the Prophet's miraculous journey, from Mecca to Jerusalem to heaven and then back to Mecca in the same night, is celebrated on the 27th day of the month of Rajab.

The Sharia contains prescriptions, proscriptions, recommendations, suggestions, general principles, and guidelines that may be considered the basis for an overall economic theory. It is important to remember, however, that such a theory must be part of the holistic vision of Islam and the integration of all aspects of human endeavor and interaction.

In one Hadith, the Prophet said that one should work in life as if one were going to live forever. This saying does not mean that there should be no sense of immediacy or urgency to action. Rather it suggests that there should be continuity in life. It also suggests that one should not be obsessed with attaining immediate results and worldly success. On the other hand, the Hadith goes on to state that one should act with respect to life in the hereafter as if one were to die tomorrow. In this, it conveys a sense of urgency about having one's conscience in good order. These correlative maxims rest on the ethical-moral prescription in the Qur'an to do good and abjure evil.

In antiquity, especially in Asia, the gates of a city were part of a larger structure that often had several levels, with towers and interior rooms. The connecting walls and arch above this gate have collapsed, and this is all that is left of one of the gates of Tashkurghan, a city that housed a thousand shops and a score of caravanserais when it was an important trading center on the many-branched Silk Roads. (Aramco World Magazine, May-June 1991; photo by Luke Powell). While there exist numerous economic theories consistent with the Qur'an, the ethical-moral basis of all of them must be the same. Because Islam is a way of life as well as a form of government, a social structure as well as a regulatory norm for interpersonal relationships, business is not something different and apart from all these other aspects of social life. It is a part of human life like any other. Islamic society preserves the notions of free enterprise and social solidarity, social responsibility and humanistic concern for all. It precedes self-interest, though that also is the object of many specific guarantees.

The Prophet, in another Hadith, once said that nine-tenths of all rizk (the bounty of God, which includes income) is derived from commerce. That, to a large extent, explains the drive of Muslims over the centuries to meet their economic needs through commerce, industry, agriculture and various forms of free enterprise. Profits are very much a part of such activities, provided they are lawfully obtained (halal). However, profits cannot overshadow the duties of brotherhood, solidarity, charity and they are, of course, subject to zakat.

It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces towards east or west; but it is righteousness—To believe in God and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity; to fulfill the contracts which ye have made; Qur'an 2:177

Legitimacy of Profit

Islam distinguishes between legitimate (halal) and illegitimate (haram) profit, of which usury (riba) is a part. To a large extent, the problem of defining usury has arisen over matters dealing with the practices of financial institutions in the West, namely the payment of interest which in the traditional Islamic view is considered a form of riba. By collecting a predetermined, fixed interest, the Muslim neither earns a profit from his work nor shares in risk of his capital. Speculation is prohibited, as is undue profiting from the need or misery of others. Nothing, however, proscribes income derived from what would be equivalent to mutual fund or special trust earnings or other contemporary forms of financing investments where the investor also bears the burden of potential loss. In fact, there exists in Islamic law a form of contract called muqaradah. Here a person entrusts capital to another person for commercial investment. The risk-taking elements justifies the profits, which are neither fixed nor predetermined.

The ethical-moral foundation of all economic relations is based on the distinction between halal and haram as set forth in the Sharia. The particular context of a given action, considering the interests of the community and the rights of all individuals involved, determines whether it may be deemed halal or haram. Although this may appear to be vague to the non-Muslim, it is nonetheless sufficiently clear to the Muslim because of his belief in the omniscience of God.

Fulfillment of Obligations

In all of his dealings, the Muslim is required to pay his debts as well as due compensation to those who work for him. He is to honor his obligations and stand by his word. Rectitude in business dealings and personal relations is as important to the Muslim as is any other tenet of faith. Religion must be lived. Thus ethics, morality, and religion are inseparable. That is why Muslims frequently do business by means of oral agreements or a handshake as opposed to a written contract. This also explains why there is usually a reluctance to adjudicate claims on an adversarial basis, where artful arguments may be found to rationalize or justify changing positions. Therefore, in cases of disagreement in business practices, Muslims frequently resort to arbitration. The practice is no different from that which has developed in non-Muslim societies: Each side selects an arbitrator who in turn selects a third person. It is common for both sides to agree on the arbitrator, usually a person whose faith, piety, and reputation for fairness is well-established in the community.

Because of the role of the individual in Islam as the recipient and bearer of God's will on earth, the sense of individual dignity, pride, and honor is very marked in the Muslim. Ideally, position in life and economic status should not be distinguishing factors in Islam, though in modern societies these distinctions have developed. Respect for the individual applies to form as well as substance and extends to all aspects of human interaction. A Muslim's word is still his bond, and his dignity is his most cherished attribute. An appeal to higher values is more convincing than an appeal to practicality and pragmatism. Human relations are more important than practical considerations Loyalty and fidelity are among the most highly regarded qualities. Rectitude is expected, and undue advantage is considered base. Fairness is both a means and an end, irrespective of the practical realities. Honesty is not a virtue but an expected trait in every Muslim. In today's world of business these values have eroded.

Role of Work

In Islam, work, intellectual as well as physical, is considered the basis of all richness and property. There is both a right to work and a right to the product of that work, as well as a right to benefit from the rewards of divine providence. Work must always have an ethical-moral component, either in itself or in its outcome (i.e., charity, contributing to the community, etc.). There is in the philosophical sense no intrinsic wealth, although the right of inheritance is protected and specifically prescribed under Sharia, which allows for the preservation of property, its devolution and accumulation. Nonetheless, there is the implied premise that wealth should be legitimized through work. In addition, wealth must also be used for good of others, such as the needy, and for the community as a whole. The greater one's wealth and power, the greater is the responsibility to use them properly. In many respects work is considered a form of piety.

Economic freedom extends to work, property, and the choice of how to use one's capabilities and resources. The individual has the freedom to choose the type of work he does, and he has the right to work in an environment that does not impinge upon his personal dignity. Only in freedom can an individual choose how to use the fruits of his labor, that is, to use his wealth for personal aggrandizement or for the benefit of the community. There is a prohibition against jah, the flaunting of one's achievement in the face of others, particularly the less fortunate. This reflects the values of equality and humility symbolically manifested in the five daily prayers, when people stand side by side, shoulder to shoulder, kneeling in unison and putting their foreheads to the ground.

O ye who believe do not eat up your property among yourselves in wrong. But there be amongst you trade in mutual good will. Qur'an 4:29

"The buyer and seller have the option (of cancelling the contract) as long as they have not separated, then if they both speak the truth and make manifest, their transaction shall be blessed, and if they conceal and tell lies, the blessing of their transaction shall be obliterated." The Prophet's Hadith

"The truthful, honest merchant is with the prophets and the truthful ones and the martyrs." The Prophet's Hadith

"Whoever cultivates land which is not the property of any one has a better title to it." The Prophet's Hadith

The Sharia recognizes the right to private property and its uses (provided it is halal), save for the right of the community to "eminent domain." The use of property in accordance with the best interests and dictates of the owner is safeguarded, provided the rights of others are protected. There is throughout the notion that the utilization of wealth must balance the rights of the owner against the rights and interests of the community, which extends to the preservation of the property itself. Use is permissible; abuse and destruction are forbidden.

Property of whatever sort is not considered merely the personal privilege of the one who owns it. Ownership brings with it a certain responsibility towards the property itself, its use and benefits. The relationship between man and his Creator and the social responsibilities of a Muslim require that property be used not only for one's personal advantage and benefit but also for the advantage and benefit of the community. This does not mean that every commercial, industrial, or agricultural enterprise must ultimately turn into a charitable activity, hut there must be human, ethical, and moral factors that relate to the use of property. Thus, if the choice is between an ethical-moral consideration and profit, the former prevails over the latter, other things being equal.

Members of the congregation shake hands and chat near the northern entrance of the Great Mosque in Djenné, Mali. (Aramco World Magazine, November-December 1990; photo Brynn Bruijn). Contracts

Because every Muslim is accountable before both Allah and his community, a great deal of faith is placed in a Muslim's word. Contractual freedom is required and implies the ability to make free choices without undue influence. The attempt to control certain segments of the market or certain phases of a given mechanism that may either control prices or affect the natural laws of a free economy is considered haram. Thus Islamic economic liberty is inherently similar to the notion of free enterprise and socially responsible capitalism. The principles of Islamic economic theory would invalidate transactions in which deceit or undue influence is used by one person against another.

Contracts of various types are regulated by the Sharia and are subject to the concepts of halal and haram. Contracts are essentially predicated on the free will of the parties and must manifest the true expression of their intent. Economic activities based on implied contracts are also balanced by a variety of what would now be called equitable principles to insure against undue influence and lack of fairness, which affect questions of competence, validity, rescission, and damages. Thus the theory of market observation (hisba) postulates that there is a notion of accountability for the market and responsibility for its supervision. The theory originally applied to the traditional agricultural markets and their related commercial markets in the period from the seventh to the twelfth century. It can be compared to market and control mechanisms such as the Federal Reserve Board's control of currency or the Securities and Exchange Commission's control of stock transactions.

Individual contracts, implied contracts, and contracts of adhesion are to be regulated in such a way as to enhance fairness, produce equity, protect the weak and the unwary, and promote social interests. The logical extension of these principles is that no one can enrich himself to the detriment of others. In such a case the injured party has a right to compensation for his loss, not to exceed the extent of profit of the one causing the unjust loss. All of these notions of equity, including protection of the public (consumers, users, etc.), have now emerged in the legal systems of the modern world.

Four-minaret mosque, Bukhara. (Aramco World Magazine, July-August 1988; photo Tor Eigeland). Modern Legal Systems

All Muslim states have legal systems with courts, laws and judges, like elsewhere in the world. There are, however, differences among Muslim states. In some countries, such as Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria ad Tunisia, there is a tradition of legal codification and jurisprudence. Structures for the administration of justice are also well-developed. There is a three-level judiciary comprising trial courts, appellate courts, and a supreme court. The practice of adjudication of claims with representation by counsel is well-established. In some countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates and other Gulf states, there is less of a tradition of codification and a greater reliance on the Sharia. But there are also in these countries a number of laws applying to contracts, commercial relations, agency and the like, in addition to a judicial system and a jurisprudence specific to commercial matters. In the last decade, moreover, many countries have enacted civil and commercial codes—Algeria, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, for example—which are mostly mostly modeled after the Egyptian Civil Code of 1948. The Egyptian code was taken in turn from the French Civil Code and adapted to the Sharia. In the 1980's, Pakistan and the Sudan, which have codified legal systems, have been in the process of changing their laws to conform to the Sharia.

And O my people! give just measure and weight, nor withhold from the people the things that are their due: Commit not evil in the land with intent to do mischief. Qur'an 11:85

It is We who have place you with authority on earth, and provided you therein with means for the fulfillment of your life: Small are the thanks that ye give! Qur'an 7:10

Because Islam originated and has developed in an Arab culture, other cultures which have adopted Islam have tended to be influenced by Arab customs. Thus Arab Muslim societies and other Muslims have cultural affinities, though every society has preserved its distinguishing characteristics. Islamic culture inherited an Arab culture born in the desert, simple but by no means simplistic. It has an oral tradition based on the transmission of culture through poetry and narrative. However, it has been the written record that has had the greatest impact on civilization. Islam civilization is based on the value of education, which both the Qur'an and the Prophet stressed.

This dark green jade pot, 14 cm. (5½"), once furnished the Safavid palace at Tabriz, and probably passed into Ottoman hands after the Battle of Çaldiran in 1514. Before that, the dragon-headed handle suggests it may have belonged to a Timurid ruler. (Aramco World Magazine, January-February 1995; photo Ergun Çagatay). Knowledge and Education

In the Pre-Islamic period, one of the traditions was that of the mu'allaquat (literally "the hangings"). In the city of Mecca, poets and writers would hang their writings on a certain wall in the city so that others could read about the virtues of their respective tribes. Their travels from city to city and tribe to tribe were the means by which news, legends, and exploits would become known. The tradition continued as the Qur'an was first memorized and transmitted by word of mouth and then recorded for following generations. This popular expression of the Arab Muslim peoples became an indelible part of Islamic culture. Even today Muslims quote the Qur'an as a way of expressing their views and refer to certain maxims and popular tales to make a point.

Great centers of religious learning were also centers of knowledge and scientific development. Such formal centers began during the Abbasid period (750-1258 A.D.) when thousands of mosque schools were established. In the tenth century Baghdad had some 300 schools. Alexandria in the fourteenth century had 12,000 students. It was in the tenth century that the formal concept of the Madrassah (school) was developed in Baghdad. The Madrassah had a curriculum and full-time and part-time teachers, many of whom were women. Rich and poor alike received free education. From there Maktabat (libraries) were developed and foreign books acquired. The two most famous are Bait al-Hikmah in Baghdad (ca. 820) and Dar al-Ilm in Cairo (ca. 998). Universities such as Al-Azhar (969 A.D.) were also established long before those in Europe.

Then exalted be Allah the True King! And hasten not (O Muhammad) with the Qur'an ere its revelation hath been perfected unto thee, and say: My Lord! Increase me in knowledge. Qur'an 20:114

Islamic history and culture can be traced through the written records: Pre-Islamic, early Islamic, Umayyad, the first and second Abbasid, the Hispano-Arabic, the Persian and the modern periods. The various influences of these different periods can be readily perceived, as can traces of the Greek, the Indian, and the Pre-Islamic Persian cultures. Throughout the first four centuries of Islam, one does not witness the synthesis or homogenization of different cultures but rather their transmittal through, and at times their absorption into, the Islamic framework of values. Islam has been a conduit for Western civilization of cultural forms which might otherwise have died out. Pre-Islamic poetry and prose, which was transmitted orally, was recorded mostly during the Umayyad period (661-750 A.D.) when the Arab way of life began shifting from the simple nomadic life prevalent in the peninsula to an urban and sophisticated one. Contacts with Greece and Persia gave a greater impulse to music, which frequently accompanied the recitation of prose and poetry. By the mid-800's in the Baghdad capital of Abbassids under Harun al-Rashid and al-Ma'mun, Islamic culture as well as commerce and contacts with many other parts of the world flourished.

In the fourth century B.C., when Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and founded Alexandria, he set the stage for the great migration of Greek philosophy and science to that part of the world. During the Ptolemaic period, Alexandria, Egypt, was the radiant center for the development and spread of Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean. That great center of learning continued after 641, when Egypt became part of the Muslim state. Thereafter Syria, Baghdad, and Persia became similar channels for the communication of essentially Greek, Syriac, pre-Islamic Persian and Indian cultural values. As a result, Islamic philosophy was influenced by the writings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The great Muslim philosophers such as Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), Ibn Sina (Avicenna, d. 1037), Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), al-Farabi and al-Ghazali translated the works of earlier Greek philosophers and added their own significant contributions. It was essentially through such works, intellectually faithful to the originals, that Western civilization was able to benefit from these earlier legacies. In fact, St. Thomas Aquinas, the founder of Catholic naturalism, developed his views of Aristotle through the translation of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes). These great philosophers produced a wealth of new ideas that enriched civilization, particularly Western civilization which has depended so much on their works. The influence of Islam ultimately made possible the European Renaissance, which was generated by the ideas of the Greeks filtered through the Muslim philosophers. The same is true of early legal writings of Muslim scholars such as al-Shaybani, who in the seventh century started the case method of teaching Islamic international law that was subsequently put into writing in the twelfth century by a disciple in India. It was the basis for the writings of the legal canonists of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries on certain aspects of international law, in particular the laws of war and peace.

The study of history held a particular fascination for Arab Muslims imbued with a sense of mission. Indeed, because Islam is a religion for all peoples and all times, and because the Qur'an states that God created the universe and caused it to be inhabited by men and women and peoples and tribes so that they may know each other, there was a quest for discovery and knowledge. As a result Muslims recorded their own history and that of others. But they added insight to facts and gave to events, people, and places a philosophical dimension expressed in the universal history written by al-Tabari of Baghdad (838-923). In the introduction to his multi-volume work he devoted an entire volume to the science of history and its implications. Al-Tabari also wrote an authoritative text on the history of prophets and kings which continues to be a most comprehensive record of the period from Abraham to the tenth century.

The West's fascination with Arabo-Islamic (culture can be seen in many ways. "The Thousand and One Nights" captured Western Europe's cultural and popular fancy in the 1700's (first translated into French by Galland in 1704, then into English). Dante's "Divine Comedy" contains reference to the Prophet's ascension to Heaven. Shakespeare in "Othello" and the "Merchant of Venice" describes Moorish subjects. Victor Hugo writes of Persians as do Boccaccio and (Chaucer. Even "Robinson Crusoe" and "Gulliver's Tales" are adaptations of "The Thousand and One Nights." Arabo-Islamic culture, knowledge, scholarship, and science fed the Western world's development for five hundred years between the tenth and fifteenth centuries.

The Sciences

From the second half of the eighth century to the end of the eleventh century, Islamic scientific developments were the basis of knowledge in the world. At a period of history when the scientific and philosophical heritage of the ancient world was about to be lost, Islamic scholars stepped in to preserve that heritage from destruction. Indeed, without the cultivation of science in these early centuries by Islamic scholars, it is probable that texts which later exercised a formative influence over Western culture would never have survived intact. It is certain, moreover, that the modern world would look much different than it does today. For the culture and civilization that were founded on Islam not only preserved the heritage of the ancient world but codified, systematized, explained, criticized, modified, and, finally, built on past contributions in the process of making distinctive contributions of their own.

The Wonders and Curiosities of Creation Iran or Iraq 14th c. (Aramco World Magazine, November-December 1995; photo courtesy of ARCH). The story of Islam's role in the preservation and transmission of ancient science, to say nothing of its own lasting contributions, is truly fascinating—and a bit of a puzzle. Why is it that so many ancient Greek texts survive only in Arabic translations? How did the Arabs, who had no direct contact with the science and learning of the Greeks, come to be the inheritors of the classical tradition?

The answers to these questions are to be found in a unique conjunction of historical forces. From the first, it appears, the Umayyad dynasty located in Damascus evinced an interest in things Greek, for they employed educated Greek-speaking civil servants extensively. Early friezes on mosques from the period show a familiarity with the astrological lore of late antiquity.

The theory of numbers, developed and expanded from the original Indian contribution, resulted in the "Arabic numbers" 1 through 9. Islamic scholars also used the concept of zero, which was a Hindu concept. Without the zero, neither mathematics, algebra, nor cybernetics would have developed. Algebra was essentially developed by the Arab Muslims; the very word derives from the Arabic al-jabr. Among the most prominent scholars is the Basra born Ibn al-Haytham (965-1030), who developed the "Alhazen problem," one of the basic algebraic problems, and who made great contributions to optics and physics. He had advanced long before Newton the thesis that extraterrestrial scientific phenomena governed the motion of the earth and stars. He also developed experiments on light which were nothing short of extraordinary at that time. He demonstrated the theory of parallels, based on the finding that light travels in straight lines, and the passing of light through glass. Astronomy, developed by the Babylonians, continued to flourish under Islam. It soon expanded beyond the science of observation into the design of measuring instruments. In addition, it gave rise to the development of planetary theory.

The Arabic alphabet developed from the ancient script used for Nabataean, a dialect of Aramaic, in a region now part of Jordan. The Arabic alphabet has 28 letters. However, additional letters have been added to serve the need of other languages using the Arabic script; such as Farsi, Dari, and Urdu, and Turkish until the early part of the 20th century. The Qur'an was revealed in Arabic.

Traditionally the Semites and the Greeks assigned numerical values to their letters and used them as numerals. But the Arabs developed the numbers now used in languages. The invention of the "zero" is credited to the Arabs though it has its origins in Hindu scholarship. The Arab scholars recognized the need for a sign representing "nothing," because the place of a sign gave as much information as its unitary value did. The Arabic zero proved indispensable as a basis for all modern science.

The medical sciences were largely developed throughout the works of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), al-Razzi, and Husayn bin Ishak al-Ibadi, who translated Hippocrates and other Greeks. Razi (860-940) is reported to have written 200 books on medicine, one of them on medical ethics, and the Hawi, a 25 volume practical encyclopedia. Ibn Sina (980-1037) became a famed physician at 18 who wrote 16 books and the Canoun, an encyclopedia on all known diseases in the world. It was translated into many languages. But medical science soon led into zoology, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, pharmacology and chemistry. Indeed the word "chemistry" derives from the Arabic word al-kemia or alchemy as it was later known. The most important medical school was that of Judishapur, Iran, which after 738 became part of the Muslim world. It was managed by Syrian Christians and became the center for most Muslim practical learning and the model for the hospitals built under the Abbasids (between 749-1258).

The Arabs clearly followed the Hadith of the Prophet urging them to pursue knowledge from birth to death, even if that search was to be in China (deemed the most remote place on the earth.)

The Abbasids, who displaced the Umayyads and moved the seat of government from Damascus to Baghdad, made the first serious effort to accommodate Greek science and philosophy to Islam. The Abbasid rulers, unlike the Umayyads who remained Arab in their tastes and customs, conceived an Islamic polity based on religious affiliation rather than nationality or race. This made it easier for people of differing cultural, racial, and intellectual heritages to mingle and exchange ideas as equals. Persian astronomers from Gandeshapur could work side by side with mathematicians from Alexandria in the cosmopolitan atmosphere of Baghdad.

Then, too, the success of the Islamic conquest had erased existing national boundaries which had worked to keep peoples linguistically, politically, and intellectually apart. For the first time since Alexander the Great former rivals could meet and exchange ideas under the protection of a single state. The rise of Arabic as the international language of science and government administration helped matters along. As the cultivation of the sciences intensified and the high civilization of the Abbasids blossomed, the expressive resources of Arabic blossomed as well, soon making Arabic the language of choice for international commerce and scholarship as well as divine revelation.

Most important of all, however, it was the attitude that developed within the Islamic state toward the suspect writings of the Greeks. Unlike the Christian communities of late antiquity, whose attitudes toward the pagan philosophers were shaped by the experience of Roman persecution, Muslims did not suffer—or at least to the same degree—the conflict between faith and reason. On the contrary, the Qur'an enjoined Muslims to seek knowledge all their lives, no matter what the source or where it might lead. As a result, Muslims of the Abbasid period quickly set about recovering the scientific and philosophical works of the classical past—lying neglected in the libraries of Byzantium—and translating them into Arabic.

The task was herculean and complicated by the fact that texts of the classical period could not be translated directly from Greek into Arabic. Rather, they had first to be rendered in Syriac, the language with which Christian translators were most familiar, and then translated into Arabic by native speakers. This circuitous route was made necessary by the fact that Christian communities, whose language was Syriac, tended to know Greek, whereas Muslims generally found it easier to learn Syriac, which is closer to Arabic.

A doctor and patient discuss vitrified lead poisoning on this page from the Materia Medica of Dioscorides. The Greek work, from the first century BC, was translated into Arabic in the ninth century; this is a 13th-century copy made in Iraq. (Aramco World Magazine, January-February 1989; photo Jeffrey Crespi). The translation effort began in earnest under the reign of the second Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur (754-75). He sent emissaries to the Byzantine emperor requesting mathematical texts and received in response a copy of Euclid's Elements. This single gift, more than any other perhaps, ignited a passion for learning that was to last throughout the golden age of Islam and beyond. The effort was subsequently systematized under al-Ma'mun, who founded an institution expressly for the purpose, called the Bait al-Hikmah or House of Wisdom, which was staffed with salaried Muslim and Christian scholars. The output of the House of Wisdom over the centuries was prodigious, encompassing as it did nearly the entire corpus of the Greek scientific and philosophical thought. Not only Euclid but Aristotle, Galen and Hippocrates, and Archimedes were among the authors to receive early treatment.

It would be wrong to suggest that the scholars of the House of Wisdom were occupied with task of translation only. Muslim scholars generally were concerned to understand, codify, correct, and, most importantly, assimilate the learning of the ancients to the conceptual framework of Islam. The greatest of these scholars were original and systematic thinkers of the first order, like the great Arab philosopher al-Farabi who died in 950. His Catalog of Sciences had a tremendous effect on the curricula of medieval universities.

Perhaps the most distinctive and noteworthy contributions occurred in the field of mathematics, where scholars from the House of Wisdom played a critical role in fusing the Indian and classical traditions, thus inaugurating the great age of Islamic mathematical speculation. The first great advance consisted in the introduction of Arabic numerals—which, as far as can be determined, were Indian in origin. They embody the "place-value" theory, which permits numbers to be expressed by nine figures plus zero. This development not only simplified calculation but paved the way for the development of an entirely new branch of mathematics, algebra.

The study of geometry was sustained by a remarkable series of scholars, the Banu Musa or "Sons of Musa," who were all, quite literally, sons of the al-Ma'mun's court astronomer, Musa ibn Shakir. Their activities were all the more noteworthy because they carried on their research and writing as private citizens, devoting their lives and expending their fortunes in the pursuit of knowledge. Not only did they sponsor the translation of numerous Greek works but contributed substantial works of their own. Al-Hasan, one of the sons, was perhaps the foremost geometrician of his time, translating six books of the Elements and working out the remainder of the proofs on his own.

Arabic Words That Entered the Western Vocabulary AL-JABR = ALGEBRA AL-KEMIA = CHEMISTRY AL-KUHL = ALCOHOL AL-MIRAL = ADMIRAL AL'UD = LUTE 'ANBAR = AMBER BAWRAQ = BORAX GHARBALA = GARBLE GHOL = GHOUL LAYMUN = LEMON MAKHZAN = MAGASIN (French) NARANJ = ORANGE QAHWAH = COFFEE, CAFE QANAH = CANE QITAR = GUITAR SAFARA = SAFARI SUKKAR = SUGAR = ASUKAR (Spanish) TAFRIK = TRAFFIC TA'RIF = TARIFF TUNBAR = TAMBOURINE (French) ZIRAFAH = GIRAFFE The enormous intellectual energy unleashed by the Abbasid dynasty left no field of knowledge and speculation untouched. In addition to mathematics and geometry, Abbasid scholars in the House of Wisdom made important and lasting contributions in astronomy, ethics, mechanics, music, medicine, physics, and philosophy to name a few. In the process men of enormous intellect and productivity rose to prominence. One of these was Thabit ibn Qurra. Recruited from the provinces—where he had worked in obscurity as a money changer—he came to the Bait al-Hikmah to work as a translator. There his exemplary grasp of Syriac, Creek, and Arabic made him invaluable. In addition to his translations of key works, such as Archimedes' Measurement of the Circle (later translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century), he also wrote over 70 original works on a wide range of subjects. His sons, too, were to found a dynasty of scholars that lasted until the 10th century.

But it wasn't only the pure or abstract sciences that received emphasis in these early years. The practical and technical arts made advances as well, medicine the first among them. Here several great scholars deserve mention. Hunain ibn lshaq not only translated the entire canon of Greek medical works into Arabic—including the Hippocratic oath, obligatory for doctors then as now—but wrote 29 works by his own pen, the most important a collection of ten essays on ophthalmology. The greatest of the 9th century physician-philosophers was perhaps Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, known to the west as Rhazes. He wrote over 184 books and was an early advocate of experiment and observation in science.

Simultaneously, in far off Spain (al-Andalus), the social and natural sciences were being advanced by men such as Ibn Khaldun, the first historian to explicate the laws governing the rise and fall of civilizations. The brilliant flowering of Islamic science in Andalusia was directly stimulated by the renaissance in Baghdad. Scholars regularly traveled the length of the known world to sit and learn at the feet of a renowned teacher.

With the death of the philosopher al-Farabi in 950 the first and most brilliant period of Islamic scientific thought drew to a close. As the political empire fragmented over the next 300 years, leadership would pass to the provinces, principally Khorasan and Andalusia. Indeed, Spain was to serve as a conduit through which the learning of the ancient world, augmented and transformed by the Islamic experience, was to pass to medieval Europe and the modern world. At the very time that Baghdad fell to the Mongols in 1258, and the Abbasid caliphate came to an end, scribes in Europe were preserving the Muslim scientific tradition. This is why, just as many Greek texts now survive only in Arabic dress, many Arabic scientific works only survive in Latin.

The death of al-Farabi is perhaps a fitting event to mark the end of the golden age of Muslim science. His masterwork, The Perfect City, exemplifies the extent to which Greek culture and science had been successfully and productively assimilated and then impressed with the indelible stamp of Islam. The perfect city, in al-Farabi's view, is founded on moral and ethical principles; from these flow its perfect shape and physical infrastructure. Undoubtedly he had in mind the round city of Baghdad, The City of Peace.

Trade and Commerce as a Cultural Vehicle

Because Arabs historically had a tradition of trade and commerce, the Muslims continued that tradition. It was due to their superiority in navigation, shipbuilding, astronomy, and scientific measuring devices that Arab and Muslim commerce and trade developed and reached so many peoples throughout the world. The Arabs were at the crossroads of the ancient trade routes from the Mediterranean, the Gulf, East Africa, and the Indian subcontinent, all the way to China.

One of the interesting results of these trading relations occurred during the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid (786-809) when he exchanged envoys and gifts with Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Emperor. As a result, Harun al-Rashid established the Christian Pilgrims' Inn in Jerusalem, fulfilling Umar's pledge to Bishop Sophronious, when he first entered Jerusalem, to allow freedom of religion and access to Jerusalem to Christian religious pilgrims.

A number of Arabic words relating to the trade and commerce have found their way into modern Western languages. (See list of words.) Muslin cotton developed in Mosul (Iraq) became a favorite commodity and a new word in the Western vocabulary, as did damask fabric (from Damascus), fustain cloth (from Fustat, Egypt).

The most interesting accounts of other cultures encountered by Arab Muslims are contained in a book on the travels of Ibn Battutah of Tangier (1304-1377), who over a period of 25 years traveled to Asia Minor, Mongolia, Russia, China, the Maldives, Southeast Asia and Africa and recounted his travels and the influence of early Muslim traders in those regions. He was the precursor of Marco Polo, whose accounts contained detailed descriptions of various cultures with which Arab and Muslims traders had long been in contact. Islamic craftsmanship in bookmaking and bookbinding were items of trade which carried the message of Islamic civilization far and wide.

Architecture and music

The word "Arabesque" entered into the Western lexicon as a description of the intricate design that characterized Arab Muslim art. But the great mosques that were first built throughout the Islamic world were not only places of worship but places of learning which remained as great examples of architecture and design. Through them civilization was transmitted in an artistic environment that was at once intellectually inspiring and emotionally uplifting. The Haram Mosque of Mecca, the Mosque of Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem, the numerous mosques in Cairo—Al-Azhar, Amr, Sultan Hassan, Baybars—the Great Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, the Quairawan in Tunisia, the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, the Cordoba Mosque in Spain and the Kutubiyah in Marakesh are among the most noteworthy. In addition to distinctive architectural characteristics, such as magnificent geometric designs, many of these contain mosaics of rare beauty, frequently painted in the blue and green of the sea, sky, and vegetation. The wood carving (masharabiyah) in most mosques are equally distinctive and characteristic of Islamic art.

At times of prayer, individuals and congregations—indeed the entire Muslim world—face Mecca. The mosque is usually a domed structure with one or more minarets from which the muadhin gives the call to prayer five times a day. The direction of Mecca is clearly indicated by the mihrab, a decorated niche in the wall. The larger mosques have a minbar or pulpit. Since the worshipers should be in a pure state of mind and body before they begin to pray, a fountain is placed in the courtyard for ritual ablutions. Shoes are removed on entering the prayer hall, which is usually carpeted.

For Muslims the mosque is a place for worship and education, a refuge from the cares of the world. Its function is best described in the Prophet's own words, namely that the mosque should be a garden of paradise. Islam's greatest architect was Sinan, a 16th century Ottoman builder who was responsible for the Sulaimaniye mosque in Istanbul. His mosques visibly display the discipline, might, and splendor of Islam.

The most notable examples of masharabiyah are in the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, and the Mosque of Isfahan. After the Ka'ba in Mecca, the "Dome of the Rock" or Mosque of Umar in Jerusalem built in 685 is the oldest example of Muslim architectural genius. The technique of dome construction was perfected and passed on to the West. The technique of dome structural support was used in the Capella Palatine in Palermo (1132), while the campaniles or steeples of the Palazza Vecchio of Florence and of San Marco in Venice are inspired by the minaret which was first built in Qairawan, Tunisia (670). Similarly, the horseshoe arch, which was so prevalent in Islamic form and particularly well realized in the Great Mosque of Damascus (707), has since been copied all over the world. Probably the best known example of Islamic architecture is the Alhambra (meaning al-Harnra or the red one) palace built in 1230 in Granada, Spain.

But artistic contributions were not limited to architecture, construction, decoration, painting, mosaic, calligraphy, design, metalcraft and wood carving. They extended to music through the development of new instruments and new techniques of sound and rhythm. The Arab Muslims (al-Farabi in particular) were the first to develop a technique of musical harmony paralleling mathematical science. Arabic-Islamic music was characterized by the harmony of sound and evocative emotional expression. Musiqa is the Arabic word for music.

Islamic Fundamentalism

Many non-Muslims perceive Islamic Fundamentalism as a form of revolutionary ideology and associate it with groups and movements which engage in violent acts or advocate violence. This must be distinguished from Islamic revival which is a peaceful movement calling for the return to basic traditional values and practices. Adherents to and followers of such a movement believe that the best way to achieve the "true path of Islam" is to develop an integrated social and political system based on Islamic ideals and the teachings of the Qur'an and the Sunna. To that extent they are fundamentalists.

Reform ideas which derive from revival movements are not new to the history of Islam, nor do they advocate resorting to violence in order to achieve such a goal except where rebellion against unjust rule is legally justified. Examples of peaceful reform ideas are found in the learned teachings of the 13th century philosopher-scholar Ibn Taymiyya in Syria. In the 18th century the Wahabi reform movement developed in Saudi Arabia and its orthodox teachings continue to the present. Also in the 19th century the ideal of the "true path to justice" or al-salaf al-salih was eloquently propounded by Sheik Muhammad Abduh in Egypt, and his views continue to be studied by religious and secular scholars all over the world. These and other reform ideas have in common the search for Islamic truth and justice and their applicability to the solutions to Muslim societies' problems.

Because Islam is a holistic religion integrating all aspects of life, it follows that a reform movement predicated on religion necessarily confronts the social, economic, and political realities of the society in which it develops. Muslim societies, however, have emerged from colonialism and neo-colonialism and are seeking to develop free from certain western influences which may corrupt or subvert basic Islamic values. Furthermore in Islam there is no division or distinction between what in the West is called "Church and State". In fact westerners refer to the Islamic form of government as a theocracy. Thus contemporary political-religious groups focus on social, political, and economic aspects of Muslim societies. They oppose the secular state and instead call for the establishment of a "Muslim State".

A distinction must be made between Islamic reform and Islamic political activism conducted under the banner of Islam. The latter is sometimes characterized by extremism, fanaticism, and violence, which are contrary to Islamic precepts. But these manifestations of a socio-political nature must not be confused with the ideals and values of Islam.

Enlightened reform ideas continue to develop in the Muslim world. Institutions like Al-Azhar University in Cairo, which is the oldest university in the world, the Muslim World League in Mecca, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference headquartered in Jeddah are the examples of the contemporary, intellectual, educational, and diplomatic forces in the resurgence of Islam. The contributions they make toward a better understanding of Islam, as well as its peaceful propagation, are free from extremism and violence.

The resurgence of Islam is flourishing in every part of the world and dedicated Muslims are trying hard to meet the challenges of modern times while remaining faithful to the values of their past. This is enlightened Islamic Fundamentalism. Its continuation and growth are ongoing. But since all mass movements carry the risk of excess, extremism by some is likely to occur at times. However, one should not judge the higher values shared by the many on the basis of the extreme deeds committed by the few.

Muslims, irrespective of whether they come from the Arab world, Africa, Asia Minor, Central Asia, China, the Soviet Union or Western societies, still feel strongly united in their shared beliefs and values. Muslims believe that they have a contribution to make in this world, either as individuals or as a community, and that their behavior and demeanor can set an example to others. In Muslim countries the problems, dilemmas, and frustrations are numerous. With the gradual disintegration of the Muslim state, beginning in the twelfth century, many of the countries fell under foreign rule for extensive periods of time, Ottoman Turkish domination for some at first, and then European colonialism. They have had to make up for many years during which their economic, social, and cultural development was blunted by both external and internal causes. To do so they have to struggle not only against problems of underdevelopment but also forces of rapid change.

The search for an Islamic way is ongoing throughout the Muslim world. It is an uneasy search seeking to link the fundamentals of a glorious past with a future that offers only hopeful promises dimmed by present difficulties. Most Muslims as individuals are undaunted, for every Muslim believes that he has to act during his lifetime as if he will live forever. He has a sense of permanence and continuity, knowing that the work begun by one person will be carried on by another. There is a constant hope for a better tomorrow; but then, what counts is the hereafter. Ours is not to insure a result but to try our best to achieve it in the right way. However, the end does not justify the means. The moral-ethical dimension of conduct and method must always predominate.

Second-grader Samiya Rahman and her classmates in Morton Grove, Illinois can choose from more study and reading resources on Islamic subjects than American-born, English-speaking Muslim children could do just a few years ago. (Aramco World Magazine, January-February 1998; photo Kathleen Burke). The challenge of Islam is a challenge to all Muslim societies: to create the types of economic, social, and political institutions that will preserve the basic ethical and moral values of Islam together with the individual freedom of every Muslim. This involves achieving a delicate balance between the needs of the community and the right of the individual to the full attainment of freedom, equality, justice and what under the U.S. Constitution is called "the pursuit of happiness." This also is a legitimate goal in Islam, as set forth by the tenth century Muslim philosopher—the mathematician al-Farabi. A significant part of his major text on truth is devoted to the attainment of happiness.

"Everyone of you is a shepherd, and everyone of you will be questioned about those under his rule: The Amir is a shepherd and he will be questioned about his subjects, the man is a ruler in his family and he will be questioned about those under his care; and the woman is a ruler in the house of her husband and she will be questioned about those under her care." The Prophet's Hadith

O my son! Observe your prayers, order (enjoin or command) with what is just (right and fair) and admonish (forbid) what is wrong; and bear with patience on what befalls upon you; for this is determination of purpose. Qur'an 31:17

Professor of Law, DePaul University, since 1964; 1970 Fulbright-Hays Professor of International Criminal Law, The University of Freiburg, Germany; 1971 Visiting Professor of Law, N.Y.U.; 1972 Guest Scholar Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, D.C. He is non-resident Dean of The International Institute of Higher Studies in Criminal Sciences (Siracusa, Italy) since 1976.

He studied law in the three major legal systems of the world: civil law, common law, and Islamic Sharia, at Dijon University, France, The University of Geneva Switzerland, and the University of Cairo, Egypt. His degrees are: J.D., Indiana University; LL.M., John Marshall Law School; S.J.D., George Washington University. In 1981 he was awarded the degree: Doctor of Law Honoris causa (Dottore in Giurisprudenza) from the University of Torino, Italy, and in 1988, the degree: Doctor of Law Honoris causa (Docteur d'Etat en Droit) conferred at The University of Pau, France.

He is the author of twenty-two books on U.S. Criminal Law and International and comparative Criminal Law and over 100 law review articles.

Active in several scholarly and professional organizations, he has served as the Secretary-General of the International Association of Penal Law since 1974; chairman of the International Law Section of the Illinois State Bar Association for several years, and chairman of several committees of the Chicago Bar and American Bar Associations.

A frequent lecturer at distinguished universities in the U.S. and abroad, he has also been a frequent U.N. consultant : Fifth U.N. Congress on Crime Prevention (1975) where he was elected Honorary Vice-President of the Congress; Sixth U.N. Congress (1980) where he presented a Draft International Criminal Code; U.N. Division of Human Rights in 1980-1981 for which he prepared a Draft Statute for the Creation of an International Criminal Court; Seventh U.N. Congress, for which he chaired two preparatory meetings of committees of experts in 1983-1984. He also served in 1978 as co-chairman of the committee of experts which prepared the U.N. Draft Convention of the Prevention and Suppression of Torture, and chairman of the committee of experts which prepared the U.N. Draft Convention on the Prevention of Unlawful Human Experimentation.

He was also a consultant to the Departments of State and Justice on projects relating to international traffic in drugs (1973) and control of terrorism (1975 and 1978) and the defense of the U.S. hostages in Iran (1979).

Among the distinctions and awards he received are: 1956, Order of Merit, Egypt; 1977, Order of Merit, Italy (Rank of Commendatore); 1978, Order of Merit, Italy, (Rank of Grand' Ufficiale); 1984, Order of Sciences, Egypt), (Rank of First Class). Also among others: 1967, Outstanding Citizen of the Year of Metropolitan Chicago; 1970, Outstanding Educator of America; 1973, Gold Medal of the Italian Press (Rome, Italy).

He has been admitted to practice in Illinois and Washington, D.C. and before the United States Supreme Court, the Second, Fifth, Seventh, and Eleventh Circuits of the U.S. Courts of Appeals, the United States Court of Military Appeals, and the United States Court of International Trade.

Since 1973 he has served as member of the Board and President of the MidAmerica Arab Chamber of Commerce.

The author gratefully acknowledges the support of the MidAmerica Arab Chamber of Commerce in connection with the cost of preparing the manuscript for publication, which was approved by its Board of Directors, and expresses his deep appreciation to Rand McNally Corporation of Chicago for publishing this book as a sign of their interest in the world of Islam.

Most of the illustrations contained in this book have been graciously provided by Aramco World Magazine and Rand McNally whose assistance in this respect was most useful.

In the selection of illustrations, their integration in the text and other ministerial functions, I was assisted by Olfat El-Mallakh of the MidAmerica Arab Chamber of Commerce to whom I express my appreciation as well as to Tom Malueg who edited an earlier version of the text, and appreciation to Alfred Polus for proofreading the final text. The design and layout of the book was done by John Wetzel whom I wish to thank, especially for his patience in redoing the layout repeatedly to produce this excellent result. My appreciation is also extended to Walid M. Shaar who did the calligraphy on the cover and the Qur'anic verse at the conclusion of the book, and to Dr. Shafiq Ismail who prepared the current map of the "Muslim world" (based on a map from the Chicago Tribune) and the "Distribution of the Shia" map. Specific acknowledgments for maps and illustrations appear in the text.

Finally, my appreciation to the American Arab Affairs Council (Washington, D.C.) for having published in 1985 an abbreviated text with the same title, which subsequently and with significant changes became this book.

The Middle East Institute (MEI) is an independent, non-partisan, non-for-profit, educational organization. It does not engage in advocacy and its scholars’ opinions are their own. MEI welcomes financial donations, but retains sole editorial control over its work and its publications reflect only the authors’ views. For a listing of MEI donors, please click here .

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• Islam, a complete code of life (10 December 2021)
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Prophet Muhammad (saw) was the last of the prophets; he was sent by Allah to all human kind. That is why his message had to be complete and inclusive of all aspects of life on both individual and societal levels.

The Qur’an is explained and applied by the Prophet’s (saw) Sunnah. Prophet (saw) was not only the leader of the nation, the commander of the army and the teacher of the Muslims; he was also a husband, a father, and a grandfather.

Studying his whole life gives us a complete example of all we need to live a peaceful, prosperous and productive life. The Prophet’s teachings organize our relations with Allah, ourselves, our bodies, our parents, children, relatives, neighbors and co-workers – even with our guests and our enemies.

Islam clearly establishes our duties and rights; it establishes a perfect system of life that includes everything – literally everything: what to eat and drink, what to wear, how to behave within the marriage and the family; it organizes prayers, work and even relaxation. Allah says in His Holy Book: “ Indeed in the Messenger of Allah (Muhammad) you have a good example to follow for him who hopes in (the meeting with) Allah and the Last Day and remembers Allah much. ” (Qur’an 33: 21)

Islamic teachings are not restricted to the mosque; they are guides for all aspects of life, whether social, ethical, emotional, spiritual, economical, or political.

Islam is totally compatible with human nature. It establishes a wonderful harmony between the requirements of the soul and the demands of the body. Muhammad Ghazali observed rightly that the nature of Islam links the universe with life, the human body with its behavior, science with morality, and the intellect with supplication (du’a).

It is clear that Islam does not dissociate the physical body from the soul – it sees them as integrated whole. The Qur’an stresses the importance of moderation and balance between worldly desires and Allah’s straight path. Allah (swt) said: “ Thus, have We made of you an Ummah (community of believers) justly balance. ” (Qur’an 2: 143). And He said: “ But seek with that (wealth) which Allah has bestowed on you, the home of the Hereafter, and do not forget your portion of legal enjoyment in this world. ” (Qur’an 28: 77). He said further: “ Say (O Muhammad), who has forbidden the adoration with clothes given by Allah, which He has produced for his slaves, and good and lawful things of provision? Say, they are in the life of this world for those who believe, and exclusively for them (believers) on the Day of Resurrection. ” (Qur’an 7:32)

The Prophet’s Sunnah (code of life) clarifies this idea and never demanded humans to go beyond their natural limits, as he (saw) said: “ Indeed, I swear by Allah that among you I am the most fearful of Allah and the most pious. However, I fast and break my fast, I pray and I sleep; and I marry women. So, whoever refrains from my way is not among my followers. ” (Bukhari and Muslim)

Neither exaggeration nor negligence is accepted by Islamic law – whether in one’s duties towards Allah, oneself, one’s family or one’s community. Allah (swt) said: “ Allah burden no person beyond his scope. ” (Qur’an 2: 286). The Almighty also said: “ Allah (swt) intends for you ease, and He does not want to make things difficult for you. ” (Qur’an 2: 185)

Professor Yusuf Qardhawi sees Islam as a “balanced formula of rights and duties.” Where people are not given so many rights that they infringe on those of others, nor are they taxed with more obligations than they can carry out.

by Amira Ayad

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Mormons and Muslims

Spencer j. palmer , arnold h. green , and daniel c. peterson , editors, understanding islam, daniel c. peterson.

Daniel C. Peterson, “Understanding Islam,” in  Mormons and Muslims: Spiritual Foundations and Modern Manifestations,  ed. Spencer J. Palmer (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University 2002), 11–43.

Daniel C. Peterson was associate executive director for Brigham Young University’s Institute for the Study and Preservation of Ancient Religious Texts when this was published.

Why should we seek to learn about and to understand Islam? If the attacks of September 11, 2001, and subsequent events haven’t made the answer to this question obvious, nothing else is likely to do so. But there are more fundamental reasons, and these far transcend the terrorist horrors of that morning. A sizable portion of the earth’s population adheres to the religion of Islam, and Islam—a major force in human history for a millennium and a half—is a powerful, living factor in international politics in the Near East, Africa, and Asia.

Moreover, even apart from the palpable shrinking of the globe that has resulted from modern communications, means of transportation, and the interlinking of national economies, Muslims can no longer be simply dismissed as people far away and “over there.” Increasingly, Muslims are our neighbors. By means of immigration, high birth rates, and conversions, Islam is rapidly becoming a mainstream religion throughout the West. There may well be more Muslims praying in the mosques of the United Kingdom on Fridays than there are worshipers in the Church of England on Sundays. A mosque stands prominently on the hills above Guatemala City. A few years ago, I spoke in a mosque in the relatively small city of Hamilton, New Zealand, and I have met with Muslim leaders in most of the major cities of Australia. And, although precise figures are difficult if not impossible to come by, Muslims may soon outnumber Jews in the United States of America.

However, for Latter-day Saints there is an even more fundamental reason for seeking to understand the faith of approximately a billion of God’s children on earth: He has commanded us to do so. The Lord has told us to seek after knowledge of things both in heaven and in the earth, and under the earth; things which have been, things which are, things which must shortly come to pass; things which are at home, things which are abroad; the wars and the perplexities of the nations, and the judgments which are on the land; and a knowledge also of countries and of kingdoms—

That ye may be prepared in all things when I shall send you again to magnify the calling whereunto I have called you, and the mission with which I have commissioned you. (D&C 88:79–80)

In this essay, I will first offer an extremely basic summary of the history and theology of Islam. [1] Then I will offer background for apparent Muslim anger against the West to provide guidance on what lies behind current newspaper headlines. Although current events are ever-changing, the fundamental issues and historical facts will not be altered by breaking news.

A Basic History of Islam

On the eve of the birth of Islam—which is to say, in the late sixth and early seventh centuries after Christ—the Arabian peninsula was a place far removed from the major centers of culture and political power. A vast and desolate area, it was for the most part sparsely populated by Bedouin nomads and punctuated only occasionally by small oasis towns.

The two great powers of the day were the Byzantine empire, the Greek-speaking and Christian continuation of the old Roman empire (which now had its capital in Constantinople), and the Persian empire of the Sassanids. The Persians were followers of the prophet Zoroaster, or Zarathustra. Each empire was militantly dedicated to its own religion and to the destruction of the other. Perso-Roman hostilities were centuries old. However, when the seventh century dawned, the two empires were about to embark on a long war that would eventually leave each of them exhausted and vulnerable to a totally unexpected threat from Arabia.

The Arabians were polytheists but perhaps not very pious ones. [2] Somewhere up above the jinn (the “genies”) and the subordinate godlings to whom they occasionally paid a little attention was the distant and mysterious high god, Allah. His name—or, better his title, which takes its emphasis on the second syllable—is simply the Arabic equivalent of the English word God. Allah is a contraction of the Arabic words al and ilah, which, together, mean “the god.” In other words, it is related to the old Semitic names for the high god, EI and Elohim, the latter of which should be quite familiar to Latter-day Saints. Elohim is formed from the Hebrew word eloh, “god” and the masculine plural suffix -im. It should never be thought that Allah is the name of some strange idol or foreign deity. In fact, Arabic and Turkish Christians use the same word for God as do their Muslim counterparts, and Allah is the word used for God in the Arabic translation of the Book of Mormon and other Latter-day Saint materials.

To most of the pre-Islamic Arabians, though, Allah was too remote to pray to or even to think about. But things were changing. Arabia had long derived much of what wealth it possessed from the trade routes that ran its length, bringing frankincense and myrrh from Yemen, Ethiopia, Somalia, and even India. It was probably along the most important of these trade routes that Lehi had led his caravan six hundred years before Christ. [3] Not far from that same trade route was the ancient oasis of Mecca—hot and dusty, clustered around a brackish well called Zamzam. As our period opens, Mecca was beginning to grow very wealthy. It had managed to gain a major share of the caravan trade, and, with its shrine, called the Ka’ba, it had become a significant center of pilgrimage for the entire Arabian peninsula.

However, wealth brings change, and change brings problems. Class distinctions arose, and every man was after his own self-interest. The old values of family and tribe, which had taken the place of a government in the modern sense, fell victim to a new lust for gain. Widows and orphans, who had been secure and cared-for under the old tribal system, were now left largely on their own. Some men, though, seem to have been sensitive to these problems, and they began to look, or at least to yearn, for something better. They sought higher values than wealth, and a higher religion than the vague and primitive paganism around them.

Little was available. There were Jews in pre-Islamic Arabia, but they weren’t interested in converts. There were Christians, as well—but to align oneself with Christianity was, willingly or not, to make a political statement and to join the pro-Byzantine “party.” On the other hand, if one decided to become a Zoroastrian that could be seen as aligning oneself with the pro-Persian “party.” And such choices had consequences, because both the Byzantines and the Persians, as part of their ongoing rivalry, were becoming interested in the merchant wealth that traversed Arabia and were seeking control of peninsular trade routes.

So these seekers—or, as they are known in Arabic, these hunafa’—seem to have held to a non-aligned and simple monotheism, praying and fasting and hoping, perhaps, for something better.

Muhammad was one of them. [4] His father died before he was born in 570, and his mother died while he was a small boy. As an orphan, he was exposed to many of the rigors of life in Mecca. Even though he triumphed over his disadvantages by virtue of character and ability, and even though he became a caravan merchant himself and married a rich widow, he seems not to have forgotten his childhood. He always remained sensitive to children, to widows and orphans.

In the year 610, Muhammad was in a cave in the hills above Mecca, praying and engaging in religious devotions. According to later Muslim tradition, it was there that the angel Gabriel—he who made the Annunciation to Mary—came to Muhammad with the beginning of the revelation of the Qur’an, the holy book and bedrock of Islamic faith and doctrine.

Muslims today regard the Qur’an (or, as it is sometimes spelled, the Koran) as the literal word of God. That is, it is not about Muhammad (as the four Gospels are about Christ), nor is it by Muhammad. It is a collection of the actual words of God to Muhammad as God spoke them in Arabic. (A translation of the Qur’an, according to the orthodox Muslim view, is therefore not the Qur’an; only the Arabic original can claim to be the veritable words of God.) Muslims also view the Qur’an as the Word of God, a role which in Christianity is taken by Christ Himself, as the logos of John 1:1. The Qur’an is taken from the great, celestial Book, which was with God from all eternity, uncreated, as God’s everlasting and unchanging utterance. (The Torah and the Psalms and the Gospels come likewise from the heavenly tablet but are viewed as corrupted in their present form.) It might be helpful, for Latter-day Saints, to compare the Qur’an to the Doctrine and Covenants. Unlike the Old Testament or Book of Mormon, the Qur’an is not a narrative or history. But like the Doctrine and Covenants, it is a collection of revelations on many different subjects, arranged in a roughly chronological order. [5]

Muhammad’s early days as a prophet were spent in his hometown of Mecca. His revelations during this period were intense, poetic, vivid, apocalyptic, and concise. They proclaimed the reality of physical resurrection and the imminence of the end of the world and of judgment day. They called for social justice; they denounced the practice—widespread in pagan Arabia—of female infanticide. Muhammad preached against shirk (Arabic “association” or, more loosely, “polytheism”), the ultimate sin of worshiping something or someone else beside (or instead of) the one true God. His preaching earned him a small following at first, mostly of the insignificant and the disenfranchised, and a great deal of contempt, ridicule, and actual persecution.

It was perhaps during this period that Muhammad’s famous Night Vision occurred. Unfortunately, accounts of the vision are so garbled and contradictory that it is difficult to ascertain the real facts. In any case, the basic story as given by Islamic tradition is that Muhammad was taken during the night from Central Arabia to the holy city of Jerusalem, where he led several of the ancient prophets in prayer on the temple mount and from which he then ascended through the seven heavens into the presence of God. His ascent is said to have commenced from the very spot where Abraham was sent to sacrifice his son. This is the place now enclosed, on the temple mount, by the famous Dome of the Rock.

Muhammad’s situation in Mecca was not infinitely bearable. As the anger of Mecca’s city fathers against him intensified, they even began to plot against his life. So when a group of men came for the pilgrimage from a village called Yathrib and asked Muhammad to come and act as an arbitrator in the squabbles that were ruining their town, he jumped at the chance. First he sent his followers, and then he himself went to the town which would ever afterwards be known as Madinat al-Nabi, “the city of the Prophet”—or, simply, Medina (pronounced Meh -deen- ah ). This emigration, called in Arabic the hijra, took place in the year 622, and the Muslim calendar is dated from this year.

Muslims were entirely correct in seeing, in the hijra, a fundamental turning point in the life of the prophet and in the nature of Islam. From being a rejected preacher, Muhammad became a statesman, a diplomat, a judge. His revelations became longer, more prosaic, full of detail on inheritance law and the like. (It is something like the difference between Isaiah and Leviticus or even the difference between Doctrine and Covenants section 4 and a Brigham Young sermon on farming, mining, or irrigation canals.)

Muhammad was phenomenally successful. Within a few years, he conquered Mecca. Already, he had made the Ka’ba and its attendant pilgrimage rituals part of Islam. Today, Mecca and the Ka’ba are the geographical center of the universe to approximately a billion Muslims. (Medina is the second holiest city; Jerusalem is the third.) By the end of his career, he essentially ruled the entire Arabian peninsula. But the prophet died in 632. And, since the Qur’an had labeled him “the seal of the prophets,” in the view of the overwhelming majority of Muslims there can be no more.

Still, somebody had to succeed Muhammad as the political head of a now growing and quite powerful Muslim state. His followers divided, on the question of who this successor should be, into two major groups which still exist today. The Sunnis, the majority of Muslims, cared less about the identity of the ruler than about the fact that there must be one, in order to avoid anarchy and civil strife. The Shi’ites, on the other hand, insisted—somewhat as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (now known as the Community of Christ) once did—that the leadership of the community legitimately belongs to the family of the prophet. That disagreement persists to the present time.

After Muhammad’s death, the Arabs poured out of their desert home. The ancient and mighty Persian empire, weakened and demoralized by its long war with Constantinople, collapsed before a ragtag army of Bedouin nomads. The Byzantines, too, lost much of their territory—including their breadbasket, the incredibly fertile province of Egypt. Within a hundred years, Arab armies were in India, as well as in what is today known as Spain and the former Soviet republics of Central Asia.

Islam, however, did not spread by the sword. While the Arabs conquered huge territories, they did not force conversions. In fact, for certain reasons they actually tended to discourage conversion, especially in the early days. Their general practice was to allow freedom of worship to Jews and Christians, merely taxing them at a somewhat higher rate—among other things, to maintain the armies, in which Jews and Christians did not have to serve. Islam was, in fact, uniformly more tolerant of minority religions than was medieval Christianity.

Another fact that it is important to recognize in this context is that the terms Arab and Muslim are not equivalent. While most Arabs are Muslims, not all are. And most Muslims are not Arabs. Indeed, the largest Muslim nation is non-Arab Indonesia. Iran and Afghanistan, too, though overwhelmingly Muslim, are not Arab. And Islam is a powerful and sometimes dominant presence in such varied places as China, Pakistan, India, Nigeria, Kenya, and Bangladesh.

The immense empire that the early Muslims suddenly controlled required laws and techniques of governing that were far different from those of the simple nomads of Arabia. Where was guidance to be found? The Qur’an, of course, was the most prestigious and the most authoritative source of legal and moral guidance. But it was also very limited in terms of the range of issues that it covered. So, for a while, the young Arab empire simply followed the laws and practices of the areas that it conquered and left much of the day-to-day government in the hands of the local population. But this was not a satisfactory solution. Many Muslims began to wonder, “What did Muhammad, our Prophet, do in situations like these? Is there an ideal Islamic way to govern?” And they began to gather information about what, in fact, he had done and said, on almost any question that could be imagined.

Eventually, this information took the form of reports called hadith (pronounced “ha -deeth” ) or, as the word is often (if not very precisely) translated, “traditions.” It is largely on the basis of these hadith that the all-inclusive legal code of Islam was constructed. The code is called the shari’a (roughly pronounced “shar- ee -ah”). Actually, it is somewhat misleading to call it a legal code, since it regulates things that are far removed from anything that would be recognized as “law” in the contemporary secular West. Not only does it deal with crimes, inheritance, marriage, and divorce, but, rather like the Talmudic law of Judaism, it lays down rules on prayer, fasting, etiquette, and virtually every other aspect of human existence.

Out of this mix of Qur’an and hadith, of Sunni and Shi’ite, of Arab and Persian and Turk and Mongol and African and Indian, grew a remarkably rich and complex culture. It drew on Jewish legends and on Greek philosophy, medicine, and science, on Indian mathematics and Persian manners. It produced lawyers and mystics and skeptics and poets. We must be careful, then, when we talk about Islam. Very few generalizations on this subject will be true of, say both a tenth-century surgeon in Baghdad and a twentieth-century Indonesian peasant. Although far fewer “denominations” exist in Islam than in Christianity, there are innumerable points of view, and Islam’s history is every bit as rich and complex as is Christendom’s.

The Five Pillars of Islam

We would be skeptical, wouldn’t we, of anyone who purported to tell us all about Christianity in fifty minutes or in a few pages. Would he or she be able to do justice to the Roman Catholics, the Unitarians, Christian Science, the Latter-day Saints, Eastern Orthodoxy? To Luther, St. Augustine, Jim Jones, Martin Luther King, Billy Graham, St. Francis, and the Apostle Paul? To the Jesuits and the Moonies and the Reformation and the Council of Nicea? To the philosophical theology of St. Thomas Aquinas as well as the beliefs of a television revivalist? And this is just scratching the surface!

With this warning in mind, though, I shall now proceed to explain some basic concepts of Islam. Perhaps the best way of doing it is to discuss, briefly, the basic principles known as the five pillars of Islam.

The first pillar is known as the shahada (pronounced “sheh- had- ah”), the “testimony” or the “profession of faith.” It is fulfilled when someone says, with full sincerity, “There is no god but God, and Muhammad is His Messenger.” The first part of the statement is a declaration of a timeless monotheistic principle, while the second half of the statement identifies the specific historical community of monotheists to which the speaker belongs.

Second is prayer. This may be performed anywhere, and should be done (minimally) five times daily. It involves a prescribed set of physical movements, as well, of course, as turning heart and mind toward God. On Friday’s, it usually is performed at least once in a building called, in English, a mosque (pronounced “mosk”). This word is a garbled version of the Arabic masjid , meaning “a place of bowing” ( sajada). Mosques are simply places of prayer. Islam has no priesthood and no ordinances or sacraments. Most mosques are open to visits by non-Muslims. Typically, each mosque has a highly ornamented niche in one of its walls, called a mihrab (pronounced “ mih -rob” ). This arched, recessed niche is designed merely to indicate the direction of Mecca, toward which all Muslims face during prayer. It is most definitely not, as some have supposed, some kind of idol or the actual object of prayer. Many mosques also feature a platform, called a minbar, that often resembles a flight of stairs. It is from this platform that the local religious official, the imam, gives his Friday sermon. One other characteristic feature of almost all mosques is the exterior tower called a minaret. From this tower, faithful Muslims are summoned to prayer five times each day. Loudspeakers have mostly replaced the old muezzin, or prayer-caller.

The third pillar is the practice of almsgiving. Muslims tend to take this principle very seriously, and Islamic governments typically levy a tax that is specifically designed to fulfill the requirement of giving to the poor.

Fourth is the practice of fasting, especially during the holy month of Ramadan, when no food or drink is consumed between sunrise and sunset for the entire month. Since the religious calendar of Islam is a lunar one, the month of Ramadan cycles through the seasons and through the solar calendar that we use and that even Muslims employ for their secular business and day-to-day lives.

The fifth and last pillar is the hajj, or the pilgrimage to Mecca. It is obligatory for every Muslim who is able to do so, that he or she complete the pilgrimage at least once in a lifetime. Pilgrims dress in white, and perform various rituals including circumambulation of the Ka’ba.

Some have tried to establish the principle of jihad (pronounced “ jee -had” ) as a sixth pillar. This word is usually translated into English as “holy war,” but it means, literally, “struggle” or “striving.” Drawing on a teaching generally ascribed to the Prophet Muhammad, Muslims often distinguish the “greater jihad”— struggle against one’s own evil, base, selfish, or unrighteous inclinations—from the “lesser jihad” of military struggle against the enemies of Islam. But even in military jihad, Islamic law has long held that the deliberate targeting of noncombatants, of children, women, and the elderly, is unjustifiable. And it has insisted that those launching a jihad must first summon their enemies to accept Islam (“submission”). Furthermore, at least in theory, jihad is supposed to be defensive. “Fight in the way of God with those who fight you,” says the Qur’an, “but aggress not: God loves not the aggressors.” [6] Nor is suicide acceptable: “Cast not yourselves by your own hands into destruction.” [7] Those who die on behalf of Islam are considered martyrs (shuhada’). [8]

Other Basic Beliefs

Muslims have traditionally expended more thought on law and ethics than on theology, but certain theological principles are reasonably clear and universal. For example, God is One. He is not a Trinity. He is completely different from anything earthly. He is purely spiritual and invisible. Moreover, He is all-powerful and probably determines all human actions. One of the most common Arabic phrases is In sha’ Allah, “If God wills,” which is repeated before almost any action or promise. This is sometimes seen as a kind of Muslim fatalism, but compare with James 4:13–15, where the same kind of respect for God’s sovereignty is enjoined.

Islam recognizes the biblical prophets and several others and believes that literally thousands of prophets are lost to history but known to God. Significantly among these, Muslims accept Jesus of Nazareth as a prophet and as having been born of a virgin. The Qur’an speaks of Jesus as a “word” of God. Islamic believers expect His Second Coming at the end of time. But most hold, on the basis of certain passages in the Qur’an, that His crucifixion was only an illusion of the Jews. They believe that He was not crucified and atones for no sins, that He is not the Son of God, and is not divine. Allah alone is God. “Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him.” [9]

Muhammad, too, is only a prophet. But, as noted above, he is the “seal of the prophets,” which is almost always taken to signify that he is the last of them. Muslims object greatly to their religion being called “Muhammadanism” and to being themselves termed “Muhammadans.” This implies, they say, that Muhammad occupies the place in their religion that Christ occupies in Christianity—and such a supposition is false. They do not worship him. The correct name of their faith is Islam (pronounced “Iss -lam ” ), meaning “submission (to God).” An adherent of the religion of Islam is a Muslim (“Muss- lim”), a “submitter.”

Muslims are noted for some of the prohibitions of their religion. Although, unsurprisingly, not all are faithful, they are directed to refrain from drinking wine, and, like Jews, to avoid pork. They are commanded by their religion not to make religious images and pictures—which is, again, reminiscent of Judaism.

Westerners have also been fascinated by such things as the veiling of women and “harems.” In passing, it is worth noting that the historical origins of the veiling of women are unclear but that it may well have been borrowed from Christians several centuries after Muhammad’s death. (Muhammad’s own wives veiled themselves because of their special status in the community, but the rule probably was not generally applied.) And harems, never very common, are almost extinct in the world of contemporary Islam.

What should Latter-day Saints make of Muhammad and Islam? If Qur’anic statements against the divinity of Christ accurately represent the teachings of Muhammad—and there is no evidence that they do not—then we cannot accept him as a true prophet in the full sense of the word. We have little choice in this matter because, as Revelation 19:10 explains, “the testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy” (emphasis added). But it is virtually certain that Muhammad was sincere, and it may well be that he was inspired by God to do and say much of what he said and did.

Elders George A. Smith and Parley P. Pratt of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles had a high opinion of him in 1855, at a time when just about everybody else in Europe and America thought it obvious that Muhammad—along with Joseph Smith, incidentally, who was often compared to him—was a cunning fraud. [10] And that high estimation has continued into recent times. In a 15 February 1978 declaration, the First Presidency paid tribute to Muhammad, among others, as a divinely inspired religious and moral leader: “The great religious leaders of the world such as Mohammed, Confucius, and the Reformers, as well as philosophers including Socrates, Plato, and others, received a portion of God’s light. Moral truths were given to them by God to enlighten whole nations and to bring a higher level of understanding to individuals.”

The History Behind the Headlines

As I write, slightly more than six months after the brutal attacks of September 11, 2001, portions of the Arab and Islamic world are gripped in mounting anguish and even despair, overflowing with seething anger, and oppressed by a growing sense of urgency. [11] It is important for people in the West to try to understand why this is so (though I should not be taken as claiming that to understand is wholly to excuse). In order to understand, however, we must once again look to the past.

For several centuries, Islam, along with the region and culture that it dominated, was at the forefront of civilization and human achievement. In fact, in Muslim eyes, Islam was civilization, and those who lived beyond the Islamic world were often regarded not only as infidels but as barbarians. [12] During the time of the Islamic world’s richest flourishing, only China could claim a comparable level of culture. But even China was not entirely to be compared, since its culture was basically confined to one ethnic group, while, by contrast, Islam’s dominion was vast, even intercontinental (including southeastern Europe, West Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, and North Africa) and its subjects were multiethnic and multiracial.

For most of its first thousand years, Islam clearly exercised the greatest military power on earth. From its homeland in Arabia, its armies came to dominate not only the Middle East but also parts of Europe, Central Asia, North Africa, portions of the eastern and western African coasts, and large areas of the Indian subcontinent. Only the threat of their eastern Islamic rivals in Persia kept the Ottoman Turks from deploying their armies westward and conquering Europe. [13] And, even so, by 1682–83 the Ottomans were conducting their second siege of Vienna.

Muslims had commerce and communications everywhere. They had inherited advanced knowledge and skills from their predecessors in the ancient Near East, Greece, and Persia. They had taken the decimal system from India and the art of making paper from China—and it is very difficult to imagine modern civilization without these two elements. In fact, the indebtedness of the West to the Islamic world is illustrated nicely by the number and nature of the words that we have borrowed from Arabic and cognate languages. These include such terms as algebra, alchemy, algorithm, nadir, zenith, and even punch. Such indebtedness was incurred, as well, by the influence of Islamic thinkers like Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroës (Ibn Rushd) upon St. Thomas Aquinas, the Doctor Angelicus, who was incomparably the greatest philosopher of the Latin Middle Ages and, for many years, effectively the official theologian of the Roman Catholic Church.

Islamic rulers were tolerant of their Christian and Jewish minorities not only because such tolerance was enjoined by Islam but also, very likely, because of a sense of comfortable security. Christians were looked down upon. As for today, although Islam’s record of pre-modern toleration is far better than Christendom’s, that toleration has receded under current conditions of threat, despair, and anger; and the links of Christian and Jewish minorities to the West, and their concomitant prosperity, have caused hatred in some circles.

The Crusades represented a brief interruption of the Muslims’ seemingly inevitable march toward ultimate triumph, but the Crusader states didn’t last very long and didn’t prove lastingly significant from the Near Eastern point of view—although they proved very fruitful for the Europeans, who were exposed, through them, to a much superior civilization. Byzantium continued to shrink. And, as for the rest of Europe, it was dismissed by those few Muslim writers who concerned themselves at all with it as a dark and barbarous place, valuable largely as a source of strong slaves and useful raw materials. Much of Europe depended, for its science and civilization, on translations from Arabic, sometimes even translations of works originally composed in Greek. Even Europe’s religion had been borrowed from the Near East.

In 1453, Constantinople finally fell to the Ottoman Turks. And, now that the Byzantine Empire had been conquered, the so-called Holy Roman Empire, in Europe proper, was slated to be next.

But that conquest did not happen.

In retrospect, we can see that a certain stagnation had entered into the Islamic world with the advent of the Mongols and the Turks, if not before. The great translation movement that had brought so much of Greek medicine, science, and philosophy to the Muslims was past by this time. New intellectual stimuli were no longer entering Islamic life at anything like the previous astonishing pace.

Meanwhile, Europe was surging forward. Chairs of Arabic and Persian (of “oriental” languages) began to appear in European universities such as Cambridge, Oxford, and Paris. But Muslims seems to have known little, and to have cared less, about such things. They knew nothing about the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the technological leaps associated with Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press and with the Industrial Revolution. While there have long been “Orientalists” in the West, it is only quite recently that “Occidentalists” began to appear in the Near East. And, for a long time after that, even those Near Easterners who knew Western languages tended to be not Muslims but Christians and Jews, who had a natural reason to cultivate ties with their fellow believers in Europe.

While Muslims traveled extensively within the Islamic world (in order to perform the hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca, as well as for ordinary commercial purposes), they seldom if ever traveled to Europe. Unlike Europeans, many of whose holiest places were located in the Near East, Muslims had no objects of pilgrimage in Europe. Furthermore, for many centuries, Muslim merchants saw little in Europe to attract them. The slaves and raw materials of Europe could be purchased at trading posts located along the border between the predominantly Christian and predominantly Muslim lands, so there was no real need for Muslims to enter into Europe. And those few merchants from the Near East who actually penetrated Europe tended to be, once again, either Jews or Greek or Armenian Christians. And, again in stark distinction to Near Eastern attitudes, Western merchants tended to view the Mediterranean (and, hence, the Islamic world that occupied much of it) as a vast, sophisticated, and incredibly wealthy trade emporium—as, in fact, it had long been. Jewish and Christian commercial travelers had local communities of co-believers to help them both in Europe and the Near East, whereas, by contrast, no European communities of Muslims existed under Christian domination to facilitate trading by Islamic businessmen. Likewise, while Europeans maintained permanent embassies in the Near East, Islamic states dispatched only occasional envoys—who entered, disposed of their business, and left as soon as they possibly could. In fact, Muslims thought it ethically and theologically wrong to visit, let alone to live in, infidel territories. As believers in Muhammad’s message had fled pagan Mecca to join him in his exile in Medina, so too were later believers to flee the rule of unbelievers and gather with the faithful. Thus, while Europeans had considerable knowledge of and exposure to much of the heartland of the Islamic world, Muslims had little if any direct knowledge of Europe. Accordingly, long after the notion was out of date, Muslim residents of the Near East typically regarded Europeans as primitives who had little to offer to civilized people.

When Vasco da Gama pioneered his route around the cape of Africa at the end of the fifteenth century, he managed to connect Europe and Asia in a way that allowed European merchants to bypass the Near East. Accordingly, countries such as Egypt, which depended heavily upon revenue from tariffs on imports and transit goods—and which, as luck would have it, was in that very period under the rule of the architecture-loving and rather free-spending Circassian Mamluks—saw their income plunge. By the seventeenth century, the Portuguese, the Dutch, and other intrepid Europeans had established permanent bases in Asia that gradually evolved into colonies. The Islamic world was now outflanked.

But things became worse still. Columbus’s first voyage to the New World, also in the late fifteenth century, opened the Americas (with their gold and silver and other resources) to European exploitation and vastly increased the size of Christendom, both absolutely and relative to the by now fairly stable size of the Islamic world. Bernard Lewis, a brilliant Anglo-American scholar of Islam, uses coffee and sugar—significantly, both originally products of the Near East—to illustrate the economic consequences for the Islamic world of European colonization in Asia and the Americas: Coffee came from Ethiopia. Gradually, though, its use spread via Arabia and Egypt to Syria and Turkey, and then on to Europe. Sugar came originally from Persia and India. By the end of the eighteenth century, however, even Muslims in the Near East were drinking coffee from beans that had been cultivated in Dutch Java or in the colonies of New Spain, in the Americas. And they were mixing it with sugar from the British and French West Indies. Only the hot water with which they mixed these ingredients was local. And then, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, European companies gained control of the water and gas supplies in the Near East. [14]

Western commercial expansion meant that western legal principles guided the formation of international commercial law—even in the Muslim lands. Thus, the shari’a, which most Muslim rulers had honored in theory but ignored in practice (since they wanted laws they could shape or spin to their own advantage) became even further marginalized.

At the close of the fifteenth century, the Spanish had reconquered Spain after nearly 800 years of Muslim presence and cultural efflorescence there. As the last Muslim ruler of Granada rode away from his beloved palace, the Alhambra, he turned to take one last look at it in a pass still known as the Ultimo Suspiro del Moro, “The Last Sigh of the Moor.” A tear trickled down his cheek. Seeing it, his mother-in-law remarked, “It is fitting that you should weep like a woman for what you could not defend like a man.”

During this period, the Islamic world needed creative, dynamic, and resourceful leadership. Unfortunately, during this period the formerly dependable sources of its leaders failed. The Ottoman Empire, for example, had been founded and developed by a long and essentially unbroken series of extraordinarily competent (if seldom exactly saintly) sultans like Selim the Grim, Mehmet the Conqueror, and Suleyman the Magnificent. But then the empire passed into a period that has often been compared to a lengthy and eventually fatal illness, an epoch that can be illustrated by (but cannot be entirely laid at the feet of) a series of sultans who were as incompetent and ineffective as their predecessors had been brilliant. Not a few of them may even have been mad.

What had changed? One thing that had altered was the method of handling young Ottoman princes while they waited to take their turn on the sultan’s throne. In the earlier days of the Ottoman empire, the princes had been sent out to gain experience as army commanders and provincial governors. Thus, when a new sultan came to power, he already had considerable experience with both military and civil administration, and with the various peoples under Ottoman rule. However, young princes accustomed to command sometimes grew impatient when their fathers took too long to depart the scene, and fathers, watching them, grew nervous upon their imperial thrones. Accordingly, it was decided to keep the princes in the harem with their mothers, thus depriving them not only of the opportunity to launch a coup—which was the goal—but also, as a lamentable side effect, of any experience beyond the restricted environs of the women’s quarters of the palace. And then, in order to eliminate rival claimants and the instability that they could create, the custom arose of executing all of the other princes once one of them had succeeded to the sultanate. So what was left to the young princes and their mothers was constant palace intrigue, which they practiced as if their lives depended upon it—which, of course, they literally did. There can be little wonder, therefore, that many of those who came to the throne were not only inexperienced and untested but neurotic and paranoid. And then, suddenly, they were all-powerful. It was a perfect recipe for disaster.

The second siege of Vienna failed as the first had. Then, in 1686, the Ottomans lost Buda, and a century and a half of Muslim Turkish rule in Hungary came to an end. A Turkish lament of the time captures the impact that the loss carried:

In the fountains they no longer wash In the mosques they no longer pray The places that prospered are now desolate The Austrian has taken our beautiful Buda. [15]

Yet the defeats were by no means over. The Ottomans suffered several reverses, for example, at the hands of Peter the Great. In 1699, they were obliged to sign the Treaty of Carlowitz, in which they made concessions to victorious Christians, something previously unthinkable. Nobody in the Muslim world had seen the loss of Spain as terribly significant. It was, they imagined at the time, just part of the normal ebb and flow of war. Muslims would, it was thought, eventually take Andalusia back. In retrospect, however, the Spanish Reconquista began to be seen as one in a now long and menacing list of disasters and losses. Muslims began to perceive that Islam, or the Islamic world, had entered into a period of crisis and that something had to be done.

At first, it was assumed that military reforms were the primary need. Thus, very limited European help was sought by various Islamic rulers, most notably by the authorities of the Ottoman empire. They decided to buy what they needed, which was not limited merely to weapons but also included consultation on military organization, the conduct of warfare, and actual training.

Accordingly, Western experts begin to arrive, bringing with them expertise in military engineering, artillery and ballistics, and the mathematics associated with such subjects. They also brought Western military uniforms and, even, Western military music. [16] Improved administrative techniques were introduced into the civil bureaucracy as well as the military. For one thing, there were renewed efforts to base employment and promotion on merit and qualifications rather than, as was typically the case, on patronage and connections. Ironically, though, such reforms, in making autocratic regimes more efficient, also tended to make them more oppressive, which would have consequences for the future.

But such alterations were still not enough. Between 1768 and 1774, the Ottomans suffered further defeats at the hands of the Russians. And these defeats were particularly painful because their effects could not be dismissed as limited merely to outlying areas. On the contrary, their consequences could be felt in the Islamic heartland itself. The Treaty of Küçuk Kaynarca (1774), for instance, granted the Russians rights of navigation and even intervention within the Ottoman empire. Indeed, in 1783, Russia actually annexed the Crimea, a traditionally Muslim land.

Meanwhile, Portugal and the Netherlands—relatively tiny European countries—had come to dominate Asian trade and to control the seas. This occurred partly because of the manifest superiority of European sailing vessels over their Islamicate counterparts. So clear was this superiority that, by the eighteenth century, even Muslim pilgrims from India and Indonesia, finding them cheaper, safer, and more reliable, were booking passage to Mecca on Dutch, English, and Portuguese ships.

One thing that should be clear from this history is that, despite the differing and often impassioned accounts offered up by some contemporary Muslim political leaders and thinkers, Western imperialism was attracted by preexisting weakness in the Islamic world; it did not cause it. While colonialism certainly exacerbated many problems in the region, most of those problems—and the most fundamental of them—cannot actually be blamed on the West (nor, for that matter, attributed to any other external factor). Places like Hong Kong, with far fewer natural resources than the Islamic world, have nonetheless flourished economically. Moreover, strength repels colonization: even tiny Switzerland, surrounded during the Nazi period by Hitler’s Germany to the north, Mussolini’s Italy to the south, occupied Austria to the east, and Vichy France to the west, managed to maintain its independence. By contrast, the vast and populous Indian subcontinent, because it was divided among squabbling factions, fell prey to the armies of a small island off the coast of Europe, and Queen Victoria was able to claim the title of Empress of India.

It is tempting to say that unless and until Muslim leaders and thinkers recognize that they have a problem—in much the same way that those who attend Alcoholics Anonymous must recognize that they have a problem—they will never be able to solve it. So long as the CIA or the Zionists or the French or the British or Mossad or the United States are blamed for all of the weaknesses and frustrations in the region, there can be little or no substantial progress.

In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte conquered and occupied Egypt. The French were driven out of Egypt only a few years later, but, tellingly, not by the Egyptians and not by any coalition of Muslims. Instead, it was the British who claimed the honor, and French occupied Egypt now came effectively under British control. If the Crimea had been a traditionally Islamic land, and its surrender a terrible shock, Egypt was absolutely central to the Islamic world. It had been ruled by Muslims since roughly a decade after the death of Muhammad, and its loss to the European infidel—and the inability of the Islamic world to do anything about that loss—represented not merely a catastrophe but a revelation.

It was now impossible to miss the fact that the Islamic world was in actual decline. Merely military reforms had clearly not been sufficient to fix what was wrong. And, with Westerners now bestriding their heartland as conquerors and rulers, Muslims became painfully aware of European superiority in many aspects of political life and in technical and scientific achievement. Moreover, the French and British occupations spread to the Near East ideas that were beginning to circulate in Europe and that were, by the standards of the Islamic world, positively revolutionary. The French embassy in Istanbul had already established a newspaper there; Napoleon’s occupying forces founded newspapers in Egypt. The Jesuits in Beirut also recognized the powerful potential of newspaper journalism, and their publications soon acquired influence far beyond the Lebanese Christian community. Western ideals and concepts were circulating in Muslim cities.

Much against their traditional inclinations, Muslim leaders began to send student delegations to Europe for study. “Our countries,” declared Shaykh Hasan al-’Attar, an Egyptian cleric who had worked with Napoleon’s troops, “should be changed and renewed through knowledge and sciences that they do not possess.” The student delegates were intended to master the practices of Western civil administration and to learn what they could of Western science and technology. And this, to a certain extent, they did. But they also began to return with some of the ideas that were circulating on the Continent in the wake of the French Revolution. This was awkward for the old elites who had sent them, and probably for the returning students as well. Technology was one thing. Notions of representative democracy, human rights, and freedom of the press were quite another. Muslims wrestled, along with the world, with such concepts as liberty, equality, and fraternity. Although, as early as the era of Napoleon, some Muslims recognized the threat to Islam posed by the ideology of the French Revolution, many regarded it—precisely because it was non-Christian, or even anti-Christian—as relatively safe.

The movement known as the “Young Ottomans,” modeled on Giuseppi Mazzini’s “Young Italy,” which sought to unify Italy under a republican form of government, arose in the mid-1860s. The Young Ottomans and their allies sought to establish their own newspapers, to found parliamentary institutions, and to institute liberal reforms of various kinds. They called for representative democracy, fundamental changes in school and university curriculum, and alterations of the traditional agrarian and merchant economy in the direction of free-market capitalism. And, of course, the Christian and Jewish minorities of the Islamic world, with their long-standing ties to their fellow believers in Europe, rapidly developed a taste for progressive Western thinking and served as conduits for the entry of such ideas into the Near East.

Liberal reformers in the Near East were encouraged by the outcome of the 1905 Russo-Japanese War, in which the Japanese, the only Asian people to adopt parliamentary democracy, defeated Russia, the only European country to reject it. The precedent was inspiring. The future must have seemed bright with promise.

But liberal democratic reform too failed to solve the problems of the Near East and the Islamic world, largely because it failed to come to effective power in the region. The British, for example, lingered on in Egypt long after the time when the Wafd Party—which had staked its credibility on the promise that European colonialists would depart once local elites had shown themselves capable of democratic self-rule—expected to reclaim Egypt’s dignity as a fully sovereign, autonomous state. For their part, the Ottoman sultans and their courts were wary of democracy. Although they experimented with parliamentary representation, they dissolved such bodies at the first sign of genuine independence. The legacy of the failure of genuine democracy to take root in the Islamic world is still apparent, even in relatively benign places like modern Egypt. Ritualistic elections are held, yet there is little true choice for the electorate, and, while a great deal is said about freedom, it has little solid reality anywhere in either the Near East or, for that matter, in the Islamic world generally.

Such facts made the sense of backwardness and stagnation among Muslims even more painfully apparent. And not a few Europeans noticed it. With astonishing chauvinism (to say nothing of historical ignorance) some French voices—the self-announced French mission civilisatrice made for a form of colonialism that was arguably much harsher than that of the British—were heard to declare that Arabs and even the Arabic language were incapable of sustaining genuine civilization. This cannot have been other than humiliating to those sensitive and educated Arab souls who heard of it. Finally, and perhaps worst of all, the establishment of Israel—by people coming mostly from Europe and the West, recognized and legitimated with stunning speed by Western governments—represented, in the minds of many Muslims, the emergence of a European colonial outpost in some of the holiest of Islamic territory.

Some other remedy to the problems of the Islamic world had to be found. And many people soon came to believe that they had found that remedy in socialism and in nationalism, which had the distinct advantage over later proposals that members of all Near Eastern faiths could participate as equals in the furtherance of their cause. For example, prominent leaders in the older Palestinian movement included not merely Muslims but such notorious militants as the Christian George Habbash, of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. [17] It was Palestinian ethnicity that counted, not religious affiliation. The Palestine Liberation Organization (or PLO) continues to be a largely secular or, at least, non-sectarian operation. And pan-Arabism—the notion that all of the Arabs form one nation, and that political reality ought to reflect that ideal—came to dominate a substantial portion of the Islamic world under the inspiration of Gamal Abdel Nasser (d. 1970). However, to make a rather long and dismal story brief, socialism and Arab nationalism failed too. Just as Lenin’s and Stalin’s “five-year plans” and economic collectivization proved disastrous for the former Soviet Union, the command economies erected by Nasser and others led to economic ruin and, in many cases, to tyranny and oppression. Nasser’s attempt to unify Egypt and Syria in the United Arab Republic (1958–61) fell apart after only three years, his pan-Arabist military adventure in Yemen was a disaster, and the Six-Day War was, at best, a pan-Arab humiliation. Today, perhaps only Libya’s Qaddafi still holds to the old dream of Arab nationalism.

The sense of frustration and embarrassment among elites in the Islamic world grew even more acute with the failure of these latest attempts to cure their ever more obviously dysfunctional region. They could not fail to notice, for example, that the nations of East Asia, which had begun at an even lower economic and social level than had the Near East—and which had, in addition, been devastated by the horrors of the Second World War—were now competitive with the West, and not merely economically but scientifically and technologically. The situation in the Islamic world is, unfortunately, far different. In contrast to its golden age, many centuries ago, little if any original science is done by Muslims living in Muslim countries, and little if any new technology is created there. Still today, Western investments do not come, by and large, to the Near East and the Islamic world. Instead, Near Easterners and other Muslims prefer to invest outside of their region, often in the West. If fossil fuels (essentially petroleum products) are excluded from the calculation, the exports of the entire Arab world are roughly on a par with those of Finland, a country of five million people. [18] And, ominously, fossil fuels are a finite resource. They are not renewable and not exclusive to the Middle East.

The social, economic, and political problems in the region include oppressive and tyrannical regimes and, despite oil revenues, continuing widespread poverty and illiteracy. In fact, as democracy takes root throughout much of the former Eastern bloc, as well as in Latin America and the new economic powerhouses of the Pacific Rim, Muslim states can now be seen—and not a few Muslims see themselves—as bringing up the absolute rear. Even where money abounds, at least for the moment, oil shaykhs are hiring Koreans and other Asians to do much of their work. Large American and European engineering firms build their airports and palaces and desalinization plants. Filipinos do much of the menial work, including domestic service and construction. It is hardly a long-term formula for a vibrant economy, and that fact hasn’t escaped notice within Muslim and Near Eastern circles.

One way of conveying something of the sense of perplexity and despair that many thinking Muslims now feel is to compare it to a hypothetical case among Latter-day Saints. We are accustomed to hearing reports of the continued growth of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. It has been steady almost from the beginning, and even spectacular. We see ourselves as fulfilling Daniel’s prophecy of the stone cut out of the mountain without hands, which will eventually come to fill the whole earth (see Daniel 2). We expect to grow, and we look confidently forward to the triumph of the cause in which we are engaged. How would it be, though, if we were to enter a prolonged period when the growth ceased—when, in fact, we began to lose members, and found ourselves forced to sell chapels off by the score, and perhaps even close down a few temples because we no longer had the resources to maintain them?

Some members of the Church of Jesus Christ, I’m sure, would conclude that the gospel must not be true. In their view, the prophecies would have been proven false and their faith misplaced. Likewise, some Muslims, in the face of Western dominance and influenced by secularized Western thought, have given up their belief in Muhammad, the Qur’an, and even God. For the most part, though, they have remained prudently silent.

Some members of the Church, when faced with declining success, would suggest that we simply needed to improve our methods and practices. With a little tinkering here and there, they would say, and perhaps after borrowing a few ideas from successful organizations, our missionary program would be up and running again, and we would be back on the prophesied path. This would be very much the same kind of response that we saw among the Ottomans, when they looked to European models to improve their military practices and civil administration.

Still other members of the Church, however, would suggest that we needed to get “back to basics,” that our real problem was to be more faithful, to read the scriptures more and more deeply, to live the gospel more vibrantly, to be better disciples. And that, in a nutshell, despite the cultural differences and the occasionally appalling form that the “back to basics” movement has taken among some Muslims, is essentially what Islamic fundamentalism seeks to do. Of course, not all committed Muslims are fundamentalists, and not all fundamentalists are terrorists. And many of their criticisms of the immorality of the West are not wildly different from those that will be heard from the pulpit at any given conference of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. One of the most obvious and substantial differences between Latter-day Saints and Islamic fundamentalists in this regard, though, emerges from our different views of human freedom. Although the Qur’an expressly declares that there should be “no coercion in religion” (la ikraha fi al-din) , [19] Islamic societies have typically tended toward control rather than freedom. Proper behavior should be imposed by strong social constraints and, in some cases, by force. The Wahhabi movement that provided ideological support for the establishment of the kingdom Saudi Arabia in 1932was a harbinger of the future for the rest of the Islamic world in calling for a return to simplicity and Islamic seriousness; and, backed by Saudi oil wealth, the Wahhabis have in fact been pivotal in the spread of fundamentalism among Muslims around the world.

A Return to Their Roots

The humiliating disaster of the Six-Day or 1967 War was a crucial turning point in the history of both the Near East in particular and the Islamic world in general. Since everything else had clearly failed, those who had been saying all along that, as one popular bumper sticker among American Muslims has it, “Islam is the Answer!” now began to receive a hearing. They could point out, with some plausibility, that all of the cures heretofore proposed for the malaise of the Islamic world—enhanced military technology, improved administrative techniques, parliamentary democracy, nationalism, even socialism and Marxism—had been based upon foreign, Western ideas. Why not go back to Islamic roots? The Muslims had been spectacularly successful in previous centuries on the basis of their own traditions and religious practices, without borrowing from Western culture. [20]

A good illustration of the rising demand that Muslims return to their own roots rather than seeking salvation in the West might be a 1962 book by Jalal Al-e Ahmad (Iranian, d. 1969) entitled Gharbzadegi. Its Persian title might be translated, roughly, as “Westtoxification” or “Occidentosis,” and it argues, passionately, that Iran in particular needed to escape what its author saw as the near-total political and cultural dominance of the West. Another illustration, even more powerful, is the changed character of the Arab-Israeli conflict as it was manifested in the 1973 War. Whereas the disastrous 1967 War had been fueled by Nasserite secular nationalism, Nasser had now departed the scene via a 1970 heart attack, and the new Egyptian leader, Anwar al-Sadat, turned to Islamic symbolism to label the next military effort the “Ramadan War.” And it was lost on nobody, on the Muslim side, that, for the first time in many years, Arab armies enjoyed at least some limited success during a war conducted under the aegis of Islam.

At the same time, the famous Arab oil embargo filled the Arabs and Muslims generally with renewed confidence, and believers began to suspect that it was not merely by chance that God had given petroleum—”the oil weapon”—in such vast quantities specifically to the “holy land” of the Muslims, the Arabian peninsula.

Then in 1977–78, the Islamic Revolution overthrew one of the secular West’s most important Near Eastern allies, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, the Shah of Iran. Once again, Muslim observers noted the power of Islam, or what some Western political analysts had initially dismissed as a ragtag bunch of mullahs and religious fanatics.

In 1989, the Afghan mujahidin drove the army of the mighty Soviet Union out of their country. Was it mere coincidence that the Berlin Wall came down during the same year and that, late in 1991, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics broke up? After years of increasing frustration and apparent powerlessness, the strength of Islam had been made manifest and vindicated. The tide had clearly turned, many believers thought, and the future was now bright with assurance. In 1992, Afghanistan was declared an Islamic state.

The name most commonly given by outsiders to this surge of interest in getting back to the roots and in living more Islamically was “Islamic fundamentalism.” The term is, however, more than a little problematic. It originated, apparently, with the publication of a series of conservative Protestant Christian tracts called the Fundamentals, published between 1910 and 1915. Yet though Protestant fundamentalism is parallel in certain ways with Islamic “fundamentalism,” they are certainly not the same thing. For many years, in fact, no word equivalent to English fundamentalism even existed in Arabic and other Muslim languages. And scholars prefer, on the whole, to refer to “Islamism” and “Islamists,” so as to avoid undesirable and even misleading connotations. For example, fundamentalism seems to connote ignorance and backwardness. But many prominent Islamist leaders are quite well educated and are neither backward nor provincial. Osama bin Ladin was trained as an engineer. His chief lieutenant, Ayman al-Zawahiri, was schooled as a physician in Egypt where, as in much of the Near East, physicians and engineers are at the very top of the educational ladder. Ironically, though, the word fundamentalism has now been adopted by journalists and other writers in the Islamic world itself, to denote a movement that, on the whole, rejects cultural borrowings from the West.

Islamic fundamentalism is dedicated to the purification and reformation of beliefs and practices in accordance with the “fundamentals” of the Islamic faith. As such, it is part of a general world phenomenon dedicated to restoring lost values, truths, and practices, or to what some scholars like to call, in a fancy but insightful word, “repristinizing” religious faiths that have grown old, sloppy, and lax. Parallel movements (all of them troubled by certain developments in the modern world, some of which truly are troubling by almost any standard) occur not merely among Muslims and Christians, but also among Jews, Sikhs, Hindus, and other large religious traditions. Fundamentalists are reluctant to adapt to what they see as the evil features of modernity. They repudiate compromises and “sell-outs.”

In the Islamic context, fundamentalists are often hostile to official clergy on the government payroll. More broadly, religious reform in Islam necessarily involves political reform. “Church” and state are not separate in Islam for the simple and sufficient reason that they were never separate in the life of Muhammad, the model Muslim. Some fundamentalists call for the return of the caliphate, which was abolished in 1924 by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the founder of modern Turkey. Most if not all call for a restoration of the shari’a, which, they argue with considerable justification, is just as sophisticated and complex as any code of law in the West.

Pan-Islamism, it seems, has virtually replaced nationalism as a driving force in the Islamic world. The more or less secular Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) now finds itself rivaled by the even more militant Hamas, an explicitly Islamic movement that has transformed the conflict from one between Arabs and Israelis into one pitting Muslims against Jews. A few years ago, sensing the way the wind was blowing, even Saddam Hussein, whose Arab Ba’th party has always been a quintessentially secular nationalistic and socialistic product of an earlier period, discovered the “fact” that he is a descendant of the prophet Muhammad and placed the traditional Islamic cry Allahu akbar! (“God is most great!”) on the Iraqi flag.

Islamic regimes now control Iran and the Sudan and, until they were recently overthrown by American military force, dominated Afghanistan. The precise details of their programs are often rather vague, apart from a promise to return to ostensibly Islamic ways of doing things. But they have been able to agree on their hostility toward the West and, specifically, toward the United States of America. They resent American economic hegemony (called by one wit, in India, “Cocacolonization”), but their attention is focused on the United States primarily because America is now the world’s only true superpower. This is, of course, rather ironic, since it can certainly be argued that British and especially French colonialism were far more deliberately injurious to Islamic interests than American foreign policy has been and that recent Russian behavior toward the Islamic world has been straightforwardly brutal. And it is doubly ironic, since Islamists tend to use Western devices—cassette tapes, for example—to spread their messages. When the Ayatollah Khomeini returned from his exile in France to a triumphant welcome in the streets of Tehran, he flew back in a Boeing jetliner and rode into the city in a Chevrolet. In fact, even the elaborate Shi’ite hierarchy in Iran, with its “ayatollahs” and “hujjatulislams,” can be viewed as something that developed under Western influence.

Why is much Muslim hostility so focused upon the United States? I believe that a bit of psychohistory may be appropriate here, although I generally abhor such an approach. It seems to me that the United States has an effect upon many Muslims that is simultaneously both repulsive and seductive. This was brought home to me during the last months of my residency in Cairo, Egypt. Soviet troops had invaded Afghanistan and were openly bombing and killing Muslims throughout that country. Yet nothing happened to Soviet embassies. Then came a disturbance at the Great Mosque in Mecca. A rumor circulated that the Americans had been involved, and United States embassies across the Islamic world were attacked. I began to ponder why the mere rumor of an American misdeed provoked violence in several different Muslim countries, while open and brutal injuries done by the Soviets to thousands of Muslims in Afghanistan drew virtually no public response.

Americans are the heirs of the resentment that Muslims feel about all of the colonialism and imperialism and oppression that they have endured or—and the difference is not especially important—that they feel they have endured at the hands of the West. They perceive a deep hypocrisy in American attitudes. While, for example, Americans seem to care about Israeli Jewish suffering, they turn a blind eye (at least in much Arab and Muslim opinion) to the suffering of Palestinian Muslims. [21] Americans seem, too, to be continuing the hypocrisy of imperialist predecessors in the sense that, while supporting democracy at home, they seem perfectly comfortable with repression abroad. Earlier colonialists were themselves repressive; American foreign policy, in pursuit of its objectives of containing international communism and assuring the stability of oil and other markets, has often found itself supporting undemocratic regimes. And, of course, blaming others—the Zionists, Israel’s Mossad, the CIA—serves the interests of more than a few failed governments in the Islamic world: it distracts popular attention from the poverty and tyranny that characterize the region. (The image of the Jews in the Muslim world has changed dramatically since the establishment of Israel in 1948. Where the Jews were once held in rather benign contempt, they are now commonly held in bitter awe as a race of malicious supermen.)

Many Muslims today live in a state of mind that must be much like that of Europeans in the medieval Age of Faith—even, alas, to the point, at least figuratively, of seeing malevolent demons behind the actions of their enemies. Islam has undergone no Reformation. Muslims have not yet learned, within their own societies, to live alongside adherents of other faiths as full equals—as Europeans were gradually forced, very reluctantly, to do. Their culture has not assumed the skeptical stance that, for both good and ill, has characterized Western civilization since the Enlightenment. Islamic civilization was once the greatest of its day and among the greatest in human history. The seeds of its decay were sown internally, and the steps that must be taken to restore it to its historic place in world culture must be taken by the Muslims themselves.

[1] I offer a longer and somewhat more complete survey in Daniel C. Peterson, Abraham Divided: An LDS Perspective on the Middle East, 2d ed. (Salt Lake City: Aspen Books, 1995). I might note here, incidentally, that, although their meanings were originally somewhat distinct, the terms Middle East and Near East are currently used as synonyms by virtually all specialists in the field.

[2] Most scholars believe that they did not take their pagan religion very seriously. I tend to believe that their religiosity has been underestimated. But this is not the place to argue that point.

[3] See Lynn M. Hilton and Hope Hilton, In Search of Lehi’s Trail (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1976); Hugh Nibley, Lehi in the Desert/ The World of the Jaredites/ There Were Jaredites (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book and FARMS, 1988), 1–149; Warren P.Aston and Michaela Knoth Aston, In the Footsteps of Lehi: New Evidence for Lehi’s Journey across Arabia to Bountiful (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1994); Noel B. Reynolds, “Lehi’s Arabian Journey Updated,” in Book of Mormon Authorship Revisited: The Evidence for Ancient Origins, ed. Noel B. Reynolds (Provo: FARMS, 1997),379–89.

[4] There are many biographies of the prophet Muhammad, and many of them are quite good. I offer an approach of my own to the subject in Daniel C. Peterson, “Muhammad” in David Noel Freedman and Michael J. McClymond, eds., The Rivers of Paradise: Moses, Buddha, Confucius, Jesus, and Muhammad as Religious Founders (Grand Rapids and Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans, 2001), 457–612.

[5] As a matter of fact, the chapters are in roughly reverse chronological order.

[6] Qur’an 2:190. Presumably, Osama bin Ladin’s justification for his actions against American targets was that, in his view, he was simply fighting a defensive struggle to combat ongoing American aggression against the Islamic world. That might eliminate the need for prior warning of a war since, from his point of view, the war was already under way. And he avoided the prohibition against targeting noncombatants by redefining all participants in the economy of the United States as, effectively, facilitators of American military and economic hegemony. Under such reasoning, of course, no serious distinction between combatants and noncombatants would ever be possible—taxpayers support armies, mothers feed future soldiers—and the humane provisions of Islamic law would be easily evaded.

[7] Qur’an 2:195.

[8] Precisely like the Greek word martyros, the Arabic term means both “martyr” (in the English sense) and “witness.”

[9] Qur’an 112.

[10] See Journal of Discourses 3:28–42.

[11] This portion of the present essay was heavily influenced by Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

[12] Ancient Greeks, Persians, and Chinese adopted the same attitude at various points in their history. In fact, our word barbaric derives from Greek, and, more particularly, from the Greeks’ unflattering imitation of the way non-Greek languages sounded to them: bar-bar-bar-bar-or, in other words, pure gibberish.

[13] By the same token, the Ottoman Islamic threat to the east probably helped to dissuade Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, from sending his troops to crush the Lutheran Reformation in northern Europe. History moves in mysterious ways.

[14] Lewis, What Went Wrong? 50.

[15] Cited by Lewis, What Went Wrong? 17.

[16] Interestingly, many years later, Iran’s Ayatollah Khomeini, while rejecting most forms of music as decadent and immoral, was to make an exception for martial music. His views on the subject may have been influenced not only by his reading of Islamic principles but by his understanding of Books 2 and 3 of Plato’s Republic. He is said to have been a student and admirer of Plato.

[17] It has to be said, of course, that—very much like several of the warlords of Lebanon—he was a Christian in pretty much the same sense that a Mafia don is a Christian.

[18] See Lewis, What Went Wrong? 47.

[19] Qur’an 2:256.

[20] Actually, of course, this is not precisely accurate. With their rapid expansion and their systematic efforts to translate Western and other books on medicine, science, philosophy, and many other subjects into Arabic, Muslims in the first centuries were quite open in many ways to cultural influences from the outside. The books published in Brigham Young University’s new Graeco-Arabic Sciences and Philosophy series will illustrate that openness very clearly.

[21] U.S. intervention on behalf of Muslim Kuwait, following Iraq’s invasion of that small nation, is dismissed merely as an expression of our interest in oil. And U.S. intervention on behalf of Muslims in the Balkan states tends simply to be dismissed or forgotten.

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Say, "[0 Muhammad] we believe in Allah and in the Revelation given to us, and to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac Jacob and the Tribes. We believe in the Revelation that was sent to Moses, Jesus and all other Prophets from their Lord. We make no distinction between them, and to Him we surrender." (3:83; 2:136) He has revealed to you (O Muhammad) the scripture with truth, confirming that which was revealed before it even as He revealed the Torah and the Gospel before as a guide to mankind and has revealed the Criterion (for judging between right and wrong). (3:3-4) All of them called humanity to the way of the Lord, the way of submission to Allah. All of them gave the same message, and all of them stood for the same cause: Islam.

The Meaning of Islam

Those who believe and whose hearts find rest in the remembrance of Allah-indeed it is in the remembrance of Allah alone that the heart of man finds rest-those who believe and act righteously, joy is for them, and a blissful home to return to. (13: 28-29)

Tawhid: The Bedrock of Islam

O, Mankind: worship your Lord, Who created you and those before you, so that you may ward off evil; Who has made the earth a resting place for you, the sky a canopy and Who causes water to pour down from the heavens, thereby producing fruits as food for you. So do not set up rivals to Allah, when you know better. (Qur'an 2:21-22)

Cling firmly together by means of Allah's rope, and do not be divided. Remember Allah's favor towards you when you were enemies; He united your hearts so that you became brothers because of His favor. (Qur'an 3:103)

Prophet hood and Life after Death

We have not sent any Messenger but that he was to be obeyed with Allah's permission. (4:64)

Yet by your Lord, they will never believe until they make you a judge concerning what they are disputing among themselves; then they will find no inconvenience for themselves concerning whatever you have decided and submit completely. (4:65)

And those who do not judge by what Allah has sent down are disbelievers. (5:44)

And every man's deeds have We fastened around his neck, and on the day of resurrection will We bring forth a book which shall be proffered to him wide open: (It will be said to him) "Read your record: This day there need be none but yourself to make out an account against you." (17: 13-14) Whoever comes with a good deed, for him there shall be the like of it tenfold, while whoever comes with an ill-deed, he shall be required with only one like it, and they shall not be treated unjustly. (6:160)

Some Basic Characteristics of Islam

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Islam – a comprehensive way of life.

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Is Islam a Complete Code of Life? Learn About Islamic Principles

تفسیر قرآن کریم.

• Islamic Principles

What is right after all?

Is Islam a complete code of life?

Mufti Muhammad Qasim Attari

Islam is a complete code of life; this is our faith as well as our claim. The term code of life refers to a comprehensive set of laws and guidelines for living. Islam being a complete code of life entails that whenever life exists, the rules of Islam will be present, and wherever there is life, the commands of Islam will be found. The beginning of human life starts with birth. When a child is born, the duration of its life begins. From that time until death, life in this world continues, and throughout this entire period, the guidance of Islam accompanies that individual step by step.

The relevance of Islam’s principles even before birth

The guidance of Islam begins not with the birth of a child but much earlier, even before the marriage of the child's parents. For example, Islam informs us about the qualities to consider when choosing a life partner. One must consider the family background, the manners, character, and beauty of the girl. The character should be the most important aspect. Furthermore, Islam teaches that marriage should take place in families who are known for their dignity and have good manners and habits.

All of this is important, because when a child is born, undoubtedly, it will be in close contact with maternal relatives, and the qualities of the maternal family will be adopted by the child. The same applies for the bride-to-be; she should investigate into the boy and his family to see if the mentioned qualities are present. This is because when a child is born, it will inevitably spend more time with the paternal family. Note how Islamic guidance points out well in advance to think about the qualities and manners a child will adopt many years later.

The Islamic code of life provides guidance from birth to adolescence

When a child is born, the first directive is to have a virtuous and good-mannered person perform the ta ḥ nīk and recite the azan in the child's ear. Then, on the seventh day, perform the Ꜥ aqīqah ceremony and give the child a good name. Thereafter is the ruling for a child to be circumcised. Along with this, there are guidelines pertaining to i) breastfeeding, specifying how long the mother should breastfeed; ii) who is responsible for the child's maintenance; iii) if the parents separate, how long the child will remain with the mother before the father gains custody.

Similarly, when children start to learn words and speak, the word "Allah" is to be repeatedly said in front of them so that the first word a child learns to utter is the blessed name of their Creator and Sustainer: Allah.

When the child is around five years of age, attention should be paid towards teaching fundamental Islamic beliefs. Salah should be encouraged at the age of seven. And by the age of 10, there should be strictness in ensuring the child is punctual in offering salah. During this age, along with worship, emphasis should also be placed on instilling good manners in the child, as well as the attributes of generosity, kindness, smiling, respecting elders, showing compassion to the young, displaying good conduct towards creation, and treating neighbours well. Islam declares that the greatest gift parents can give to their children is a good upbringing and teaching them good manners, as a well-raised child will become a better Muslim and an upright member of society.

Islamic code of conduct pertaining to various aspects of life

Once children reach puberty, all of Islam’s rulings and its detailed teachings come into effect. Hence, they are applicable to all aspects of their lives, and they as individuals now have a responsibility towards them.

Islamic code of conduct relating to life’s social aspects

A man is a son for his parents, a brother for siblings, and a grandson for grandparents. In every relationship, there are separate teachings of Islam, taking into account the nature and proximity of relationships; the closer the relationship, the more the rules. Therefore, there are different rulings in relation to parents, siblings, uncles, aunts, and distinct rulings based on whether a person is a ma ḥ ram or not. In short, there are completely rational and comprehensive details regarding this.

Apart from familial relationships, there are many other relationships that are a part of social life, such as one’s relationship with neighbours. The rights afforded to neighbours are also covered in detail by Islam’s code of life. Likewise, entire books have been written covering Islam’s teachings on one of the most crucial relationships of life, i.e. that of the husband and wife. They cover details surrounding the rights, duties, justice, and kindness between husband and wife.

Islamic principles concerning finance

Human life demands various needs to be fulfilled, and to meet these needs, a person adopts a means of livelihood. Generally, there are two avenues for earning: employment or business. In relation to employment, Islam has provided a comprehensive set of rules by detailing matters related to words such as job, employment, wage, employer, employee, etc. For example, determining the wage, specifying the nature of work, and stipulating its duration are all a part of this. Similar rules exist for employees regarding their relationships with seniors and juniors.

On the other hand, if a business is someone’s livelihood, then the rulings are more detailed than they are for other fields of life. This is because businesses are of many types—involving textiles, gold, wheat, and animals, for example—each with their own respective rules. The details of business-related regulations are diversely explained in the Quran and Hadith.

Islamic principles in relation to death and the afterlife

Islam provides comprehensive guidance regarding death, such as instructing the dying person to recite the declaration of faith and ensuring that a person's end is upon faith. There are rules regarding what to do after someone’s death. These range from bathing and shrouding the deceased, the burial process, the funeral itself, and digging the grave according to the prescribed length and width. Additionally, there are guidelines on acts that are prohibited, such as reopening the grave, revealing the state of the deceased, walking or sitting on the grave, and showing any disrespect to the grave and deceased. Other pertinent matters are also explained, be they in relation to the deceased’s estate, repaying the deceased's debts, carrying out their will, or dividing the inheritance among heirs.

Islamic principles on modern aspects of Life

Life is constantly evolving with developments, new inventions, and discoveries. Both beneficial and harmful things are being invented every day. Despite the advancements, life is full of hardships. The climate is that of a race in which materialism is in pole position. In such circumstances, Islam's comprehensiveness reveals itself, as explicit guidance is provided on a vast array of issues. Complementing this are the broad principles which aid our understanding of how we should act in novel matters in light of the spirit and essence of Islam.

Many of these principles are related to ijtihād and tadabbur , and many others can be easily implemented by a common person. For instance, one fundamental teaching is to avoid using anything to harm Allah’s creation; using any instruments that are invented to cause harm falls under this principle. Likewise, a basic teaching is to prioritise the wellbeing of others. Thus, whether one is a doctor, engineer, ruler, or officer, everyone should adhere to these principles.

A doctor should remain dedicated to treating people in a conscionable manner instead of falling prey to greed by helping hospitals exploit people. An engineer should focus on serving humanity instead of taking part in the creation of harmful inventions. And a ruler is to lift the burden off people and spend on them rather than burden them, hoard wealth and be involved in corruption.

In short, there are Islamic teachings which exist that are linked to every aspect of human life, be it in relation to one individual, groups, the body, the soul, wealth, or domestic and community matters. All of this demonstrates that Islam is a complete way of life.

Was the Work of Islam only carried out by Sufis

The working class represents one of the marginalized and under-appreciated segments of society.

Our belief is that Allah Almighty is the originator of creation. He is the creator of everything,

Along with Islamic finance and contemporary medical issues such as artificial insemination, blood transfusions,

These concerns apply to people from all walks of life. Simply because they have been elected to positions of responsibility

Then He said, “Do not make the verses of Allah an object of mockery,” i.e., mistreating, abusing,

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Morality and Ethics in Islam

Description: the place of morality in islam and its relation to worship..

• By Khalid Latif (edited by IslamReligion)
• Published on 22 Dec 2008
• Last modified on 22 Dec 2008
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Islam is a comprehensive way of life, and morality is one of the cornerstones Islam.  Morality is one of the fundamental sources of a nation’s strength, just as immorality is one of the main causes of a nation’s decline.  Islam has established some universal fundamental rights for humanity as a whole, which are to be observed in all circumstances.  To uphold these rights, Islam has provided not only legal safeguards, but also a very effective moral system.  Thus, whatever leads to the welfare of the individual or the society and does not oppose any maxims of the religion is morally good in Islam, and whatever is harmful is morally bad.

Given its importance in a healthy society, Islam supports morality and matters that lead to it, and stands in the way of corruption and matters that lead to it.  The guiding principle for the behavior of a Muslim is “Virtuous Deeds”.  This term covers all deeds, not only acts of worship.  The Guardian and Judge of all deeds is God Himself.

The most fundamental characteristics of a Muslim are piety and humility.  A Muslim must be humble with God and with other people:

“And turn not your face away from people (with pride), nor walk in insolence through the earth.  Verily, God likes not each arrogant boaster.  And be moderate (or show no insolence) in your walking, and lower your voice.  Verily, the harshest of all voices is the voice (braying) of the ass.”  (Quran 31:18-19)

Muslims must be in controls of their passions and desires.

A Muslim should not be vain or attached to the ephemeral pleasures of this world. While most people allow the material world to fill their hearts, Muslims should keep God in their hearts and the material world in their hand.  Instead of being attached to the car and the job and the diploma and the bank account, all these things become tools to make us better people.

“The Day whereon neither wealth nor sons will avail, but only he (will prosper) that brings to God a sound heart.” (Quran: 26:88-89)

Principles of Morality in Islam

God sums up righteousness in verse 177 of Surat Al Baqarah:

“It is not righteousness that you turn your faces towards East or West; but it is righteousness (the quality of ) the one who believes in God and the Last Day and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; who spends of his wealth, in spite of love for it, to the kinsfolk, to the orphans, to the needy, to the wayfarer, to those who ask and for the freeing of slaves; and who is steadfast in prayers, and gives Zakah (Alms); and those who fulfill their covenants which they made; and who are patient and perseverant in poverty and ailment and throughout all periods of fighting.  Such are the people of truth, the pious.”

This verse teaches us that righteousness and piety is based before all else on a true and sincere faith.  The key to virtue and good conduct is a strong relation with God, who sees all, at all times and everywhere.  He knows the secrets of the hearts and the intentions behind all actions.  Therefore, a Muslim must be moral in all circumstances; God is aware of each one when no one else is.  If we deceive everyone, we cannot deceive Him.  We can flee from anyone, but not from Him.  The love and continuous awareness of God and the Day of Judgment enables man to be moral in conduct and sincere in intentions, with devotion and dedication:

“Indeed, the most honorable among you in the sight of God is the most pious.” (Quran 49:13)

Then come deeds of charity to others, especially giving things we love. This, like acts of worship, prayers and Zakah (mandatory alms), is an integral part of worship.  A righteous person must be reliable and trustworthy.

Finally, their faith must be firm and should not wane when faced with adversity.  Morality must be strong to vanquish corruption:

“And God loves those who are firm and steadfast.”  

Patience is often hardest and most beautiful when it’s against one’s own desires or anger:

“And march forth toward forgiveness from your Lord, and for Paradise as wide as are the heavens and the earth, prepared for the pious.  Those who spend (in the way of God) in prosperity and in adversity, who repress anger, and who pardon people; verily, God loves the doers of the good deeds.”  (Quran 3:133)

These three acts are among the hardest things for most people, but they are also the key to forgiveness and to paradise.  Are they not the best, those who are able to exercise charity when they are in need themselves, control when they are angry and forgiveness when they are wronged?

This is the standard by which actions are judged as good or bad.  By making pleasing God the objective of every Muslim, Islam has set the highest possible standard of morality.

Morality in Islam addresses every aspect of a Muslim’s life, from greetings to international relations.  It is universal in its scope and in its applicability.  Morality reigns in selfish desires, vanity and bad habits.  Muslims must not only be virtuous, but they must also enjoin virtue.  They must not only refrain from evil and vice, but they must also forbid them.  In other words, they must not only be morally healthy, but they must also contribute to the moral health of society as a whole.

“You are the best of the nations raised up for (the benefit of) men; you enjoin what is right and forbid the wrong and believe in God; and if the followers of the Book had believed it would have been better for them; of them (some) are believers and most of them are transgressors.” (Quran: 3:110)

The Prophet, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him, summarized the conduct of a Muslim when he said:

“My Sustainer has given me nine commands: to remain conscious of God, whether in private or in public; to speak justly, whether angry or pleased; to show moderation both when poor and when rich, to reunite friendship with those who have broken off with me; to give to him  who refuses me; that my silence should be occupied with thought; that my looking should be an admonition; and that I should command what is right.”

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Islam and the aim of life

• Section: Why Islam

People answer these questions in different ways. Some people believe the purpose of life is getting wealthy. However, what will be the purpose of their life after collecting millions of dollars? If the purpose of life is to become wealthy, there will be no purpose after becoming wealthy. In fact, here lies the problem of some people in the last stages of their lives. After they have collected the money which they dreamt of, their life loses its purpose and they live in tension, restlessness and suffer from the panic of nothingness. Can attaining wealth be an aim? We often hear of wealthy people committing suicide; sometimes, it is not the wealthy person himself but members of his family – his wife or children. The question is: Can aiming for wealth bring happiness to the individual? In most cases, the answer is 'No'. Is the purpose of collecting wealth a long-standing purpose? As we know, a five-year-old child does not look for wealth: he prefers a toy to a million dollars. An 18-year-old adolescent does not dream of wealth because he is busy with things that are more important. A 90-year-old does not care for money; he is more worried about his health. This proves that wealth cannot be a long-standing purpose in all the stages of an individual's life. Wealth can do a little to bring happiness to a disbeliever, because he is not sure about his end or his fate. A disbeliever does not know the purpose of life, and if he has a purpose, this purpose is doomed to be temporary or self-destructive. What is the use of wealth to a disbeliever if he feels scared of the end and skeptical of everything? A disbeliever may gain a lot of money, but surely loses himself. Worshipping Allah as an aim: On the other hand, faith in Allah gives the believer the purpose of life he needs. In Islam, the purpose of life is to worship Allah. The term "worship" covers all acts of obedience to Allah. The Islamic purpose of life can withstand the test of time. The true Muslim sticks to this purpose through all the stages of his life, whether he is a child, adolescent, adult or an old man. Worshipping Allah makes life purposeful and meaningful, especially within the framework of Islam. According to Islam, this worldly life is just a short stage of our lives. After this, there is the other life -- the Hereafter. The position of the person in the Hereafter depends on his deeds in this first life. At the end of the death, stage comes the Day of Judgment. On this day, Allah will reward or punish people according to their deeds. The first life as an examination: Hence, Islam looks at the first life as an examination or a test of man. The Day of Judgment is similar to the day of announcing the results of the examinees. The second life (the Hereafter) is the time when each examinee enjoys or suffers from the outcome of his behavior during the test period. In Islam, the line of life is clear, simple and logical: the first life, death then the Day of Judgment, and then the second life. With this clear line of life, a Muslim has a clear purpose in life. A Muslim knows that he has been created by Allah. He also knows that he is going to spend some years in this first life, during which he has to obey Allah, because Allah will question him and hold him responsible for his public and private deeds, because Allah knows all deeds of all people. A Muslim knows that his deeds in this life will determine his second life. He knows that his life is a very short one -- a hundred years, more or less, whereas the second life is eternal. The eternity of the second life: This concept of eternal nature of the second life has a tremendous effect on the Muslim during his first life, because the Muslim believes that his first life determines the shape of his second life. In addition, this will be decided through the Judgment of Allah, the Just and Almighty. With this belief in the Hereafter and the Day of Judgment, a Muslim's life becomes as purposeful and meaningful as possible. A Muslim's long-standing purpose is to go to Paradise by pleasing his Creator. In other words, a Muslim's continuous purpose is to obey Allah, to submit to Him, to carry out His orders, and to keep in continuous touch with Him through prayer (five times a day), through fasting (one month a year), through charity (either obligatory or voluntary as often as possible), and through pilgrimage (once in one's life if he is able). The need for a permanent purpose: People have different purposes at different stages in their lives such as collecting money and property, indulging in sex, eating and dancing. However, all these purposes are temporary, they come and go. Money comes and goes. Health comes and goes. Sexual activities cannot continue forever. All these lusts for money, food and sex cannot answer the individual's question to himself: what next? Then what? However, Islam saves those who follow it sincerely from the troubling question: what is the aim of life? Islam makes it clear to the Muslim, from the very beginning, that the permanent purpose of life is to worship Allah. We should know that the only way for our salvation in this life and in the Hereafter is to know the Lord who created us, believe in Him, and worship Him alone. What is the purpose of my life? What is the purpose of your life? What is the purpose of our lives?

Such questions occur frequently to thinking people.

From: Islamic Education Foundation

What is the purpose of life?

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