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Health Hazards of Homework

March 18, 2014 | Julie Greicius Pediatrics .

A new study by the Stanford Graduate School of Education and colleagues found that students in high-performing schools who did excessive hours of homework “experienced greater behavioral engagement in school but also more academic stress, physical health problems, and lack of balance in their lives.”

Those health problems ranged from stress, headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems, to psycho-social effects like dropping activities, not seeing friends or family, and not pursuing hobbies they enjoy.

In the Stanford Report story about the research, Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of the study published in the Journal of Experimental Education , says, “Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good.”

The study was based on survey data from a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in California communities in which median household income exceeded $90,000. Of the students surveyed, homework volume averaged about 3.1 hours each night.

“It is time to re-evaluate how the school environment is preparing our high school student for today’s workplace,” says Neville Golden, MD , chief of adolescent medicine at Stanford Medicine Children’s Health and a professor at the School of Medicine. “This landmark study shows that excessive homework is counterproductive, leading to sleep deprivation, school stress and other health problems. Parents can best support their children in these demanding academic environments by advocating for them through direct communication with teachers and school administrators about homework load.”

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Education scholar Denise Pope has found that too much homework has negative effects on student well-being and behavioral engagement. (Image credit: L.A. Cicero)

A Stanford researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.

“Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good,” wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .

The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students’ views on homework.

Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.

Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.

“The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students’ advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being,” Pope wrote.

Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.

Their study found that too much homework is associated with:

* Greater stress: 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.

* Reductions in health: In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.

* Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits: Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were “not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills,” according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.

A balancing act

The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.

Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as “pointless” or “mindless” in order to keep their grades up.

“This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points,” Pope said.

She said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.

“Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development,” wrote Pope.

High-performing paradox

In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. “Young people are spending more time alone,” they wrote, “which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities.”

Student perspectives

The researchers say that while their open-ended or “self-reporting” methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for “typical adolescent complaining” – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.

The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Media Contacts

Denise Pope, Stanford Graduate School of Education: (650) 725-7412, [email protected] Clifton B. Parker, Stanford News Service: (650) 725-0224, [email protected]

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August 16, 2021

Is it time to get rid of homework? Mental health experts weigh in

by Sara M Moniuszko

It's no secret that kids hate homework. And as students grapple with an ongoing pandemic that has had a wide-range of mental health impacts, is it time schools start listening to their pleas over workloads?

Some teachers are turning to social media to take a stand against homework .

Tiktok user @misguided.teacher says he doesn't assign it because the "whole premise of homework is flawed."

For starters, he says he can't grade work on "even playing fields" when students' home environments can be vastly different.

"Even students who go home to a peaceful house, do they really want to spend their time on busy work? Because typically that's what a lot of homework is, it's busy work," he says in the video that has garnered 1.6 million likes. "You only get one year to be 7, you only got one year to be 10, you only get one year to be 16, 18."

Mental health experts agree heavy work loads have the potential do more harm than good for students, especially when taking into account the impacts of the pandemic. But they also say the answer may not be to eliminate homework altogether.

Emmy Kang, mental health counselor at Humantold, says studies have shown heavy workloads can be "detrimental" for students and cause a "big impact on their mental, physical and emotional health."

"More than half of students say that homework is their primary source of stress, and we know what stress can do on our bodies," she says, adding that staying up late to finish assignments also leads to disrupted sleep and exhaustion.

Cynthia Catchings, a licensed clinical social worker and therapist at Talkspace, says heavy workloads can also cause serious mental health problems in the long run, like anxiety and depression.

And for all the distress homework causes, it's not as useful as many may think, says Dr. Nicholas Kardaras, a psychologist and CEO of Omega Recovery treatment center.

"The research shows that there's really limited benefit of homework for elementary age students, that really the school work should be contained in the classroom," he says.

For older students, Kang says homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night.

"Most students, especially at these high-achieving schools, they're doing a minimum of three hours, and it's taking away time from their friends from their families, their extracurricular activities. And these are all very important things for a person's mental and emotional health."

Catchings, who also taught third to 12th graders for 12 years, says she's seen the positive effects of a no homework policy while working with students abroad.

"Not having homework was something that I always admired from the French students (and) the French schools, because that was helping the students to really have the time off and really disconnect from school ," she says.

The answer may not be to eliminate homework completely, but to be more mindful of the type of work students go home with, suggests Kang, who was a high-school teacher for 10 years.

"I don't think (we) should scrap homework, I think we should scrap meaningless, purposeless busy work-type homework. That's something that needs to be scrapped entirely," she says, encouraging teachers to be thoughtful and consider the amount of time it would take for students to complete assignments.

The pandemic made the conversation around homework more crucial

Mindfulness surrounding homework is especially important in the context of the last two years. Many students will be struggling with mental health issues that were brought on or worsened by the pandemic, making heavy workloads even harder to balance.

"COVID was just a disaster in terms of the lack of structure. Everything just deteriorated," Kardaras says, pointing to an increase in cognitive issues and decrease in attention spans among students. "School acts as an anchor for a lot of children, as a stabilizing force, and that disappeared."

But even if students transition back to the structure of in-person classes, Kardaras suspects students may still struggle after two school years of shifted schedules and disrupted sleeping habits.

"We've seen adults struggling to go back to in-person work environments from remote work environments. That effect is amplified with children because children have less resources to be able to cope with those transitions than adults do," he explains.

'Get organized' ahead of back-to-school

In order to make the transition back to in-person school easier, Kang encourages students to "get good sleep, exercise regularly (and) eat a healthy diet."

To help manage workloads, she suggests students "get organized."

"There's so much mental clutter up there when you're disorganized... sitting down and planning out their study schedules can really help manage their time," she says.

Breaking assignments up can also make things easier to tackle.

"I know that heavy workloads can be stressful, but if you sit down and you break down that studying into smaller chunks, they're much more manageable."

If workloads are still too much, Kang encourages students to advocate for themselves.

"They should tell their teachers when a homework assignment just took too much time or if it was too difficult for them to do on their own," she says. "It's good to speak up and ask those questions. Respectfully, of course, because these are your teachers. But still, I think sometimes teachers themselves need this feedback from their students."

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Opinion | Social-Emotional Learning

If we’re serious about student well-being, we must change the systems students learn in, here are five steps high schools can take to support students' mental health., by tim klein and belle liang oct 14, 2022.

Shutterstock / SvetaZi

Educators and parents started this school year with bated breath. Last year’s stress led to record levels of teacher burnout and mental health challenges for students.

Even before the pandemic, a mental health crisis among high schoolers loomed. According to a survey administered by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2019, 37 percent of high school students said they experienced persistent sadness or hopelessness and 19 percent reported suicidality. In response, more than half of all U.S. states mandated that schools have a mental health curriculum or include mental health in their standards .

As mental health professionals and co-authors of a book about the pressure and stress facing high school students, we’ve spent our entire careers supporting students’ mental health. Traditionally, mental health interventions are individualized and they focus on helping students manage and change their behaviors to cope with challenges they’re facing. But while working with schools and colleges across the globe as we conducted research for our book , we realized that most interventions don’t address systemic issues causing mental health problems in the first place.

It’s time we acknowledge that our education systems are directly contributing to the youth mental health crisis. And if we are serious about student well-being, we must change the systems they learn in.

Here are five bold steps that high schools can take to boost mental health.

Limit Homework or Make it Optional

Imagine applying for a job, and the hiring manager informs you that in addition to a full workday in the office, you’ll be assigned three more hours of work every night. Does this sound like a healthy work-life balance? Most adults would consider this expectation ridiculous and unsustainable. Yet, this is the workload most schools place on high school students.

Research shows that excessive homework leads to increased stress, physical health problems and a lack of balance in students' lives. And studies have shown that more than two hours of daily homework can be counterproductive , yet many teachers assign more.

Homework proponents argue that homework improves academic performance. Indeed, a meta-analysis of research on this issue found a correlation between homework and achievement. But correlation isn’t causation. Does homework cause achievement or do high achievers do more homework? While it’s likely that homework completion signals student engagement, which in turn leads to academic achievement, there’s little evidence to suggest that homework itself improves engagement in learning.

Another common argument is that homework helps students develop skills related to problem-solving, time-management and self-direction. But these skills can be explicitly taught during the school day rather than after school.

Limiting homework or moving to an optional homework policy not only supports student well-being, but it can also create a more equitable learning environment. According to the American Psychological Association, students from more affluent families are more likely to have access to resources such as devices, internet, dedicated work space and the support necessary to complete their work successfully—and homework can highlight those inequities .

Whether a school limits homework or makes it optional, it’s critical to remember that more important than the amount of homework assigned, is designing the type of activities that engage students in learning. When students are intrinsically motivated to do their homework, they are more engaged in the work, which in turn is associated with academic achievement.

Cap the Number of APs Students Can Take

Advanced Placement courses give students a taste of college-level work and, in theory, allow them to earn college credits early. Getting good grades on AP exams is associated with higher GPAs in high school and success in college, but the research tends to be correlational rather than causational.

In 2008, a little over 180,000 students took three or more AP exams. By 2018, that number had ballooned to almost 350,000 students .

However, this expansion has come at the expense of student well-being.

Over the years, we’ve heard many students express that they feel pressure to take as many AP classes as possible, which overloads them with work. That’s troubling because studies show that students who take AP classes and exams are twice as likely to report adverse physical and emotional health .

AP courses and exams also raise complex issues of equity. In 2019, two out of three Harvard freshmen reported taking AP Calculus in high school, according to Jeff Selingo, author of “ Who Gets In and Why: A Year Inside College Admissions ,” yet only half of all high schools in the country offer the course. And opportunity gaps exist for advanced coursework such as AP courses and dual enrollment, with inequitable distribution of funding and support impacting which students are enrolling and experiencing success. According to the Center for American Progress, “National data from the Civil Rights Data Collection show that students who are Black, Indigenous, and other non-Black people of color (BIPOC) are not enrolled in AP courses at rates comparable to their white and Asian peers and experience less success when they are—and the analysis for this report finds this to be true even when they attend schools with similar levels of AP course availability.”

Limiting the number of AP courses students take can protect mental health and create a more equitable experience for students.

Eliminate Class Rankings

In a study we conducted about mental health problems among high school girls, we found that a primary driver of stress was their perception of school as a hypercompetitive, zero-sum game where pervasive peer pressure to perform reigns supreme.

Class rankings fuel these cutthroat environments. They send a toxic message to young people: success requires doing better than your peers.

Ranking systems help highly selective colleges decide which students to admit or reject for admission. The purpose of high school is to develop students to their own full potential, rather than causing them to fixate on measuring up to others. Research shows that ranking systems undercut students’ learning and damage social relationships by turning peers into opponents.

Eliminating class rankings sends a powerful message to students that they are more than a number.

Become an Admission Test Objector

COVID-19 ushered in the era of test-optional admissions. De-centering standardized tests in the college application process is unequivocally a good thing. Standardized tests don’t predict student success in college , they only widen the achievement gap between privileged and underprivileged students and damage students' mental health .

Going “test optional” is an excellent first step, but it's not enough.

Even as more colleges have made tests optional, affluent students submit test scores at a higher rate than their lower-income peers and are admitted at higher rates , suggesting that testing still gives them an edge.

High schools must adhere to standardized test mandates, but they don’t have to endorse them. They can become test objectors by publicly proclaiming that these tests hold no inherent value. They can stop teaching to the test and educate parents on why they are doing so. Counseling departments can inform colleges that their school is a test objector so admission teams won’t penalize students.

Of course, students and families will still find ways to wield these tests as a competitive advantage. Over time, the more schools and educators unite to denounce these tests, the less power they will hold over students and families.

Big change starts with small steps.

Stand For What You Value

Critics may argue that such policies might hurt student outcomes. How will colleges evaluate school rigor if we limit AP courses and homework? How will students demonstrate their merits without class rankings and standardized test scores?

The truth is, the best school systems in the world succeed without homework, standardized test scores or an obsession with rigorous courses. And many U.S. schools have found creative and empowering ways to showcase student merit beyond rankings and test scores.

If we aren’t willing to change policies and practices that have been shown to harm students’ well-being, we have to ask ourselves: Do we really value mental health?

Thankfully, it doesn’t have to be an either/or scenario: We can design school systems that help students thrive academically and psychologically.

Belle Liang and Tim Klein are mental health professionals and co-authors of “How To Navigate Life: The New Science of Finding Your Way in School, Career and Life.”

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Homework could have an impact on kids’ health. Should schools ban it?

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Reformers in the Progressive Era (from the 1890s to 1920s) depicted homework as a “sin” that deprived children of their playtime . Many critics voice similar concerns today.

Yet there are many parents who feel that from early on, children need to do homework if they are to succeed in an increasingly competitive academic culture. School administrators and policy makers have also weighed in, proposing various policies on homework .

So, does homework help or hinder kids?

For the last 10 years, my colleagues and I have been investigating international patterns in homework using databases like the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) . If we step back from the heated debates about homework and look at how homework is used around the world, we find the highest homework loads are associated with countries that have lower incomes and higher social inequality.

Does homework result in academic success?

Let’s first look at the global trends on homework.

Undoubtedly, homework is a global phenomenon ; students from all 59 countries that participated in the 2007 Trends in Math and Science Study (TIMSS) reported getting homework. Worldwide, only less than 7% of fourth graders said they did no homework.

TIMSS is one of the few data sets that allow us to compare many nations on how much homework is given (and done). And the data show extreme variation.

For example, in some nations, like Algeria, Kuwait and Morocco, more than one in five fourth graders reported high levels of homework. In Japan, less than 3% of students indicated they did more than four hours of homework on a normal school night.

TIMSS data can also help to dispel some common stereotypes. For instance, in East Asia, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Japan – countries that had the top rankings on TIMSS average math achievement – reported rates of heavy homework that were below the international mean.

In the Netherlands, nearly one out of five fourth graders reported doing no homework on an average school night, even though Dutch fourth graders put their country in the top 10 in terms of average math scores in 2007.

Going by TIMSS data, the US is neither “ A Nation at Rest” as some have claimed, nor a nation straining under excessive homework load . Fourth and eighth grade US students fall in the middle of the 59 countries in the TIMSS data set, although only 12% of US fourth graders reported high math homework loads compared to an international average of 21%.

So, is homework related to high academic success?

At a national level, the answer is clearly no. Worldwide, homework is not associated with high national levels of academic achievement .

But, the TIMSS can’t be used to determine if homework is actually helping or hurting academic performance overall , it can help us see how much homework students are doing, and what conditions are associated with higher national levels of homework.

We have typically found that the highest homework loads are associated with countries that have lower incomes and higher levels of social inequality – not hallmarks that most countries would want to emulate.

Impact of homework on kids

TIMSS data also show us how even elementary school kids are being burdened with large amounts of homework.

Almost 10% of fourth graders worldwide (one in 10 children) reported spending multiple hours on homework each night. Globally, one in five fourth graders report 30 minutes or more of homework in math three to four times a week.

These reports of large homework loads should worry parents, teachers and policymakers alike.

Empirical studies have linked excessive homework to sleep disruption , indicating a negative relationship between the amount of homework, perceived stress and physical health.

What constitutes excessive amounts of homework varies by age, and may also be affected by cultural or family expectations. Young adolescents in middle school, or teenagers in high school, can study for longer duration than elementary school children.

But for elementary school students, even 30 minutes of homework a night, if combined with other sources of academic stress, can have a negative impact . Researchers in China have linked homework of two or more hours per night with sleep disruption .

Even though some cultures may normalize long periods of studying for elementary age children, there is no evidence to support that this level of homework has clear academic benefits . Also, when parents and children conflict over homework, and strong negative emotions are created, homework can actually have a negative association with academic achievement.

Should there be “no homework” policies?

Administrators and policymakers have not been reluctant to wade into the debates on homework and to formulate policies . France’s president, Francois Hollande, even proposed that homework be banned because it may have inegaliatarian effects.

However, “zero-tolerance” homework policies for schools, or nations, are likely to create as many problems as they solve because of the wide variation of homework effects. Contrary to what Hollande said, research suggests that homework is not a likely source of social class differences in academic achievement .

Homework, in fact, is an important component of education for students in the middle and upper grades of schooling.

Policymakers and researchers should look more closely at the connection between poverty, inequality and higher levels of homework. Rather than seeing homework as a “solution,” policymakers should question what facets of their educational system might impel students, teachers and parents to increase homework loads.

At the classroom level, in setting homework, teachers need to communicate with their peers and with parents to assure that the homework assigned overall for a grade is not burdensome, and that it is indeed having a positive effect.

Perhaps, teachers can opt for a more individualized approach to homework. If teachers are careful in selecting their assignments – weighing the student’s age, family situation and need for skill development – then homework can be tailored in ways that improve the chance of maximum positive impact for any given student.

I strongly suspect that when teachers face conditions such as pressure to meet arbitrary achievement goals, lack of planning time or little autonomy over curriculum, homework becomes an easy option to make up what could not be covered in class.

Whatever the reason, the fact is a significant percentage of elementary school children around the world are struggling with large homework loads. That alone could have long-term negative consequences for their academic success.

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School Stress Takes A Toll On Health, Teens And Parents Say

Patti Neighmond

Colleen Frainey, 16, of Tualatin, Ore., cut back on advanced placement classes in her junior year because the stress was making her physically ill. Toni Greaves for NPR hide caption

Colleen Frainey, 16, of Tualatin, Ore., cut back on advanced placement classes in her junior year because the stress was making her physically ill.

When high school junior Nora Huynh got her report card, she was devastated to see that she didn't get a perfect 4.0.

Nora "had a total meltdown, cried for hours," her mother, Jennie Huynh of Alameda, Calif., says. "I couldn't believe her reaction."

Nora is doing college-level work, her mother says, but many of her friends are taking enough advanced classes to boost their grade-point averages above 4.0. "It breaks my heart to see her upset when she's doing so awesome and going above and beyond."

And the pressure is taking a physical toll, too. At age 16, Nora is tired, is increasingly irritated with her siblings and often suffers headaches, her mother says.

Teens Talk Stress

When NPR asked on Facebook if stress is an issue for teenagers, they spoke loud and clear:

"Academic stress has been a part of my life ever since I can remember," wrote Bretta McCall, 16, of Seattle. "This year I spend about 12 hours a day on schoolwork. I'm home right now because I was feeling so sick from stress I couldn't be at school. So as you can tell, it's a big part of my life!"
"At the time of writing this, my weekend assignments include two papers, a PowerPoint to go with a 10-minute presentation, studying for a test and two quizzes, and an entire chapter (approximately 40 pages) of notes in a college textbook," wrote Connor West of New Jersey.
"It's a problem that's basically brushed off by most people," wrote Kelly Farrell in Delaware. "There's this mentality of, 'You're doing well, so why are you complaining?' " She says she started experiencing symptoms of stress in middle school, and was diagnosed with panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder in high school.
"Parents are the worst about all of this," writes Colin Hughes of Illinois. "All I hear is, 'Work harder, you're a smart kid, I know you have it in you, and if you want to go to college you need to work harder.' It's a pain."

Parents are right to be worried about stress and their children's health, says Mary Alvord , a clinical psychologist in Maryland and public education coordinator for the American Psychological Association.

"A little stress is a good thing," Alvord says. "It can motivate students to be organized. But too much stress can backfire."

Almost 40 percent of parents say their high-schooler is experiencing a lot of stress from school, according to a new NPR poll conducted with the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the Harvard School of Public Health. In most cases, that stress is from academics, not social issues or bullying, the poll found. (See the full results here .)

Homework was a leading cause of stress, with 24 percent of parents saying it's an issue.

Teenagers say they're suffering, too. A survey by the American Psychological Association found that nearly half of all teens — 45 percent — said they were stressed by school pressures.

Chronic stress can cause a sense of panic and paralysis, Alvord says. The child feels stuck, which only adds to the feeling of stress.

Parents can help put the child's distress in perspective, particularly when they get into what Alvord calls catastrophic "what if" thinking: "What if I get a bad grade, then what if that means I fail the course, then I'll never get into college."

Then move beyond talking and do something about it.

Colleen pets her horse, Bishop. They had been missing out on rides together because of homework. Toni Greaves for NPR hide caption

Colleen pets her horse, Bishop. They had been missing out on rides together because of homework.

That's what 16-year-old Colleen Frainey of Tualatin, Ore., did. As a sophomore last year, she was taking all advanced courses. The pressure was making her sick. "I didn't feel good, and when I didn't feel good I felt like I couldn't do my work, which would stress me out more," she says.

Mom Abigail Frainey says, "It was more than we could handle as a family."

With encouragement from her parents, Colleen dropped one of her advanced courses. The family's decision generated disbelief from other parents. "Why would I let her take the easy way out?" Abigail Frainey heard.

But she says dialing down on academics was absolutely the right decision for her child. Colleen no longer suffers headaches or stomachaches. She's still in honors courses, but the workload this year is manageable.

Even better, Colleen now has time to do things she never would have considered last year, like going out to dinner with the family on a weeknight, or going to the barn to ride her horse, Bishop.

Psychologist Alvord says a balanced life should be the goal for all families. If a child is having trouble getting things done, parents can help plan the week, deciding what's important and what's optional. "Just basic time management — that will help reduce the stress."

Children's Health

clock This article was published more than 8 years ago

Homework could have an effect on kids’ health. Should schools ban it?

Studies indicate a negative relationship between children's amount of homework and their physical health.

Reformers in the Progressive Era (from the 1890s to 1920s) depicted homework as a “sin” that deprived children of their playtime . Many critics voice similar concerns today.

So, does homework help or hinder kids?

Does homework result in academic success?

Let’s first look at the global trends on homework.

Undoubtedly, homework is a global phenomenon ; students from all 59 countries that participated in the 2007 TIMSS reported getting homework. Worldwide, only less than 7 percent of fourth graders said they did no homework.

TIMSS is one of the few data sets that allow us to compare many nations on how much homework is given (and done). And the data show extreme variation.

For example, in some nations, like Algeria, Kuwait and Morocco, more than one in five fourth graders reported high levels of homework. In Japan, less than 3 percent of students indicated they did more than four hours of homework on a normal school night.

[ Here’s how my graduating class ended up with 72 valedictorians ]

Going by TIMSS data, the U.S. is neither “ A Nation at Rest” as some have claimed, nor a nation straining under excessive homework load . Fourth and eighth grade U.S. students fall in the middle of the 59 countries in the TIMSS data set, although only 12 percent of U.S. fourth graders reported high math homework loads compared to an international average of 21 percent.

So, is homework related to high academic success?

At a national level, the answer is clearly no. Worldwide, homework is not associated with high national levels of academic achievement.

The TIMSS can’t be used to determine if homework is actually helping or hurting academic performance overall . But it can help us see how much homework students are doing, and what conditions are associated with higher national levels of homework.

Impact of homework on kids

TIMSS data also show us how even elementary school kids are being burdened with large amounts of homework.

Almost 10 percent of fourth graders worldwide reported spending multiple hours on homework each night. Globally, one in five fourth graders report 30 minutes or more of homework in math three to four times a week.

These reports of large homework loads should worry parents, teachers and policymakers alike.

Empirical studies have linked excessive homework to sleep disruption , indicating a negative relationship between the amount of homework, perceived stress and physical health.

Should there be “no homework” policies?

Homework, in fact, is an important component of education for students in the middle and upper grades of schooling.

Policymakers and researchers should look more closely at the connection between poverty, inequality and higher levels of homework. Rather than seeing homework as a solution, policymakers should question what facets of their educational system might impel students, teachers and parents to increase homework loads.

This article was originally published on The Conversation . Read the original article .

Is it time to get rid of homework? Mental health experts weigh in.

It's no secret that kids hate homework. And as students grapple with an ongoing pandemic that has had a wide range of mental health impacts, is it time schools start listening to their pleas about workloads?

Some teachers are turning to social media to take a stand against homework.

Tiktok user @misguided.teacher says he doesn't assign it because the "whole premise of homework is flawed."

For starters, he says, he can't grade work on "even playing fields" when students' home environments can be vastly different.

Mental health experts agree heavy workloads have the potential do more harm than good for students, especially when taking into account the impacts of the pandemic. But they also say the answer may not be to eliminate homework altogether.

Emmy Kang, mental health counselor at Humantold , says studies have shown heavy workloads can be "detrimental" for students and cause a "big impact on their mental, physical and emotional health."

Cynthia Catchings, a licensed clinical social worker and therapist at Talkspace , says heavy workloads can also cause serious mental health problems in the long run, like anxiety and depression.

And for all the distress homework can cause, it's not as useful as many may think, says Dr. Nicholas Kardaras, a psychologist and CEO of Omega Recovery treatment center.

"The research shows that there's really limited benefit of homework for elementary age students, that really the school work should be contained in the classroom," he says.

For older students, Kang says, homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night.

"Most students, especially at these high achieving schools, they're doing a minimum of three hours, and it's taking away time from their friends, from their families, their extracurricular activities. And these are all very important things for a person's mental and emotional health."

Catchings, who also taught third to 12th graders for 12 years, says she's seen the positive effects of a no-homework policy while working with students abroad.

The answer may not be to eliminate homework completely but to be more mindful of the type of work students take home, suggests Kang, who was a high school teacher for 10 years.

"I don't think (we) should scrap homework; I think we should scrap meaningless, purposeless busy work-type homework. That's something that needs to be scrapped entirely," she says, encouraging teachers to be thoughtful and consider the amount of time it would take for students to complete assignments.

The pandemic made the conversation around homework more crucial

Mindfulness surrounding homework is especially important in the context of the past two years. Many students will be struggling with mental health issues that were brought on or worsened by the pandemic , making heavy workloads even harder to balance.

But even if students transition back to the structure of in-person classes, Kardaras suspects students may still struggle after two school years of shifted schedules and disrupted sleeping habits.

'Get organized' ahead of back-to-school

In order to make the transition back to in-person school easier, Kang encourages students to "get good sleep, exercise regularly (and) eat a healthy diet."

To help manage workloads, she suggests students "get organized."

"There's so much mental clutter up there when you're disorganized. ... Sitting down and planning out their study schedules can really help manage their time," she says.

Breaking up assignments can also make things easier to tackle.

"I know that heavy workloads can be stressful, but if you sit down and you break down that studying into smaller chunks, they're much more manageable."

If workloads are still too much, Kang encourages students to advocate for themselves.

More: Some teachers let their students sleep in class. Here's what mental health experts say.

More: Some parents are slipping young kids in for the COVID-19 vaccine, but doctors discourage the move as 'risky'

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Is Homework Necessary? Education Inequity and Its Impact on Students

The Problem with Homework: It Highlights Inequalities

How much homework is too much homework, when does homework actually help, negative effects of homework for students, how teachers can help.

Schools are getting rid of homework from Essex, Mass., to Los Angeles, Calif. Although the no-homework trend may sound alarming, especially to parents dreaming of their child’s acceptance to Harvard, Stanford or Yale, there is mounting evidence that eliminating homework in grade school may actually have great benefits , especially with regard to educational equity.

In fact, while the push to eliminate homework may come as a surprise to many adults, the debate is not new . Parents and educators have been talking about this subject for the last century, so that the educational pendulum continues to swing back and forth between the need for homework and the need to eliminate homework.

One of the most pressing talking points around homework is how it disproportionately affects students from less affluent families. The American Psychological Association (APA) explained:

“Kids from wealthier homes are more likely to have resources such as computers, internet connections, dedicated areas to do schoolwork and parents who tend to be more educated and more available to help them with tricky assignments. Kids from disadvantaged homes are more likely to work at afterschool jobs, or to be home without supervision in the evenings while their parents work multiple jobs.”

[RELATED] How to Advance Your Career: A Guide for Educators >>

While students growing up in more affluent areas are likely playing sports, participating in other recreational activities after school, or receiving additional tutoring, children in disadvantaged areas are more likely headed to work after school, taking care of siblings while their parents work or dealing with an unstable home life. Adding homework into the mix is one more thing to deal with — and if the student is struggling, the task of completing homework can be too much to consider at the end of an already long school day.

While all students may groan at the mention of homework, it may be more than just a nuisance for poor and disadvantaged children, instead becoming another burden to carry and contend with.

Beyond the logistical issues, homework can negatively impact physical health and stress — and once again this may be a more significant problem among economically disadvantaged youth who typically already have a higher stress level than peers from more financially stable families .

Yet, today, it is not just the disadvantaged who suffer from the stressors that homework inflicts. A 2014 CNN article, “Is Homework Making Your Child Sick?” , covered the issue of extreme pressure placed on children of the affluent. The article looked at the results of a study surveying more than 4,300 students from 10 high-performing public and private high schools in upper-middle-class California communities.

“Their findings were troubling: Research showed that excessive homework is associated with high stress levels, physical health problems and lack of balance in children’s lives; 56% of the students in the study cited homework as a primary stressor in their lives,” according to the CNN story. “That children growing up in poverty are at-risk for a number of ailments is both intuitive and well-supported by research. More difficult to believe is the growing consensus that children on the other end of the spectrum, children raised in affluence, may also be at risk.”

When it comes to health and stress it is clear that excessive homework, for children at both ends of the spectrum, can be damaging. Which begs the question, how much homework is too much?

The National Education Association and the National Parent Teacher Association recommend that students spend 10 minutes per grade level per night on homework . That means that first graders should spend 10 minutes on homework, second graders 20 minutes and so on. But a study published by The American Journal of Family Therapy found that students are getting much more than that.

While 10 minutes per day doesn’t sound like much, that quickly adds up to an hour per night by sixth grade. The National Center for Education Statistics found that high school students get an average of 6.8 hours of homework per week, a figure that is much too high according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It is also to be noted that this figure does not take into consideration the needs of underprivileged student populations.

In a study conducted by the OECD it was found that “after around four hours of homework per week, the additional time invested in homework has a negligible impact on performance .” That means that by asking our children to put in an hour or more per day of dedicated homework time, we are not only not helping them, but — according to the aforementioned studies — we are hurting them, both physically and emotionally.

What’s more is that homework is, as the name implies, to be completed at home, after a full day of learning that is typically six to seven hours long with breaks and lunch included. However, a study by the APA on how people develop expertise found that elite musicians, scientists and athletes do their most productive work for about only four hours per day. Similarly, companies like Tower Paddle Boards are experimenting with a five-hour workday, under the assumption that people are not able to be truly productive for much longer than that. CEO Stephan Aarstol told CNBC that he believes most Americans only get about two to three hours of work done in an eight-hour day.

In the scope of world history, homework is a fairly new construct in the U.S. Students of all ages have been receiving work to complete at home for centuries, but it was educational reformer Horace Mann who first brought the concept to America from Prussia.

Since then, homework’s popularity has ebbed and flowed in the court of public opinion. In the 1930s, it was considered child labor (as, ironically, it compromised children’s ability to do chores at home). Then, in the 1950s, implementing mandatory homework was hailed as a way to ensure America’s youth were always one step ahead of Soviet children during the Cold War. Homework was formally mandated as a tool for boosting educational quality in 1986 by the U.S. Department of Education, and has remained in common practice ever since.

School work assigned and completed outside of school hours is not without its benefits. Numerous studies have shown that regular homework has a hand in improving student performance and connecting students to their learning. When reviewing these studies, take them with a grain of salt; there are strong arguments for both sides, and only you will know which solution is best for your students or school.

Homework improves student achievement.

Source: The High School Journal, “ When is Homework Worth the Time?: Evaluating the Association between Homework and Achievement in High School Science and Math ,” 2012.
Source: IZA.org, “ Does High School Homework Increase Academic Achievement? ,” 2014. **Note: Study sample comprised only high school boys.

Homework helps reinforce classroom learning.

Source: “ Debunk This: People Remember 10 Percent of What They Read ,” 2015.

Homework helps students develop good study habits and life skills.

Sources: The Repository @ St. Cloud State, “ Types of Homework and Their Effect on Student Achievement ,” 2017; Journal of Advanced Academics, “ Developing Self-Regulation Skills: The Important Role of Homework ,” 2011.
Source: Journal of Advanced Academics, “ Developing Self-Regulation Skills: The Important Role of Homework ,” 2011.

Homework allows parents to be involved with their children’s learning.

Parents can see what their children are learning and working on in school every day.
Parents can participate in their children’s learning by guiding them through homework assignments and reinforcing positive study and research habits.
Homework observation and participation can help parents understand their children’s academic strengths and weaknesses, and even identify possible learning difficulties.
Source: Phys.org, “ Sociologist Upends Notions about Parental Help with Homework ,” 2018.

While some amount of homework may help students connect to their learning and enhance their in-class performance, too much homework can have damaging effects.

Students with too much homework have elevated stress levels.

Source: USA Today, “ Is It Time to Get Rid of Homework? Mental Health Experts Weigh In ,” 2021.
Source: Stanford University, “ Stanford Research Shows Pitfalls of Homework ,” 2014.

Students with too much homework may be tempted to cheat.

Source: The Chronicle of Higher Education, “ High-Tech Cheating Abounds, and Professors Bear Some Blame ,” 2010.
Source: The American Journal of Family Therapy, “ Homework and Family Stress: With Consideration of Parents’ Self Confidence, Educational Level, and Cultural Background ,” 2015.

Homework highlights digital inequity.

Sources: NEAToday.org, “ The Homework Gap: The ‘Cruelest Part of the Digital Divide’ ,” 2016; CNET.com, “ The Digital Divide Has Left Millions of School Kids Behind ,” 2021.
Source: Investopedia, “ Digital Divide ,” 2022; International Journal of Education and Social Science, “ Getting the Homework Done: Social Class and Parents’ Relationship to Homework ,” 2015.
Source: World Economic Forum, “ COVID-19 exposed the digital divide. Here’s how we can close it ,” 2021.

Homework does not help younger students.

Source: Review of Educational Research, “ Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Researcher, 1987-2003 ,” 2006.

To help students find the right balance and succeed, teachers and educators must start the homework conversation, both internally at their school and with parents. But in order to successfully advocate on behalf of students, teachers must be well educated on the subject, fully understanding the research and the outcomes that can be achieved by eliminating or reducing the homework burden. There is a plethora of research and writing on the subject for those interested in self-study.

For teachers looking for a more in-depth approach or for educators with a keen interest in educational equity, formal education may be the best route. If this latter option sounds appealing, there are now many reputable schools offering online master of education degree programs to help educators balance the demands of work and family life while furthering their education in the quest to help others.

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v.14(10); 2022 Oct

Increased Screen Time as a Cause of Declining Physical, Psychological Health, and Sleep Patterns: A Literary Review

Vaishnavi s nakshine.

1 Department of Public Health Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Wardha, IND

Preeti Thute

2 Department of Anatomy, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Wardha, IND

Mahalaqua Nazli Khatib

3 School of Epidemiology and Public Health, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Wardha, IND

Bratati Sarkar

4 Department of English, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi, IND

Dependency on digital devices resulting in an ever-increasing daily screen time has subsequently also been the cause of several adverse effects on physical and mental or psychological health. Constant exposure to devices like smartphones, personal computers, and television can severely affect mental health- increase stress and anxiety, for example, and cause various sleep issues in both children as well as adults. Risk factors for obesity and cardiovascular disorders, including hypertension, poor regulation of stress, low HDL cholesterol, and insulin resistance are among the physical health repercussions we see. The psychological health effects comprise suicidal tendencies and symptoms of depression which are associated with digital device dependency, screen-time-induced poor sleep quality, and content-influenced negativity. Oftentimes it can cause the induction of a state of hyper-arousal, increase stress hormones, desynchronize the body clock or the circadian cycle, alter brain chemistry and create a drag on mental energy and development. With a focus on brain development in children and detrimental effects in both adults and children, this research article goes on to explore the various aspects of screen addiction and excessive screen exposure.

Introduction and background

Digital devices and online spaces, above all, are considered one of the fundamental aspects of the existence of this current generation. Rapid advancements in technology make it possible for consumers in any part of the world, regardless of age, to experience a wider variety of fast-acting stimuli that are available with similar accessibility, practically anywhere via mobile devices, enticing them to indulge in the use of screens for longer than the suggested two-three hours per day. Computers, phones, and tablets- the heralds of easy-to-use internet hosts- have seen increased purchase and usage in the present times, which has significantly reduced the distance that had once separated everything and instead turned the world into a community resembling a global village. Undoubtedly, individuals-cum-residents of this same global village have been spending an excessive amount of their time online, which has both positive as well as negative consequences, both short- and long-term. While the usage of the internet as a whole is rising, unnecessary and troublesome use of the internet has reached medically alarming levels, too. Numerous reports have highlighted the detrimental effects of its usage, such as issues that affect one's sleep, mood, and communal interactions [ 1 ]. Internet addiction (IA) is turning out to be a severe general health problem across various nations on various continents, including ours, i.e., Asia. It has been proven that one of the multiple reasons for more and more individuals being affected by depression and feeling further isolated is their addiction to mobile phones and other digital gadgets, their dependency on the presence of people on the internet, their views and values, which need not be the individual’s own. It increases dependence on validation from faceless people on the internet. It reduces the rate at which one physically interacts with others in real life, which also affects the release and maintenance of adequate doses of feel-good hormones like dopamine, serotonin, endorphins, and oxytocin, which are naturally required by all. Overuse of digital media is thought to be a significant drawback in the development of healthy psycho-physiological resilience [ 1 ]. FOMO (Fear of missing out) has also been identified as a risk factor for binge usage of the internet. The relationship between FOMO and internet usage has been extensively researched in recent studies, with younger persons more prone to the risk of the same. Along with the detrimental effect on mental health, excessive screen time is also responsible for multiple physical health deteriorations [ 1 ].

Effects on sleep

The use of digital media is thought to interfere with sleep in subsequent ways:

Displacing Other Activities

Screen time can replace time spent on performing physical activities, which are directly beneficial for sleep every night [ 1 ].

Time of Use

Exposure to blue and intense light in the evening and at night from self-luminous devices may prevent melatonin from being produced, alter its timings of production and retention, and thus disturb the circadian rhythm. Moreover, prolonged texting post-bedtime is likely to shorten high school kids' sleep cycles, resulting in daily drowsiness and subpar academic performance [ 1 ].

Small touch screens, contrary to TVs, might send audible notifications during sleep time, delaying or preventing sufficient sleep. Consequently, it was observed that 18% of teenagers reported being awakened by their cell phones at least a few times throughout the night [ 1 ].

Media Content

Teenagers that use the internet more frequently have lesser durations of sleep, delayed bedtimes and wake-up times, and more daytime fatigue [ 2 ]. Those accessing social networking sites at night are more likely to sleep poorly, particularly if there is emotional involvement in the same. Additionally, engaging in an exciting task while staring at a luminous cell phone screen may enhance psychophysiological arousal, disturbing sleep [ 1 ]. The duration of time which is devoted to social media also affects how much and how well one sleeps, and good sleep is essential for academic success [ 3 ]. In 2011, Espinoza and colleagues polled 268 young adolescents specifically about social media and discovered that 37% said they had trouble sleeping due to the use of social networking sites. Adolescents use social media for 54% of their internet time. As we know, social media entails incoming alerts at all hours of the day, unlike conventional internet usage. This distinct social media characteristic is fundamental to the quality of sleep for a couple of causes [ 4 ]. First of all, because 86 percent of teenagers sleep in bedrooms with their phones nearby, frequently in their hands or shoved under their pillows, notifications at night time have the ability to disrupt sleep. They have also reported being awakened by incoming text messages and face problems in sound sleeping which are probably caused by social media [ 5 ].

Moreover, FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) is exacerbated by continual notifications, which seems to place a significant amount of pressure on people to be online all the time. Individuals mention feeling pressured, overwhelmed, and guilty if they are unable to respond to a text right away and that they face a great deal of anxiety whenever their access to messaging becomes constrained. Hence, it's likely that young people have trouble unwinding before bed because they worry about losing out on new texts or material. These special features of the usage of social media give us yet another cause to anticipate a connection between it and bad sleep [ 3 ]. A stronger correlation with specific usage of the internet at night time would suggest that exposure to digital screens before sleeping may disrupt circadian rhythms or cause sleep disruptions from notifications [ 5 ].

In contrast, a relationship between inadequate sleep and emotional involvement on the internet, specifically social media, would imply that an individual's difficulty unwinding before the night is caused by anxiety over missing out on fresh information and their inability to relax and calm down [ 6 ]. Even young children who are subjected to night-time media consumption have considerably lower sleep durations than those who are not engaged with night-time screen media [ 7 ]. The stimulating content and inhibition of natural melatonin by blue light produced via screens are two primary mechanisms underpinning the above connection. Furthermore, a persistent online presence disrupts sleep habits, that in turn influences mood [ 1 ]. Last, but not least, those who tend to spend more time online have a higher mental workload due to multitasking, increased levels of stress, and comparatively poorer quality as well as quantity of sleep, all of which are related to the deteriorating state of health [ 3 ]. Location

Teenage media device ownership is linked to earlier bedtimes and shorter sleep duration, relatively high bedtime resistance, with increased levels of sleep disruption, especially when the devices were kept in the bedroom [ 1 , 8 ].

Light Is Perceived as Electromagnetic Radiation

The occurrence of sleep during the night and the production of pineal melatonin coincides, indicating a significant link between the two processes [ 1 ]. While sleep itself is not essential for the nocturnal generation of melatonin, it is unquestionably crucial that the night-time hours be completely dark. For instance, sleep loss alone does not stop the nocturnal, circadian secretion and manufacture of melatonin [ 9 ]. Regardless of the reason for sleep loss at night, the nocturnal, circadian melatonin signal should be unaffected as long as the person is exposed to complete darkness. The term "biological night" refers to the time when melatonin is synthesized and secreted into the bloodstream and has been defined by research on humans under normal, ongoing conditions [ 10 ]. Thus, the initiation of the melatonin surge, a concomitant rise in sleep propensity, and a reduction in core body temperature marks the beginning of this biological night; the opposite occurs at the end of the biological night and sleeps [ 10 ]. The melatonin-producing pineal gland may also interpret electromagnetic radiation as light. As a result, electromagnetic radiation emitted from digital gadgets may also cause melatonin production to be hindered, which disrupts sleep [ 1 ].

Cardiovascular system

It is asserted that sedentary behavior raises the likelihood of obesity, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) dysfunction, and hypertension, the three main cardiovascular morbidity risk factors [ 1 ].

Reduced sleep, physical inactivity, and exposure to excessive advertisements on various media have a detrimental impact on the dietary habits of the younger generation; also contributing to the correlation between screen time and obesity [ 11 ]. As far as digital media is concerned, watching television before one's bedtime is closely linked to the development of obesity during childhood and adolescence, which can further result in cardiometabolic risk [ 12 ]. In typical circumstances, a rise in satiety sensations is usually followed by an increase in plasma glucose; however, in the study, before eating, there was an increase in plasma glucose that peaked higher than it would have addressed. The findings, thus, revealed that video games are closely connected with acute stress (the fight-or-flight response). A release of glucose into the bloodstream seems to be related to this stress reaction [ 13 ].

Blood Pressure

One potential marker of future cardiovascular problems is retinal arteriolar constriction. The results show that children who spend more time outdoors tend to have bigger retinal arterioles than those who spend less time outside [ 14 ].

Cholesterol

Playing video games is the only form of sedentary activity that is associated with a decline in HDL cholesterol in obese teenagers [ 15 , 16 ]. Over three hours of screen usage is linked to a considerable reduction in HDL cholesterol. Mechanisms that explain this relation take into consideration the increased consumption of food advertised extensively, the decrease in food intake regulation during the time on screens, and stillness and loss of movement and physical activity. An example of this is a study that discovered that screen time leads to impairment in satiety signals through the system of mental reward, thereby directly affecting food intake [ 1 ].

Stress regulation

Sympathetic Arousal

Cardiovascular issues may be at risk due to chronic sympathetic arousal. Greater sympathetic arousal was observed in teenagers and youngsters who engaged in addictive online behavior. High arousal was suggested as one of the potential contributing factors to sleep disruption by researchers [ 1 ].

For pediatric investigations, cortisol, a hormone produced by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, is a stress biomarker. Poor performance is linked to both low and elevated cortisol levels. During the nighttime, the cortisol levels are typically at their lowest. The rate of cortisol increases as the waking hours approach and undergoes a sharp spike after waking up [ 1 ]. As much as three hours per day of media usage by school-aged youngsters results in a lessened cortisol surge an hour after waking up which is detrimental [ 17 ]. Children who engage with digital media for less than three hours each day or have no digital media footprint show a regular increase in morning cortisol levels.

Insulin and Diabetes

The islets of Langerhans of the pancreas secrete the hormone insulin, which is vital for controlling metabolism and storing fat. Insulin resistance is a condition that occurs when cells are unable to use insulin effectively. It makes an essential contribution to the pathophysiology of diabetes and increases the risk of developing cardiovascular disease. According to some research, watching television, playing video games, or using the computer for more than an additional hour a day can result in a 5% reduction in insulin sensitivity. Other research linked as little as two hours of screen time per day to aberrant insulin levels [ 1 ].

Constantly staring at a PC screen can result in headaches, eye strain, impaired vision, dry eyes, and irritation. Such symptoms may be brought on by glare, inadequate illumination, or a wrong viewing angle. According to research, being in an outside environment stimulates the release of dopamine from the retina, which prevents myopia, or near-sightedness, from developing [ 18 ]. As a result, children who spend fewer hours outside have a higher chance of developing the same. Additionally, spending time outside can lessen and largely eliminate the factors that contribute to the development of myopia, such as prolonged close work or screen viewing. The participating young subjects who have been playing video games for more than 30 minutes nearly on a day-to-day basis reported headaches, vertigo, and eye strain. The dominant eye primarily experienced transient diplopia and refractive problems (such as short-sightedness), ultimately leading to vision loss [ 1 ].

Orthopedics

Sedentary habits, or sitting activities that don't involve exercise, can have a significant impact on one's joints and bones. It is argued that screen usage, especially on small-screen mobile devices, affects posture and causes musculoskeletal strain and pain sensations. Similar symptoms can be brought on by the frequent, repeated wrist and arm movements and head inclination typical of playing video games. Bone mineral density is found to be negatively correlated with boys' video gaming play time. The mineral composition of the femoral and spinal bones is inversely correlated with girls' screen time [ 1 ].

Depression and suicidal behavior

Depression, mainly social media-induced depression is a growing concern, particularly among today’s generation [ 19 ]. Those not aware of the usage of social media effectively can easily get trapped in a pattern of jealousy, envy, self-doubt, and poor self-esteem [ 20 ]. It is well known that sleep disturbance symptoms appear before symptoms of depression and suicidal thoughts. Therefore, it is proposed that a mediating element connecting night-time screen use to depressive symptoms and suicidal thoughts in adolescents is the lack of sleep [ 21 ]. The researchers further note that dependence on smartphones, frequent messaging, and protracted fear about not receiving back messages, particularly before bedtime, are likely associated with mood swings, suicidal thoughts, and self-injury.

ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder)

Children in today's society may oftentimes exhibit different symptoms of ADHD, such as inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. This type of conduct is known as ADHD-related behavior and can be connected to one's screen time [ 22 ]. It has also been stated that excessive digital device usage is prevalent among younger children and teenagers who have either been already diagnosed with ADHD or who are regarded to be dealing with attention issues or impulsivity [ 23 ].

Addictive screen time behavior

While a substantial percentage of men seem to exhibit video game addiction, women on the other hand are primarily focused on social networking [ 1 ].

Neuropsychological Effects

Numerous investigations so far have concluded that any form of addiction to the internet causes structural changes in the brain, specifically in its frontal lobe. The ability to filter out irrelevant information and a reduced capacity for coping with demanding and complex tasks are related to such structural alterations. The frontal lobe is majorly concerned with controlling overly assertive and wrong, miscellaneous behaviors, as well as adjusting to environmental change [ 1 ]. Other research has shown that control over one’s emotions, visible discord during the decision-making process, and compulsively repetitive behaviors are linked to damaged white matter. Studies have examined the impact of screen multitasking when continuous attention across media devices becomes a substitute for "real world" behavior [ 4 ]. The anterior cingulate cortex, which is connected to cognitive control of performance and socioemotional regulation, is found to have less grey matter in college students with high multitasking scores. Poor performances have been recorded in college students who have been switching between tasks, working memory, and filtering through tests [ 24 ]. Another study on the same group found links between less grey matter and poorer conflict detection of conflict, increased neuroticism and impulsivity, poorer control over behavior that are goal-oriented, and increased conduct motivated by sensations [ 1 ].

Behavioral and Societal Aspects of Social Media Usage in Digital Spaces

This cohort is characterized by increased attentional lapses that have been self-reported regularly, a non-deliberate occasion of mental wandering, which is consistent with the result that grey matter decreases in heavy media multitasking young adults [ 25 ]. The main symptom of ADHD in university students is non-deliberate mind-wandering, which is linked to decreased levels of mindfulness and a higher prevalence of non-adaptive or negative thought patterns. Teenagers who are hooked to the internet and exhibit stronger depressive, hostile and ADHD-related symptoms are found to have non-adaptive/negative thinking patterns [ 26 ]. Therefore, it would seem that media addiction is correlated with increased mental wandering. Individuals who multitask frequently and are screen addicts were also discovered to have lower levels of social support and peer support or attachment to their families and relations. As a result, their level of life contentment is lowered. Teenagers are moving away from face-to-face connection, which is limiting offline social support even though it has increasingly been linked to positive social well-being [ 27 ]. They are more likely to get caught up in a dangerous cycle of continued usage of the internet and social networking websites in an effort to rekindle to social support that they crave when facing obstacles. However, the guise of support that individuals can receive online aids in sustaining their repetitive Internet usage even more [ 28 ]. On the other side, social support that is unrelated to screens may reduce internet addiction. A lack of societal support and increased mind wandering are likely to facilitate social functioning and raise the likelihood of more profound sadness, loneliness, and isolation, which may further enhance addictive behavior [ 29 , 30 ].

Additionally, it is highlighted that social support, attachment to materialistic or figurative objects, mindfulness of one’s surroundings and the feeling of others, and degree of life satisfaction are all psychological and social aspects that are adversely impacted by compulsive screen use and are essential to an individual's resilience in the face of adversities in life [ 31 ]. Furthermore, behavior resulting in incidents of cyberbullying and the social components of addicted internet use appears to be related [ 1 ]. Women in their early adolescence and early years of adulthood are more likely than men to spend more time on social media, be subjected to higher risks of cyberbullying, and experience detrimental mental health issues, the aforementioned are proving to be consistent with the recent epidemiologic trends illustrating that young females, in particular, are more likely to experience an increase in symptoms of depression, self-harm tendencies, and suicidal thoughts [ 32 ].

With children increasingly using wireless gadgets, worries about their susceptibility to radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) fields are growing. Kids' growing neurological systems are thought to be quite susceptible to RF-EMR fields, making them possibly more vulnerable. Moreover, compared to the size of their head, more RF-EMR can penetrate their brain tissue because it is better conductive. They will also be exposed to RF fields for more years than grown-ups [ 1 ].

Infertility

Infertility is a common condition that affects 7% of men and 11% of women in the U.S. [ 1 ]. There is a necessity to establish the links between environmental exposures and sperm quality indicators are given that there is evidence of a deterioration in semen quality in recent years [ 33 ]. Exposure to smartphones has been linked to reduced sperm viability and motility. Studies on experimental animals and people examined how RF-EMR also affected male reproductive function. On biological tissue, RF-EMR might have thermal and non-thermal effects both. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) may be produced more frequently as a result of nonthermal interactions, which may cause DNA damage. A little amount of ROS has a crucial functional role in the acrosome response, binding to the oocyte, as well as sperm capacitation. Since phones are frequently kept in pant pockets close to the reproductive organs, thermal impacts potentially raise the temperature of the testes, hampering spermatogenesis and sperm production [ 33 ]. Mobile phones are found to be a potential contributing factor in light of newly discovered evidence of a deterioration in the quality of male sperm. According to the findings of these studies, using a cell phone or a laptop, or a tablet when exposed to RF-EMR increases one's risk of developing cancer as well [ 1 ].

A decline in academic performance

The findings in a cohort study indicate that overall screen time, and the duration spent using a smartphone, are both strongly correlated with the academic stress score and increases the likelihood of abnormal academic stress. One explanation might be the use of cell phones and other electronic devices for homework. This is corroborated by a research study that found that children utilize smartphones and other devices mostly to complete their homework. Hence, the amount of time spent using a device may partly reflect how much schoolwork pupils have to do and the stress that comes with it [ 34 ]. Utilizing electronic devices for social interaction and entertainment may be another factor. More than 30% of teenagers, according to one research, use cell phones and other gadgets for social interaction. Spending a lot of time on social activities and entertainment might interfere with study time, hindering students' academic achievement and raising stress levels [ 35 ]. In the meantime, a bidirectional association has also been established between screen time and academic stress because of the slow progress of studies, which could lead to additional screen time. Furthermore, using a smartphone for social media and amusement might make it difficult for students to concentrate on their work, which could result in unsatisfactory academic results. A rise in academic stress could also eventually be triggered by inferior academic achievements [ 36 ]. The range of digital media devices is expanding rapidly, and improving digital media provides society with a more vibrant and quick-paced digital world. Children and teenagers in particular seem to adapt to modern technologies quickly. But, a growing body of literature associates excessive screen time with physical, psychological, social, and neurological adverse health consequences. Developmental, pornographic exposure and learning effects are additional effects of screen time that require further in-depth analysis and are beyond the scope of this review article. Until very recently, the majority of the literature on children and adolescents use of digital media focused on TV and computers. However, as people seem to utilize mobiles increasingly, studies are shifting their focus accordingly [ 1 ]. Even though the Internet continues to be a powerful and uplifting force in the lives of many, a percentage of users may develop an addiction. Due to their growing online usage and heightened susceptibility to the emergence of addictive behaviors, adolescents are a noteworthy worry in this regard [ 37 ]. Undoubtedly one of the most difficult problems facing the social sciences to this date is the increase in smartphone and social media use. Popular science books and news reports on the psychological effects of social media use are in high demand, and many of these works paint a very ominous picture: social media is often said to have a negative impact on people's lives and societies [ 3 ].

Excessive Internet use has negative effects that are obvious and detrimental, ranging from sleep deprivation, increased depression, and skipping school to family conflict. Comorbid depression, anxiety, ADHD, and other substance-use disorders are widespread. Various markers of individual personality, such as impulsivity, aggressiveness, sensation seeking, family conflicts, as well as inadequate parental supervision, also especially belonging to the male gender have proven to be additional risk factors [ 8 ]. Non-adaptive or negative thought patterns, a lower sense of fulfillment in life, and a propensity for health concerns throughout maturity are several other characteristics that one may notice appearing. The concluding results present that a lack of physical, real-life interaction, extensive multitasking, increased usage of social media websites, and interactive screen time through addictive web interfaces- mostly through the regular usage of video games that require online multiplayer interactions, which do not allow the players to pause the games or exit the rounds- all of these play a significant role in determining the emotional, psychological and physiological impacts on the population. According to research from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Figure 1 ), children aged 8 to 10 spend six hours per day using screens, children aged 11 to 14 spend nine hours, and teenagers aged 15 to 25 spend seven and a half hours per day using screens (including television). The chart below (Figure 2 ) shows screen time recommendations by age, from infants to adults based on the study by the American academy of child and adolescent psychiatry.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is cureus-0014-00000030051-i01.jpg

This figure has been taken from an open-access journal under a CC-BY license.

Source: American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry [ 38 ].

Overusing digital screens during one's adolescence and young adulthood may result in their mind relating to outside stimuli rather readily and cause a lack of attention. Internal triggers such as unhelpful or negative thoughts and feelings of lower satisfaction levels regarding one's life can also be accompanied by an onset of health problems in adulthood, such as cardiovascular disease and infertility. It may cause one's stress to increase up to levels that would turn difficult for one to handle. These ailments can result in unhealthy coping mechanisms, which eventually might increase the likelihood of sadness, depression, and anxiety in one's later years. One can successfully deal with difficult life situations if they have a strong sense of personal resilience. Physical fitness, societal support, forms of attachment, the mindfulness towards issues, and the degree of life pleasure, both temporary and permanent, are some of the crucial components of resilience, which is a dynamic psychophysiological construct that can stand jeopardized by excessive screen time and digital footprints. Therefore, it indicates that individuals who use digital media excessively and compulsively have been compromising their ability to build solid psychophysiological foundations, which are essential for the development of resilient people in the future [ 1 ]. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly expanded the use of video conferencing. People of all ages are using video conferencing apps for regular social activities like meetings, birthdays, exercises, and so on due to social distance laws and travel limits. Such video conferencing apps have also made body dysmorphic disorder worsen and are very concerning in the long run. Patients with pre-existing BDD spend too much time and money on a variety of treatments to correct their perceived flaws [ 39 ]. Hence, excessive screen time, be it recreational or non-recreational, can result in a plethora of disadvantages and harm individuals in ways that could perhaps cause irreversible damage to them throughout their entire lifetime. According to numerous studies, time spent on screens irrefutably proves to be more harmful instead of beneficial. With the advancement of technology, it is to be acknowledged that individuals in the contemporary era are extensively involved with the digital world with or without their consent, with regard to their school and university studies or work responsibilities. It is thus necessary for one to recognize the opportunities and obstacles that social media and digital spaces offer and navigate them accordingly.

Conclusions

This review article studied the relationships between screen time and digital device usage, precisely during the night times, the quality of sleep, anxiety causes, feelings of depression, and issues related to self-esteem, as well as physical effects in individuals. Results also show that exposure to mobile phones has a deleterious impact on the viability and motility of sperm.

A strategy that would prohibit digital media usage would be ineffective given how crucial it is for one to be involved in digital spaces, specifically social media norms. That being said, in the context of numerous initiatives aimed at addressing the societal, environmental as well as economic factors that support the betterment of one's family and foster resilience in the youth, who could also readily benefit from proven systemic and specifically conducted individual interventions to assist them in navigating through the hurdles brought on by the usage of cell phones and social media, thus, protecting themselves from harm, and further using it in a certain way that maintains their emotional wellbeing above all. However, from the perspective of public health, screen time in general, and the time spent using a smartphone, should be limited in order to lessen and prevent several linked health issues.

The content published in Cureus is the result of clinical experience and/or research by independent individuals or organizations. Cureus is not responsible for the scientific accuracy or reliability of data or conclusions published herein. All content published within Cureus is intended only for educational, research and reference purposes. Additionally, articles published within Cureus should not be deemed a suitable substitute for the advice of a qualified health care professional. Do not disregard or avoid professional medical advice due to content published within Cureus.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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How Homework Is Destroying Teens’ Health

Jessica Amabile '24 , Staff Writer March 25, 2022

“[Students] average about 3.1 hours of homework each night,” according to an article published by Stanford . Teens across the country come home from school, exhausted from a long day, only to do more schoolwork. They sit at their computers, working on homework assignments for hours on end. To say the relentless amount of work they have to do is overwhelming would be an understatement. The sheer amount of homework given has many negative impacts on teenagers.

Students have had homework for decades, but in more recent years it has become increasingly more demanding. Multiple studies have shown that students average about three hours of homework per night. The Atlantic mentioned that students now have twice as much homework as students did in the 1990s. This is extremely detrimental to teens’ mental health and levels of stress. Students have a lot to do after school, such as spending time with family, extracurricular activities, taking care of siblings or other family members, hanging out with friends, or all of the above. Having to juggle all of this as well as hours on end of homework is unreasonable because teenagers already have enough to think or worry about.

According to a student- run survey conducted in Cherry Hill West, students reported that they received the most homework in math, history, and language arts classes. They receive anywhere from 1 to 4 or more hours of homework every day, but only about 22.7% somewhat or strongly agree that it helps them learn. Of the students who participated, 63.6% think schools should continue to give out homework sometimes, while 27.3% said they should not give out homework at all. In an open-ended response section, students had a lot to say. One student wrote, “I think we should get homework to practice work if we are seen struggling, or didn’t finish work in class. But if we get homework, I think it just shows that the teacher needs more time to teach and instead of speeding up, gives us more work.” Another added, “Homework is important to learn the material. However, too much may lead to the student not learning that much, or it may become stressful to do homework everyday.” Others wrote, “The work I get in chemistry doesn’t help me learn at all if anything it confuses me more,” and “I think math is the only class I could use homework as that helps me learn while world language is supposed to help me learn but feels more like a time waste.” A student admitted, “I think homework is beneficial for students but the amount of homework teachers give us each day is very overwhelming and puts a lot of stress on kids. I always have my work done but all of the homework I have really changes my emotions and it effects me.” Another pointed out, “you are at school for most of your day waking up before the sun and still after all of that they send you home each day with work you need to do before the next day. Does that really make sense[?]”

As an article from Healthline mentioned, “Researchers asked students whether they experienced physical symptoms of stress… More than 80 percent of students reported having at least one stress-related symptom in the past month, and 44 percent said they had experienced three or more symptoms.” If school is causing students physical symptoms of stress, it needs to re-evaluate whether or not homework is beneficial to students, especially teenagers. Students aren’t learning anything if they have hours of “busy work” every night, so much so that it gives them symptoms of stress, such as headaches, weight loss, sleep deprivation, and so on. The continuous hours of work are doing nothing but harming students mentally and physically.

The mental effects of homework can be harmful as well. Mental health issues are often ignored, even when schools can be the root of the problem. An article from USA Today contained a quote from a licensed therapist and social worker named Cynthia Catchings, which reads, “ heavy workloads can also cause serious mental health problems in the long run, like anxiety and depression.” Mental health problems are not beneficial in any way to education. In fact, it makes it more difficult for students to focus and learn.

Some studies have suggested that students should receive less homework. To an extent, homework can help students in certain areas, such as math. However, too much has detrimental impacts on their mental and physical health. Emmy Kang, a mental health counselor, has a suggestion. She mentioned, “I don’t think (we) should scrap homework; I think we should scrap meaningless, purposeless busy work-type homework. That’s something that needs to be scrapped entirely,” she says, encouraging teachers to be thoughtful and consider the amount of time it would take for students to complete assignments,” according to USA Today . Students don’t have much control over the homework they receive, but if enough people could explain to teachers the negative impacts it has on them, they might be convinced. Teachers need to realize that their students have other classes and other assignments to do. While this may not work for everything, it would at least be a start, which would be beneficial to students.

The sole purpose of schools is to educate children and young adults to help them later on in life. However, school curriculums have gone too far if hours of homework for each class are seen as necessary and beneficial to learning. Many studies have shown that homework has harmful effects on students, so how does it make sense to keep assigning it? At this rate, the amount of time spent on homework will increase in years to come, along with the effects of poor mental and physical health. Currently, students do an average of 3 hours of homework, according to the Washington Post, and the estimated amount of teenagers suffering from at least one mental illness is 1 in 5, as Polaris Teen Center stated. This is already bad enough–it’s worrisome to think it could get much worse. Homework is not more important than physical or mental health, by any standards.

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More than two hours of homework may be counterproductive, research
A Stanford education researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter. "Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good," wrote Denise Pope, a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a
Health Hazards of Homework
Health Hazards of Homework. Pediatrics. A new study by the Stanford Graduate School of Education and colleagues found that students in high-performing schools who did excessive hours of homework "experienced greater behavioral engagement in school but also more academic stress, physical health problems, and lack of balance in their lives.".
Stanford research shows pitfalls of homework
A Stanford researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter. "Our findings on the effects ...
Is it time to get rid of homework? Mental health experts weigh in
Emmy Kang, mental health counselor at Humantold, says studies have shown heavy workloads can be "detrimental" for students and cause a "big impact on their mental, physical and emotional health ...
Is homework a necessary evil?
But they were not more invested in the homework itself. They also reported greater academic stress and less time to balance family, friends and extracurricular activities. They experienced more physical health problems as well, such as headaches, stomach troubles and sleep deprivation. "Three hours per night is too much," Galloway says.
If We're Serious About Student Well-Being, We Must Change ...
Research shows that excessive homework leads to increased stress, physical health problems and a lack of balance in students' lives. And studies have shown that more than two hours of daily homework can be counterproductive, yet many teachers assign more.. Homework proponents argue that homework improves academic performance. Indeed, a meta-analysis of research on this issue found a ...
Homework could have an impact on kids' health. Should schools ban it?
But for elementary school students, even 30 minutes of homework a night, if combined with other sources of academic stress, can have a negative impact. Researchers in China have linked homework of ...
School Stress Takes A Toll On Health, Teens And Parents Say
Homework was a leading cause of stress, with 24 percent of parents saying it's an issue. Teenagers say they're suffering, too. A survey by the American Psychological Association found that nearly ...
Homework could have an effect on kids' health. Should schools ban it?
Should schools ban it? Studies indicate a negative relationship between children's amount of homework and their physical health. Reformers in the Progressive Era (from the 1890s to 1920s) depicted ...
Infographic: How Does Homework Actually Affect Students?
Homework can affect both students' physical and mental health. According to a study by Stanford University, 56 per cent of students considered homework a primary source of stress. Too much homework can result in lack of sleep, headaches, exhaustion and weight loss. Excessive homework can also result in poor eating habits, with families ...
Is homework making your child sick?
Their findings were troubling: Research showed that excessive homework is associated with high stress levels, physical health problems and lack of balance in children's lives; 56% of the ...
Is it time to get rid of homework? Mental health experts weigh in
Emmy Kang, mental health counselor at Humantold , says studies have shown heavy workloads can be "detrimental" for students and cause a "big impact on their mental, physical and emotional health ...
Homework anxiety: Why it happens and how to help
Use a calm voice. When kids feel anxious about homework, they might get angry, yell, or cry. Avoid matching their tone of voice. Take a deep breath and keep your voice steady and calm. Let them know you're there for them. Sometimes kids just don't want to do homework. They complain, procrastinate, or rush through the work so they can do ...
Kids have three times too much homework, study finds
In fact, a study last year showed that the impact of excessive homework on high schoolers included high stress levels, a lack of balance in children's lives and physical health problems such as ...
How does homework affect students?
Homework is essential in the learning process of all students. It benefits them in managing time, being organized, and thinking beyond the classroom work. When students develop good habits towards homework, they enjoy good grades. The amount of homework given to students has risen by 51 percent. In most cases, this pushes them to order for ...
Screen Time and the Brain
Much of what happens on screen provides "impoverished" stimulation of the developing brain compared to reality, he says. Children need a diverse menu of online and offline experiences, including the chance to let their minds wander. "Boredom is the space in which creativity and imagination happen," he says. A good night's sleep is ...
PDF How does homework affect students?
How homework affects the psyche of students. Homework plays a crucial role in ensuring students succeeds both inside and outside the classroom. The numerous hours they spend in class, on school work, and away from family and friends lead to them experiencing exhaustion. Too much homework leads to students becoming disheartened by the school ...
Is Homework Necessary? Education Inequity and Its Impact on Students
Negative Effects of Homework for Students. While some amount of homework may help students connect to their learning and enhance their in-class performance, too much homework can have damaging effects. Students with too much homework have elevated stress levels. Students regularly report that homework is their primary source of stress.
More than two hours of homework may be counterproductive, research suggests
Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school. • Greater stress: 56 percent of the students considered ...
Increased Screen Time as a Cause of Declining Physical, Psychological
Dependency on digital devices resulting in an ever-increasing daily screen time has subsequently also been the cause of several adverse effects on physical and mental or psychological health. Constant exposure to devices like smartphones, personal computers, and television can severely affect mental health- increase stress and anxiety, for ...
How Homework Is Destroying Teens' Health
This shows in the students' attempts to complete all of their homework when they can. However, the amount of homework given has negative effects, one of which happens to be stress. According to a study by Stanford, "students in high-achieving communities who spend too much time on homework experience more stress, physical health problems, a ...

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School Stress Takes A Toll On Health, Teens And Parents Say

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Homework could have an effect on kids’ health. Should schools ban it?

Is it time to get rid of homework? Mental health experts weigh in.

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