essay topics for middle adulthood

108 Adulthood Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best adulthood topic ideas & essay examples, ✍️ adulthood essay topics for college, 🎓 interesting topics to write about adulthood, 👍 good essay topics on adulthood, ❓ questions about adulthood development.

• How Childhood Experiences Affect Adulthood Physical and emotional experiences Thirdly, a child who experienced physically and emotionally understanding relationship with parents and other siblings can express out his/her feelings in a relaxed and positive.
• Development Through the Lifespan – Middle Adulthood Environmental influence presents the other side of influence affecting people’s development in their middle adulthood. Berk explains this phenomenon in the example of menopause, which is a characteristic process in middle adulthood, and women’s response […]
• The Stage of Middle Adulthood in the Development The subject selected for the developmental analysis is a 49-year-old male who is married, has no children, and performs the role of the head of the family.
• Late Adulthood and Death This paper examines ageism and the stereotypes associated with late adulthood; how individuals can promote health and wellness in late adulthood; the importance of relationships and social interactions; and personal attitudes towards death in late […]
• Generation Gap: Childhood, Adulthood, Old Age At the same period, the younger generation says about the impact of the modern tendencies, changes of the way of life that give an opportunity to claim that the younger generation is more advanced.
• Parenting Styles and Their Influence on Adulthood The family context is regarded as essential because it helps to establish the link between childhood and the relationships of a person with their parents with future behavior and performance.
• Stress Management in the Adulthood To effectively handle stress, an individual must be able to recognize the symptoms of stress and understand the possible cause which is easy as stress changes an individual’s happiness level, health, and behavior.
• Platonic and Familial Relationships in Emerging Adulthood One of the main factors that can and should be used to resolve problems in platonic relationships is boundaries. The advice that can be given to young adults is that emotional connection and mutual support […]
• Transition to Adulthood: Term Definition This progression can occur in diverse orders and over a broad variation of ages from the teen years through to late twenties, and the majority of youths are able to successfully pass through these transitions.
• Childhood, Adolescence, Young Adulthood Psychology Any intervention that can be used in the prevention of child abuse should focus on the causes of the same and the needs of children who are more prone to abuse.
• Causes and Development of Sociopathic Tendencies in Early Childhood That Would Be Carried Into Adulthood As such, it is the duty of the parents to seek professional help whenever they observe antisocial tendencies in their children. The characteristics of a sociopath have been highlighted and explanations as to why children […]
• Adolescence and Adulthood Developmental Stages – Psychology The onset of adolescence marks the refinement of most individuals’ thinking abilities because at this stage the majority of individuals would have attained control in their thinking process.
• Development of Psychopathology: Interaction of Sex, Gender, and Age Psychopathology developments involve the study of abnormal behaviours. There is a high interaction in the psychopathology development in relation to sex, gender and age.
• Aspects of the Transition Into Adulthood Attachment is part of the emotional attraction because it creates a bond that is presented in a long-term relationship with parents, friends, and loved ones.
• Adulthood and Puberty Psychology The topics of psychology regarding the maturation of individuals and the connection between their environment and their mental state during development have long been of interest to numerous scholars.
• Human Service for Diabetes in Late Adulthood The mission of the Georgia Diabetic Foot Care Program is to make a positive difference in the health of persons living with diabetes.
• Sexuality and Cognitive Status of Late Adulthood Sex education should be taught across generations to create awareness of the sexual behaviors that come in late adulthood, especially for patients with dementia.
• Impact of Child Abuse on Adulthood: An Idea Worth Spreading A frequent argument of those who do not want to recognize the scale of the problem of abuse in the world is “Beating is a sign of love!”.
• Physical Developmental Issues During Early Adulthood Some of the changes include the use of alcohol and the increased potential of contracting sexually transmitted infections and diseases. Sexually transmitted diseases and infections are largely preventable, especially due to the presence of vaccines.
• Early Adulthood Development and Sexual Activity Worthy of attention is the fact that sexual practices in the West, despite the diversity, are not ubiquitous, despite the sexualization of images in the mass media.
• Late Adulthood and Erikson’s Theory of Integrity and Despair Therefore, I think that people who earn their life goals are likely to stay active in their late adulthood and feel the need to associate with others as they share their success stories.
• Children’s Eating Habits: Impact on Weight Problems in Adulthood I agree that my early eating habits were a forerunner for my weight status now, so I try to keep a nutritious diet to compensate for the lack of vitamins from my childhood diet.
• Declines in Functioning in Late Adulthood The purpose of this paper is to discuss introducing sports to lower the negative influence of cognitive decline. Therefore, moderate physical activity should be recommended for middle-aged and older adults to diminish the negative consequences […]
• Adolescence and Young Adulthood in Educational Psychology For Freud, it is inclusion in society, the beginning of social education, communication with peers, removing barriers in interpersonal contacts, and expanding the field of fixation of the object of attraction.
• Child Neglect Might Affect a Child’s Self-Esteem in Adulthood Three situations in different locations are to be thoroughly discussed to illustrate the issue of the research. Indeed, the observation at the chosen playground seemed to be fruitful because of children of different ages.
• Loneliness in Middle Adulthood Therefore, the sense of shame that the experience of loneliness may entail is expected to affect an individual on a very deep level, causing a disruption in their social functioning.
• Middle Life Adulthood of 35-60 The period is between the ages of 35-60 and it is said to be the third quarter of the lifespan of a person.
• Late Adulthood and End of Life This paper is going to give a comprehensive account of late adulthood and the end of life. That is, there is a genetic clock that seems to “tick” and regulate the functioning process of hormones […]
• Late Adulthood: Loss, Grief, Bereavement The desire and need to belong within a group of people is a psychological need which is part and parcel of late adulthood.
• Developmental Psychology: The Impact of Family-Of-Origin on Adulthood Being a man, I have learned to take responsibilities aimed at providing for the needs and giving direction to members of my family.
• Adulthood and Aging – Widower’s and Widow’s Syndrome According to the information on the site, studies have been carried out to compare the death rate for a group of widows/widowers to that of a control group.
• Adulthood and Aging. Intergenerational Relationships In a fast paced competitive world of a multiple of career options, traditional families are being replaced by nuclear families leading to fragmentation of the cohesive social structure.
• Adulthood and Aging. Family Contacts and Support In order to have a system support in old adulthood I will try as much as possible to embrace a firm union base with the immediate structures, people and the environment around me and through […]
• Emerging Adulthood Principles: India and the U.S. The present paper aims at comparing how the principles of emerging adulthood are applied to the traditional culture of India and the modern US culture.
• Human Development Theories: Adolescence and Adulthood In the growth and development stage of a human being, the adolescent period has been considered to be a natural stage found between childhood and adulthood.
• Emerging Adulthood in Japanese and Chinese Societies The concept of emerging adulthood is new to the segregated Japanese society, and it is likely going to take some time before the notion becomes accepted as a norm.
• Developmental Psychology: From Infancy to Adulthood It is, however, important to note that motor development ability mainly depends on the weight and organization of the body of a child. Language development is mainly the ability of a child to use and […]
• Childhood Bullying and Adulthood Suicide Connection In this regard, the seriousness of the issue is depicted in research results that indicate that at least 50% of children and youth in the US have experienced bullying situations as either bullies or victims […]
• Young Adulthood and Substance Abuse The impacts of drug abuse are not felt by the individual youth only; they are also felt at a family and societal level. The earlier the diagnosis and discovery of a drug abuse, the higher […]
• Child’s Mental Health and Depression in Adulthood The objective of the proposed research is to provide a comprehensive study focusing on the impact of mental health in childhood on depressions in the adult age.
• Effects of Childhood Experiences on Self Injurious Behavior in Adulthood Fliege et al study was based on health issues that are related to and largely concerned with the behavior of self harm.
• Adulthood Learning Determining Factors For instance, an immigrant who acquires citizenship to the United States with a view to pursuing a career say, in medicine or law using the qualification that they had acquired in the country of origin, […]
• How Childhood Bullying Can Linger Through Adulthood
• Transition from the Early Adulthood Stage into the Middle Adulthood
• The Effects of Learning a Second Language in Adulthood
• Edgar Allan Poe’s Effects Of Childhood And Adulthood
• Loss of Childhood Innocence: The Transition to Adulthood
• Why Do So Many Guys Seem Stuck Between Adolescence And Adulthood?
• Does Playing With Guns As A Child Can Affect Your Adulthood
• Does Spoiling a Child Lead to an Unhappy Adulthood
• Divorce: Children’s Psychological Desolation in Adulthood
• Drugs And Their Effects On Women From Utero Into Adulthood
• What Aspects Of Depression Are Show In Children, Adolescents, And Adulthood
• Forecasting Life Satisfaction across Adulthood: Benefits of Seeing a Dark Future
• Why Most Offending Occurs In Adolescence And Subsides In Early Adulthood
• Exploring Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Education
• From Childhood to Adulthood in The Taste of Melon by Borden Deal
• Gender, Turning Points, and Boomerangs: Returning Home in Young Adulthood in Great Britain
• Understanding The Complex Milestones Of Emerging Adulthood
• Eating Disorders Among Young Adolescents And Early Adulthood
• Transformation Into Adulthood In William Faulkner’s Story, Barn Burning
• Age-Related Differences in Savoring Across Adulthood: The Role of Emotional Goals and Future Time Perspective
• The Effect Of Prenatal Period On Early Adulthood
• Effects of Childhood Trauma on Development and Adulthood
• Education and the Age Profile of Literacy into Adulthood
• Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse in Adulthood
• Family Structure and Self-Rated Health in Adolescence and Young Adulthood
• Women ‘s Rights And Responsibilities Of Adulthood
• The Story Of A Child ‘s Growth Into Mature Adulthood Life
• The Verge of Adulthood in a Separate Peace by John Knowles
• From Childhood To Adulthood: Emotional And Physical Changes
• Two Major Issues to Face in Middle Adulthood
• Transition To Adulthood For Special Education Students
• How Is the Transition to Adulthood Different for This Generation
• The Transition Between Childhood And Adulthood
• Waiting for Adulthood: Aging in “In the Waiting Room” and “At the Fishhouses”
• The Transition From Infancy To Adulthood Is Common To All
• Workplace Bullying in Adulthood and in the Workplace
• The Stage Of Middle Adulthood And It`s Features
• Women Redefining Sexual Identity in Middle Adulthood
• Differences in Life Quality and Ageism In Late Adulthood
• Emerging Adulthood : Developing Adults Experience Alcohol
• What Are the Characteristics of Adulthood Development?
• Does Childhood Development Affect Adulthood?
• What Happens in Late Adulthood Social Development?
• How Do Positive Childhood Experiences Affect Adulthood?
• What Is Late Adulthood Cognitive Development?
• Does Cognitive Development Occur in Adulthood?
• Why Is Early Adulthood Development Important?
• What Are the Main Challenges in Early Adulthood Development?
• Does Development End in Adulthood?
• Why Is Transitioning Into Adulthood Important?
• Is Adulthood Based on Age or Maturity?
• What Are the Stages of Adulthood Development?
• How Does Childhood Stress Affect Adulthood Development?
• What Are the Effects of Early Experiences on Later Adulthood Development?
• How Do Parents Affect Adulthood?
• Does Childhood Misfortune Raise the Risk of Acute Myocardial Infarction in Adulthood?
• How Does a Negative Childhood Affect Adulthood?
• Why Is the Transition From Childhood to Adulthood Difficult?
• How Does Childhood Isolation Affect Adulthood?
• What Are the Negatives of Being in Early Adulthood?
• Is Adulthood a State of Mind?
• What Are the Mental Changes in Adulthood?
• Do We Stop Developing in Adulthood?
• How Is Adulthood Different From Childhood?
• What Is Social and Emotional Development in Adulthood?
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IvyPanda . 2024. "108 Adulthood Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." March 2, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/adulthood-essay-topics/.

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IvyPanda . "108 Adulthood Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." March 2, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/adulthood-essay-topics/.

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107 Adulthood Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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When it comes to writing an essay about adulthood, there are countless topics to choose from. Adulthood is a phase of life that presents various challenges, experiences, and opportunities for personal growth. Whether you want to explore the responsibilities of adulthood, discuss the transition from adolescence to adulthood, or analyze the impact of societal expectations, here are 107 topic ideas and examples to inspire your essay:

The concept of adulthood in different cultures.

The importance of financial literacy in adulthood.

Balancing responsibilities: work, family, and personal life.

The impact of social media on adult relationships.

The challenges of making new friends in adulthood.

The role of education in shaping adult perspectives.

The impact of childhood experiences on adult mental health.

The influence of parents on adult decision-making.

The significance of self-reflection in adult personal development.

The importance of setting goals in adulthood.

The impact of technology on the modern adult lifestyle.

The challenges of maintaining a healthy work-life balance.

The role of resilience in overcoming adult challenges.

The impact of societal expectations on adult happiness.

The challenges of maintaining physical health in adulthood.

The role of hobbies and interests in adult well-being.

The impact of societal norms on adult relationships.

The challenges of finding meaning and purpose in adulthood.

The role of spirituality in adult well-being.

The impact of cultural background on adult identity.

The challenges of navigating romantic relationships in adulthood.

The role of communication in maintaining adult friendships.

The impact of societal pressure to conform in adulthood.

The challenges of dealing with loss and grief in adulthood.

The significance of self-care in adult mental health.

The impact of work-related stress on adult well-being.

The challenges of maintaining a healthy lifestyle in adulthood.

The role of mentorship in adult professional growth.

The impact of societal expectations on adult career choices.

The challenges of managing time effectively in adulthood.

The significance of emotional intelligence in adult relationships.

The impact of cultural diversity on adult perspectives.

The challenges of maintaining romantic relationships in adulthood.

The role of self-confidence in adult success.

The impact of societal beauty standards on adult self-esteem.

The challenges of finding work-life balance in a globalized world.

The significance of adaptability in adult career development.

The impact of childhood trauma on adult relationships.

The challenges of making ethical decisions in adulthood.

The role of forgiveness in adult personal growth.

The impact of technology on adult mental health.

The challenges of navigating parenthood in adulthood.

The significance of self-compassion in adult well-being.

The impact of societal expectations on adult body image.

The challenges of managing finances in adulthood.

The role of empathy in adult relationships.

The impact of cultural stereotypes on adult identity.

The challenges of finding work-life balance in a demanding career.

The significance of lifelong learning in adult personal development.

The impact of societal pressure to conform to gender roles in adulthood.

The challenges of maintaining healthy boundaries in adult relationships.

The role of self-awareness in adult decision-making.

The impact of societal expectations on adult mental health.

The challenges of finding purpose in a fast-paced adult life.

The significance of community involvement in adult well-being.

The impact of societal expectations on adult marriage choices.

The challenges of managing stress in adulthood.

The role of optimism in adult resilience.

The impact of cultural assimilation on adult identity.

The challenges of maintaining work-life balance in a competitive profession.

The significance of gratitude in adult happiness.

The impact of societal pressure to conform to a certain lifestyle in adulthood.

The challenges of managing personal and professional relationships in adulthood.

The role of self-acceptance in adult self-esteem.

The impact of cultural appropriation on adult identity.

The challenges of finding meaning in a materialistic adult world.

The significance of social support in adult well-being.

The impact of societal expectations on adult parental choices.

The challenges of maintaining mental health in a high-stress adult environment.

The role of vulnerability in adult relationships.

The impact of cultural heritage on adult identity.

The challenges of workaholism in adulthood.

The significance of self-motivation in adult success.

The impact of societal pressure to conform to societal norms in adulthood.

The challenges of managing work-life balance in a technology-driven world.

The role of gratitude in adult relationships.

The impact of cultural diversity on adult identity formation.

The challenges of finding fulfillment in adult life.

The significance of social connections in adult well-being.

The impact of societal expectations on adult friendship choices.

The challenges of maintaining mental well-being in a fast-paced adult society.

The role of authenticity in adult relationships.

The impact of cultural values on adult identity.

The challenges of finding work-life balance in a demanding entrepreneurial career.

The significance of mindfulness in adult happiness.

The impact of societal pressure to conform to societal beauty standards in adulthood.

The challenges of managing time and energy in adulthood.

The role of trust in adult relationships.

The impact of cultural traditions on adult identity.

The challenges of finding purpose in a materialistic adult culture.

The significance of self-reflection in adult happiness.

The impact of societal expectations on adult career progression.

The challenges of maintaining mental health in a competitive adult environment.

The role of emotional support in adult relationships.

The impact of cultural assimilation on adult identity formation.

The challenges of finding work-life balance in a demanding corporate career.

The significance of self-discipline in adult success.

The impact of societal pressure to conform to societal norms on adult decision-making.

The challenges of managing personal and professional boundaries in adulthood.

The role of empathy in adult mental well-being.

The impact of cultural heritage on adult identity development.

The challenges of finding fulfillment in a consumer-driven adult society.

The significance of social engagement in adult happiness.

The impact of societal expectations on adult relationship choices.

The challenges of maintaining mental well-being in an ever-connected adult world.

The role of vulnerability in adult personal growth.

The impact of cultural diversity on adult identity exploration.

These 107 adulthood essay topic ideas provide a wide range of options to explore the complexities, challenges, and joys of this phase of life. Choose a topic that resonates with you and allows you to delve into a subject that interests you the most. Remember to conduct thorough research, provide examples and evidence, and present a well-structured argument to make your essay compelling and thought-provoking. Happy writing!

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102 Adulthood Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on adulthood, ✍️ adulthood essay topics for college, 🎓 most interesting adulthood research titles, 💡 simple adulthood essay ideas, ❓ questions about adulthood.

• Socioemotional Development in Late Adulthood
• Development Stage: Early Adulthood
• Development Process: Late Adulthood
• Stages of Development Adulthood
• Childhood Affecting Adulthood: John Wayne Gacy
• Late Adulthood Physical and Cognitive Changes
• Rites of Passage: From Childhood to Adulthood
• Social Development from Infancy to Adulthood This paper analyzes two articles to show that social adjustment from infancy to adulthood is dependent on the environment that the children are brought up.
• The Middle Adulthood: Developmental Theories Midlife is normally the time to re-examine their lives, relationships, careers and even the meaning of it all, this has normally been referred to as midlife crisis.
• Poverty in Young and Middle Adulthood According to functionalism, poverty is a dysfunctional aspect of interrelated components, which is the result of improper structuring.
• The Consequences of Child Sexual Abuse on the Behavioral Patterns in Adulthood The child sexual abuse remains one of the most intimidating and stigmatizing traumas for many children and families that are overcoming the acute psychological outcomes in both childhood and adulthood.
• Human Development in Early Adulthood During their life, a person goes through many developmental stages, each associated with specific activities. This paper examines early adulthood.
• School and Transition Into Adulthood The essay argues that a combination of career-specific knowledge and home, communication, and finance education is the future of comprehensive learning.
• Developmental Tasks and Challenges of Middle and Late Adulthood Middle and late adulthood is influenced by many factors. Preventive strategies to increase physical well-being become crucial for persons in their middle adulthood.
• Impact of Child Abuse and Neglect on Perception of Reality in Adulthood Child abuse is a serious societal issue in the present socioeconomic situation of the majority of households worldwide.
• Health Aspects of Young Adulthood Individuals are highly explorative, experimental, curious and focused on finding their identities as they progress from naivety to knowing.
• Emerging Adulthood: Challenges and Opportunities The paper discusses the concept of emerging adulthood – the stage of growth between adolescence and adulthood and highlights the challenges faced by young adults during this phase.
• Youth and Adulthood: A Comparative Analysis Murray and Brooks explore the themes of identity, the fleeting nature of life, and the concepts of rebelliousness and conformity, which they achieve by using epistrophes.
• Brain Development in Early Adulthood Although many people believe that a human brain stops to develop after childhood, it continues to evolve throughout one’s lifespan.
• Peer Relationships Impact on Adulthood Development The article by Marion, Laursen, Zettergren, and Bergman reflects the impact of past peer relationships on adulthood, focusing on buffered-effects and direct-effects models.
• Middle Adulthood Development: Fifty-Four-Year-Old Male Middle adulthood development does not differ in significant changes in human behavior but rather is characterized by the final installation of the model of their life.
• Social Aspects of Adulthood in Different Countries This paper presents a comparative analysis of Japanese, West African, and American cultures and existing differences, and these disparities’ impact on social work practice.
• Journey Into Adulthood: “Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?” by J. Oates and “Paul’s Case” by W. Cather The theme of travel to adulthood is fascinating for readers. This topic is covered in “Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?” by J. Oates and “Paul’s Case” by W. Cather.
• Biological Changes in Late Adulthood Gerontologists and geriatrics are of the view that the aged are affected by many changes in their lives.
• Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood The 27-year old interviewee might need psychological assistance to deal with the process of transition from adolescence to adulthood as sociocultural concerns indicate.
• The Theme of Transitioning into Adulthood in “Spirited Away” by Hayao Miyazaki and “Spring Awakening” by Frank Wedekind Spirited away by Hayao Miyazaki and Spring Awakening by Frank Wedekind are works of art that are unique and original and convey the path of teenagers on their way to adulthood.
• Childhood and Adulthood Mental Disorder Teens and adults experience episodes of disorders. Childhood and adolescent mental disorders are compared to adult mental disorders in various ways.
• Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood It is widely believed that developing one’s physical talents can also assist in developing one’s personal and social skills.
• Late Adulthood: The Main Categories In modern gerontology, there are three categories of human age at the stage of late adulthood. It is possible to consider them from biological, social and psychological positions.
• “Religion, Meaning in Life During Late Adulthood” by Krause & Hayward “Religion, Meaning in Life, and Change in Physical Functioning During Late Adulthood” confirms the contribution of meaning in life to improved wellness among older adults.
• The Phenomenon of Emerging Adulthood The paper describes the importance of understanding the phenomenon of emerging adulthood and the factors that contribute to its development.
• Progressive Neurocognitive Disorders and Adulthood This essay will examine Erikson’s and Maslow’s theories about adulthood and progressive neurocognitive disorders.
• Reasons to Become Parents in Middle Adulthood There is no single correct answer regarding the question related to the period of giving birth. The birth rate of females aged over 40 years has considerably increased lately.
• How Is the Stigma of Asperser’s in Young Adulthood Overcome? The study will take a cross-sectional perspective reliant on a review of online scholarly materials on the impact of aspersers of recent currency.
• Adulthood Lifetime of a Boy Discussion This essay is discussing the adulthood lifetime of a boy by answering the specific questions. His name is Don and had 17 years old.
• Young Adulthood in Developmental Psychology Erikson, an ‘ego psychologist’, believed that psychological development took place in 8 stages across the lifespan. Each stage is critical and builds upon previous stages.
• Personal Development During Middle Adulthood Male and a female participant aged 42 and 47 were interviewed about their personal and professional progress and development.
• Submission and Rebellion for Women in Childhood and Adulthood
• Childhood Struggles Versus Adulthood Responsibilities
• Thomas Jefferson’s Childhood and Adulthood Bibliography
• Gender Roles and Their Implications on Adulthood
• Personality Changes From Infancy and Childhood Adulthood
• Psychological Adjustments: Early and Middle Adulthood
• Many Americans Prepare for Adulthood by Pursuing Careers
• Erik Erikson’s Adulthood Stages
• Leon Botstein’s Let Teen-agers Try Adulthood
• Changes Between Mid-Life and Adulthood
• Migration and the Transition to Adulthood in Contemporary Malawi
• The Early Childhood and Adulthood of Ernest Hemingway
• Thinking Styles and Moral Values in Adulthood
• Drugs and Their Effects on Women From Utero Into Adulthood
• Childhood Trauma and Substance Abuse in Adulthood
• Postnatal Innate Immune Development: From Birth to Adulthood
• Self-knowledge Development From Young Adulthood to Old Age
• Adulthood: Time Management and Transition
• The Fundamental Difference Between Childhood and Adulthood
• Childhood Environment and Gender Gaps in Adulthood
• Eighteen Years Old, the Age of Adulthood in the United
• Motivational and Cognitive Influences on Affective Priming in Adulthood
• Eating Behavior and Social Interactions From Adolescence to Adulthood
• Brain Development From Birth to Adulthood
• Public Policy, Health Insurance and the Transition to Adulthood
• Fantasy Proneness and Theory of Mind in Adulthood
• Physical and Cognitive Changes in Late Adulthood
• Women Redefining Sexual Identity in Middle Adulthood
• Family Instability and Pathways to Adulthood in Cape Town, South Africa
• Sibling and Peer Relationships in Emerging Adulthood
• Challenges Affecting Late Adulthood: Depression in Later Life
• Changes and Challenges: Adolescence, Late Adulthood
• Childhood Socioeconomic Deprivation and Later Adulthood Health
• The Darkside Transition From Adolescent to Adulthood
• Adulthood and the Psychological Aspects
• Hard Choices and Initiation Into Adulthood
• Child Abuse and Effects on Adulthood
• Early Adulthood and Developing a Sense of Self Identification
• Child Abuse and Later Maladjustment in Adulthood
• Factors Influencing Career Transition in Middle Adulthood
• Can Self-Control Theory Explain Offending in Late Adulthood?
• What’s the Difference Between Childhood and Adulthood?
• Does Child Labor Lead to Vulnerable Employment in Adulthood?
• What Are the Factors That Influence Adulthood?
• How Does Sibling Rivalry Affect Children as They Reach Adulthood?
• Does Adulthood Affect Personality?
• Why Might the Experience of Child Sexual Abuse Lead to Mental Health Problems in Adulthood?
• Is Aging During Adulthood All About Decline?
• What Are the Disadvantages of Reaching Adulthood?
• Does College Matter for Emerging Adulthood?
• What Are the Biggest Challenges With Adulthood?
• Does Intelligence Grow or Decline During Adulthood?
• How Does Social Class Shapes Adolescent Financial Socialization?
• What Are the Emotional Changes in Late Adulthood?
• Does Religiousness Buffer Against the Fear of Death and Dying in Late Adulthood?
• Why Does Most Offending Occurs in Adolescence and Subsides in Early Adulthood?
• How Does a Person’s Childhood Affect Adulthood?
• Does Development Stop in Adulthood?
• What Is the Most Important Marker of Adulthood?
• How Does Memory Change in Late Adulthood?
• What Are the Cognitive Changes in Adulthood?
• Does Social Activity Engagement in Late Adulthood Have a Positive Effect on the Onset of Dementia?
• What Are the Challenges Faced by Individuals on Entry of Adulthood?
• How Do Toxic Parents Affect Adulthood?
• What Are the Main Benefits of Adulthood?

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StudyCorgi. (2022, May 10). 102 Adulthood Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/adulthood-essay-topics/

"102 Adulthood Essay Topics." StudyCorgi , 10 May 2022, studycorgi.com/ideas/adulthood-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2022) '102 Adulthood Essay Topics'. 10 May.

1. StudyCorgi . "102 Adulthood Essay Topics." May 10, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/adulthood-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "102 Adulthood Essay Topics." May 10, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/adulthood-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "102 Adulthood Essay Topics." May 10, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/adulthood-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Adulthood were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 5, 2024 .

Middle Adulthood

Why learn about human development during middle adulthood.

This stage of life is truly as multi-faceted as any other. It is a period of negotiation, and renegotiation, across the three main facets of human existence: physical, psychological, and social. Our concept of self may not be fully ours to shape or control alone. How others see us, and their expectations of us, are age-sensitive as well.

From the developmental perspective, middle adulthood (or midlife) refers to the period of the lifespan between young adulthood and old age. This period lasts from 20 to 40 years depending on how these stages, ages, and tasks are culturally defined. The most common definition by chronological age for middle adulthood is from 40 to 65, but there can be a range of up to 10 years (ages 30-75) on either side of these parameters. Research on this period of life is relatively sparse, and many aspects of midlife are still relatively unexplored; in fact, it may be the least studied period of the lifespan. This is not as surprising as might initially appear. One hundred years ago, life expectancy in the United States was about 54 years.  How individuals prepare in middle adulthood for living longer and being part of an older community, will assume even more critical importance. It may also present a formidable challenge in the areas of health and public policy, as the relative numbers of those who are economically active, or economically inactive, shift.

Developmental Tasks

Margie Lachman (2004) provides a comprehensive overview of the challenges facing midlife adults, outlining the roles and responsibilities of those entering the “afternoon of life” (Jung). These include:

• Losing parents and experiencing associated grief.
• Launching children into their own lives.
• Adjusting to home life without children (often referred to as the empty nest).
• Dealing with adult children who return to live at home (known as boomerang children in the United States).
• Becoming grandparents.
• Preparing for late adulthood.
• Acting as caregivers for aging parents or spouses.

Taken singly or together, these can represent a fundamental reorientation of outlook, investment, attitudes, and personal relationships which can present formidable obstacles in terms of social and economic challenges. They may also be affected by circumstances outside our control, at a time that we may have envisaged as planned and under control.

What you’ll learn to do: explain the physiological changes during middle adulthood and their physical and psychological consequences

As we will see, there are simple physiological changes that accompany middle adulthood. These are somewhat inevitable, but the importance of physical activity at this age range would be difficult to overstate looking at the evidence. Exercise does not necessarily mean running marathons, it may simply mean a commitment to using your legs in a brisk fashion for thirty minutes. “Use it or lose it” is a good mantra for this stage of development—the technical term for the loss of muscle tissue and function as we age is sarcopenia. From age 30, the body loses 3-8% of its muscle mass per decade, and this accelerates after the age of 60 (Volpi et al., 2010). Diet and exercise can ameliorate the extent and lifestyle consequences of these processes. In this section, we will examine some of the changes associated with middle adulthood and consider how they impact human life. 

Learning Outcomes

• Detail the most important physiological changes occurring in men and women during middle adulthood
• Describe how physiological changes during middle adulthood can impact life experience, health, and sexuality

Physical Mobility in Middle Adulthood

The importance of not succumbing to the temptations of a sedentary lifestyle was as obvious to Hippocrates in 400 BCE as it is now. Piasecki et al. (2018) are of the opinion that sarcopenia  (l oss of muscle tissue and function as we age) in legs  might be the result of leg muscles becoming detached from the nervous system. Further, Piasescki et al. (2018) believe that exercise encourages new nerve growth, slowing sarcopenia’s progression. People aged 75 may have up to 30-60% fewer nerve endings in their leg muscles than in their early 20s.

Sarcopenia has only recently been recognized as an independent disease entity since 2016 (ICD-10). In 2018 the U.S. Center for Disease Control and prevention assigned sarcopenia its own discrete medical code. Disease entities that affect mobility will become an increasingly costly phenomenon and affect millions of people’s quality of life as the population ages. In many ways, it is a natural phenomenon, and many doctors and researchers have been reticent to overly pathologize natural changes associated with age. However, mobility is now becoming a central concern, and some researchers are now identifying some conditions like osteosarcopenia, which describes the decline of both muscle tissue (sarcopenia) and bone tissue (osteoporosis). Diagnoses and pharmaceuticals which deal with the central question of mobility will become ever more important, even more so as the burgeoning costs associated with caring for those with mobility issues become apparent.

Human beings reach peak bone mass around 35-40. Osteoporosis is a “silent disease” which progresses until a fracture occurs. The sheer scale and cost of this illness is radically underestimated. It is often associated with women due to the fact that bone mass can deteriorate in women much more quickly in middle age due to menopause. After menopause women can lose 5-10% bone mass per year, rendering it advisable to monitor intakes of calcium and Vitamin D, and evaluate individual risk factors. Beginning in their 60s, though, men and women lose bone mass at roughly the same rate. The number of American men diagnosed with osteoporosis is currently around the 2 million mark, with a further 12 million reckoned to be at risk. The National Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF) estimates that 50% of women and 25% of men over the age of 50 will suffer a bone fracture due to osteoporosis. Attention at this stage of life may bring pronounced health benefits now and later for both women and men.  Fixing the damage takes a considerable amount of the Medicare budget.

The health benefits that walking and other physical activity have on the nervous system are becoming increasingly obvious to those who study aging. Adami et al (2018) found pronounced links between weight-bearing exercise and neuron production. We tend to think of the brain as a central processing unit giving instructions to the body via the conduit of the central nervous system, but contemporary science is now coalescing around the idea that muscles and nerves also communicate with the brain—it is a two-way informational and sustaining process. Many studies suggest that voluntary physical activity (VPA) extends and improves the quality of life. Such studies show that even moderate physical activity can bring large gains.

In addition, there is often an increase in chronic inflammation at this time of life with no discernible discrete cause (as opposed to acute inflammation associated with something like an infection). Inflammation is the body’s natural way of responding to bodily injury or harmful pathogens. The function of inflammation is to eliminate the initial cause of injury and initiate tissue repair, but when this happens consistently and for longer periods of time, the body’s stress response systems become overworked. This can have serious effects on health, such as fatigue, fever, chest or abdominal pain, rashes, or greater susceptibility to diseases such as cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and heart disease. Untreated acute inflammation, autoimmune disorders, or long-term exposure to irritants contribute to social isolation (Nersessian et al, 2018).

Chronic inflammation has been implicated as part of the cause of the muscle loss that occurs with aging. Chronic inflammatory disorder is now implicated in a whole series of chronic diseases such as dementia, and the biomedical evidence for its centrality is now emerging in the medical research literature.

Normal Physiological Changes in Middle Adulthood

There are a few primary biological physical changes in midlife. There are changes in vision, hearing, more joint pain, and weight gain (Lachman, 2004). Weight gain, sometimes referred to as the middle-aged spread or the accumulation of fat in the abdomen, is a common complaint of midlife adults. Men tend to gain fat on their upper abdomen and back while women tend to gain more fat on their waist and upper arms. Many adults are surprised at this weight gain because their diets have not changed. However, the metabolism slows by about one-third during midlife (Berger, 2005). Consequently, midlife adults have to increase their level of exercise, eat less, and watch their nutrition to maintain their earlier physique.

Many of the changes that occur in midlife can be easily compensated for (by buying glasses, exercising, and watching what one eats, for example.) Most midlife adults generally experience good health. However, the percentage of adults who have a disability increases through midlife; while 7 percent of people in their early 40s have a disability, the rate jumps to 30 percent by the early 60s. This increase is highest among those of lower socioeconomic status (Bumpass & Aquilino, 1995).

What can we conclude from this information? Again, lifestyle strongly impacts the health status of midlife adults. Smoking tobacco, drinking alcohol, poor diet, stress, physical inactivity, and chronic diseases such as diabetes or arthritis reduce overall health. It becomes important for midlife adults to take preventative measures to enhance physical well-being. Those midlife adults with a strong sense of mastery and control over their lives, who engage in challenging physical and mental activity, who engage in weight-bearing exercise, monitor their nutrition, and use social resources are most likely to enjoy a plateau of good health through these years. Not only that, but those who begin an exercise regimen in their 40s may enjoy comparable benefits to those who began in their 20s according to Saint-Maurice et al. (2019), who also found that while it is never too late to begin, continuing to do as much as possible, is just as important.

Exercise is a powerful way to combat the changes we associate with aging. Exercise builds muscle, increases metabolism, helps control blood sugar, increases bone density, and relieves stress. Unfortunately, fewer than half of midlife adults exercise and only about 20 percent exercise frequently and strenuously enough to achieve health benefits. Many stop exercising soon after they begin an exercise program-particularly those who are very overweight. The best exercise programs are those that are engaged in regularly—regardless of the activity, but a well-rounded program that is easy to follow includes walking and weight training. Having a safe, enjoyable place to walk can make a difference in whether or not someone walks regularly. Weight lifting and stretching exercises at home can also be part of an effective program. Exercise is particularly helpful in reducing stress in midlife. Walking, jogging, cycling, or swimming can release the tension caused by stressors, and learning relaxation techniques can have healthful benefits. Exercise can be considered preventative health care; promoting exercise for the 78 million “baby boomers” may be one of the best ways to reduce health care costs and improve quality of life (Shure & Cahan, 1998).

Aging brings about a reduction in the number of calories a person requires. Many Americans respond to weight gain by dieting. However, eating less does not necessarily mean eating right; people often suffer vitamin and mineral deficiencies. Very often, physicians will recommend vitamin supplements to their middle-aged patients. As stated above, chronic inflammation is now identified as one of the so-called “pillars of aging”. The link between diet and inflammation is yet unclear. Still, there is now some information available on the Diet Inflammation Index (Shivappa et al., 2014)., which in popular parlance, supports a diet rich in plant-based foods, healthy fats, nuts, fish in moderation, and sparing use of red meat— often referred to as “the Mediterranean Diet.”

The Climacteric

One biologically based change that occurs during midlife is the climacteric . During midlife, men may experience a reduction in their ability to reproduce. Women, however, lose their ability to reproduce once they reach menopause.

Menopause refers to a period of transition in which a woman’s ovaries stop releasing eggs and the level of estrogen and progesterone production decreases. After menopause, a woman’s menstruation ceases (U. S. National Library of Medicine and National Institute of Health [NLM/NIH], 2007).

Changes typically occur between the mid-40s and mid-50s. The median age range for a woman to have her last menstrual period is 50-52, but ages vary. A woman may first begin to notice that her periods are more or less frequent than before. These changes in menstruation may last from 1 to 3 years. After a year without menstruation, a woman is considered menopausal and no longer capable of reproduction. (Keep in mind that some women may experience another period even after going for a year without one.) The loss of estrogen also affects vaginal lubrication which diminishes and becomes more watery. The vaginal wall also becomes thinner, and less elastic.

Menopause is not seen as universally distressing (Lachman, 2004). Changes in hormone levels are associated with hot flashes and sweats in some women, but women vary in the extent to which these are experienced. Depression, irritability, and weight gain are not necessarily due to menopause (Avis, 1999; Rossi, 2004). Depression and mood swings are more common during menopause in women with prior histories of these conditions than those who have not. The incidence of depression and mood swings is not greater among menopausal women than non-menopausal women.

Cultural influences seem to also play a role in the way menopause is experienced. For example, once after listing the symptoms of menopause in a psychology course, a woman from Kenya responded, “We do not have this in my country or if we do, it is not a big deal,” to which some U.S. students replied, “I want to go there!” Indeed, there are cultural variations in the experience of menopausal symptoms. Hot flashes are experienced by 75 percent of women in Western cultures, but by less than 20 percent of women in Japan (Obermeyer in Berk, 2007).

Women in the United States respond differently to menopause depending on their expectations for themselves and their lives. White, career-oriented women, African-American, and Mexican-American women overall tend to think of menopause as a liberating experience. Nevertheless, there has been a popular tendency to erroneously attribute frustrations and irritations expressed by women of menopausal age to menopause and thereby not take her concerns seriously. Fortunately, many practitioners in the United States today are normalizing rather than pathologizing menopause.

Concerns about the effects of hormone replacement have changed the frequency with which estrogen replacement and hormone replacement therapies have been prescribed for menopausal women. Estrogen replacement therapy was once commonly used to treat menopausal symptoms. But more recently, hormone replacement therapy has been associated with breast cancer, stroke, and the development of blood clots (NLM/NIH, 2007). Most women do not have symptoms severe enough to warrant estrogen or hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Women who do require HRT can be treated with lower doses of estrogen and monitored with more frequent breast and pelvic exams. There are also some other ways to reduce symptoms. These include avoiding caffeine and alcohol, eating soy, remaining sexually active, practicing relaxation techniques, and using water-based lubricants during intercourse.

Fifty million women in the USA aged 50-55 are post-menopausal. During and after menopause a majority of women will experience weight gain. Changes in estrogen levels lead to a redistribution of body fat from hips and back to stomachs. This is more dangerous to general health and wellbeing because a bdominal fat is largely visceral, meaning it is contained within the abdominal cavity and may not look like typical weight gain. That is, it accumulates in the space between the liver, intestines, and other vital organs. This is far more harmful to health than subcutaneous fat, the kind of fat located under the skin. It is possible to be relatively thin and retain a high level of visceral fat, yet this type of fat is deemed especially harmful by medical research.

Andropause 

Do males experience a climacteric? Yes. While they do not lose their ability to reproduce as they age, they tend to produce lower testosterone levels and fewer sperm. However, men are capable of reproduction throughout life after puberty. It is natural for sex drive to diminish slightly as men age, but a lack of sex drive may be a result of extremely low levels of testosterone. About 5 million men experience low levels of testosterone that results in symptoms such as a loss of interest in sex, loss of body hair, difficulty achieving or maintaining an erection, loss of muscle mass, and breast enlargement. This decrease in libido and lower testosterone (androgen) levels is known as andropause , although this term is somewhat controversial as this experience is not clearly delineated, as menopause is for women. Low testosterone levels may be due to glandular diseases such as testicular cancer. Testosterone levels can be tested; if they are low, men can be treated with testosterone replacement therapy. This can increase sex drive, muscle mass, and beard growth. However, long term HRT for men can increase the risk of prostate cancer (The Patient Education Institute, 2005).

The debate around declining testosterone levels in men may hide a fundamental fact. The issue is not about individual males experiencing individual hormonal change at all. We have all seen the adverts on the media promoting substances to boost testosterone: “Is it low-T?” The answer is probably in the affirmative, if somewhat relative. That is, in all likelihood, they will have lower testosterone levels than their fathers. However, it is equally likely that the issue does not lie solely in their individual physiological makeup, but is rather a generational transformation (Travison et al, 2007). Why this has occurred in such a dramatic fashion is still unknown. There is evidence that low testosterone may have negative health effects on men. In addition, some studies show evidence of rapidly decreasing sperm count and grip strength. Exactly why these changes are happening is unknown and will likely involve more than one cause.

The Climacteric and Sexuality

Sexuality is an important part of people’s lives at any age. Midlife adults tend to have sex lives that are very similar to that of younger adults. And many women feel freer and less inhibited sexually as they age. However, a woman may notice less vaginal lubrication during arousal and men may experience changes in their erections from time to time. This is particularly true for men after age 65. Men who experience consistent problems are likely to have other medical conditions (such as diabetes or heart disease) that impact sexual functioning (National Institute on Aging, 2005).

Couples continue to enjoy physical intimacy and may engage in more foreplay, oral sex, and other forms of sexual expression rather than focusing as much on sexual intercourse. The risk of pregnancy continues until a woman has been without menstruation for at least 12 months. However, couples should continue to use contraception. People continue to be at risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections such as genital herpes, chlamydia, and genital warts. Seventeen percent of new cases of AIDS in the United States are in people 50 and older. Of all people living with HIV, 47% are aged 50 or over. Practicing safe sex is important at any age- safe sex is not just about avoiding an unwanted pregnancy but also about protecting yourself from STDs. Hopefully, when partners understand how aging affects sexual expression, they will be less likely to misinterpret these changes as a lack of sexual interest or displeasure in the partner and be more able to continue to have satisfying and safe sexual relationships.

What you’ll learn to do: describe cognitive and neurological changes during middle adulthood

While we sometimes associate aging with cognitive decline (often due to how it is portrayed in the media), aging does not necessarily mean a decrease in cognitive function. In fact, tacit knowledge, verbal memory, vocabulary, inductive reasoning, and other types of practical thought skills increase with age. We’ll learn about these advances as well as some neurological changes that happen in middle adulthood in the section that follows.

• Outline cognitive gains/deficits typically associated with middle adulthood
• Explain changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence during adulthood

Cognition in Middle Adulthood

One of the most influential perspectives on cognition during middle adulthood was the Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS) of adult cognition , which began in 1956. Schaie & Willis (2010) summarized the general findings from this series of studies as follows: “We have generally shown that reliably replicable average age decrements in psychometric abilities do not occur before age 60, but that such reliable decrement can be found for all abilities by 74 years of age.” In short, decreases in cognitive abilities begin in the sixth decade and gain increasing significance from that point on. However, Singh-Maoux et al. (2012) argue for small but significant cognitive declines beginning as early as age 45. There is some evidence that adults should be as aggressive in maintaining their cognitive health as they are in their physical health during this time as the two are intimately related.

The second source of longitudinal research data on this part of the lifespan has been The Midlife in the United States Studies (MIDUS), which began in 1994. The MIDUS data supports the view that this period of life is something of a trade-off, with some cognitive and physical decreases of varying degrees. The cognitive mechanics of processing speed often referred to as fluid intelligence, physiological lung capacity, and muscle mass, are in relative decline. However, knowledge, experience, and the increased ability to regulate our emotions can compensate for these losses. Continuing cognitive focus and exercise can also reduce the extent and effects of cognitive decline.

Control Beliefs

Central to all of this are personal control beliefs , which have a long history in psychology. Beginning with the work of Julian Rotter (1954), a fundamental distinction is drawn between those who believe that they are the fundamental agent of what happens in their lives and those who believe that they are largely at the mercy of external circumstances. Those who believe that life outcomes are dependent on what they say and do are said to have a strong internal locus of control. Those who believe that they have little control over their life outcomes are said to have an external locus of control.

Empirical research has shown that those with an internal locus of control enjoy better results in psychological tests across the board; behavioral, motivational, and cognitive. It is reported that this belief in control declines with age, but again, there is a great deal of individual variation. This raises another issue: directional causality. Does my belief in my ability to retain my intellectual skills and abilities at this time of life ensure better performance on a cognitive test compared to those who believe in their inexorable decline? Or, does the fact that I enjoy that intellectual competence or facility instill or reinforce that belief in control and controllable outcomes? It is not clear which factor is influencing the other. The exact nature of the connection between control beliefs and cognitive performance remains unclear.

Brain science is developing exponentially and will unquestionably deliver new insights on a whole range of issues related to cognition in midlife. One of them will surely be on the brain’s capacity to renew, or at least replenish itself, at this time of life. The capacity to renew is called neurogenesis; the capacity to replenish what is there is called neuroplasticity. At this stage, it is impossible to ascertain exactly what effect future pharmacological interventions may have on the possible cognitive decline at this, and later, stages of life.

Cognitive Aging

Researchers have identified areas of loss and gain in cognition in older age. Cognitive ability and intelligence are often measured using standardized tests and validated measures. The psychometric approach has identifie d two categories of intelligence that show different rates of change across the life span (Schaie & Willis, 1996). Fluid and crystallized intelligence were first identified by Cattell in 1971.  Fluid intelligence  refers to information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction time.  Crystallized intelligence  encompasses abilities that draw upon experience and knowledge. Measures of crystallized intelligence include vocabulary tests, solving number problems, and understanding texts. There is a general acceptance that fluid intelligence decreases continually from the 20s, but that crystallized intelligence continues to accumulate. One might expect to complete the NY Times crossword more quickly at 48 than 22, but the capacity to deal with novel information declines.

With age, systematic declines are observed on cognitive tasks requiring self-initiated, effortful processing, without the aid of supportive memory cues (Park, 2000). Older adults tend to perform poorer than young adults on memory tasks that involve recall of information, where individuals must retrieve the information they learned previously without the help of a list of possible choices. For example, older adults may have more difficulty recalling facts such as names or contextual details about where or when something happened (Craik, 2000). What might explain these deficits as we age?

As we age, working memory, or our ability to simultaneously store and use information, becomes less efficient (Craik & Bialystok, 2006). The ability to process information quickly also decreases with age. This slowing of processing speed may explain age differences in many different cognitive tasks (Salthouse, 2004). Some researchers have argued that inhibitory functioning, or the ability to focus on certain information while suppressing attention to less pertinent information, declines with age and may explain age differences in performance on cognitive tasks (Hasher & Zacks, 1988). 

Fewer age differences are observed when memory cues are available, such as for recognition memory tasks, or when individuals can draw upon acquired knowledge or experience. For example, older adults often perform as well if not better than young adults on tests of word knowledge or vocabulary. With age often comes expertise, and research has pointed to areas where aging experts perform as well or better than younger individuals. For example, older typists were found to compensate for age-related declines in speed by looking farther ahead at the printed text (Salthouse, 1984). Compared to younger players, older chess experts are able to focus on a smaller set of possible moves, leading to greater cognitive efficiency (Charness, 1981). Accrued knowledge of everyday tasks, such as grocery prices, can help older adults to make better decisions than young adults (Tentori, Osheron, Hasher, & May, 2001).

We began with Schaie and Willis (2010) observing that no discernible general cognitive decline could be observed before 60, but other studies contradict this notion. How do we explain this contradiction? In a thought-provoking article, Ramscar et al. (2014) argued that an emphasis on information processing speed ignored the effect of the process of learning/experience itself; that is, that such tests ignore the fact that more information to process leads to slower processing in both computers and humans. We are more complex cognitive systems at 55 than 25.

Performance in Middle Adulthood

Research on interpersonal problem solving suggests that older adults use more effective strategies than younger adults to navigate through social and emotional problems (Blanchard-Fields, 2007). In the context of work, researchers rarely find that older individuals perform less well on the job (Park & Gutchess, 2000). Similar to everyday problem solving, older workers may develop more efficient strategies and rely on expertise to compensate for cognitive decline.

Empirical studies of cognitive aging are often difficult, and quite technical, given their nature. Similarly, experiments focused on one task may tell you very little about general capacities. Memory and attention as psychological constructs are now divided into very specific subsets which can be confusing and difficult to compare.

However, one study does show with relative clarity the issues involved. In the USA, The Federal Aviation Authority insists that all air traffic controllers retire at 56 and that they cannot begin until age 31 unless they have previous military experience. However, in Canada controllers are allowed to work until aged 65 and are allowed to train at a much earlier age. Nunes and Kramer (2009) studied four groups: a younger group of controllers (20-27), an older group of controllers aged 53 to 64,  and two other groups of the same age who were not air traffic controllers. On simple cognitive tasks, not related to their occupational lives as controllers, older controllers were slower than their younger peers. However, when it came to job-related tasks their results were largely identical. This was not true of the older group of non-controllers who had significant deficits in comparison. Specific knowledge or expertise in a domain acquired over time (crystallized intelligence), can offset a decline in fluid intelligence.

Tacit Knowlege

The idea of tacit knowledge was first introduced by Michael Polanyi (1954). He argued that each individual had a huge store of knowledge based on life experience but that it was often difficult to describe, codify, and thus transfer, as stated in his famous formulation, “we always know more than we can tell.” Organizational theorists have spent a great deal of time thinking about the problem of tacit knowledge in this setting. Think of someone you have encountered who is extremely good at their work. They may have no more (or less) education, formal training, and even experience, than others who are supposedly at an equivalent level. What is the “something” that they have? Tacit knowledge is highly prized and older workers often have the greatest amount, even if they are not conscious of that fact.

What you’ll learn to do: analyze emotional and social development in middle adulthood

Traditionally, middle adulthood has been regarded as a period of reflection and change. In the popular imagination (and academic press) there has been a reference to a “mid-life crisis.” There is an emerging view that this may have been an overstatement—certainly, the evidence on which it is based has been seriously questioned. However, there is some support for the view that people undertake an emotional audit, reevaluate their priorities, and emerge with a slightly different orientation to emotional regulation and personal interaction in this period. Why and the mechanisms through which this change is affected are a matter of debate. We will examine the ideas of Erikson, Baltes, and Carstensen, and how they might inform a more nuanced understanding of this vital part of the lifespan.

Learning outcomes

• Describe Erikson’s stage of generativity vs. stagnation
• Evaluate Levinson’s notion of the midlife crisis
• Examine key theories on aging, including socio-emotional selectivity theory (SSC) and selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC)
• Describe personality and work-related issues in midlife

Psychosocial Development in Midlife

What do you think is the happiest stage of life? What about the saddest stages? Perhaps surprisingly, Blanchflower & Oswald (2008) found that reported levels of unhappiness and depressive symptoms peak in the early 50s for men in the U.S., and interestingly, the late 30s for women. In Western Europe, minimum happiness is reported around the mid-40s for both men and women, albeit with some significant national differences. Stone et al. (2017), reported a precipitous drop in perceived stress in men in the U.S. from their early 50s. There is now a view that “older people” (50+) may be “happier” than younger people, despite some cognitive and functional losses. This is often referred to as “the paradox of aging.” Positive attitudes to the continuance of cognitive and behavioral activities, interpersonal engagement, and their vitalizing effect on human neural plasticity may lead to more life and to an extended period of self-satisfaction and continued communal engagement.

Erikson’s Theory

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Care) —When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation the fundamental conflict of adulthood. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work that contributes positively to society.

As you know by now, Erikson’s theory is based on an idea called epigenesis, meaning that development is progressive and that each individual must pass through the eight different stages of life—all while being influenced by context and environment. Each stage forms the basis for the following stage, and each transition to the next is marked by a crisis that must be resolved. The sense of self, each “season”, was wrested, from and by, that conflict. The ages of 40-65 are no different. The individual is still driven to engage productively, but the nurturing of children and income generation assume lesser functional importance. From where will the individual derive their sense of self and self-worth?

Generativity is “primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation” (Erikson, 1950, p.267). Generativity is a concern for a generalized other (as well as those close to an individual) and occurs when a person can shift their energy to care for and mentor the next generation. One obvious motive for this generative thinking might be parenthood, but others have suggested intimations of mortality by the self. Kotre (1984) theorized that generativity is a selfish act, stating that its fundamental task was to outlive the self. He viewed generativity as a form of investment. However, a commitment to a “belief in the species” can be taken in numerous directions, and it is probably correct to say that most modern treatments of generativity treat it as a collection of facets or aspects—encompassing creativity, productivity, commitment, interpersonal care, and so on.

On the other side of generativity is stagnation . It is the lethargy, lack of enthusiasm, and involvement in individual and communal affairs. It may also denote an underdeveloped sense of self or some form of overblown narcissism. Erikson sometimes used the word “rejectivity” when referring to severe stagnation. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.

The Stage-Crisis View   and the Midlife Crisis

In 1977, Daniel Levinson published an extremely influential article that would be seminal in establishing the idea of a profound crisis that lies at the heart of middle adulthood. The concept of a midlife crisis is so pervasive that over 90% of Americans are familiar with the term, although those who actually report experiencing such a crisis is significantly lower (Wethington, 2000).

Levinson based his findings of a midlife crisis on biographical interviews with a limited sample of 40 men (no women!), and an entirely American sample at that. Despite these severe methodological limitations, his findings proved immensely influential. Levinson (1986) identified five main stages or “seasons” of a man’s life as follows:

• Preadulthood: Ages 0-22 (with 17 – 22 being the Early Adult Transition years)
• Early Adulthood: Ages 17-45 (with 40 – 45 being the Midlife Transition years)
• Middle Adulthood: Ages 40-65 (with 60-65 being the Late Adult Transition years)
• Late Adulthood: Ages 60-85
• Late Late Adulthood: Ages 85+

Levinson’s theory is known as the stage-crisis view. He argued that each stage overlaps, consisting of two distinct phases—a stable phase, and a transitional phase into the following period. The latter phase can involve questioning and change, and Levinson believed that 40-45 was a period of profound change, which could only culminate in a reappraisal, or perhaps reaffirmation, of goals, commitments and previous choices—a time for taking stock and recalibrating what was important in life. Crucially, Levinson would argue that a much wider range of factors, primarily work and family, would affect this taking stock – what he had achieved, what he had not; what he thought important, but had brought only limited satisfaction.

In 1996, two years after his death, the study he was conducting with his co-author and wife Judy Levinson, was published on “the seasons of life” as experienced by women. Again, it was a small scale study, with 45 women who were professionals/businesswomen, academics, and homemakers, in equal proportion. The changing place of women in society was reckoned by Levinson to be a profound moment in the social evolution of the human species. However, it had led to a fundamental polarity in the way that women formed and understood their social identity. Levinson referred to this as the “dream.” For men, the “dream” was formed in the age period of 22-28, and largely centered on the occupational role and professional ambitions. Levinson understood the female “dream” as fundamentally split between this work-centered orientation, and the desire/imperative of marriage/family; a polarity that heralded both new opportunities, and fundamental angst.

Levinson found that the men and women he interviewed sometimes had difficulty reconciling the “dream” they held about the future with the reality they currently experienced. “What do I really get from and give to my wife, children, friends, work, community, and self?” a man might ask (Levinson, 1978, p. 192). Tasks of the midlife transition include:

• ending early adulthood;
• reassessing life in the present and making modifications if needed; and
• reconciling “polarities” or contradictions in one’s sense of self.

Perhaps early adulthood ends when a person no longer seeks adult status but feels like a full adult in the eyes of others. This “permission” may lead to different choices in life—choices that are made for self-fulfillment instead of social acceptance. While people in their 20s may emphasize how old they are (to gain respect, to be viewed as experienced), by the time people reach their 40s, they tend to emphasize how young they are (few 40-year-olds cut each other down for being so young: “You’re only 43? I’m 48!!”).

This new perspective on time brings about a new sense of urgency to life. The person becomes focused more on the present than the future or the past. The person grows impatient at being in the “waiting room of life,” postponing doing the things they have always wanted to do. “If it’s ever going to happen, it better happen now.” A previous focus on the future gives way to an emphasis on the present. Neugarten (1968) notes that in midlife, people no longer think of their lives in terms of how long they have lived. Rather, life is thought of in terms of how many years are left. If an adult is not satisfied at midlife, there is a new sense of urgency to make changes.

Changes may involve ending a relationship or modifying one’s expectations of a partner. These modifications are easier than changing the self (Levinson, 1978). Midlife is a period of transition in which one holds earlier images of the self while forming new ideas about the self of the future. A greater awareness of aging accompanies feelings of youth, and harm that may have been done previously in relationships haunts new dreams of contributing to the well-being of others. These polarities are the quieter struggles that continue after outward signs of “crisis” have gone away.

Levinson characterized midlife as a time of developmental crisis. However, like any body of work, it has been subject to criticism. Firstly, the sample size of the populations on which he based his primary findings is too small. By what right do we generalize findings from interviews with 40 men and 45 women, however thoughtful and well-conducted? Secondly, Chiriboga (1989) could not find any substantial evidence of a midlife crisis, and it might be argued that this and further failed replication attempts indicate a cohort effect. The findings from Levinson’s population indicated a shared historical and cultural situatedness rather than a cross-cultural universal experienced by all or even most individuals. Midlife is a time of revaluation and change, that may escape precise determination in both time and geographical space, but people do emerge from it, and seem to enjoy a period of contentment, reconciliation, and acceptance of self.

Socio-Emotional Selectivity Theory (SST)

It is the inescapable fate of human beings to know that their lives are limited. As people move through life, goals, and values tend to shift. What we consider priorities, goals, and aspirations are subject to renegotiation. Attachments to others, current, and future, are no different. Time is not the unlimited good as perceived by a child under normal social circumstances; it is very much a valuable commodity, requiring careful consideration in terms of the investment of resources. This has become known in academic literature as mortality salience.

Mortality salience posits that reminders about death or finitude (at either a conscious or subconscious level), fills us with dread. We seek to deny its reality, but awareness of the increasing nearness of death can have a potent effect on human judgment and behavior. This has become a very important concept in contemporary social science. It is with this understanding that Laura Carstensen developed the theory of socioemotional selectivity theory or SST. The theory maintains that as time horizons shrink, as they typically do with age, people become increasingly selective, investing greater resources in emotionally meaningful goals and activities. According to the theory, motivational shifts also influence cognitive processing. Aging is associated with a relative preference for positive over negative information. This selective narrowing of social interaction maximizes positive emotional experiences and minimizes emotional risks as individuals become older. They systematically hone their social networks so that available social partners satisfy their emotional needs. The French philosopher Sartre observed that “hell is other people”. An adaptive way of maintaining a positive effect might be to reduce contact with those we know may negatively affect us, and avoid those who might.

SST is a theory that emphasizes a time perspective rather than chronological age. When people perceive their future as open-ended, they tend to focus on future-oriented development or knowledge-related goals. When they feel that time is running out, and the opportunity to reap rewards from future-oriented goals’ realization is dwindling, their focus tends to shift towards present-oriented and emotion or pleasure-related goals. Research on this theory often compares age groups ( e.g. , young adulthood vs. old adulthood), but the shift in goal priorities is a gradual process that begins in early adulthood. Importantly, the theory contends that the cause of these goal shifts is not age itself,  i.e. , not the passage of time itself, but rather an age-associated shift in time perspective. The theory also focuses on the types of goals that individuals are motivated to achieve. Knowledge-related goals aim at knowledge acquisition, career planning, the development of new social relationships, and other endeavors that will pay off in the future. Emotion-related goals are aimed at emotion regulation, the pursuit of emotionally gratifying interactions with social partners, and other pursuits whose benefits can be realized in the present.

This shift in emphasis, from long term goals to short term emotional satisfaction, may help explain the previously noted “paradox of aging.” That is, that despite noticeable physiological declines, and some notable self-reports of reduced life-satisfaction around this time, post- 50 there seems to be a significant increase in reported subjective well-being. SST does not champion social isolation, which is harmful to human health, but shows that increased selectivity in human relationships, rather than abstinence, leads to more positive affect. Perhaps “midlife crisis and recovery” may be a more apt description of the 40-65 period of the lifespan.

Personality and Work Satisfaction

Personality in midlife.

Research on adult personality examines normative age-related increases and decreases in the expression of the so-called “Big Five” traits. The Big Five domains include extraversion (attributes such as assertive, confident, independent, outgoing, and sociable), agreeableness (attributes such as cooperative, kind, modest, and trusting), conscientiousness (attributes such as hard-working, dutiful, self-controlled, and goal-oriented), neuroticism (attributes such as anxious, tense, moody, and easily angered), and openness (attributes such as artistic, curious, inventive, and open-minded). The Big Five is one of the most common ways of organizing the vast range of personality attributes that seem to distinguish one person from the next. This organizing framework made it possible for Roberts et al. ( 2006 ) to draw broad conclusions from the literature.

These are assumed to be based largely on biological heredity. These five traits are sometimes summarized via the OCEAN acronym.  Individuals are assessed by measuring these traits along a continuum (e.g. high extroversion to low extroversion). They now dominate the field of empirical personality research. Does personality change throughout adulthood? Previously the answer was thought to be no. It was William James who stated in his foundational text, The Principles of Psychology (1890), that “[i]n most of us, by the age of thirty, the character is set like plaster, and will never soften again”. Not surprisingly, this became known as the plaster hypothesis.

Contemporary research shows that, although some people’s personalities are relatively stable over time, others’ are not (Lucas & Donnellan, 2011; Roberts & Mroczek, 2008). Longitudinal studies reveal average changes during adulthood, and individual differences in these patterns over the lifespan may be due to idiosyncratic life events (e.g., divorce, illness). In general, average levels of extraversion (especially the attributes linked to self-confidence and independence), agreeableness, and conscientiousness appear to increase with age whereas neuroticism appears to decrease with age (Roberts et al., 2006). Openness also declines with age, especially after mid-life (Roberts et al., 2006). These changes are often viewed as positive trends given that higher levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness and lower levels of neuroticism are associated with seemingly desirable outcomes such as increased relationship stability and quality, greater success at work, better health, a reduced risk of criminality and mental health problems, and even decreased mortality (e.g., Kotov et al., 2010; Miller & Lynam 2001; Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006; Roberts et al., 2007). This pattern of positive average changes in personality attributes is known as the maturity principle of adult personality development (Caspi et al., 2005). The basic idea is that attributes associated with positive adaptation and attributes associated with the successful fulfillment of adult roles tend to increase during adulthood in terms of their average levels.

Carl Jung believed that our personality actually matures as we get older. A healthy personality is balanced. People suffer tension and anxiety when they fail to express all of their inherent qualities. Jung believed that each of us possesses a “shadow side.” For example, those typically introverted also have an extroverted side that rarely finds expression unless we are relaxed and uninhibited. Each of us has both a masculine and feminine side, but in younger years, we feel societal pressure to give expression only to one. As we get older, we may become freer to express all of our traits as the situation arises. We find gender convergence in older adults. Men become more interested in intimacy and family ties. Women may become more assertive. This gender convergence is also affected by changes in society’s expectations for males and females. With each new generation, we find that the roles of men and women are less stereotypical, which also allows for change.

Subjective Aging

One aspect of the self that particularly interests life span and life course psychologists is the individual’s perception and evaluation of their own aging and identification with an age group. Subjective age is a multidimensional construct that indicates how old (or young) a person feels, and into which age group a person categorizes themself. After early adulthood, most people say they feel younger than their chronological age, and the gap between subjective and actual age generally increases. On average, after age 40 people report feeling 20% younger than their actual age (e.g., Rubin & Berntsen, 2006). Asking people how satisfied they are with their own aging assesses an evaluative component of age identity. Whereas some aspects of age identity are positively valued (e.g., acquiring seniority in a profession or becoming a grandparent), others may be less valued, depending on societal context. Perceived physical age (i.e., the age one looks in a mirror) is one aspect that requires considerable self-related adaptation in social and cultural contexts that value young bodies. Feeling younger and being satisfied with one’s own aging are expressions of positive self-perceptions of aging. They reflect the operation of self-related processes that enhance well-being. Levy (2009) found that older individuals who can adapt to and accept changes in their appearance and physical capacity in a positive way report higher well-being, have better health, and live longer.

There is now an increasing acceptance of the view within developmental psychology that an uncritical reliance on chronological age may be inappropriate. People have certain expectations about getting older, their own idiosyncratic views, and internalized societal beliefs. Taken together they constitute a tacit knowledge of the aging process. A negative perception of how we are aging can have real results in terms of life expectancy and poor health. Levy et al. (2002) estimated that those with positive feelings about aging lived 7.5 years longer than those who did not. Subjective aging encompasses a wide range of psychological perspectives and empirical research. However, there is now a growing body of work centered around a construct referred to as Awareness of Age-Related Change (AARC) (Diehl et al., 2015), which examines the effects of our subjective perceptions of age and their consequential, and very real, effects. Neuport & Bellingtier (2017) report that this subjective awareness can change on a daily basis, and that negative events or comments can disproportionately affect those with the most positive outlook on aging.

Work Satisfaction

Middle adulthood is characterized by a time of transition, change, and renewal. Accordingly, attitudes about work and satisfaction from work tend to undergo a transformation or reorientation during this time. Age is positively related to job satisfaction—the older we get the more we derive satisfaction from work (Ng & Feldman, 2010). However, that is far from the entire story and repeats, once more, the paradoxical nature of the research findings from this period of the life course. Dobrow, Gazach & Liu (2018) found that job satisfaction in those aged 43-51 was correlated with advancing age, but that there was increased dissatisfaction the longer one stayed in the same job. Again, as socio-emotional selectivity theory would predict, there is a marked reluctance to tolerate a work situation deemed unsuitable or unsatisfying. Years left, as opposed to years spent, necessitates a sense of purpose in all daily activities and interactions, including work.

Some people love their jobs, some people tolerate their jobs, and some people cannot stand their jobs.  Job satisfaction describes the degree to which individuals enjoy their job. It was described by Edwin Locke (1976) as the state of feeling resulting from appraising one’s job experiences. While job satisfaction results from both how we think about our work (our cognition) and how we feel about our work (our affect) (Saari & Judge, 2004), it is described in terms of effect. Job satisfaction is impacted by the work itself, our personality, and the culture we come from and live in (Saari & Judge, 2004).

Job satisfaction is typically measured after a change in an organization, such as a shift in the management model, to assess how the change affects employees. It may also be routinely measured by an organization to assess one of many factors expected to affect the organization’s performance. In addition, polling companies like Gallup regularly measure job satisfaction nationally to gather broad information on the state of the economy and the workforce (Saad, 2012).

Job satisfaction is measured using questionnaires that employees complete. Sometimes a single question might be asked in a very straightforward way to which employees respond using a rating scale, such as a Likert scale, which was discussed in the chapter on personality. A Likert scale (typically) provides five possible answers to a statement or question that allows respondents to indicate their positive-to-negative strength of agreement or strength of feeling regarding the question or statement. Thus the possible responses to a question such as “How satisfied are you with your job today?” might be “Very satisfied,” “Somewhat satisfied,” “Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied,” “Somewhat dissatisfied,” and “Very dissatisfied.” More commonly the survey will ask a number of questions about the employee’s satisfaction to determine more precisely why he is satisfied or dissatisfied. Sometimes these surveys are created for specific jobs; at other times, they are designed to apply to any job. Job satisfaction can be measured at a global level, meaning how satisfied in general the employee is with work, or at the level of specific factors intended to measure which aspects of the job lead to satisfaction ( Table 13.2 ).

Research has suggested that the work-content factor, which includes variety, difficulty level, and role clarity of the job, is the most strongly predictive factor of overall job satisfaction (Saari & Judge, 2004). In contrast, there is only a weak correlation between pay level and job satisfaction (Judge et al., 2010). It is suggested that individuals adjust or adapt to higher pay levels: Higher pay no longer provides the satisfaction the individual may have initially felt when her salary increased.

Why should we care about job satisfaction? Or more specifically, why should an employer care about job satisfaction? Measures of job satisfaction are somewhat correlated with job performance; in particular, they appear to relate to organizational citizenship or discretionary behaviors on the part of an employee that further the goals of the organization (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012). Job satisfaction is related to general life satisfaction, although there has been limited research on how the two influence each other or whether personality and cultural factors affect both job and general life satisfaction. One carefully controlled study suggested that the relationship is reciprocal: Job satisfaction affects life satisfaction positively, and vice versa (Judge & Watanabe, 1993). Of course, organizations cannot control life satisfaction’s influence on job satisfaction. Job satisfaction, specifically low job satisfaction, is also related to withdrawal behaviors, such as leaving a job or absenteeism (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012). The relationship with turnover itself, however, is weak (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012). Finally, it appears that job satisfaction is related to organizational performance, which suggests that implementing organizational changes to improve employee job satisfaction will improve organizational performance (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012).

There is an opportunity for more research in the area of job satisfaction. For example, Weiss (2002) suggests that the concept of job satisfaction measurements have combined both emotional and cognitive concepts, and measurements would be more reliable and show better relationships with outcomes like performance if the measurement of job satisfaction separated these two possible elements of job satisfaction.

The workplace today is one in which many people from various walks of life come together. Work schedules are more flexible and varied, and more work independently from home or anywhere there is an internet connection. The midlife worker must be flexible, stay current with technology, and be capable of working within a global community.

Work-Family Balance

Many people juggle the demands of work-life with the demands of their home life, whether it be caring for children or taking care of an elderly parent; this is known as work-family balance . We might commonly think about work interfering with family, but it is also the case that family responsibilities may conflict with work obligations (Carlson, Kacmar, & Williams, 2000). Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) first identified three sources of work-family conflicts:

• time devoted to work makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of family or vice versa,
• strain from participation in work makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of family or vice versa, and
• specific behaviors required by work make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of family or vice versa.

Women often have greater responsibility for family demands, including home care, child care, and caring for aging parents, yet men in the United States are increasingly assuming a greater share of domestic responsibilities. However, research has documented that women report greater levels of stress from work-family conflict (Gyllensten & Palmer, 2005).

There are many ways to decrease work-family conflict and improve people’s job satisfaction (Posig & Kickul, 2004). These include support in the home, which can take various forms: emotional (listening), practical (help with chores). Workplace support can include understanding supervisors, flextime, leave with pay, and telecommuting. Flextime usually requires core hours spent in the workplace around which the employee may schedule his arrival and departure to meet family demands. Telecommuting involves employees working at home and setting their own hours, which allows them to work during different parts of the day, and to spend part of the day with their family; this may also be known as e-commuting, working remotely, flexible workspace, or simply working from home. Recall that Yahoo! had a policy of allowing employees to telecommute and then rescinded the policy. Some organizations have onsite daycare centers, and some companies even have onsite fitness centers and health clinics. In a study of the effectiveness of different coping methods, Lapierre & Allen (2006) found practical support from home more important than emotional support. They also found that immediate-supervisor support for a worker significantly reduced work-family conflict through such mechanisms as allowing an employee the flexibility needed to fulfill family obligations. In contrast, flextime did not help with coping and telecommuting actually made things worse, perhaps reflecting the fact that being at home intensifies the conflict between work and family because, with the employee in the home, the demands of family are more evident.

Posig & Kickul (2004) identify exemplar corporations with policies that reduce work-family conflict. Examples include IBM’s policy of three years of job-guaranteed leave after the birth of a child, Lucent Technologies offer of one year’s childbirth leave at half-pay and SC Johnson’s program of concierge services for daytime errands.

Relationships at Work

Working adults spend a large part of their waking hours in relationships with coworkers and supervisors. Because these relationships are forced upon us by work, researchers focus less on their presence or absence and instead focus on their quality. High quality work relationships can make jobs enjoyable and less stressful. This is because workers experience mutual trust and support in the workplace to overcome work challenges. Liking the people we work with can also translate to more humor and fun on the job. Research has shown that more supportive supervisors have employees who are more likely to thrive at work (Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, 2014; Monnot & Beehr, 2014; Winkler, Busch, Clasen, & Vowinkel, 2015). On the other hand, poor quality work relationships can make a job feel like a drudgery. Everyone knows that horrible bosses can make the workday unpleasant. Supervisors that are sources of stress negatively impact their employees’ subjective well-being (Monnot & Beehr, 2014). Specifically, research has shown that employees who rate their supervisors high on the so-called “dark triad”—psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism—reported greater psychological distress at work and less job satisfaction (Mathieu et al., 2014).

In addition to the direct benefits or costs of work relationships on our well-being, we should also consider how these relationships can impact our job performance. Research has shown that feeling engaged in our work and having a high job performance predicts better health and greater life satisfaction (Shimazu et al., 2015). Given that so many of our waking hours are spent on the job—about 90,000 hours across a lifetime—it makes sense that we should seek out and invest in positive relationships at work.

One of the most influential researchers in this field, Dorien Kooij (2013) identified four key motivations in older adults continuing to work. First, growth or development motivation- looking for new challenges in the work environment. The second are feelings of recognition and power. Third, feelings of power and security afforded by income and possible health benefits. Interestingly enough, the fourth area of motivation was Erikson’s generativity.   The latter has been criticized for a lack of support in terms of empirical research findings, but two studies (Zacher et al., 2012; Ghislieri & Gatti, 2012) found that a primary motivation in continuing to work was the desire to pass on skills and experience, a process they describe as leader generativity . Perhaps a more straightforward term might be mentoring. In any case, the generative leadership concept is firmly established in the business and organizational management literature.

Organizations, public and private, are going to have to deal with an older workforce. The proportion of people in Europe over 60 will increase from 24% to 34% by 2050 (United Nations 2015), the US Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts that 1 in 4 of the US workforce will be 55 or over. Workers may have good reason to avoid retirement, although it is often viewed as a time of relaxation and well-earned rest, statistics may indicate that a continued focus on the future may be preferable to stasis, or inactivity. In fact, Fitzpatrick & Moore (2018) report that death rates for American males jump 2% immediately after they turn 62, most likely a result of changes induced by retirement. Interestingly, this small spike in death rates is not seen in women, which may be the result of women having stronger social determinants of health (SDOH), which keep them active and interacting with others out of retirement. 

What you’ll learn to do: explain how relationships are maintained and changed during middle adulthood

The importance of establishing and maintaining relationships in middle adulthood is now well established in the academic literature—there are now thousands of published articles purporting to demonstrate that social relationships are integral to any and all aspects of subjective well-being and physiological functioning, and these help to inform actual healthcare practices. Studies show an increased risk of dementia, cognitive decline, susceptibility to vascular disease, and increased mortality in those who feel isolated and alone. However, loneliness is not confined to people living a solitary existence. It can also refer to those who endure a perceived discrepancy in the socio-emotional benefits of interactions with others, either in number or nature. One may have an expansive social network and still feel a dearth of emotional satisfaction in one’s own life.

Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) predicts a quantitative decrease in the number of social interactions in favor of those bringing greater emotional fulfillment. Over the past thirty years, or more, significant social changes have, in turn, had a large effect on human bonding. These have affected the way we manage our emotional interactions, and the manner in which society views, shapes and supports that emotional regulation. Government policy has also changed and profoundly influenced how families are shaped, reshaped, and operate as social and economic agents.

• Describe the link between intimacy and subjective well-being
• Discuss issues related to family life in middle adulthood
• Discuss divorce and recoupling during middle adulthood

Relationships and Family Life in Middle Adulthood

Types of relationships, intimate relationships.

It makes sense to consider the various types of relationships in our lives when determining how relationships impact our well-being. For example, would you expect a person to derive the same happiness from an ex-spouse as from a child or coworker? Among the most important relationships for most people is their long-time romantic partner. Most researchers begin their investigation of this topic by focusing on intimate relationships because they are the closest form of a social bond. Intimacy is more than just physical in nature; it also entails psychological closeness. Research findings suggest that having a single confidante—a person with whom you can be authentic and trust not to exploit your secrets and vulnerabilities—is more important to happiness than having a large social network (Taylor, 2010).

Another important aspect of relationships is the distinction between formal and informal. Formal relationships are those that are bound by the rules of politeness. In most cultures, for instance, young people treat older people with formal respect, avoiding profanity and slang when interacting with them. Similarly, workplace relationships tend to be more formal, as do relationships with new acquaintances. Formal connections are generally less relaxed because they require a bit more work, demanding that we exert more self-control. Contrast these connections with informal relationships—friends, lovers, siblings, or others with whom you can relax. We can express our true feelings and opinions in these informal relationships, using the language that comes most naturally to us, and generally, be more authentic. Because of this, it makes sense that more intimate relationships—those that are more comfortable and in which you can be more vulnerable—might be the most likely to translate to happiness.

Marriage and Happiness

One of the most common ways that researchers often begin to investigate intimacy is by looking at marital status. The well-being of married people is compared to that of people who are single or have never been married. In other research, married people are compared to people who are divorced or widowed (Lucas & Dyrenforth, 2005). Researchers have found that the transition from singlehood to marriage increases subjective well-being (Haring-Hidor et al., 1985; Lucas, 2005; Williams, 2003). In fact, this finding is one of the strongest in social science research on personal relationships over the past quarter of a century.

As is usually the case, the situation is more complex than might initially appear. As a marriage progresses, there is some evidence for a regression to a hedonic set-point— that is, most individuals have a set happiness point or level, and that both good and bad life events – marriage, bereavement, unemployment, births, and so on – have some effect for a period of time, but over many months, they will return to that set-point. One of the best studies in this area is that of Luhmann et al. (2012), who report a gradual decline in subjective well-being after a few years, especially in the component of affective well-being. A dverse events obviously have an effect on subjective well-being and happiness, and these effects can be stronger than the positive effects of being married in some cases (Lucas, 2005).

Although research frequently points to marriage being associated with higher rates of happiness, this does not guarantee that getting married will make you happy! The quality of one’s marriage matters greatly. It takes an emotional toll when a person remains in a problematic marriage. Indeed, a large body of research shows that people’s overall life satisfaction is affected by their satisfaction with their marriage (Carr, Freedman, Cornman, Schwarz, 2014; Dush, Taylor, & Kroeger, 2008; Karney, 2001; Luhmann, Hofmann, Eid, & Lucas, 2012; Proulx, Helms, & Buehler, 2007). The lower a person’s self-reported level of marital quality, the more likely he or she is to report depression (Bookwala, 2012). In fact, longitudinal studies—those that follow the same people over a period of time—show that as marital quality declines, depressive symptoms increase (Fincham, Beach, Harold, & Osborne, 1997; Karney, 2001). Proulx and colleagues (2007) reached this conclusion after a systematic review of 66 cross-sectional and 27 longitudinal studies. 

Marital satisfaction has peaks and valleys during the course of the life cycle. Rates of happiness are highest in the years prior to the birth of the first child. It hits a low point with the coming of children. Relationships typically become more traditional, and living has more financial hardships and stress. Children bring new expectations to the marital relationship. Two people who are comfortable with their roles as partners may find the added parental duties and expectations more challenging to meet. Some couples elect not to have children in order to have more time and resources for the marriage. These child-free couples are happy keeping their time and attention on their partners, careers, and interests.

What is it about bad marriages or bad relationships in general, that takes such a toll on well-being? Research has pointed to the conflict between partners as a major factor leading to lower subjective well-being (Gere & Schimmack, 2011). This makes sense. Negative relationships are linked to ineffective social support (Reblin, Uchino, & Smith, 2010) and are a source of stress (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2007). In more extreme cases, physical and psychological abuse can harm well-being (Follingstad, Rutledge, Berg, Hause, & Polek, 1990). Victims of abuse sometimes feel shame, lose their sense of self, and become less happy and prone to depression and anxiety (Arias & Pape, 1999). However, the unhappiness and dissatisfaction that occur in abusive relationships tend to dissipate once the relationships end. (Arriaga, Capezza, Goodfriend, Rayl & Sands, 2013).

Typology of Marriage

One way marriages vary is with regard to the reason the partners are married. Some marriages have intrinsic value: the partners are together because they enjoy, love, and value one another. Marriage is not considered a means to another end; instead, it is regarded as an end. These partners look for someone they are drawn to, and with whom they feel a close and intense relationship. Other marriages called utilitarian marriages, are unions entered into primarily for practical reasons. For example, the marriage brings financial security, children, social approval, housekeeping, political favor, a good car, a great house, and so on.

There have been a few attempts to establish a typological framework for marriages. The best-known is that of Olson (1993), who referred to five typical kinds of marriage. Using a sample of 6,267 couples, Olson & Fowers (1993) identified eleven relationship domains which covered both areas related to relationship satisfaction and the more functional areas related to marriage. So, five of the eleven included areas such as marital satisfaction, communication, and, things like financial management, parenting, and egalitarian roles. Using these eleven areas they came up with five kinds of marriage. One aspect of this early study is the link between marital satisfaction and income/college education . The link between these factors is now commonplace in the literature. Olson & Fowers (1993) were one of the first studies to point to this link. The less well-off are more prone to divorce than those with less college-level education. Income and college education are linked, and there is increasing concern that marital dissolution and broader social inequality patterns are inextricably linked.

• vitalized: Very high relationship quality. Tend to belong in a higher income bracket. Happy with their spouse across all areas: personality, communication, roles, and expectations.
• harmonious relationships: These marriages have some areas of tension and disagreement but there is still broad agreement on major issues. Lack of agreement on parenting was the primary feature of this group, although the couples still scored highly on relationship quality.
• traditional marriages: Much less emphasis on emotional closeness, but still slightly above average. High levels of compatibility in relation to parenting.
• conflicted: These marriages accomplish functional goals such as parenting but are marked by a great deal of interpersonal disagreement. Communication and conflict resolution scores are extremely low.
• devitalized: low scores across all eleven areas – Little interpersonal closeness and little agreement on family roles.

Marital Communication

Advice on how to improve one’s marriage is centuries old. One of today’s experts on marital communication is John Gottman. Gottman differs from many marriage counselors in his belief that having a good marriage does not depend on compatibility, rather, the way that partners communicate with one another is crucial. At the University of Washington in Seattle, Gottman has measured the physiological responses of thousands of couples as they discuss issues that have led to disagreements. Fidgeting in one’s chair, leaning closer to or further away from the partner while speaking, and increases in respiration and heart rate are all recorded and analyzed, along with videotaped recordings of the partners’ exchanges.

Gottman believes he can accurately predict whether or not a couple will stay together by analyzing their communication. In marriages destined to fail, partners engage in the “marriage killers” such as contempt, criticism, defensiveness, and stonewalling. Each of these undermines the politeness and respect that healthy marriages require. According to Gottman, stonewalling, or shutting someone out, is the strongest sign that a relationship is destined to fail. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of Gottman’s work is the emphasis on the fact that marriage is about constant negotiation rather than conflict resolution.

What Gottman terms perpetual problems, are responsible for 69% of conflicts within marriage. For example, if someone in a couple has said, “I am so sick of arguing over this,” then that may signify a perpetual problem. While this may seem problematic, Gottman argues that couples can still be connected despite these perpetual problems if they can laugh about it, treat it as a “third thing” (not reducible to the perspective of either party), and recognize that these are part of relationships that need to be aired and dealt with as best you can. It is somewhat refreshing to hear that differences lie at the heart of marriage, rather than a rationale for its dissolution!

Parenting in Later Life

Just because children grow up does not mean their family stops being a family, rather the specific roles and expectations of its members change over time. One major change comes when a child reaches adulthood and moves away. When exactly children leave home varies greatly depending on societal norms and expectations and economic conditions such as employment opportunities and affordable housing options. Some parents may experience sadness when their adult children leave the home—a situation called an empty nest .

Many parents also find that their grown children are struggling to become independent. It’s an increasingly common story: a child goes off to college and, upon graduation, cannot find steady employment. In such instances, a frequent outcome is for the child to return home, becoming a “boomerang kid.” The boomerang generation, as the phenomenon has come to be known, refers to young adults, mostly between the ages of 25 and 34, who return home to live with their parents while they strive for stability in their lives—often in terms of finances, living arrangements, and sometimes romantic relationships. These boomerang kids can be both good and bad for families. Within American families, 48% of boomerang kids report paying their parents rent, and 89% say they help out with household expenses—a win for everyone (Parker, 2012). On the other hand, 24% of boomerang kids report that returning home hurts their relationship with their parents (Parker, 2012). For better or worse, the number of children returning home has been increasing worldwide. The Pew Research Center (2016) reported that the most common living arrangement for people aged 18-34 was living with their parents (32.1%).

Adult children typically maintain frequent contact with their parents, if for no other reason, money, and advice. Attitudes toward one’s parents may become more accepting and forgiving, as parents are seen in a more objective way, as people with good points and bad. As adults children can continue to be subjected to criticism, ridicule, and abuse at the hand of parents. How long are we “adult children”? For as long as our parents are living, we continue in the role of son or daughter. (I had a neighbor in her nineties who would tell me her “boys” were coming to see her this weekend. Her boys were in their 70s-but they were still her boys!) But after one’s parents are gone, the adult is no longer a child; as one 40-year-old man explained after his father’s death, “I’ll never be a kid again.”

Family Issues and Considerations

In addition to middle-aged parents spending more time, money, and energy taking care of their adult children, they are also increasingly taking care of their own aging and ailing parents. In this set of circumstances, middle-aged people are commonly referred to as the sandwich generation (Dukhovnov & Zagheni, 2015). Of course, cultural norms and practices again come into play. In some Asian and Hispanic cultures, the expectation is that adult children are supposed to take care of aging parents and parents-in-law. In other Western cultures—cultures that emphasize individuality and self-sustainability—the expectation has historically been that elders either age in place, modifying their home and receiving services to allow them to continue to live independently or enter long-term care facilities. However, given financial constraints, many families find themselves taking in and caring for their aging parents, increasing the number of multigenerational homes around the world.

Being a midlife child often involves kin keeping ; organizing events and communication to maintain family ties. This role was first defined by Carolyn Rosenthal (1985). Kinkeepers are often midlife daughters (they are the person who tells you what food to bring to a gathering, or makes arrangement for a family reunion). They can often function as “managers” who maintain family ties and lines of communication. This is true for both large nuclear families, reconstituted, and multi-generational families. Rosenthal found that over half of the families she sampled could identify the individual who performed this role. Often adults at this stage of their lives are pressed into caregiving roles. Often referred to as the “sandwich generation”, they are still looking out for their own children while simultaneously caring for elderly parents. Given shifts in longevity and increasing costs for professional care of the elderly, this role will likely expand, placing ever greater pressure on careers.

Divorce and Remarriage

Divorce refers to the legal dissolution of a marriage. Depending on societal factors, divorce may be more or less of an option for married couples. Despite popular belief, divorce rates in the United States actually declined for many years during the 1980s and 1990s, and only just recently started to climb back up—landing at just below 50% of marriages ending in divorce today (Marriage & Divorce, 2016); however, it should be noted that divorce rates increase for each subsequent marriage, and there is considerable debate about the exact divorce rate. Are there specific factors that can predict divorce? Are certain types of people or certain types of relationships more or less at risk for breaking up? Indeed, several factors appear to be either risk factors or protective factors.

Pursuing education decreases the risk of divorce. So too does waiting until we are older to marry. Likewise, if our parents are still married, we are less likely to divorce. Factors that increase our risk of divorce include having a child before marriage and living with multiple partners before marriage, known as serial cohabitation (cohabitation with one’s expected marital partner does not appear to have the same effect). Of course, societal and religious attitudes must also be taken into account. Divorce rates tend to be higher in societies that are more accepting of divorce. Likewise, divorce rates tend to be lower in religions that are less accepting of divorce. See Lyngstad & Jalovaara (2010) for a more thorough discussion of divorce risk.

If a couple does divorce, there are specific considerations they should consider to help their children cope. Parents should reassure their children that both parents will continue to love them and that the divorce is in no way the children’s fault. Parents should also encourage open communication with their children and be careful not to bias them against their “ex” or use them as a means of hurting their “ex” (Denham, 2013; Harvey & Fine, 2004; Pescosoido, 2013).

A “Gray Divorce Revolution”?

In 2013 Brown and Lin referred to a “gray divorce revolution”. The figures certainly seem to support their contention. The rate of divorce had doubled for those aged 50-64 in the twenty years between 1990 and 2010. One in 10 persons who divorced in 1990 was over age 50, by 2010 it was over 1 in 4, accounting for some 25% of all divorces in the USA. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. The “baby boomers” had divorced in large numbers in early adulthood, and many remarriages within this group also ended in divorce. Remarriages are about 2.5 times more likely to end in divorce than first marriages. People live longer and are no longer satisfied with relationships deemed insufficient to meet their emotional needs. The shift to companionate marriage in the latter half of the 20th century had followed this segment of the population into midlife, with divorce rates diminishing or stabilizing for other segments of the population.

Socio-emotional selectivity theory would predict that the shift of perspective from time spent to time remaining would predict people valuing experiences and relationships in the present, rather than holding onto memories of the past, or an idealized vision of what might yet come to be. Nevertheless, Cohen (2018) predicts a substantial decline in divorce rates for those who are not part of the “baby boom” generation and that marriage rates will stabilize once more in subsequent generational cohorts. There has been a marked decline in divorce rates for those under 45 and the link between college education and marriage is now quite pronounced. People are now waiting until later in life to marry for the first time. The average age is now 27 for women and 29 for men, and it is even higher in urban centers like NYC. However, Reeves et al. (2016) show that just over half of women with high school diplomas in their 40s are married, with the figures rising to 75% of those women with bachelor’s degrees. Increasing economic insecurity may have played a part in ensuring that marriage is increasingly correlated with educational attainment and socioeconomic status rather than cohorts based solely on age.

U.S. households are now increasingly single-person households. The number is reckoned to be in excess of 28% of all households and may become the most common form in the near future if trends in Europe are anything to go by. There, the number of one-person households in countries and Denmark and Germany exceeds 40%, with other major European countries like France not far from reaching that proportion. The number of Americans who are unmarried continues to increases. About 45% of all Americans over the age of 18 are unmarried, in 1960 that number was 28% (US Census, 2017). Around 1 in 4 young adults in the USA, today will never marry (Pew, 2014). The diversity of households will continue to increase. Currently, the number of one-person households in Japan and Germany is double that of households with children under 18.

Remarriage and Repartnering

Middle adulthood seems to be the prime time for remarriage, as the Pew Research Center reported in 2014 that of those aged between 55-64 who had previously been divorced, 67% had remarried. In 1960, it was 55%. Every other age category reported declines in the number of remarriages. Remarriage is more popular with men than women, a gender gap that persists and grows substantially in middle and later adulthood. Cohabitation is the main way couples prepare for remarriage, but many important issues are still not discussed even when living together. Issues concerning money, ex-spouses, children, visitation, future plans, previous difficulties in marriage, etc. can all pose problems later in the relationship. Few couples engage in premarital counseling or other structured efforts to cover this ground before entering into marriage again.

The divorce rate for second marriages is reckoned to be in excess of 60%, and for third marriages even higher. There is little research in the area of repartnering and remarriage, and the choices and decisions made during the process. A notable exception is that of Brown et al (2019) who offer an overview of the little that there is, and their own conclusions. One important constraint which they note is that men prefer younger women, at least as far as remarriage is concerned. Indeed, the gap in age is often more pronounced in second marriages than in the first, according to Pew (2014). Allied to the fact that women live, on average, five years longer in the USA, then the pool of available partners shrinks for women. Brown et al. (2019), also argue that this is further reinforced by the fact that women have a preference for retaining their autonomy and not playing the role of caregiver again. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of their research is the fact that those who repartner tend to do so quickly, and that longer-term singles are more likely to remain so.

Reviews are mixed as to how happy remarriages are. Some say they have found the right partner and learned from their mistakes. But the divorce rates for remarriages are higher than for first marriages. This is especially true in stepfamilies for reasons which we have already discussed. Married people tend to divorce more quickly than in first marriages. This may be because they have fewer constraints on staying married (are more financially or psychologically independent).

Factors Affecting Remarriage

The chances of remarrying depend on a number of things. First, it depends on the availability of partners. As time goes by, there are more available women than men in the marriage pool as noted above. Consequently, men are more likely than women to remarry. This lack of available partners is experienced by all women, but especially by African-American women where the ratio of women to men is quite high. Women are more likely to have children living with them, which diminishes the chance of remarriage. And marriage is more attractive for males than females (Seccombe & Warner, 2004). Men tend to remarry sooner (3 years after divorce on average vs. 5 years on average for women).

Many women do not remarry because they do not want to remarry. Traditionally, marriage has provided more benefits to men than to women. Women typically have to make more adjustments in work (accommodating work life to meet family demands or the approval of the husband) and at home (taking more responsibility for household duties). Education increases men’s likelihood of remarrying but may reduce the likelihood for women. Part of this is due to the expectation (almost an unspoken rule) referred to as the “marriage gradient.” This rule suggests among couples, the man is supposed to have more education than the woman. Today, there are more women with higher levels of education than before and women with higher levels are less likely to find partners matching this expectation. Being happily single requires being economically self-sufficient and being psychologically independent. Women in this situation may find remarriage much less attractive.

One key factor in understanding some of these issues is the level of continuing parental investment in adult children, and possibly their children. The number of grandparents raising children in the USA is reckoned to be in the vicinity of 2.7 million. In addition, there is the continued support of adult children themselves which can be substantial. The Pew Research document “Helping Adult Children” (2015) indicates the nature and extent of this support, which tends to be even greater in Europe than the USA, with 60% of Italian parents reporting an adult child residing with them most of the year.

Blended Families

Most academic research on reconstituted or blended families focuses on younger adults and the difficulties that ensue when trying to blend children raised by a different spouse/partner and one or more adults with perhaps different views or experience on how this might be accomplished. All sorts of issues can arise: conflicted loyalties, different attitudes to discipline, role-ambiguity, and the simple fact of a far-reaching change easily perceived as a disruption on the part of a child. Given the rise of the gray divorce, it is increasingly the case that this age group will encounter later age, or adult children (sometimes called the “boomerang generation”), in the house of their new partners. Such encounters are even more likely given the rise of the so-called “silver surfer” utilizing online dating sites and the fact that an increasing number of adult children continue to live at home given the increased cost of housing.

There has not been substantial research on recoupling and blended families in later life, but Papernow (2018) notes that all of the factors normally in play with younger children can be just as present, and even exacerbated, by the fact that previous relationships have had an even longer time to grow and solidify. In addition, stepfamilies formed in later life may have very difficult and complicated decisions to make about estate planning and elder care, as well as navigating daily life together, as an increasing number of young adults live at home (“grown but not gone”). Papernow lists five challenges for later-life stepfamilies:

• Stepparents are stuck as outsiders, while parents are the insiders in their relationships with their families.
• Stepchildren struggle with the change, even as adults, as they navigate new dynamics in family gatherings, status, and loyalty issues
• Parenting and discipline issues polarize the parents and stepparents. In general, stepparents want more discipline and are viewed as harsher, while parents want more understanding and are viewed more as the pushover. There are often disagreements about how much support (financial, physical, and emotional) to give older children.
• Stepfamilies must build a new family culture, even after at least two established family cultures are coming together.
• Ex-spouses are still part of a stepfamily, and children, even adult children, are worse off when involved in the conflict between their parents’ ex-spouses.

At the beginning of this section, we referred to the physical, psychological, and social aspects of middle adulthood. These have ranged from minor physiological changes to the way that knowledge of our own mortality may influence how we behave and feel during this part of the lifespan. The central theme might be identified as connection—the way that the body and mind are connected, how one can affect the other, exemplified by how physical mobility can impact cerebral acuity. In addition, we have learned that we are more selective in regard to the interpersonal connection as we age. The positive aspects of relationships, work, and the family assumes ever greater importance. Hope is ever-present, but these sorts of positive and fulfilling connections cannot be postponed indefinitely. Freud believed civilization was only possible if humans could be induced or trained to defer immediate gratification. That was what the process of primary childhood socialization was about. Perhaps middle adulthood demands that we unlearn this, if only partially. At this stage of the life course, it is now or never. Time is finite and there is none left for indefinite postponement. This is what modern developmental theory has come to understand as mortality salience.

Developmental perspectives have tended to view intimacy and familial relationships as a universal need and function. It has largely left their transformation by divorce, cohabitation, and so forth to the sociologists. However, there is now a clearer understanding of the way that structural economic and social change have impacted family structures, often in those least able to resist the disruptive effects of social inequality (Cherlin, 2014). Income and education levels play a large part in this as lifestyle choices and selectivity. We can only hope that advances in medical science can lead to greater quality of life at this stage of life and that they are made widely available.

Additional Supplementary Resources

Seattle longitudinal study (sls) of adult cognition  .

• This study began in 1956 and is one of the most influential perspectives on cognition during middle adulthood.
• This longitudinal study began in 1994. The MIDUS data supports the view that this period of life is something of a trade-off, with some cognitive and physical decreases of varying degrees.

Aging and cognitive abilities | Khan Academy

• Learn about how cognitive abilities change as we age.
• Infidelity is the ultimate betrayal. But does it have to be? Relationship therapist Esther Perel examines why people cheat and unpacks why affairs are so traumatic: because they threaten our emotional security. In infidelity, she sees something unexpected — an expression of longing and loss. A must-watch for anyone who has ever cheated or been cheated on, or who simply wants a new framework for understanding relationships.

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse | The Gottman Institute

• Certain negative communication styles are so lethal to a relationship that Dr. John Gottman calls them the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. They predict relationship failure with over 90% accuracy if the behavior isn’t changed.
• Formally or informally, human societies across place and time have made rules to bind and dissolve couples. The stakes of who can obtain a divorce, and why, have always been high. Divorce is a battlefield for some of society’s most urgent issues, including the roles of church and state, individual rights, and women’s rights. Rod Phillips digs into the complicated history of divorce.

100 Years of Beauty: Aging 

• If you had a crystal ball and could gaze into the future, how would you feel seeing the love of your life as a 90-year-old? Cut offered a young couple about to say their vows the unique chance to do just that by aging them over 60 years with incredibly life-like makeup and prosthetics. We dare you not to tear up as they fall in love again and again.

Lifespan Development Copyright © 2020 by Julie Lazzara is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Life’s stages are changing – we need new terms and new ideas to describe how adults develop and grow

Senior Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Clark University

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Jeffrey Arnett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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What image comes to mind when you think of a person in their 20s?

Do you imagine an adult stressed out by the weight of many new responsibilities in family and work roles?

Or do you envision someone who is bursting with hope and undeveloped potential, still more of a kid than an adult, struggling to define a life and making little or no money but managing to find occasional joy nevertheless? Perhaps your soundtrack here is Taylor Swift’s radiant “22” : “We’re happy, free, confused and lonely at the same time. It’s miserable and magical.”

How about when you think of someone in their 60s?

Do you envision someone – or maybe a happy couple – enjoying life, living well, still vigorous but now freer than before from daily work and family duties?

Or do you see someone who is stooped over from a lifetime of carrying burdens, their health diminished, now shuffling toward no particular destination? Here the soundtrack might be the doleful Beatles song “ When I’m 64 ”: “Will you still need me? Will you still feed me? When I’m 64?”

The whole arc of adult development has changed over the past several decades, in ways that our psychological theories are still catching up with. In the 21st century, does it still make sense to refer to “young adulthood,” “midlife” and “late adulthood,” as psychologists have been doing for so long? If not, what are more accurate concepts?

Most of my career as a developmental psychologist has been devoted to answering these questions. My theory of emerging adulthood recognizes that the lives of younger adults have changed vastly since the 1960s. As the father of 22-year-old twins, I’m keenly aware of their journey through the new life stage I have been researching and writing about for so long. As a 64-year-old, I’m also turning my attention to how the 60s have changed from what they used to be.

A longer-than-ever journey to adulthood

In my research over the past two decades, I’ve found that people ages 19 to 29 are neither fully adult nor in an “extended adolescence” – as this time of life was viewed over the course of the 20th century. In the early 21st century, these years had become a time of gradually and often erratically making one’s way toward a more established adulthood .

I invited scholars from all over the world to contribute to a special issue of American Psychologist, one of the top journals in psychology, on the theme of “Rethinking Adult Development: New Ideas for New Times.” The recently published results are a wonderfully diverse set of papers that go a long way toward reconceptualizing what adult development looks like now and where it might be going.

Most of the authors were developmental psychologists. About half were Americans and half were Europeans, although Shinobu Kitayama and his colleagues offered a refreshingly different Asian cultural perspective.

Here are some of the highlights:

– Ages 30 to 45 are now “the rush hour of life.” Today people around the world wait later than ever to marry and have kids, and most have only one or two. But then couples typically have the dual challenge of trying to move ahead in their careers while also handling the intense responsibilities of caring for young children. Women have vastly greater opportunities in education and work than they did in 1960, which is welcome but also presents new challenges and stresses.

In their contribution to the special issue, Clare Mehta and her colleagues propose the term “established adulthood” to distinguish these years as the most intense and demanding years of adult life, characterized by the “career-and-care-crunch,” when obligations are high in both work and family roles.

– In midlife – ages 45-60 – the crunch years of caring for young children abate. Adults reach their peak career earnings and status in their late 40s and 50s. But life can become complicated, as new responsibilities may arise with grandchildren and with aging parents who need more assistance.

Overall, as Frank Infurna and colleagues detail in their contribution, mental health declines in midlife. Reports of depression and anxiety increase. Seeking professional help for mental health issues reaches a lifetime peak.

Furthermore, midlife well-being, health and life expectancy have declined notably in the U.S. since 2000, especially among working-class adults who have been left behind by the information-and-technology economy. This has led to an epidemic of “deaths of despair” from suicide, opioid overdoses or alchoholism.

– Adults in later life, ages 60-75, are thriving like never before. Although life after age 60 is traditionally regarded as a time of inevitable decline, the reality of it has become sharply different –and better – in recent decades.

Life expectancy at birth is higher now than it has ever been, worldwide, and adults are smarter and healthier for longer than ever. Denis Gerstorf and his colleagues show how these positive trends have taken place across many countries over the past century because of improvements in education, nutrition and health care.

[ Like what you’ve read? Want more? Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter .]

Physical health issues do arise with age for most people, but more people than ever before stay healthy through their 60s and early 70s by maintaining healthy diet and physical exercise practices. One of the exciting recent findings highlighted in Ursula Staudinger’s article is that regular exercise promotes mental health as well as physical well-being, helping to maintain mental sharpness and prevent Alzheimer’s disease.

Life satisfaction also seems to rise in later life, as we gain a new freedom to choose the kind of work we do – or stop working altogether and spend more time with the people we care about most. According to Phillip Ackerman and Ruth Kanfer , more people are working into their late 60s and early 70s than ever before, but they have more freedom to choose how they do it, whether it’s working part time, starting a small business or trying something they have always wanted to do.

Adulthood’s new arc requires new concepts and ideas

Over my decades of writing about emerging adulthood, I’ve learned that it matters how people think about the stages of human development. Thinking shapes expectations and how experiences are interpreted. Lots of compelling and exciting new findings about adult development point to the importance of rethinking previous theories, assumptions and stereotypes about the course of adult life.

• Early adulthood
• early career
• Cultural change

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111 Adulthood Research Topics & Essay Examples

📝 adulthood research papers examples, 👍 good adulthood essay topics to write about, 🏆 best adulthood essay titles, 🎓 simple research topics about adulthood, ❓ adulthood research questions.

• The Effect of Obesity on Adulthood Development Psychology essay sample: The paper will discuss research findings from scholarly articles focused on the problem of the psychological effects of obesity on adulthood development.
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• Finding Purpose and Meaning in Retirement
• Traveling on a Budget: Making the Most of Your Wanderlust in Your 20s
• Coping With the Challenges of Aging Parents in Middle Adulthood
• Rite of Passage from Childhood to Adulthood A rite of passage is a traditional ceremony or event that marks the transition from one phase of life to another, such as from childhood to adulthood. It has been argued that rites of passage are no longer necessary in today’s modern society.
• The Impact of Technology and Social Media on Middle Adulthood
• Senior Fitness: Finding the Right Exercise Routine for Your Needs
• Exploring the Empty Nest Syndrome: Coping With Children Leaving Home
• The Joys and Challenges of Grandparenting
• The Importance of Social Connections in Later Life
• Late Adulthood Challenges and Quality of Life Among the prominent factors influencing the quality of life in late adulthood are healthcare and psychological well-being.
• The Quarter-Life Crisis: Understanding and Overcoming It
• Relationships in Adulthood: Building and Nurturing Meaningful Connections
• Pursuing Further Education: Navigating Graduate School Options
• Navigating the Emotional Challenges of Aging
• The Influence of Culture and Society on the Middle Adult Experience
• Embracing Independence: Tips for Living Alone for the First Time
• Embracing Change: Strategies for Adapting to Life Transitions in Adulthood
• Exploring Your Identity: Navigating Cultural and Personal Diversity in Your 20s
• Understanding and Managing Age-Related Health Conditions
• The Importance of Self-Care and Wellness Practices in Midlife
• Living With Roommates: Tips for a Harmonious Household
• The Art of Networking: Building Professional Relationships in Your Early Adulthood
• Financial Planning and Retirement Strategies for Middle Adulthood
• Financial Literacy Managing Money as a Young Adult
• The Art of Aging Gracefully: Embracing the Changes of Late Adulthood
• The Importance of Mental Health Awareness in Adulthood: Breaking the Stigma
• Tips for Downsizing and Decluttering in Later Life
• Building a Support Network: The Role of Community and Friendship in Adulthood
• The Role of Relationships and Social Connections in Midlife
• Navigating Career Transitions in Midlife
• Navigating Relationships: A Guide to Dating in Your Early 20s
• Mental Health and Well-Being in the Middle Adult Years
• The Impact of Physical Health on Middle Adulthood
• Health and Wellness: Building a Sustainable Self-Care Routine
• Mental Health Matters: Coping With Stress and Anxiety in Your 20s
• The Benefits of Social Connection in Late Adulthood: How to Stay Engaged
• Rediscovering Passions and Hobbies in Middle Adulthood
• The Importance of Setting Boundaries in Friendships and Relationships
• The Psychological and Emotional Changes of Middle Adulthood
• Essential Financial Planning Tips for Late Adulthood
• How to Find Your Passion in Your 20s?
• How to Stay Active and Healthy in Your Golden Years?
• What the Impact of Career Changes on Mental Health in Middle Adulthood?
• How to Finde Love and Companionship in Later Life?
• How to Create a Personal Development Plan For Early Adulthood Success?
• What the Importance of Lifelong Learning for Career Development in Middle Adulthood?
• What the Joys of Grandparenting?
• What the Benefits of Social Connections in Late Adulthood?
• How to Builde a Healthy Work-Life Balance in Your 20s?
• How to Coping With Stress and Anxiety in Early Adulthood?
• How Middle-Aged Professionals Can Stay Relevant in a Rapidly Changing Job Market?
• How Coping With Burnout in Middle Adulthood?
• What the Role of Pets in Providing Companionship and Support in Late Adulthood?
• What the Gender Disparities in Middle Adulthood Work?
• How to Rediscovering Hobbies in Late Adulthood?
• How to Satisfy Your Wanderlust in Your 20s?
• What the Impact of Technology on Middle Adulthood Careers?
• How to Stay Motivated in Your 20s?
• How to Coping With Grief and Loss in the Senior Years?
• How to Manage Your Finances in Your 20s?

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6.4 Early and Middle Adulthood: Building Effective Lives

Learning objective.

• Review the physical and cognitive changes that accompany early and middle adulthood

Until the 1970s, psychologists tended to treat adulthood as a single developmental stage, with few or no distinctions made among the various periods that we pass through between adolescence and death. Present-day psychologists realize, however, that physical, cognitive, and emotional responses continue to develop throughout life, with corresponding changes in our social needs and desires. Thus the three stages of early adulthood , middle adulthood , and late adulthood each has its own physical, cognitive, and social challenges.

In this section, we will consider the development of our cognitive and physical aspects that occur during early adulthood and middle adulthood —roughly the ages between 25 and 45 and between 45 and 65, respectively . These stages represent a long period of time—longer, in fact, than any of the other developmental stages—and the bulk of our lives is spent in them. These are also the periods in which most of us make our most substantial contributions to society, by meeting two of Erik Erikson’s life challenges: We learn to give and receive love in a close, long-term relationship, and we develop an interest in guiding the development of the next generation, often by becoming parents.

Psychology in Everyday Life: What Makes a Good Parent?

One thing that you may have wondered about as you grew up, and which you may start to think about again if you decide to have children yourself, concerns the skills involved in parenting. Some parents are strict, others are lax; some parents spend a lot of time with their kids, trying to resolve their problems and helping to keep them out of dangerous situations, whereas others leave their children with nannies or in day care. Some parents hug and kiss their kids and say that they love them over and over every day, whereas others never do. Do these behaviors matter? And what makes a “good parent”?

We have already considered two answers to this question, in the form of what all children require: (1) babies need a conscientious mother who does not smoke, drink, or use drugs during her pregnancy, and (2) infants need caretakers who are consistently available, loving, and supportive to help them form a secure base. One case in which these basic goals are less likely to be met is when the mother is an adolescent. Adolescent mothers are more likely to use drugs and alcohol during their pregnancies, to have poor parenting skills in general, and to provide insufficient support for the child (Ekéus, Christensson, & Hjern, 2004). As a result, the babies of adolescent mothers have higher rates of academic failure, delinquency, and incarceration in comparison to children of older mothers (Moore & Brooks-Gunn, 2002).

Normally, it is the mother who provides early attachment, but fathers are not irrelevant. In fact, studies have found that children whose fathers are more involved tend to be more cognitively and socially competent, more empathic, and psychologically better adjusted, compared with children whose fathers are less involved (Rohner & Veneziano, 2001). In fact, Amato (1994) found that, in some cases, the role of the father can be as or even more important than that of the mother in the child’s overall psychological health and well-being. Amato concluded, “Regardless of the quality of the mother-child relationship, the closer adult offspring were to their fathers, the happier, more satisfied, and less distressed they reported being” (p. 1039).

As the child grows, parents take on one of four types of parenting styles — parental behaviors that determine the nature of parent-child interactions and that guide their interaction with the child. These styles depend on whether the parent is more or less demanding and more or less responsive to the child (see Figure 6.11 “Parenting Styles” ). Authoritarian parents are demanding but not responsive. They impose rules and expect obedience, tending to give orders (“Eat your food!”) and enforcing their commands with rewards and punishment, without providing any explanation of where the rules came from, except “Because I said so!” Permissive parents , on the other hand, tend to make few demands and give little punishment, but they are responsive in the sense that they generally allow their children to make their own rules. Authoritative parents are demanding (“You must be home by curfew”), but they are also responsive to the needs and opinions of the child (“Let’s discuss what an appropriate curfew might be”). They set rules and enforce them, but they also explain and discuss the reasons behind the rules. Finally, rejecting-neglecting parents are undemanding and unresponsive overall.

Figure 6.11 Parenting Styles

Parenting styles can be divided into four types, based on the combination of demandingness and responsiveness. The authoritative style, characterized by both responsiveness and also demandingness, is the most effective.

Many studies of children and their parents, using different methods, measures, and samples, have reached the same conclusion—namely, that authoritative parenting, in comparison to the other three styles, is associated with a wide range of psychological and social advantages for children. Parents who use the authoritative style, with its combination of demands on the children as well as responsiveness to the children’s needs, have kids who have better psychological adjustment, school performance, and psychosocial maturity, compared with parents who use the other styles (Baumrind, 1996; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989). On the other hand, there are at least some cultural differences in the effectiveness of different parenting styles. Although the reasons for the differences are not completely understood, strict authoritarian parenting styles seem to work better in African American families than in European American families (Tamis-LeMonda, Briggs, McClowry, & Snow, 2008), and better in Chinese families than in American families (Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, & Farver, 2004).

Despite the fact that different parenting styles are differentially effective overall, every child is different and parents must be adaptable. Some children have particularly difficult temperaments, and these children require more parenting. Because these difficult children demand more parenting, the behaviors of the parents matter more for the children’s development than they do for other, less demanding children who require less parenting overall (Pleuss & Belsky, 2010). These findings remind us how the behavior of the child can influence the behavior of the people in his or her environment.

Although the focus is on the child, the parents must never forget about each other. Parenting is time consuming and emotionally taxing, and the parents must work together to create a relationship in which both mother and father contribute to the household tasks and support each other. It is also important for the parents to invest time in their own intimacy, as happy parents are more likely to stay together, and divorce has a profoundly negative impact on children, particularly during and immediately after the divorce (Burt, Barnes, McGue, & Iaconon, 2008; Ge, Natsuaki, & Conger, 2006).

Physical and Cognitive Changes in Early and Middle Adulthood

Compared with the other stages, the physical and cognitive changes that occur in the stages of early and middle adulthood are less dramatic. As individuals pass into their 30s and 40s, their recovery from muscular strain becomes more prolonged, and their sensory abilities may become somewhat diminished, at least when compared with their prime years, during the teens and early 20s (Panno, 2004). Visual acuity diminishes somewhat, and many people in their late 30s and early 40s begin to notice that their eyes are changing and they need eyeglasses. Adults in their 30s and 40s may also begin to suffer some hearing loss because of damage to the hair cells ( cilia ) in the inner ear (Lacher-Fougëre & Demany, 2005).< And it is during middle adulthood that many people first begin to suffer from ailments such as high cholesterol and high blood pressure as well as low bone density (Shelton, 2006). Corresponding to changes in our physical abilities, our cognitive and sensory abilities also seem to show some, but not dramatic, decline during this stage.

The stages of both early and middle adulthood bring about a gradual decline in fertility, particularly for women. Eventually, women experience menopause , the cessation of the menstrual cycle , which usually occurs at around age 50. Menopause occurs because of the gradual decrease in the production of the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone, which slows the production and release of eggs into the uterus. Women whose menstrual cycles have stopped for 12 consecutive months are considered to have entered menopause (Minkin & Wright, 2004).

Researchers have found that women’s responses to menopause are both social as well as physical, and that they vary substantially across both individuals and cultures. Within individuals, some women may react more negatively to menopause, worrying that they have lost their femininity and that their final chance to bear children is over, whereas other women may regard menopause more positively, focusing on the new freedom from menstrual discomfort and unwanted pregnancy. In Western cultures such as in the United States, women are likely to see menopause as a challenging and potentially negative event, whereas in India, where older women enjoy more social privileges than do younger ones, menopause is more positively regarded (Avis & Crawford, 2008).

Menopause may have evolutionary benefits. Infants have better chances of survival when their mothers are younger and have more energy to care for them, and the presence of older women who do not have children of their own to care for (but who can help out with raising grandchildren) can be beneficial to the family group. Also consistent with the idea of an evolutionary benefit of menopause is that the decline in fertility occurs primarily for women, who do most of the child care and who need the energy of youth to accomplish it. If older women were able to have children they might not be as able to effectively care for them. Most men never completely lose their fertility, but they do experience a gradual decrease in testosterone levels, sperm count, and speed of erection and ejaculation.

Social Changes in Early and Middle Adulthood

Perhaps the major marker of adulthood is the ability to create an effective and independent life. Whereas children and adolescents are generally supported by parents, adults must make their own living and must start their own families. Furthermore, the needs of adults are different from those of younger persons.

Although the timing of the major life events that occur in early and middle adulthood vary substantially across individuals, they nevertheless tend to follow a general sequence, known as a social clock . The social clock refers to the culturally preferred “right time” for major life events, such as moving out of the childhood house, getting married, and having children . People who do not appear to be following the social clock (e.g., young adults who still live with their parents, individuals who never marry, and couples who choose not to have children) may be seen as unusual or deviant, and they may be stigmatized by others (DePaulo, 2006; Rook, Catalano, & Dooley, 1989).

Although they are doing it later, on average, than they did even 20 or 30 years ago, most people do eventually marry. Marriage is beneficial to the partners, both in terms of mental health and physical health. People who are married report greater life satisfaction than those who are not married and also suffer fewer health problems (Gallagher & Waite, 2001; Liu & Umberson, 2008).

Divorce is more common now than it was 50 years ago. In 2003 almost half of marriages in the United States ended in divorce (Bureau of the Census, 2007),although about three quarters of people who divorce will remarry. Most divorces occur for couples in their 20s, because younger people are frequently not mature enough to make good marriage choices or to make marriages last. Marriages are more successful for older adults and for those with more education (Goodwin, Mosher, & Chandra, 2010).

Parenthood also involves a major and long-lasting commitment, and one that can cause substantial stress on the parents. The time and finances invested in children create stress, which frequently results in decreased marital satisfaction (Twenge, Campbell, & Foster, 2003). This decline is especially true for women, who bear the larger part of the burden of raising the children and taking care of the house, despite the fact they increasingly also work and have careers.

Despite the challenges of early and middle adulthood, the majority of middle-aged adults are not unhappy. These years are often very satisfying, as families have been established, careers have been entered into, and some percentage of life goals has been realized (Eid & Larsen, 2008).

Key Takeaways

• It is in early and middle adulthood that muscle strength, reaction time, cardiac output, and sensory abilities begin to decline.
• One of the key signs of aging in women is the decline in fertility, culminating in menopause, which is marked by the cessation of the menstrual period.
• The different social stages in adulthood, such as marriage, parenthood, and work, are loosely determined by a social clock, a culturally recognized time for each phase.

Exercises and Critical Thinking

• Compare your behavior, values, and attitudes regarding marriage and work to the attitudes of your parents and grandparents. In what way are your values similar? In what ways are they different?
• Draw a timeline of your own planned or preferred social clock. What factors do you think will make it more or less likely that you will be able to follow the timeline?

Amato, P. R. (1994). Father-child relations, mother-child relations, and offspring psychological well-being in adulthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56 , 1031–1042.

Avis, N. E., & Crawford, S. (2008). Cultural differences in symptoms and attitudes toward menopause. Menopause Management, 17 (3), 8–13.

Baumrind, D. (1996). The discipline controversy revisited. Family Relations, 45 (4), 405–414; Grolnick, W. S., & Ryan, R. M. (1989). Parent styles associated with children’s self-regulation and competence in school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81 (2), 143–154.

Bureau of the Census. (2007). Statistical abstract of the United States 2006 (p. 218). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Burt, S. A., Barnes, A. R., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2008). Parental divorce and adolescent delinquency: Ruling out the impact of common genes. Developmental Psychology, 44 (6), 1668–1677

Chang, L., Lansford, J. E., Schwartz, D., & Farver, J. M. (2004). Marital quality, maternal depressed affect, harsh parenting, and child externalising in Hong Kong Chinese families. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28 (4), 311–318.

DePaulo, B. M. (2006). Singled out: How singles are stereotyped, stigmatized and ignored, and still live happily ever after . New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press;

Eid, M., & Larsen, R. J. (Eds.). (2008). The science of subjective well-being . New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Ekéus, C., Christensson, K., & Hjern, A. (2004). Unintentional and violent injuries among pre-school children of teenage mothers in Sweden: A national cohort study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 58 (8), 680–685.

Gallagher, M., & Waite, L. J. (2001). The case for marriage: Why married people are happier, healthier, and better off financially . New York, NY: Random House;

Ge, X., Natsuaki, M. N., & Conger, R. D. (2006). Trajectories of depressive symptoms and stressful life events among male and female adolescents in divorced and nondivorced families. Development and Psychopathology, 18 (1), 253–273.

Goodwin, P. Y., Mosher, W. D., Chandra A. (2010, February). Marriage and cohabitation in the United States: A statistical portrait based on Cycle 6 (2002) of the National Survey of Family Growth. Vital Health Statistics 23 (28), 1–45. Retrieved from National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, website: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_23/sr23_028.pdf

Lacher-Fougëre, S., & Demany, L. (2005). Consequences of cochlear damage for the detection of inter-aural phase differences. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 118 , 2519–2526.

Liu, H., & Umberson, D. (2008). The times they are a changin’: Marital status and health differentials from 1972 to 2003. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49 , 239–253.

Minkin, M. J., & Wright, C. V. (2004). A woman’s guide to menopause and perimenopause . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Moore, M. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002). Adolescent parenthood. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Being and becoming a parent (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 173–214). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Panno, J. (2004). Aging: Theories and potential therapies . New York, NY: Facts on File Publishers.

Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2010). Differential susceptibility to parenting and quality child care. Developmental Psychology, 46 (2), 379–390.

Rohner, R. P., & Veneziano, R. A. (2001). The importance of father love: History and contemporary evidence. Review of General Psychology, 5 (4), 382–405.

Rook, K. S., Catalano, R. C., & Dooley, D. (1989). The timing of major life events: Effects of departing from the social clock. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17 , 223–258.

Shelton, H. M. (2006). High blood pressure . Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishers.

Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Briggs, R. D., McClowry, S. G., & Snow, D. L. (2008). Challenges to the study of African American parenting: Conceptualization, sampling, research approaches, measurement, and design. Parenting: Science and Practice, 8 (4), 319–358.

Twenge, J., Campbell, W., & Foster, C. (2003). Parenthood and marital satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65 (3), 574–583.

Introduction to Psychology Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Adulthood Essay Examples

My transition from childhood to adulthood.

Don’t you just love when the whole family is together on a Friday night and you’re watching a movie and everyone is involved in the movie. My family is the opposite, we always try to find the little mistakes that were made in the movie...

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When some people think of “adulthood,” they think about somebody independent. They have their own car, they’ve moved out of their parents’ house, and they have a job with a steady income. Then, there are some people who think that you are an adult the...

Exploring of What the "Real" Adulthood is

In the USA, our society typically views adulthood as a person at the legal age of 18 assuming they will take responsibility for their actions, vote, handle money and finances, self govern and wisely make their own decisions. Adulthood is a character point reached by...

The Reason Why I Feel Adulthood is a Lie

I make it a point to trust no one who claim they have it all figured out. I really don’t- and that maybe why it’s a defining part of why I feel like I am somehow not an adult, still, at 25. Instead of that...

Emerging Adulthood in John Updike’s a & P and Alice Munro’s Boys and Girls

It’s common for anyone to undergo numerous major events and experiences through life that can ultimately change a person’s perception or decisions for their future. There are high points like giving birth to a child or getting married, but just as significantly, there are low...

Physical Development in Middle Adulthood

Firstly, Jane is a 45-year-old Singapore born Chinese female who was parentified at a young age of 20-year-old. As her mother was critically ill, she had to quit studying and took on multiple jobs to support her siblings and her father. Furthermore, Jane struggled through...

Late Adulthood as a Period of Cognitive Decline

Late adulthood is the period of life from the age 60-70 until death, usually starting after middle adulthood. Although later adulthood is the major segment of the life-span, the ideology that humans continue to develop throughout this period has been neglected until the 20th century....

Analysis of My Adulthood Through Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System

As time goes by, everything changes and as the world changes, so does the people. Psychology designates human life into few stages as their age gets older. For example, infants become children, children become teenagers, and suddenly a teenager becomes an adult. What exactly is...

Adulthood Vs Preservation in the Catcher in the Rye

The novel “The Catcher in the Rye” by J. D Salinger says that growing up is a struggle and that you should preserve your childhood as demonstrated by phoniness, conforming in society, and how Holden views the adult world. From the story we learn that...

The Impact of Childhood Trauma on Women in Adulthood

The legacy left behind from childhood trauma will continue to torment female survivors for the rest of their lives. Women with histories of childhood trauma continue to be victimized even years later as they enter into adulthood. Their health, functioning, and quality of life are...

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