social change research topics

Social Change Research Paper Topics

Social change is ubiquitous. Although earlier social scientists often treated stability as normal and significant social change as an exceptional process that required a special explanation, scholars now expect to see change at all times and in all social organizations. Much of this type of change is continuous; it occurs in small increments and reveals long-term patterns such as growth. Discontinuous changes, however, are more common than has been assumed. From the perspective of individual organizations, these changes are relatively common and often result in sharp departures from previous states such as when corporations are created, merged, or terminated. From the perspective of larger populations of such organizations, relatively few discontinuous changes result in comparably sharp departures from long-term patterns and trends. Even revolutions that result in dramatic changes of political and legal institutions generally do not transform all of society equally. Some previous patterns continue; others are restored.

• Anti-Semitism and Social Change
• Chicago School and Social Change
• Collective Action
• Collective Identity
• Collective Memory and Social Change
• Collective Trauma
• Colonialism and Neocolonialism
• Counterculture
• Creolization
• Crowds and Riots
• Decolonization
• Denationalization
• Dependency and World Systems Theories
• Direct Action
• Emile Durkheim on Social Change
• Emotions and Movements
• Endogenous Development
• Evolution: Biological, Social, and Cultural
• Extreme Influence: Thought Reform, High Control Groups, Interrogation, and Recovered Memory Psychotherapy
• Generational Change
• Georges Gurvitch on Social Change
• Human Rights
• Idea of Progress
• Immigration
• Imperialism, Colonialism, and Decolonization
• Industrialization in Less Developed Countries
• Information Society
• Knowledge Societies
• Kondratieff Cycles
• Marianne Weber on Social Change
• Mobilization
• Moral Shocks and Self-Recruitment
• Network Society
• Scientific Revolution
• Secularization
• N. Eisenstadt on Social Change
• Social Capital
• Social Change in Southeast Asia
• Social Indicators
• Social Mobility
• Sociology of Revolutions
• Tactical Repertoires of Contention
• Technological Determinism
• Transition from Communism
• Uneven Development

Cumulative social change must be distinguished from recurrent fluctuations and the processual aspect of all social life. Both sociologists and historians study the latter by focusing on those dynamic processes through which the social lives of particular individuals and groups may change even though overall patterns remain relatively constant. Marriages and divorces are major changes in social relationships, but a society may have a roughly constant marriage or divorce rate for long periods. Similarly, markets involve a continuous flow of changes in regard to who possess money or goods, who stands in the position of creditor or debtor, who is unemployed or unemployed, and so forth. These specific changes, however, generally do not alter the nature of the markets. Researchers both study the form of particular transactions and develop models to describe the dynamics of large-scale statistical aggregations of such processes.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code.

As Bourdieu (1977, 1990) and Giddens (1986) suggest, it is necessary to see human social life as always being structured, but incompletely so. ”Structuration,” to use their term, is as much a process of change as a reflection of stability. Indeed, the existence of stable social patterns over long periods requires at least as much explanation as does social change. This situation has led to renewed attention to social reproduction, or the ways in which social patterns are re-created in social action. This contrasts with earlier views of continuity as a matter of inertia or simple endurance. Some continuity in the social order is achieved intentionally by actors with enough power to resist changes desired by others; rulers thus maintain their rule by force. Much social reproduction, however, works at a less consciously intentional level and is based on the ways in which people learn to think and act rather than on overt, material force. Bourdieu and Passeron (1977), for example, follow Weber in studying the ways in which ingrained, habitual ways of deciding what new action fits an individual’s situation work without conscious intention to reproduce overall social patterns. A pattern of inequality in educational attainment that is understood officially as meritocratic and is genuinely intended by teachers to be so thus may be reproduced in part because students from non-elite backgrounds unconsciously lower their expectations for themselves, expecting elites to do better. Teachers may unconsciously do the same thing. When decisions are to be made, such as whether to go to university, or which university to choose, elite students and their families are more likely to have the confidence and knowledge to invest in options with a higher long-term payoff.

To understand social change, thus, it is necessary also to understand what produces social continuity. It would be a mistake to explain social change always in terms of a new factor that intervenes in an otherwise stable situation. Rather, social change commonly is produced by the same factors that produce continuity. These factors may change in quantity or quality or in relation to each other.

Sometimes, however, specific processes of social life undergo long-term transformations. These transformations in the nature, organization, or outcomes of the processes are what is usually studied under the label ”social change.” Social life always depends, for example, on the processes of birth and death that reproduce populations through generations. These rates (adjusted for the age of a population) may be in equilibrium for long periods, resulting in little change in the overall size of a population. Alternatively birthrates may exceed death rates most of the time, resulting in gradual population growth, but periodic disasters such as war, famine, and pestilence may cut the population back. In this case, the population may show little or no cumulative growth, but instead exhibit a dynamic equilibrium in which every period of gradual increase is offset by one of rapid decline. Approximations to these two patterns characterize most of world history. Population growth generally has been quite slow, although periodic declines have not offset all the increases. In the last three hundred years, however, a new phenomenon has been noted. As societies industrialize and generally grow richer and change the daily lives of their members, they undergo a ”fertility transition.” First, improvements in nutrition, sanitation, and health can allow people to live longer. This results in population growth that can be very rapid if the improvements are introduced together rather than gradually developing over a long period. After a time lag, this encourages people to have fewer children because more of the children they do have survive. As fertility rates (birthrates standardized by the number of women of child-bearing age) also drop, a new equilibrium may be reached; population growth will slow or stop. This is a cumulative transition, because after it, the typical rates of birth and death are much lower even though the population may be much larger. A variety of other changes may follow from or be influenced by this process. For example, family life may change with declining numbers of children, parents’ (especially mothers’) lives are likely to change as fewer of their years are devoted to bearing and raising children, and childhood deaths may become rarities rather than common experiences.

Social history is given its shape by such cumulative social changes. Many of these changes are quite basic, such as the creation of the modern state; others are more minor, such as the invention and spread of the handshake as a form of greeting. Most, such as the development of team sports, fast-food restaurants, and the international, academic conference, lie in the broad area in between. Thus, cumulative social changes may take place on a variety of different scales, from the patterns of small group life through institutions such as the business corporation or church to overall societal arrangements. Significant changes tend to have widespread repercussions, however, and so it is rare for one part of social life to change dramatically without changing other parts.

While certain important changes, such as an increasing population, are basically linear, others are discontinuous. There are two senses of discontinuity. The first is abruptness, such as the dramatic contraction of the European population in the wake of plague and other calamities of the fourteenth century and the occurrence of the Russian Revolution after centuries of tsarist rule and failed revolts. Second, some social changes alter not just the values of variables but the relationship of variables to each other. Thus, for much of history the military power and wealth of a ruler was based directly on the number of his or her subjects; growing populations meant an increasing total product from which to extract tribute, taxes, and military service. With the transformation first of agriculture and then of industrial production in the early capitalist era or just before it, this relationship was in many cases upset. Increasingly, from the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries, for example, the heads of Scottish clans found that a small population raising sheep could produce more wealth than could a large one farming; their attempt to maximize this advantage contributed to the migration of Scots to Ireland and America. This process was of course linked also to growing demand for wool and the development of the industrial production of textiles. Those factors in turn involved new divisions of social labor and increased long-distance trade. At the same time, the development of industrial production and related weapons technologies reduced the military advantages of large population size by contrast to epochs when wars generally were won by the largest armies; indeed, population may be inversely related to power if it impedes industrialization.

This case provides an example of how shifts in the relationships of certain variables can alter not only overall social patterns but broad cultural orientations to social change. Along with industrialization (and other dimensions of modern social life) has come a continuous process of technological and social innovation. As Weber (1922) emphasized, this process is at odds with a traditional orientation to social life. Traditionalism implies an expectation of continuity and respect for the ways in which things have always been done. Constant innovation is linked to the pursuit of more efficient ways to do things and an expectation of continuous change. Leaders of China, long thought the absolute size of armies would be decisive in conflict. They were shocked when both Japan and Western powers were able to win victories in the nineteenth century mainly on the basis of superior technology rather than superior size. This helped produce not only the collapse of a specific imperial dynasty but a crisis in a whole pattern of traditionalism. Instead of assuming that the best lessons for military strategy lay in the teachings of the past, some leaders recognized that they needed to look for new ways in which to make the country strong. This produced a tension between trying to preserve cultural identity by continuing to do things the same way and trying to achieve technological and other gains by innovating. This tension is common in societies that have undergone broad patterns of social change in the modern era. In China, after the death of Mao Zedong leaders decided that strengthening the country and improving people’s lives depended on technological advancement and economic development. Recognizing both that large armies would not win wars against enemies with technologically advanced weapons and that rapid population growth would make it difficult to educate the whole population and produce rapid economic growth, Deng Xiaoping and other leaders introduced policies to reduce population growth rates. They also decided that they needed to liberalize the economy and encourage private business because state-owned enterprises could not innovate rapidly enough. On the one hand, they encourage innovation in economy and technology, and on the other hand, they resist change in politics and culture. Although perhaps contradictory, these two responses have been typical of leaders in societies undergoing the process of modernization. Although it is impossible to prevent major changes in technology and the economy from having an impact on politics and culture, it is possible to shape what those impacts will be.

Sociologists generally have taken three approaches to studying cumulative social changes. The first is to look for generalizable patterns in how all sorts of changes occur, the second is to seek an explanation for the whole overall pattern of history, and the third is to analyze historically specific processes of change.

Following the first of these approaches, sociologists have looked for characteristic phases through which any social innovation must pass, such as skepticism, experimentation, early diffusion among leaders, and later general acceptance. Ogburn ([1922] 1950) was a pioneer in this sort of research, examining topics such as the characteristic ”lag” between cultural innovations and widespread adjustments to them or exploitation of their potential. In regard to the fertility transition, when improved health care and nutrition make it possible for nearly all children to survive to adulthood, it takes a generation or two before parents stop having large families as ”insurance policies” to provide for support in their old age. Earlier researchers often hoped to find general laws that would explain the duration of such lags and account for other features of all processes of social change. Contemporary sociologists tend to place much more emphasis on differences among various kinds of social change and their settings; accordingly, their generalizations are more specific. Researchers may limit their studies to the patterns of innovation among business organizations, for example, recognizing that those organizations may act quite differently from others. They also may ask questions such as, Why do innovations gain acceptance more rapidly in formal organizations (e.g., businesses) than in informal, primary groups (e.g., families), or what sorts of organizations are more likely to innovate? The changes may be very specific, such as the introduction of new technologies of production, or very general, such as the Industrial Revolution as a whole (Smelser 1958). The key distinguishing feature of these sorts of studies is that they regard changes as individual units of roughly similar sorts and aim to produce generalizations about them.

The second major sociological approach to cumulative change—seeking an explanation for the whole pattern of cumulation—was long the province of philosophies of history that culminated in the sweeping syntheses of the nineteenth century. Sociology was born partly out of the attempt to understand the rise of science, industry, and urban society. These and related transitions were conceptualized in frameworks that emphasized shifts from tradition to modernity, feudalism to capitalism, and monarchy to republicanism or democracy. As Sztompka (1993) points out, three basic visions were developed, each of which has left a mark on sociology and continues to be influential in research: cycles, evolutionary progress, and historical materialism. The roots of the cyclical vision stretch back to antiquity. The image of the human life cycle, from birth and infancy to old age and death, for example, was used to conceptualize the rise and fall of whole societies and of imperial dynasties that were thought to be vigorous in youth and feeble in old age. Few scientific sociologists have regarded such images as more than metaphors, but they have been influential among writers attempting to generalize about the course of history (e.g., Spengler [1918] 1939; Toynbee 1934-1961). A number of sociologists, however, have studied more specific cyclical patterns. Pareto ([1916] 1980) analyzed what he called the circulation of elites, a pattern in which specific groups rose into and then fell from social dominance. Sorokin (1937) analyzed cultural cycles, especially the oscillating dominance of ideational (spiritual, intellectual) and sensate (sensual, materialist) orientations. More recently, sociologists have identified cycles in social movements and collective action (Tilly 1989; Tarrow 1998; Traugott, 1995).

Both historical materialism and evolutionism are indebted to another ancient idea, that of progress. Here the idea is that social change tends to produce a pattern of improvements in human life as measured in relationship to a standard of evaluation. In this regard, sociological evolutionism has commonly differed from evolutionary theory in biology, which has been less focused on the overall direction of change and normative evaluation. The great nineteenth-century evolutionary thinkers Comte([1830-1842, 1851-1854] 1975) and Spencer (1893) conceptualized history as progress through a series of stages. Comte based his analysis on what he saw as improvements in social knowledge through theological, metaphysical, and positive stages. Spencer, who was also an originator of evolutionary theory in biology, had a much more complex and sophisticated theory, focusing on the way structures developed to meet functional imperatives and gaining direction from the idea that ”incoherent homogeneity” progressively gives way to ”coherent heterogeneity” through the process of structural differentiation. Spencer (1893) addressed particularly the transition from military to industrial societies, which he saw as basic to modernity. Durkheim (1893) developed a similar analysis in his description of the movement from mechanical to organic solidarity.

• Schrecker (1991) has analyzed a pattern in which something similar to Spencer’s two stages alternated cyclically in Chinese society rather than forming the basis for a single evolutionary trend. Periods of increasing industrialization and commercialization ( fengjian) were followed by eras in which agriculture and military prowess figured more prominently (junxian). Schrecker (1991) suggests that this intriguing combination of evolutionary and cyclical theories initially was developed by classical Chinese scholars, although it was recast after the importation of Spencerian evolutionary theory.]

Historical materialists, starting with Marx (1863), also analyzed stages in historical development (such as feudalism and capitalism), but with three crucial differences from other evolutionary theories. First, Marx and his followers argued that material factors, especially the mode of production, shape the rest of society and that change is driven largely by improvements in the capacity for material production. Second, following a dialectical logic, Marxists emphasized the internal contradictions within each stage of development. Capitalism, for example, generated tremendous increases in productivity but distributed the resulting wealth so unequally that it was prone to economic crises and social revolutions. Rather than a simple, incremental progress, thus, Marxists saw evolution as taking place in discontinuous breaks marked by clashes and struggles. Third, most versions of Marxist theory gave greater emphasis to human agency or ability consciously to shape the direction of social change than was typical of evolutionary theory. The question of the extent to which evolution can be directed consciously has, however, recently come to the fore of non-Marxist evolutionary theory as well, as in in the work of the sociobiologist Wilson (Wilson and Wilson 1999).

The most important contemporary theories of social evolution attempt to generate not only overall descriptions of stages but causal explanations for social change. Lenski, for example, has argued that increases in technological capacity (including information processing as well as material production and distribution) account for most of the major changes in human social organization (Lenski et al. 1994). In his synthesis, Lenski arranges the major forms of human societies in a hierarchy based on their technological capacity and shows how other features, such as their typical patterns of religion, law, government, class inequality, and relations between the sexes, are rooted in those technological differences. In support of the idea that there is an overall evolutionary pattern, Lenski et al. (1994) point to the tendency of social change to move only in one direction. Thus, there are many cases of agricultural states being transformed into industrial societies but very few (if any) examples of the reverse. Of course, Lenski acknowledges that human evolution is not completely irreversible; he notes, however, not only that cases of reversal are relatively few but that they commonly result from an external cataclysm. Similarly, Lenski indicates that the direction of human social evolution is not strictly dictated from the start but only channeled in certain directions. There is room for human ingenuity to determine the shape of the future through a wide range of potential differences in invention and innovation. There are a number of other important versions of the evolutionary approach to cumulative social change. Some stress different material factors, such as human adaptation to ecological constraints (Harris 1979; White 1949); others stress culture and other patterns of thought more than material conditions (Parsons 1968; Habermas 1978).

Adherents to the third major approach to cumulative social change argue that there can be no single evolutionary explanation for all the important transitions in human history. They also stress differences as well as analogies among particular instances of specific sorts of change (Stinchcombe 1978). These historians and historical sociologists emphasize the importance of dealing adequately with particular changes by locating them in their historical and cultural contexts and distinguishing them through comparison (Abrams 1982; Skocpol 1984; Calhoun 1995, 1998). Weber was an important pioneer of this approach. A prominent variety of Marxism has stressed the view that Marx’s mature analysis of capitalism emphasizes historical specificity rather than the use of the same categories to explain all of history (Postone 1993). Historical sociologists have argued that a particular sort of transformation, such as the development of the capacity for industrial production, may result from different causes and have different implications on different occasions. The original Industrial Revolution in eighteenth-and nineteenth-century Britain thus developed with no advance model and without competition from established industrial powers. Countries that are industrializing today are influenced by both models and competition from existing industrial countries, along with influences from multinational corporations. The development of the modern world system thus fundamentally altered the conditions of future social changes, making it misleading to lump together cases of early and late industrialization for the purpose of generalization. Similarly, prerequisites for industrial production may be supplied by different institutional formations; one should compare not just institutions but different responses to similar problems.

Accident and disorder also have played crucial roles in the development of the modern world system. Wallerstein (1974-1988) shows the centrality of historical conjunctures and contingencies: the partially random relationships between different sorts of events (on historical accidents, see also Simmel 1977; Boudon 1986). For example, the outcome of military battles between Spain (an old-fashioned empire) and Britain (the key industrial-capitalist pioneer) were not foregone conclusions. There was room for bravery, weather, strategy, and a variety of other factors to play a role. However, certain key British victories, notably in the sixteenth century, helped make not only British history but world history different by creating the conditions for the modern world system to take the shape it did. Against evolutionary explanation, historical sociologists also argue that different factors explain different transformations. Thus, no amount of study of the factors that brought about the rise of capitalism and industrial production can provide the necessary insight into the decline of the Roman Empire and the eventual development of feudalism in Europe or the consolidation of China’s very different regions into the world’s most enduring empire and most populous state. These different kinds of events have their own different sorts of causes.

Predictably, some sociologists seek ways to combine some of the benefits of each type of approach to explaining cumulative social change. Historical sociologists who emphasize the singularity of specific transformations can learn from comparisons among such changes and achieve at least partial generalizations about them. Thus, different factors are involved in every social revolution, yet certain key elements seem to be present, such as crises (financial as well as political) in a government’s capacity to rule (Skocpol 1979; Goldstone 1991). This recognition encourages one to focus on structural factors that may help create potentially revolutionary situations as well as the ideologies and actions of specific revolutionaries. Similarly, even though a variety of specific factors may determine the transition to capitalism or industrialization in every instance, some version of a fertility transition seems to play a role in nearly all cases. Although evolutionary theory is widely rejected by historical sociologists, some look to evolutionary arguments for suggestions about what factors might be important. Thus, Lenski’s emphasis on technology and Marx’s focus on the relationship of production and class struggle can provide foci for research, and that research can help deter mine whether those factors are equally important in all societal transformations and whether they work the same way in each one. More radically, evolutionary socioglogy might follow biology in focusing less on the selection of whole populations (societies) for success or failure and look instead at the selection of specific social practices (e.g., the bearing of large numbers of children) for reproduction or disappearance. Such an evolutionary theory might provide insight into how practices become more or less common, following biology in looking for mechanisms of reproduction and inheritance, the initiation of new practices (mutation), and the clustering of practices in interacting groups (speciation) as well as selection. It would, however, necessarily give up the capacity to offer a single explanation for all the major transitions in human social history, which is one of the attractions of evolutionary theory to its adherents.

Certain basic challenges are particularly important in the study of cumulative social change today. In addition to working out a satisfactory relationship among the three main approaches, perhaps the most important challenge is to distinguish social changes that are basic from those which are ephemeral or less momentous. Sociologists, like historians and other scholars, need to be able to characterize broad patterns of social arrangements. This is what sociologists do when they speak of ”modernity” or ”industrial society.” Such characterizations involve at least implicit theoretical claims about the crucial factors that distinguish these eras or forms. In the case of complex, large-scale societal processes, these factors are hard to pin down. How much industrial capacity does a society need to have before one can call it industrial? How low must employment in its increasingly automated industries become before one can call it postindustrial? Is current social and economic globalization the continuation of a longstanding trend or part of a fundamental transformation? Although settling such questions is difficult, debating them is crucial, for sociologists cannot grasp the historical contexts of the phenomena they study if they limit themselves to studying particulars or seeking generalizations from them without attempting to understand the differences among historical epochs (however hard to define sharply) and cultures (however much they may shade into each other with contact). Particularly because of the many current contentions that humanity stands on the edge of a new age— postmodern, postindustrial, or something else— researchers and theorists need to give strong answers to the question of what it means to claim that one epoch ends and another begins (Calhoun 1999).

Many prominent social theorists have treated all of modernity as a continuous era and stressed its distinction from previous (or anticipated future) forms of social organization. Durkheim (1893) argued that a new, more complex division of labor is central to a dichotomous distinction of modern (organically solidary) from premodern (mechanically solidary) society. Weber (1922) saw Western rationalization of action and relationships as basic and as continuing without rupture through the whole modern era. Marx (1863) saw the transition from feudalism to capitalism as basic but held that no change in modernity could be considered fundamental unless it overthrew the processes of private capital accumulation and the commodification of labor. Recent Marxists thus argue that the social and economic changes of the last several decades mark a new phase within capitalism but not a break with it (Mandel 1974; Wallerstein 19741988; Harvey 1989). Many sociologists would add a claim about the centrality of increasing state power as a basic, continuous process of modernity (e.g., Tilly 1990; Mann 1986-1993). More generally, Habermas (1984-1988) has stressed the split between a life world in which everyday interactions are organized on the basis of mutual agreement and an increasingly prominent systemic integration through the impersonal relationships of money and power outside the reach of linguistically mediated cooperative understanding. Common to all these positions is the notion that there is a general process (not just a static set of attributes) common to all forms of modernity. Some claim to discern a causal explanation; others only point to the trends, suggesting that those trends may have several causes but that there is no single ”prime mover” that can explain an overall pattern of evolution. All would agree that no really basic social change can be said to have occurred until the fundamental processes they identify have ended, been reversed, or changed their relationship to other variables. Obviously, a great deal depends on what processes are considered fundamental.

Rather than stressing the common processes that organize all forms of modernity, some scholars have followed Marx (and recent structuralist theory) in pointing to the disjunctures between relatively stable periods. Foucault (1973), for example, emphasized basic transformations in the way knowledge is constituted and an order is ascribed to the world of things, people, and ideas. Renaissance culture was characterized by an emphasis on resemblances among the manifold different elements of God’s single, unified creation. Knowledge of fields as diverse to modern eyes as biology, aesthetics, theology, and astronomy was thought to be unified by the matching of similar characteristics, with those in each field serving as visible signs of counterparts in the others. The ”classical” modernity of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries marked a radical break by treating the sign as fundamentally distinct from the thing it signified, noting, for example, that words have only arbitrary relationships to the objects they name. The study of representation thus replaced that of resemblances. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, another rupture came with the development of the modern ideas of classification according to hidden, underlying causes rather than superficial resemblances and an examination of human beings as the basic source of systems of representation. Only this last period could give rise to the ”human sciences”—psychology, sociology, and so forth—as they are known today. Similarly, Foucault (1977) argued that the modern individual is a distinctive form of person or self, produced by an intensification of disciplining power and surveillance. Where most theories of social change emphasize processes, Foucault’s ”archaeology of knowledge” emphasizes the internal coherence of relatively stable cultural configurations and the ruptures between them.

Foucault’s work has been taken as support for the claim (which was not his own) that the modern era has ended. Theories of ”postmodernity” commonly argue that at some point the modern era gave way to a successor, though some scholars (e.g., Lyotard 1977) have indicated, against the implications of the label ”postmodern,” that they mean not a simple historical succession but a recurrent internal challenge to the dominant ”modernist” patterns (Lash 1990; Seidman 1995; Harvey 1989; Calhoun 1995). Generally, they hold that where modernity was rigid, linear, and focused on universality, postmodernity is flexible, fluidly multidirectional, and focused on difference. Some postmodernist theories emphasize the impact of new production technologies (especially computer-assisted flexible automation), while others are more exclusively cultural. The label ”postmodernity” often is applied rather casually to point to interesting features of the present period without clearly indicating why they should be taken as revealing a basic discontinuous shift between eras.

At stake in debates over the periodization of social change is not just the labeling of eras but the analysis of what factors are most fundamentally constitutive of social organization. Should ecology and politics be seen as determinative over, equal to, or derivative of the economy? Is demography or technological capacity prior to the other? What gives capitalism, feudalism, a kinship system, or any other social order its temporary and relative stability? Such questions must be approached not just in terms of manifest influence at any single point in time or during specific events but also in terms of the way particular factors figure in long-term processes of cumulative social change.

References:

• Abrams, Philip 1982 Historical Sociology. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
• Boudon, Raymond 1986 Theories of Social Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Bourdieu, Pierre 1977 Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Bourdieu, Pierre 1990 The Logic of Practice. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
• Bourdieu, Pierre, and Jean-Claude Passeron 1977 Reproduction in Education, Culture, and Society. London: Sage.
• Calhoun, Craig 1995 Critical Social Theory: Culture, History, and the Challenge of Difference. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell.
• Calhoun, Craig 1998 ‘‘Explanation in Historical Sociology: Narrative, General Theory, and Historically Specific Theory.’’ American Journal of Sociology 108:846–871.
• Calhoun, Craig 1999 ‘‘Nationalism, Social Change, and Historical Sociology,’’ In F. Engelstad and R. Kalleberg, eds., Social Change and Historical Sociology. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press.
• Comte, Auguste (1830–1842, 1851–1854) 1975 Auguste Comte and Positivism: The Essential Writings, edited by G. Lenzer. New York: Harper.
• Durkheim, Emile 1893 The Division of Labor in Society. New York: Free Press.
• Foucault, Michel 1973 The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. New York: Random House.
• Foucault, Michel 1977 Discipline and Punish. New York: Pantheon.
• Giddens, Anthony 1986 The Constitution of Society. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Goldstone, Jack 1991 Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Habermas, Jurgen 1978 Communication and the Evolution of Society. Boston: Beacon.
• Habermas, Jurgen 1984–1988 The Theory of Communicative Action, 2 vols. Boston: Beacon.
• Harris, Marvin 1979 Cultural Materialism. New York: Vintage.
• Harvey, David 1989 The Postmodern Condition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Lash, Scott 1990 Postmodern Sociology. London: Routledge.
• Lenski, Gerhard, Jean Lenski, and Patrick Nolan 1994 Human Societies, 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Lyotard, Jean-François 1977 The Postmodern Condition. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Mandel, Ernst 1974 Late Capitalism. London: Verso.
• Mann, Michael 1986–1993 The Sources of Social Power. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Marx, Karl 1863 Capital, vol. 1. New York: Viking.
• Ogburn, W. F. (1922) 1950 Social Change with Respect to Culture and Original Nature. New York: Viking.
• Pareto, Wilfredo (1916) 1980 Compendium of General Sociology. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Parsons, Talcott 1968 The Evolution of Societies. New York: Free Press.
• Postone, Moishe 1993 Time, Labor and Social Domination. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Schrecker, John 1991 The Chinese Revolution in Historical Perspective. New York: Praeger.
• Seidman, Steven 1995 The Postmodern Turn: New Perspectives on Social Theory. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Simmel, Georg 1977 The Problem of the Philosophy of History. New York: Free Press.
• Skocpol, Theda 1979 States and Social Revolutions. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Skocpol, Theda, ed. 1984 Vision and Method in Historical Sociology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Smelser, Neil J. 1958 Social Change in the Industrial Revolution. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.
• Sorokin, Pitirim 1937 Social and Cultural Dynamics, 4 vols. New York: American Book Company.
• Spencer, Herbert 1893 Principles of Sociology, 3 vols. London: Williams and Norgate.
• Spengler, Oswald (1918) 1939 The Decline of the West. New York: Knopf.
• Stinchcombe, Arthur 1978 Theoretical Methods in Social History. New York: Academic Press.
• Sztompka, Piotr 1993 The Sociology of Social Change. Oxford: Blackwell.
• Tarrow, Sidney 1998 Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Tilly, Charles 1989 The Contentious French. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
• Tilly, Charles 1990 Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1990. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
• Toynbee, Arnold 1934–1961 A Study of History, 12 vols. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Traugott, Mark, ed. 1995 Repertoires and Cycles in Collective Action. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
• Wallerstein, Immanuel 1974–1988 The Modern World System, 3 vols. San Diego: Academic Press.
• Weber, Max 1922 Economy and Society. Berkley: University of California Press.
• White, Leslie 1949 The Science of Culture. New York: Grove Press.
• Wilson, Edward O., and Edmund O. Wilson 1999 Consilience. New York: Random House.

Browse other  Sociology Research Paper Topics .

ORDER HIGH QUALITY CUSTOM PAPER

110 Social Change Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best social change topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on social change, ⭐ simple & easy social change essay titles, ❓ questions about social change.

• Kentucky Fried Chicken and Social Change Impact Although the company has outlets in many parts of the world, this paper focuses on America as a key market to analyze the company’s adaptation strategies in the face of changing customer tastes and preferences.
• Social Changes in Human Relationships and Interactions To achieve this goal, the paper will include the following sections: population social change, how the change is taking place, the engines driving the change, data demonstrating that this change is taking place and will […] We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Social Change and the Role of Environmental Factors Social change refers to the alteration or change in the social order of a given society or group of people especially with regard to nature, relationships, behavioral patterns in the society and the social institutions […]
• Social Change With Technology: Ogburn’s Model Thirdly, the invention of the steam engine improved transport and communication while the invention of the computer has led to the massive change in all societies.
• The Position of Women in Society and Social Change 5Jean Elshtain in her works ‘Women and War’, alleges that the role of women in society should be comprehended in relation to the actuality that war is presently institutionalized in the international system.
• Nursing Education and Social Changes Evidence-based nursing is deeply rooted in the development of life-long learners, which is also one of the pillars of contemporary nursing education.
• Critical Review: The Reluctant Fundamentalist and Social Change In Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist, social change comes through the terrorist acts of anarchic organizations, which cause a change in personal worldviews, self-understanding, and personal experiences, leading to a shift in power and the […]
• Social Change, Leadership, and Advocacy Comparison Social changes can be compared to advocacy considering that some changes in the society are political, socially, or economically motivated. Social change, leadership, and advocacy all play a role in the implementation of changes in […]
• Adult Education for Social Change: The Role of a Grassroots Organization in Canada The ‘SUCCESS’ education programs and services addressed the needs of the adult immigrant community, and as such, facilitated social change. In Vancouver, prior to the inception of the SUCCESS program, the lack educational programs and […]
• Social Exchange and Expectancy Theory Effects in Human Resource Development The reality is that the more the employees are sure of getting out of their relationship with organization the more their productivity and the more the effort they put into their work.
• Exploring Social Change in Song “Crazy World” The song is about social change since it describes situations where people are confronted with the reality that has been built by enabler’s egos and the need to dominate. Lucky Dube has used the song […]
• Social Change in the Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was also characterized by the movement of people from rural to urban areas in search of a better life.
• British Industrial Revolution and Social Changes In this paper, a variety of aspects and contributing factors of the evolution will be discussed including putting-out system, the three unique sets of Britain’s advantages that stimulated the process of industrialization, the support of […]
• Social Concepts and Climate Change All these are illustrations that climate change is real and skeptics of the process have no sound grounds to support their argument.
• History of Pop Music in the World: Cultural and Social Changes Later, following the evolvement of industries and development of urban centers, also the lifestyle of poor people improved considerably and this lead to the improvement of music among the poor and the rich.
• Popular Culture and Social Change Across Cultures Popular culture surrounds us everywhere: in our computers and phones, in our homes and outside. It has several functions and a vast potential to unite and divide people.
• Personal and Social Changes The paper will focus on personal and social changes in the lives of two characters, Hem and Haw, and how the changes that take place depend on morality and ethics.
• Communication Strategies for Social Change All these strategies were aimed at trying to solve the tensions between the criminal gangs in Los Angeles [LA] and the police division in endeavour to put down the levels of violence, the conflict in […]
• The Industrial Revolution and Beyond: Culture, Work, and Social Change The Industrial Revolution is the era of massive enormous technological advancements and social changes, which affected people to the extent which is often contrasted to the change from hunter and gathering to agriculture.
• A Healthcare Proposal for a Social Change Moreover, a healthy diet is critical for the overall health of a community and its population and thus will have to be included in the proposal.
• Promoting Social Change in Healthcare through Student-University Alignment Therefore, it is very important for student goals and university mission to match. Otherwise, some of the effort is wasted, and has to be made up for.
• Power and Social Change in the Election System The United States’ election system is more complicated than most countries worldwide because it is a two-party system, and the voters do not directly participate in the governmental decision.
• The Results of the Global Economic and Social Change In world systems, the global economy is a system comprising the association between periphery, semi-periphery, and core countries. Core countries create economic conditions for the development of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations.
• Theories of Social Change: The Role of Technology Civilizations’ rise and fall are the subjects of cyclical theories of social change, which aim to identify and explain the patterns of growth and disintegration.
• Exploring Social Change in America and the World Economic and social distress were the leading causes of the revolution, as well as unemployment and political factors. The valued ideologies of the times of the French Revolution were mainly liberty and equality.
• Social Changes and the Development of Family, Education, and Religion The main changes in the place of religion and churches in communities happened due to the availability of information to the masses. The videos reinforced my beliefs in marriage as a social partnership and the […]
• The Process of Social Change and Resistance Moreover, the black riders were required to pay a fare at the front of the bus and then go to the back of it where the area for people with the “untouchable” status was1.
• Review of “Making Social Change: Engaging a Desire for Social Change” Chapter 9 One should note that Chapter 9 explains some concepts and ideas about the future and progress of society and the state as a whole.
• Analysis of Social Change Ways Fourth, huge companies control the physical environment with their images, goods and services, and the sensitivities that push people to engage to the fullest of their capability in the realm of product consumption and beyond.
• Social Movements and Meaningful Social Change The Black Lives Matter movement is not about individual flaws but the perceived general injustice of the American system, capitalism, and white people’s supremacy.
• Social Entrepreneurship Causing Change in Society Therefore, considering the stages of the social problem, it is argued that the appearance of social entrepreneurship belongs to the alternative stage when people attempt to bring change outside of the system.
• Social Media and Change of Society Members of the first group used various social media over 2 hours a day on average. Participants of the second group used social media quite rarely.
• Social Change Project: Religious Discrimination in the Workplace With the growing number of migrants coming to the United States and ethnic diversity becoming such a pressing issue, religious freedom is an area of advocacy, which is only going to grow in scope and […]
• Families, Gender Relations and Social Change in Brazil The first theory applicable to the problem of domestic violence in Brazil as per the article is feminism, and its importance is defined by the controversy regarding the evolving roles of men and women.
• Community Psychologists as Agents of a Social Change Having concluded my research, I will be able to employ its results for creating a strategy to enhance people’s quality of life and eliminate any discomfort they feel in the community.
• Social Change: Modern, and Postmodern Societies Additionally, the change in consumption patterns and lifestyles has increased the prevalence of cancer and other chronic diseases, prompting intensive scientific research and sophistication in medical technologies.
• Agents of Social Changes: Girls Not Brides Organization In addition, the instrument and consequence of this change is the improvement of the education of girls and women and their rights, which often limit countries with a tradition of child marriage.
• Conflict and Social Change The primary differences of views between Weber, Durkheim, and Marx are based on the sources and approaches regarding social change and conflict.
• Immigration: Political Impacts and Social Changes Particularly, the author posits that the increase in the amount of labor force that immigration entails leads to the improved performance of local companies, hence the rise in GDP rates and the overall increase in […]
• Communication Final Project: Youth Activism, Social Media, and Political Change Through Children’s Books Picture the Dream was an unconventional exhibition of children’s picture books related to the topic of the Civil Rights Movement and was held in the High Museum of Art.
• Global Health Cooperation: A Plan for Social Change The analysis and comparison of the US ACA and the UK Act proves the incorporation of a global perspective into any local practice.
• Beatrice Potter Webb’s Suggestions for Social Change The ideas of social and class equality, the cooperation of people for the common good, the equal distribution of material wealth among all the members of society inspired many intellectuals of that time.
• Role of Social Change in Personal Development 4% of the population and the married constituting 1. 4% of the population and the married constituting 1.
• Globalization Phenomenon: Development and Social Change The success of the project was to be facilitated through abandonment and dismantling of a development project in favor of a more globalized socio-economic order.
• Gender Diversity in the Workplace and Social Changes This is a research paper, seeking to understand and discuss the benefits of gender diversity at the workplace and how far the firefighting industry has come in appreciating the trend.
• Designing Social Change During the 1990s-2000 Design ideologies have in the past listening carefully to the foundation of the technical and methodical rules of the delivery process.
• How Communication for Social Change Can Be Used or Not Used The paper discusses the topic of communication for social change using the article written by Lynn Mizner.
• Designing Social Change During 1970-1979 The period of the 1970s was associated in the United States with substantial social and political reform, in particular with the introduction of truly equal rights and improvement of minorities’ image in the social consciousness […]
• Modernity Theory and Social Change Modernity, science and technology tries to educate the society in letting go of cultural as well as traditional values and embrace modern technology which enhances the progress of a society.
• Thinking About Social Change in America by Putnam The private and public aspects of social capital are also mentioned with the author explaining that the benefits of social capital are varied and can come in different forms for instance there are certain external […]
• Economic Theory: Creating Positive Social Change The theory suggests that the level of employment is determined by the aggregate demand or how much money is spent and not by the cost of labor. Fiscal policy is the use of government expenditure […]
• Fashion as a Mirror for Social Change The restrictive clothing of the previous years, counting up to the ‘Flapper’ era, had been a mark of the suppression of women and was shrouded in societal myth and sexual restraint but became a lesser […]
• Finding Common Ground Through Social Change The issue of race discrimination is familiar to many non-white Americans even though the authorities of the country emphasize the equality of the population.
• Type 2 Diabetes in Bronx Project for Social Change The present paper will discuss the contribution of the project to social justice and social change, as well as the health scholar-practitioners’ role in promoting positive change in healthcare.
• Social Change and Servant Leadership Models They should also focus on the values of their groups. According to the model, groups should embrace the best societal values to achieve their goals.
• Social Work Profession-Related Change on the State Level It happens due to the combination of such factors as the increased demand for services provided by these specialists and the general improvement of the quality of life of people in the majority of states.
• Communities and Social Change Almost every country in the world has contributed to the invention of new technologies and ideas that put them on the same level as the rest of the world.
• Spirituality, Adult Education & Social Change Indeed, many adult educators have found that teaching adult learners for social change is increasingly difficult as it requires a willingness to deal with conflict, opposition, and strong emotions as the adult populations engage in […]
• Pinel and Brace as Social Workers and Change Agents The nature of the targeted challenge is what informs an agent of change to come up with the most desirable initiatives.
• Biological, Social and Behavioral Changes in Children The proponents of this theory argue that as the hardware of the children matures, they understand how to perform complex tasks with more speed and accuracy.
• Social Structural Changes: Living Standards The beliefs and ideas about moral and social constructs were the prototype of the ancient Australian society, and were stipulated in the decorum of the unwritten laws of the day, analysed and inferred upon the […]
• Business & Nonprofit Organisations’ Social Change At the same time, for-profit firms focus on gaining profit as well as try to assess needs of communities and address them.
• Social Change Application to Ex-Felon Disenfranchisement From the recommendations given in the literature, it is possible to see that social advocacy can be used to deal with the problem of ex-felons disenfranchisement.
• Sociological Perspective: Social Change and Environment The validity of the provided definition can be well illustrated, in regards to the fact that, unlike what it used to be the case with them, even as recently as a hundred years ago, today’s […]
• Education, Knowledge, and Social Change Scholars in the field of sociology and education have argued that the practice by most parents to get the best for their children is egocentric and antisocial.
• Welfare Reform – Social Welfare Change Although the social welfare reform discussed above was a watershed in the social wellbeing of poor Americans, other alternatives were equally introduced in order to boost the viability of the on-going initiatives.
• Media for Social Change The responsibility to transform the society socially therefore lies on the producers and the users of these shows and not the owners or the investors of these media avenues.
• How Sociologists Understood Social and Cultural Change The approach involved the comparison of the various components of a society to appendages of an organism. The fundamental characteristic of the organizations in the society is the scheme of principles required for the pursuit […]
• How Will Social Media Change the Future of International Politics? Besides this, social media has also contributed greatly to the development of international politics by increasing the knowledge of politics in different parts of the world and encouraging more young people to participate in politics.
• Social Entrepreneurship and Social Change The positive externality theory assumes that the allocation of social entrepreneurship is largely for the benefit of the society and not targeted towards the profit analysis.
• Empowering and Assessing Social Change of Local Communities Through Participatory Action Research The intention of the research is to facilitate the participation of the local community in identifying the problem and seeking a lasting solution to it.
• Popular Music: Meaningful Contributions to Social and Political Change Music has different classifications depending on various factors including the period in which the music was developed, the type of instruments that the musicians use, the cultural identity of the society that subscribes to the […]
• Media Change Triggering Social and Cultural Change – Foundations, Thinkers, Ideas A change in media, which practically means establishing a new and more progressive way of delivering certain information from one member of the society to another one, triggers a social change.
• Social Pressure and Change The external pressure facing XYZ might make the company to embrace change because the firm has to adhere to societal expectations in regard to environmental responsibility and general community involvement.
• Social and Political Changes The thing is that the Bible was read and understood only by people that knew the Latin language whereas the interpretation of it was in accordance with the principles, goals, and intentions of the church […]
• Gendered Globalization and Social Change This is because the trees that attracted and trapped the moist clouds are no longer existent, thus the farmers have to manually water their crops.
• Effects of the Social, Economic and Technological Change on Marriage In the past decades, the marriage institution has transformed due to the social, economic and technological changes that have resulted to major changes; in population of the married people and their ages, the number of […]
• Social Changes and Civil Rights A nonviolence boycott of this injustice led to changing of the infamous rules, and black people were able to integrate with the rest of the people in social places.
• Social Media and Socio-Political Change Social media and politics Social media has had a lot of impacts on the political happenings that have been witnessed in recent months.
• Social, Economic and Political Conditions of a Slovak Immigrant Group Change from the 1880’s to the 1930’s It was not until the 1930’s and the third generation of Dobrejcaks, that they acquired enough grit and determination to fight for justice, and their civil rights.
• How Do Social Changes Predict Personal Quality of Life?
• Is There a Relationship Between Social Location and the Power to Effect Social Change?
• What Are Social Change Strategies and Their Outcomes?
• How Are Truth, Love, and Social Change Reflected in Literature and the Media?
• Can Religion Encourage Rather Than Inhibit Social Change?
• Why Was the Women’s Rights Movement an Extraordinary Social Change During the 18th and 19th Centuries?
• How Do Organizations and Communities Effect Social Change?
• What Attributes and Practices of Alumni Associations Contribute to Social Change?
• Are Media Technologies Causes or Effects of Social Change?
• How Have Social Movements Affected the Power of Social Change?
• What Are the Various Factors Influencing Social Change in Indian Cultures?
• Does a Psychologist Influence Social Change in Prison and Beyond?
• How Did Slavery and the Power of Rhetoric Effect Social Change?
• Are Paid Work, Women’s Empowerment, and Gender Justice Critical Pathways for Social Change?
• What Are the Negative Side Effects of Education and Its Impact on Social Change?
• How Do the Five Basic Components of Human Societies Affect Social Change?
• Is There a Connection Between Religion and Social Change?
• What Protest Music Is Associated with a Movement for Social Change?
• How Are Social Changes and Changes in Knowledge Related?
• What Is the Relationship Between the Environment and Society, and How Has the Environment Caused Social Change?
• Should There Be a Social Change Concerning Water Use?
• How Do Poverty and Education Affect Social Change?
• Which Women Authors Are Working for Social Change?
• Is Religion a Force for Social Change?
• How Can Organizations and Communities Effect Social Change and Influence People’s Behavior?
• What Was the Role of Women in Uprisings for Social Change?
• How Do Social Changes Affect People and Society?
• Are Social Change and the Overthrow of Patriarchy Connected?
• What Is Person-Oriented Social Change?
• How Did Industrialization Lead to Social Change in the 19th Century?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, November 9). 110 Social Change Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/social-change-essay-topics/

"110 Social Change Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." IvyPanda , 9 Nov. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/social-change-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2023) '110 Social Change Essay Topic Ideas & Examples'. 9 November.

IvyPanda . 2023. "110 Social Change Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." November 9, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/social-change-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "110 Social Change Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." November 9, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/social-change-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "110 Social Change Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." November 9, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/social-change-essay-topics/.

• Global Issues Essay Topics
• Digital Transformation Topics
• Apartheid Essay Topics
• Bureaucracy Paper Topics
• Civil Rights Movement Questions
• Arab Spring Research Topics
• Collective Bargaining Essay Titles
• Birth control Questions
• Cuban Revolution Ideas
• Declaration of Independence Paper Topics
• Culture Topics
• French Revolution Paper Topics
• Gentrification Paper Topics
• Industrial Revolution Research Ideas
• American Revolution Topics

We use cookies to give you the best experience possible. By continuing we’ll assume you’re on board with our cookie policy

• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Topics

40 Social Issues Research Paper Topics

Useful information: Where can I pay someone to write my research paper ?

List of 40 Social Issues Topics for College Students

• Religious gatherings and rituals
• Country-wide strikes and protest
• LGBTQ+ prides
• Worldwide flashmobs
• Social stratification
• Gender discrimination and anti-harassment movements
• The issues of orphanage kids
• Pornography and AI sex dolls
• Sex work or paid rape?
• Virtual reality
• Information overload: the society is overstressed with the amount of data
• Demographic crisis
• Beauty standards
• Social isolation of people with HIV/AIDS
• The fight against animal testing
• Internet safety
• Humanitarian missions
• Fighting racism
• The rights of ethnic minorities and native people
• Internet safety and cybercrimes
• The necessity of the death penalty
• Fighting poverty in the world
• Access to the drinking water in third world countries
• Free education for everyone: shall it be implemented?
• National identity versus globalization
• Women rights and trans people rights
• Obesity as an obstacle in social life. Fatshaming
• Civil rights: shall they be expanded?
• Abuse and neglect in asylums, orphanages, and care homes
• Church and state: shall they remain separate?
• The problem of bigotry in modern society
• Immigration and resocialization of the immigrants
• Sustainable consumption on a worldwide scale
• School violence
• Legalizing drugs: basic rights to choose or a danger to society?
• Social isolation. The hikikomori phenomenon
• Bullying at schools and colleges
• Kids transitioning: shall it be allowed?
• Advertisements: are they becoming too powerful?
• The global impact of the third world countries

By clicking "Log In", you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We'll occasionally send you account related and promo emails.

Sign Up for your FREE account

Forget about ChatGPT and get quality content right away.

104 Social Change Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on social change, 🌶️ hot social change essay topics, 👍 good social change research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting social change research titles, ❓ questions about social change.

• The Impact of Social Change on the Education System
• Social Change and Its Impact on Environment
• Social Change in the 21st Century
• Aspects of Social Change
• Social Exchange Theory in Organizations and Workplaces
• Feminism and Social Change. Feminist Movement
• “The Family: Diversity, Inequality, and Social Change” by Philip Cohen
• Social Issue: Climate Change The topic of climate change was chosen to learn more in the modern sense about the phenomenon that most people have heard about for decades.
• Distance Learning and Social Change Distance learning can be defined as a form of education where learners can learn wherever they are through the use of technology.
• Social Change: The Nurse’s Role in Global Healthcare To advocate for the global perspective on the issue of the opioid crisis and the need to change the current standards for opioid prescription.
• Role, Conflict, Social Exchange Theories in Nursing Role theory, conflict theory, and social exchange theory should be discussed in the case of the nurse that is regularly challenged to prove her self-worth and skills.
• Does a Hashtag Create a Real Social Change? The hashtag #BlackLivesMatter has flooded the Internet in the past few weeks. It has developed into the motto and the slogan of the same name movement.
• Social Changes After the Coronavirus Pandemic The global coronavirus pandemic is rapidly changing the economic, behavioural, and social aspects of people’s lives.
• Social Change and Advocacy Comparison This paper considers the differences between social change and advocacy, discusses their implications, proposes some actions that may assist the Indian Creek Foundation.
• Youth Life and Social Changes in Developed Countries This essay analyzes social changes affecting young people in developed countries in the social, political, economic and cultural spheres.
• The Role of Technology in Social Change In modern times, activism has changed due to the advent of the Internet because it has become much easier to share and spread information.
• Social Changes Caused by World War II This essay examines the most common social changes stemming from World War II and the reasons behind their occurrence.
• Social Change Theory and Social Media Contemporary social change theory is an appropriate framework for talking about social media, but now social media dictate their rules to social theories.
• Media for Social Change: Producers, Viewers, Content Media for social change may be used to create an environment where people can engage in the public realm, mediate disagreements, and encourage civil debate.
• Interpersonal Communication: Social Exchange Theory The general aim of social exchange theory is to describe how humans share ideas or secrets within the realm of established relations.
• Social Change and Social Norms Social change refers to the transformations which occur in society, institutions, cultures, and social functions.
• Social Media and Pursuit of Social Change The global expansion of social media will motivate and energize people into calling for social change due to the platforms’ communicative and mobilizing power.
• MacDonaldization and Marx’s Social Change Model McDonaldization is the take-up of the characteristics of a fast-food place by the society through rationalization of traditional ideologies, modes of management and thinking.
• The Industrial Revolution: Culture, Work and Social Change The industrial revolution was a change of various individuals’ life situation that occurred in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries due to the interest to expand the technologies of industries.
• Social Entrepreneurship Initiatives Change the World From housing access and food inequality to climate change, social entrepreneurship initiatives embark on a journey to facilitate the struggle of the people.
• Treasure Trove or Trash: The Internet and Its Ability to Enact Social Change Today the internet has continued to develop as a collaborative tool in which people are able to continuously submit and improve on the wealth of human knowledge.
• “Development and Social Change” by P. McMichael The contemporary globalization-related discourse revolves around the question of whether the benefits of the world becoming ‘flat’ overweight side effects.
• Men and Women in Leadership and Social Change A study conducted to evaluate the effect of gender on leadership showed a negligible difference between the styles favored by men and women.
• Social Change, Leadership and Advocacy The paper studies concepts of social change, advocacy, and leadership comparing similarities and differences as they all focus on innovation, shifts, and collaboration.
• Social Changes Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic The COVID-2019 pandemic has affected all areas of society, and from the experience gained, people should draw the appropriate conclusions in order to avoid this in the future.
• Race and Ethnicity Social Movement and Change The key issues of race and ethnicity include three major sociological perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.
• Longitudinal Study and Social Change The text describes a longitudinal study that examines the relationship between students’ socio-economic status and the hours spent playing video games on a typical school day.
• Aspects of Media and Social Change It is social media that is the tool that will help current groups fighting to improve the life of society to achieve political, economic, and civilizational goals.
• Aging: Social, Emotional, Cognitive, and Biological Changes Aging is an inevitable process that all people must be ready to face as they move from one stage of life. The process is gradual but can be catalyzed by external factors.
• Social Challenges of Climate Change Climate change is among the most pressing global issues, and it is not easy to find a solution that will work for everyone.
• Population, Social Movements, and Social Change In various ways, the worldwide spread of social media is already influencing how individuals pursue and define social change.
• The Case for Funding Black-Led Social Change “The Case for Funding Black-led Social Change” focuses on eliminating racism and provides invaluable insights on why sufficient funding for black-led social change is essential.
• Social Change Project on Religious Persecution This paper aims to provide a final report on the development and outcomes of the Social Change Project to address the religious persecution problem.
• Social Exchange Theory and Abortion Legalization While the risk of having financial issues influences individuals, they will be more likely to refuse to give birth to a child because of the possible losses in the future.
• Families, Gender Relations and Social Change in Brazil The distinct corporate, economic, and lifestyle changes have unmistakably been the result of women taking part in the social and political movement.
• CBPR Vital for Social Change The assigned case study provides a model for the application of the CBPR approach in improving food security in Bayview Hunters Point Community.
• Social Change and Crime Rate Trends According to Cohen and Felson, structural changes in daily routine activities have a direct influence on the frequency of crime occurrence.
• Analysis of “Tweeting Social Change” Article by Guo & Saxton Guo & Saxton’s article “Tweeting social change” explores how nonprofits organizations utilize social media platforms to pursue their goals and accomplish their mission.
• Socialist Feminist Theories, Solutions and Changes Regarding the important issues in feminism, it is necessary to examine the issues of dualistic typification, beauty ideals, and the beauty industry in the context of feminism.
• Healthcare Research and Social Change Relationship Explaining the relationship between research and social change is complicated given that any project is intended to cover a limited space.
• Culture Dynamics: Social Changes and Role of Migration Social changes are intrinsically interwoven into the cultural ones, which is why the role of migration has to be considered when exploring culture dynamics.
• Climate and Social Change in Global Warming Crisis People in the community should be encouraged to change their behaviors and make better personal choices to mitigate the global warming crisis.
• Social Changes in Iraq This essay will look into the possible social changes in the Iraqi culture and what might have triggered such changes, outline some of the noted effects of the shift.
• Post-Industrial Society: Durkheim’s Social Change Model Durkheim argues that religion is the foundation of thought and being a permanent aspect of humanity it’s the basis of all other social dealings.
• Social Change Through Technological Innovation As people interact in various ways technology has been utilized to enhance aspects of human life and social contacts.
• Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change The role of social marketing image in the spheres of business and social life functioning is presented through promotion of strategic marketing planning process.
• Satire Usage in Film as a Tool for Social Change Satire is a corrective form of humor but it can take different forms. The five films analyzed in this essay are all satires but belong in various sub-categories.
• Social Change: Electoral Reform in the United States Since the 1800s, the Electoral College method of electing a president has been a highly effective election tool that has helped to keep order and sanity.
• “What Goes Around Comes Around”: On the Nature of Social Exchange Social theories can be defined as analytical frameworks or paradigms that are used to understand and interpret social phenomena.
• Parenthood as a Cause of Social Status Change Although men and women accept parenting differently, there are some factors, such as culture or agents of socialization, that shape this process.
• Social Insecurity, Changes, Risks and Communication This work teaches the topic of technology and society and its major concepts and research, such as social insecurity and adaptation to social changes, risks, and communication.
• Mohandas Gandhi and Eleanor Roosevelt as Social Change Agents Gandhi’s struggle against human social injustices started in South Africa. Eleanor Roosevelt is mostly known for her accomplishments in fighting for human rights.
• “Muslims and Social Change in the Atlantic Beach” by Sean Foley Sean Foley in his work tries to bring out the impact of the Muslim in transforming and shaping social and political reform in the Atlantic beach.
• Should Social Norms Change at the Brink of the New Era? Living in a world without any social, political or moral restrictions can hardly seem possible, because the humankind needs certain boundaries which will define the meaning of good and evil.
• Chinese Contemporary Art and Social Change
• Economic and Social Change in Indonesia
• What Are the Biggest Social Change Issues in Cambodia?
• Economic, Political, and Social Change Effect on American Revolution
• The Momentous Social Change in America From 1955 to 1975
• Hoover vs. Roosevelt: Promoting Social Change
• Social Neuroscience and Its Relationship to Social Psychology and Social Change
• African National Congress’s Impact on Social Change
• The Need for Social Change Regarding Animal Abuse
• Education for Social Change: From Theory to Practice
• The Social and Political Implications of Cognitive Psychology and Social Change
• Transition and Social Change in the Romanian Rural Area
• The Relationship Between Religion and Social Change
• Education and Its Impact on Social Change
• The Consumerism, Industrialization, and Social Change During the 18th Century in Britain
• Globalization and Social Change: Gender-specific Effects of Trade Liberalization in Indonesia
• The Different Factors Affecting the Social Change in Indian Cultures
• Cultural and Social Change in the 1960s
• Feminist Pedagogy and Organizing for Social Change
• How Did the American Revolution Lead to Social Changes?
• Are Media Technologies Causes or Consequences of Social Change?
• Does Disaster Bring Positive Social Change?
• How Are Social Change and Changes in Knowledge Linked?
• Does Music Cause Social Change?
• How Can Minority Groups Achieve Social Change?
• What Is Social Change and Why Take It Seriously?
• How Can Organizations and Communities Both Influence Social Change and Affect People’s Behavior?
• Why Is Social Change Important?
• How Did the War Create Social Change?
• What Are the Main Characteristics of Social Change?
• How Does Education Facilitate Social Change?
• Is Social Change Positive or Negative?
• How Does Social Change Affect Individuals and Society?
• What Are the Main Theories of Social Change?
• How Does Social Change Occur?
• What Are the Challenges of Social Change?
• How Does the Internet Affect Social Change?
• What Are the Processes of Social Change?
• How Far Did Alexander III Bring Political and Social Change to Russia?
• Does Social Change Impact the Education System?
• How Has Social Change Impacted Society?
• What Is the Best Way to Cause Social Change?
• How Can Social Media Promote Social Change?
• What Is Social Change According to Karl Marx?
• How Many Stages Are There in Social Change?

Cite this post

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2022, June 5). 104 Social Change Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/social-change-essay-topics/

"104 Social Change Essay Topics." StudyCorgi , 5 June 2022, studycorgi.com/ideas/social-change-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2022) '104 Social Change Essay Topics'. 5 June.

1. StudyCorgi . "104 Social Change Essay Topics." June 5, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/social-change-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "104 Social Change Essay Topics." June 5, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/social-change-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "104 Social Change Essay Topics." June 5, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/social-change-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Social Change were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on December 28, 2023 .

Using social movement research to tackle the world's most pressing problems

Research methods, public opinion polling.

Commissioning respected pollsters, such as YouGov, to measure public opinion on key issues before and after large scale protest campaigns. You can see here an example of our polling work for Just Stop Oil, examining the radical flank effect.

About Social Change Lab

Social Change Lab conducts and disseminates social movement research to help solve the world’s most pressing problems. 

We seek to inform advocates, decision-makers and philanthropists on the best ways to accelerate positive social change.

Our research

Our report on protest outcomes summarises 6 months of our research into the outcomes of protest movements. We covered topics such as the impact of protest movements on policy, public opinion, voter behaviour, and public discourse. We find that protest movements have had significant positive impacts , and think it's very plausible that they will do so in the future.

Our preliminary cost-effectiveness analysis of nonviolent climate protest in the UK also showed that it might have been one of the most cost-effective ways to reduce carbon emissions, at least in the first year of activities.

You can see more of our work on our Research page.

Our research has been featured in:

Social movements can lead to transformative change.

From Civil Rights, to Women's Right to Vote, to LGBTQ+ rights, grassroots activism has played a key role in accelerating moral progress, and moving towards a more just society. 

Despite this, very little research and funding goes into understanding how grassroots social movements can shape policy, public opinion, discourse and more. Even less effort goes into understanding how we can make social movement campaigns more effective.

We seek to address this gap. We think understanding and supporting social movement organisations is a necessary theory of change to bring about much needed change on some of the world's most pressing problems, whether it's the suffering of animals, climate change, or existential risks.

Source: Why philanthropists must invest in an ecology of change, Chloe Cockburn, Stanford Social Innovation Review

Literature reviews

Interviewing experts

Conducting literature reviews of existing political science and sociology research into protest and social movements.

Interviewing policymakers, academics and other experts to determine to what degree successful social change can be attributed to protest movements.

Theory of change analysis

Understanding the causal pathways and mechanisms for which protest movements achieve social change, and examining the robustness of these pathways.

Sign up for updates!

Be the first to hear about new research, events and social movement related news.

Thanks for signing up!

Articles on Social change

Displaying 1 - 20 of 32 articles.

Thirty years of rural health research: South Africa’s Agincourt studies offer unique insights

Stephen Tollman , University of the Witwatersrand and Kathleen Kahn , University of the Witwatersrand

Mr Bates vs The Post Office is perfect social realism: it speaks directly to the public

Lewis Kellett , Sheffield Hallam University

From sexual liberation to fashionable heels, new research shows how women are changing North Korea

Bronwen Dalton , University of Technology Sydney ; Kyungja Jung , University of Technology Sydney , and Lesley Parker , University of Technology Sydney

What social change movements can learn from fly fishing: The value of a care-focused message

Brett Crawford , Grand Valley State University ; Erica Coslor , The University of Melbourne , and Madeline Toubiana , L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa

Climate change can drive social tipping points – for better or for worse

Sonia Graham , University of Wollongong

Craft breweries are fermenting change, addressing local ills while serving local ales

Colleen C. Myles , Texas State University

Three AI experts on how access to ChatGPT-style tech is about to change our world – podcast

Daniel Merino , The Conversation and Nehal El-Hadi , The Conversation

The humanities should teach about how to make a better world, not just criticize the existing one

Robert Danisch , University of Waterloo

Not ‘powerless victims’: how young Iranian women have long led a quiet revolution

Nasim Salehi , Southern Cross University

Building something better: How community organizing helps people thrive in challenging times

Stephanie Malin , Colorado State University and Meghan Elizabeth Kallman , UMass Boston

Agricultural productivity, sex education and gender equity: 5 times soap operas enabled social change

Tom van Laer , University of Sydney

Here’s why China probably won’t dominate the electric car market this year

David Tyfield , Lancaster University

‘Landmark’ verdicts like Chauvin murder conviction make history – but court cases alone don’t transform society

Jennifer Reynolds , University of Oregon

Kiwiana is past its use-by date. Is it time to re-imagine our symbols of national identity?

Katie Pickles , University of Canterbury

Five things coronavirus can teach us about life and death

Tony Walter , University of Bath

A little humour may help with climate change gloom

Lakshmi Magon , University of Toronto

Why ‘acting locally’ is impossible in an interconnected world

Jennifer M. Bernstein , USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

AI could be a force for good – but we’re currently heading for a darker future

Marcus Tomalin , University of Cambridge and Stefanie Ullmann , University of Cambridge

How non-profits can use business as a force for good

Jean-Baptiste Litrico , Queen's University, Ontario and Marya Besharov , Cornell University

Utopia isn’t just idealistic fantasy – it inspires people to change the world

Heather Alberro , Nottingham Trent University

Related Topics

• Climate change
• Conservation
• Informal economy
• Neoliberalism
• Philanthropy and nonprofits
• Transgender

Top contributors

Associate Professor and Host of ChangeMakers Podcast, University of Sydney

Associate Professor of Narratology, University of Sydney

Principal Lecturer in Psychology, University of Brighton

Professor of Community Information, University of Michigan

Professor in Sustainable Transitions and Political Economy, Lancaster University

Assistant Professor of Professional Practice and Associate Director of Public and Digital Humanities Initiatives, Rutgers University - Newark

Professor Emeritus of Death Studies, University of Bath

Senior Research Associate in the Machine Intelligence Laboratory, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge

Professor of Law, University of Utah

Morse Alumni Distinguished Teaching Professor of Music, University of Minnesota

Professor of Sociology, University of Arizona

Associate Professor of Sociology; Co-Founder, Center for Environmental Justice at CSU, Colorado State University

Honorary Professor of Social Science, University of Wollongong; Adjunct Professor, Faculty of Arts, Charles Sturt University

Postdoctoral Fellow, Dartmouth Society of Fellows, Dartmouth College

Demographer, POLIS Centre for Social Policy Research, Australian National University

• X (Twitter)
• Unfollow topic Follow topic

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

Toward a Psychology of Social Change: A Typology of Social Change

Millions of people worldwide are affected by dramatic social change (DSC). While sociological theory aims to understand its precipitants, the psychological consequences remain poorly understood. A large-scale literature review pointed to the desperate need for a typology of social change that might guide theory and research toward a better understanding of the psychology of social change. Over 5,000 abstracts from peer-reviewed articles were assessed from sociological and psychological publications. Based on stringent inclusion criteria, a final 325 articles were used to construct a novel, multi-level typology designed to conceptualize and categorize social change in terms of its psychological threat to psychological well-being. The typology of social change includes four social contexts: Stability, Inertia, Incremental Social Change and, finally, DSC. Four characteristics of DSC were further identified: the pace of social change, rupture to the social structure, rupture to the normative structure, and the level of threat to one's cultural identity. A theoretical model that links the characteristics of social change together and with the social contexts is also suggested. The typology of social change as well as our theoretical proposition may serve as a foundation for future investigations and increase our understanding of the psychologically adaptive mechanisms used in the wake of DSC.

“Change— extremely rapid social change —is the most important fact of life today” (Nolan and Lenski, 2011 , p. xiii).

Zoia is a lively 75-year-old Baboushka . Her eventful life has seen her experience some less-than-welcome adventures, but she has always managed to adapt to unfamiliar circumstances. After completing her studies in Moscow, she was, like many other young educated Russians, deported by USSR authorities to another state. Her destination was Frunze (later renamed Bishkek), a land in Central Asia warmer than hers and made slightly cooler by its unfamiliarity. Despite the diversity of Frunze, with ethnic Kyrgyz, Ukrainians, and other Slavic groups forming sizeable minorities, the Russian population remained a majority. During the Soviet era, Zoia was told that she lived in one of the most powerful countries in the world, where crime rates were low and the population enjoyed decent education and food supply, as well as the opportunity to save money for retirement.

The diversity of ethnicities eventually bred great tension, and the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s deeply affected Zoia's life. At the age of 54, she learned that her country was in ruins, that her rights as a Russian were diminished and that her language was widely frowned upon within the newly formed Kyrgyz Republic, Kyrgyzstan. Meanwhile, the disorganized authority allowed for an explosion in crime rates and increasing scarcity of resources. Zoia lost all of her life savings. The money she earned was no longer sufficient to cover basic necessities. Despite her position as a chief engineer, Zoia was forced to work a second job selling newspapers at the corner of her street just to make ends meet.

Although Zoia's story may seem uniquely dramatic, it is only one among over one billion (Sun and Ryder, 2016 ). Social change is indiscriminately pervasive and global—restricted to neither developing nor western worlds (e.g., Ponsioen, 1962 ; Smith, 1973 ; Chirot and Merton, 1986 ; Zuck, 1997 ; Sztompka, 1998 ; Fukuyama, 1999 ; Weinstein, 2010 ; Nolan and Lenski, 2011 ; Greenfield, 2016 ). Dramatic social change (DSC) is the new normal and can be witnessed presently across a multitude of contexts from political and economic upheaval, to desperate mass migration, and from natural or human disasters to technological advances.

Social change has always been a field of great interest for the social sciences, especially among sociologists since it seems that “all sociology is about change” (Sztompka, 1993 , p.xiii; see also Sztompka, 2004 ). Many sociology texts have entire sections devoted to social change (e.g., Bauman, 2003 ; Latour, 2005 ; Hewitt et al., 2008 ; Giddens et al., 2011 ) all aimed at addressing one main question: What leads to social change ? Many sociological theories have been suggested to explain the different “macro” processes associated with the onset of revolutions, social movements, or important technological changes. A “macro” theory focuses on the structural factors or defining events that contribute to DSC and are useful when considering how social changes are brought upon an entire group, community, institution, nation, or indeed society as a whole. The macro approach, however, is seriously limited when it comes to “micro” processes, which focus on the equally important question of the consequences of social change, or, in other words, how individual group members are impacted by social change (e.g., Rogers, 2003 ). Thus, the exclusive research focus on macro processes has left unanswered the pivotal question: What are the psychological consequences of social change?

Given the potentially dire consequences of DSC, it is surprising that psychologists have neglected it as a topic of rigorous academic pursuit, particularly given the current reality of vast globalization and massive immigration. To date, research focusing on the impact of social change on the well-being of individuals has not been clearly established (Kim, 2008 ; Liu et al., 2014 ). Moreover, the adaptation mechanisms that people develop when coping with such contexts remain largely unknown (Pinquart and Silbereisen, 2004 ).

The goal of the present paper is to argue that psychology needs to focus on the psychology of social change (de la Sablonnière et al., 2013 ; de la Sablonnière and Usborne, 2014 ). I argue that the bridge between the “macro” processes of social change and the “micro” processes of its psychological impacts have yet to be built. I suggest that social scientists must first focus on conceptualizing social change in a manner that includes both macro and micro processes in order to understand individuals' adaptation to social change. Thus, as the first step in moving toward a psychology of social change, I target what is considered the most difficult challenge: conceptualizing social change.

First and foremost, conceptualizing social change requires untangling the complexity of the topic by formulating a typology of social change (see Table ​ Table1). 1 ). To that end, a large-scale meta-review that assembled original perspectives, theories and definitions of social change within both the sociological and psychological literature was performed. The typology of social change that emerged distinguishes four separate social contexts associated with social change: stability, inertia, incremental social change, and DSC. DSC, because of its frequency in today's world, and because it is threatening to people, requires special attention. Thus, the proposed typology of social change drills deeper and articulates four necessary characteristics for a change or an event to be labeled as “dramatic social change”: rapid pace of change, rupture in social structure, rupture in normative structure, and threat to cultural identity. Finally, I come full circle by proposing a theoretical model that links together the four characteristics of DSC within the proposed typology of social change (see Figure ​ Figure1). 1 ). In sum, the typology of social change I am suggesting can be useful to create a theoretical consensus among researchers about what social change is that perhaps will allow for a coordinated, evidence based strategy to address the psychology of social change.

The typology of social change .

Proposed theoretical model .

Social change in sociology and psychology

Today, the field of sociology is at the forefront of social change theory and research, with a particular focus upon the factors that constitute and are prerequisites to social change. Within the sociological literature, three main theories have been championed for their attempt to explain social change: Evolutionary Theory, Conflict Theory , and Functionalist Theory . Each theory is characterized by key descriptive interpretations in Table ​ Table2 2 where a global overview of the conceptualization of social change is offered 1 .

Theories of social change in sociology .

Despite the first appearance of “social change” in the psychological literature more than 70 years ago, only a few isolated psychologists have focused on social change per se and even fewer have offered a clear definition or conceptualization of the concept. The first paper that defined social change was published in the Academy of Political and Social Science and was entitled Psychology of Social Change . Social change was defined as “always a slow and gradual process” (Marquis, 1947 , p. 75). From that point in time to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, there have been very few attempts to reintroduce social change into the field of psychology (e.g., Pizer and Travers, 1975 ; Schneiderman, 1988 ). However, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the fall of the Berlin Wall, there has been a small surge of research on social change in psychology. For example, several edited books (e.g., Thomas and Veno, 1992 ; Breakwell and Lyons, 1996 ; Crockett and Silbereisen, 2000 ) and special issues of journals (Silbereisen and Tomasik, 2010 ; Blackwood et al., 2013 ) have focused exclusively on social change and on people's reactions to it. For clarity purposes, Table ​ Table3 3 attempts to summarize the various theories or perspectives in different subfields of cultural and social psychology while Table ​ Table4 4 attempts to do so in subfields of psychology.

Theories and perspectives addressing social change in social psychology .

Theories addressing social change in subfields of psychology .

Limitations of current research and conceptualization of social change in sociology and psychology

As indicated in the summary tables, both contemporary and traditional theorists in sociology and psychology have addressed social change through a variety of macro sociological or societal lenses, and equally from a plethora of micro, psychological, or individual perspectives. Theory and research thus far has demonstrated that social change is a complex entity (e.g., McGrath, 1983 ; Buchanan et al., 2005 ; Subašić et al., 2012 ) that can be conceptualized in many diverging (and confusing) ways. The challenge associated with defining social change may well be to explain why it is an understudied phenomenon (de la Sablonnière et al., 2013 ) and highlight the challenge of moving forward in studying its psychological impact on ordinary people. The typology of social change presented here offers an initial attempt at clarifying the meaning of social change from a psychological perspective. That is, I focus on an individualistic perspective, but attempt to address the role that macro processes play in terms of our more micro or psychological focus. Here, I discuss three main issues that point to the necessity to properly conceptualize DSC.

First, and most importantly, the conceptualization and understanding of social change does not reach a consensus within the scientific literature (e.g., Coughlin and Khinduka, 1976 ). Furthermore, few scientists define precisely what they mean when using the concept (e.g., Saran, 1963 ). For example, when social change is studied from a social identity theory perspective (Tajfel and Turner, 1986 ), or a sociological conflict theory perspective, social change is conceptualized almost exclusively in the context of collective action (Krznaric, 2007 ). In light of this, collective action is defined as a means for group members to achieve an improved social position for their group in the social hierarchy (Taylor and McKirnan, 1984 ; Batel and Castro, 2015 ; de Lemus and Stroebe, 2015 ). In contrast, cultural psychology and developmental psychology conceptualize social change in a broader manner (e.g., societal transformations such as the fall of the Soviet Union; immigration) where change is not limited to the context of intergroup conflict (Pinquart and Silbereisen, 2004 ; Sun and Ryder, 2016 ). The fact that there is divergence in conceptualizing social change is preventing coordinated research on social change, because not all types of social change are considered. With some theories (e.g., relative deprivation theory, social identity theory, evolutionary theory, conflict theory), social change is conceived mostly as an autonomously controlled and unidirectional process toward group change; these conceptualizations do not account for social changes that are outside of human control, such as natural disasters (e.g., Coughlin and Khinduka, 1976 ). Equating social change with collective action (see Stroebe et al., 2015 ), for example, neglects uncontrollable social transformations such as socio-political reforms and natural disasters over which individuals or groups exert no control. Indeed, the majority of individuals who experience DSC have little control over such events. Since previous classifications can only explain some instances of social change, a theory that would clarify the characteristics required in conceptualizing DSC for all types of change has become a necessity.

The second issue that points to the need for a typology of social change is that not all social contexts associated with social change (i.e., stability and inertia) were considered in previous scientific literature. Most theoretical and empirical work on social change in both sociology and psychology has focused on either incremental social change or DSC (e.g., Andersson et al., 2014 ; Bernstrøm and Kjekshus, 2015 ). However, in order to have a complete theory or typology of social change, it is also necessary to take into account social contexts where there is no social change, contexts of either stability or inertia (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). Knowing about incremental social change, inertia and stability, as well as how they relate to DSC is psychologically critical. A clear definition of the four social contexts of social change can facilitate finding solutions for the population to not only the consequences associated with DSC, but also the considerable and potentially unique challenges associated with each of these social contexts (see Abrams and Vasiljevic, 2014 ). For example, a society in a state of inertia may be misconceived as a society in a state of DSC if no clear understanding of each social context is achieved. In inertia, there might be less hope for reverting to a healthy society and consequently less long-term goals that are developed, whereas a time of DSC, such as a political revolution, may provide some hope for the future and some possibilities for some concrete long-term goals. Although the main focus of our paper is DSC, the full spectrum of social contexts associated with social change is presented. A more comprehensive theory of social change capable of accounting for stability, inertia as well as incremental and DSC is required to fully understand the psychological processes and ramifications of social change. Moreover, it is important to define stability, inertia, and incremental social change because they serve as a base for comparison or contrast to DSC. As Calhoun notes: “To understand social change, thus, it is necessary also to understand what produces social continuity” (Calhoun, 2000 , p. 2642).

Finally, the third issue that pushes me to develop a typology of social change is that, mainly in sociology, a specific event that can be characterized as social change can be interpreted in light of different theories of social change. Let us take the 2005 Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan as an example. Evolutionary theorists may argue that this revolution followed the natural evolution of Kyrgyz society. On the other hand, functionalist theorists may argue that there was disequilibrium in Kyrgyzstan at the time of the revolution. However, it would be beneficial to conceptualize social change the same way in order to be able to assess its impact on individuals. What is needed is a conceptualization of social change that can be interpreted in light of all the theories and processes that have been developed thus far. When an in-depth analysis of the literature is performed, the essential characteristics that define social change across theories may be ascertained. For example, one of the characteristics that was identified in conceptualizing DSC was the rapid pace of social change. The rapid vs. slow pace of social change is important, for instance, to distinguish a DSC from an incremental social change where transformations in the social structure take place without major disruptions. Whether one conceptualizes social change from a functionalist theory, a social identity theory, or a developmental theory perspective, most researchers from these distinctive fields point to the pace of change as one pivotal and essential element that characterizes DSC. Thus, when I base the typology of social change upon such characteristics, garnered from previous research in both sociology and psychology, an all-encompassing conceptualization of social change may be obtained, and later used to guide empirical research independently of the diverging theoretical perspectives.

My observations on the limitations of sociology and psychology should not detract from the insightful contributions these disciplines have made to our understanding of social change. Indeed, these social scientists have tapped into very important issues. For example, although collective action is not the only type of social change, the research on this topic has successfully identified factors that lead individuals and groups to be dissatisfied with their conditions and engage in collective action. However, as Sampson ( 1989 ) pointed out: “we have not gone far enough in connecting our theories of the person with social change, in particular, with major historic transformation in the social world” (p. 417). Since our contemporary social world is characterized by social change (Weinstein, 2010 ), like Sampson ( 1989 ), I argue that “a psychology for tomorrow is a psychology that begins actively to chart out a theory of the person that is no longer rooted in the liberal individualistic assumptions, but is reframed in terms more suitable to resolving the issues of a global era” (p. 431).

In sum, social change needs to be clearly examined because future research is limited without an all-inclusive typology of social change; one that can bridge the epistemological differences between theories from various fields of research and diverging theoretical perspectives. What is needed is a clear conceptualization of social change that considers, and includes, the different characteristics that compose DSC and that were suggested by researchers from all these diverging areas and theoretical orientations.

Constructing a typology of social change: the characteristics of DSC

Two separate databases from sociology and psychology were targeted to collate relevant peer-reviewed publications: Sociology Abstracts and PsycInfo. Including the year 2016, a total of 5,676 abstracts were carefully analyzed (90% inter-judge reliability; Table ​ Table5). 5 ). Two inclusion criteria were used to determine if a manuscript was relevant to our typology of social change. First, the selected abstract, and then the articles, needed to a) focus on social change by including a relevant original definition or providing an original perspective on the concept (originality), or b) focus on one's perspective of social change at either the individual or group level (perceptions).

Number of abstracts and articles that satisfied the specified inclusion criteria .

When reviewing the literature, I had one main goal: selecting and identifying the necessary characteristics of DSC that could either be present or not in other social contexts (i.e., stability, inertia, and incremental social change). Scientists refer to the characteristics in two different ways: (1) formally, when defining or describing DSC, incremental social change, stability, or inertia, and (2) informally, when introducing their research on social change 2 . I made sure that the included articles sufficiently addressed one or more of the four selected characteristics (i.e., rapid pace of change, rupture in social structure, rupture in normative structure, and threat to cultural identity, see Table ​ Table6). 6 ). These four characteristics were chosen after a first reading of each of the articles (up to October 2013). They emerged most consistently and were singled out more often for their importance. From prior knowledge, I anticipated that “pace of change” and “social structure” would surface. The other two emerged naturally. From prior knowledge, I also expected the term “valence of change” (i.e., negative change) to emerge (e.g., Slone et al., 2002 ; de la Sablonnière and Tougas, 2008 ; de la Sablonnière et al., 2009c ; Kim, 2008 ). However, that characteristic did not appear in a significant number of papers. The fact that some authors report “positive” change as having negative consequences (e.g., Prislin and Christensen, 2005 ; Bruscella, 2015 ) and “negative” change as having positive consequence (e.g., Yakushko, 2008 ; Abrams and Vasiljevic, 2014 ) may explain why the valence did not emerge as an important characteristic of DSC.

Characteristics of dramatic social change .

To conceptualize an event as DSC, all four characteristics must be present. For example, if an event is affecting only the normative structure in a gradual manner, it would not be possible to label that event as DSC. As for the other three social contexts (stability, inertia, and incremental social change), each has its own unique configuration of characteristics (see Figure ​ Figure1 1 ) 3 .

The pace of change

The first characteristic that emerged regards the pace , which could either be slow or rapid, and is defined as the speed at which an event impacts a collectivity . When defining social change, researchers from both sociology and psychology distinguish two types of social change based on the pace of change: incremental (e.g., first-order change, beta change, decline, gradual, small-scale) and dramatic (e.g., second-order, gamma, abrupt, collapse, large-scale).

Theories of social change have explicitly and/or implicitly acknowledged the pace of social change as a central determining factor toward its characterization. For example, in one of the earliest versions of their seminal book, Lenski and Lenski ( 1974 ) state: “The most striking feature of contemporary life is the revolutionary pace of social change. Never before have things changed so fast for so much of mankind” (Lenski and Lenski, 1974 , p. 3, see also Fried, 1964 ; Rudel and Hooper, 2005 ). In their new edition entitled Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology , Nolan and Lenski ( 2011 ) describe how slowly human evolution has progressed for thousands of years until about 100 years ago, when humans began to evolve at an accelerated pace. Similarly, Weinstein ( 2010 ) suggests that for the last few decades, there has been “rapid and accelerating rates of change in human relations, from the interpersonal to the international level” (p. xvii).

It is worthwhile to note that a few key authors refer to pace when distinguishing different types of social change. For example, in organizational psychology, Nadler and Tushman ( 1995 ) distinguish slow “incremental” change from fast “discontinuous” change, where the latter would be characterized as DSC in the typology of social change. According to these authors, incremental changes are intended to continually improve the fit among the components of an organization. These changes can either be small or large; nonetheless, there is a succession of manageable changes and adaptation processes. In contrast, discontinuous changes are often linked to major changes in the global scope of the industry and involve a complete break with the past as well as a major reconstruction of almost all elements of the organization. These changes are more traumatic, painful, and demanding as individuals are required to acquire a whole new set of behaviors and discard old patterns. These dramatic changes are not made to improve the fit, but to construct a new collectivity, be it a nation-state, institution or sub-group of the larger collectivity. Newman ( 2000 ) also distinguishes between first-order change and second-order change in the context of organizations. According to him, a first-order change, which is equivalent to incremental social change, “is most likely during times of relative environmental stability and is likely to take place over extended periods of time” (Newman, 2000 , p.604). In other words, this type of change occurs slowly and allows the organization and its members to adapt to the changes gradually. However, a second-order change, or DSC, is radical, and transforms the core of the organization (Newman, 2000 ). In this case, the change is so sudden that it does not necessarily allow individuals to adapt to the process (Buchanan et al., 2005 ). Similarly, Rogers ( 2003 ) defines social change as abrupt and arises when the entire system is modified and jeopardized because changes are too fast for the system to adjust. In his book, Diamond ( 2005 ) contrasts “decline”—where minor ups and downs do not restructure the society—with “collapse”—an extreme form of several milder types of decline—which make it a DSC. An example of collapse is when most of the inhabitants of a population vanish as a result of ecological disasters, starvation, war, or disease. Examples of this are genocides such as Rwanda's which claimed around 800,000 lives, destroyed much of the country's infrastructure and displaced four million people (Des Forges, 1999 ; Zorbas, 2004 ; Pham et al., 2004 ; Staub et al., 2005 ; Schaal and Elbert, 2006 ; Prunier, 2010 ; Yanagizawa-Drott, 2014 ), the Armenian Massacres, which saw the systematic extermination of about 1.5 million minority Armenians in Turkey (Dadrian, 1989 , 1998 ) or Cambodia's genocide, which involved the death of almost two million people through the Khmer Rouge's policies of relocation, mass executions, torture, forced labor, malnutrition, and disease (Hannum, 1989 ). All these events led to an inordinate number of deaths and population movements in a short, restricted period of time.

To be considered dramatic , a social change needs to be quick and must involve a “break with the past” (Nadler and Tushman, 1995 ; see also Armenakis et al., 1986 ). The example most often used in the literature is the breakdown of the communist system in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (e.g., Kollontai, 1999 ; Pinquart et al., 2009 ; Round and Williams, 2010 ; Walker and Stephenson, 2010 ; Chen, 2015 ). For example, when Pinquart et al. ( 2004 , p. 341) introduced their research on social change, they made a distinction between “gradual” change, such as ideological change in many Western societies, and “abrupt social change,” which represents a form of social change that may be spurred by a sudden, dramatic transformation of economic, political, and social institutions.

Rupture in the social structure

The second characteristic of DSC that emerges from my review regards a rupture in the social structure of a collectivity or a group. Social structure is a term that has several different uses in the sociological literature and this is, in part, because of the lack of agreement on how the term social structure should be defined (Porpora, 1989 ; López and Scott, 2000 ). One main dispute pits the dualism of “action” (or agency) vs. “structure” in mainstream sociological work (for a discussion see López and Scott, 2000 ). Consequently, many of the definitions describe behaviors rather than the role of social institutions (e.g., Cortina et al., 2012 ; Tanner and Jackson, 2012 ; Wilson, 2012 ). For example, Tanner and Jackson ( 2012 ) define social structure as “the formation of groups via connections among individuals” (p. 260), which focuses on meso-level interactions among individuals. Similarly, Macionis et al. ( 2008 ) define social structure as “any relatively stable pattern of social behavior” (p. 13).

The social structure being discussed in the present paper refers to macro-level elements of society such as institutions that facilitate and structure collective interactions, roles or behaviors. Thus, directly inspired from the most prominent definitions of social structure in the literature (Marx, 1859/1970 ; Giddens, 1979 ; Porpora, 1989 ; López and Scott, 2000 ; Stinchcombe, 2000 ), social structure is defined here as a system of socio-economic stratification, social institutions, organizations, national policies and laws that help structure the norms, roles, behaviors, and values of community members 4 .

In both sociology and psychology, a rupture in the social structure is at the heart of definitions of social change. For example, for Breakwell and Lyons ( 1996 ), changes involve the disintegration of previous national and international order and sets in motion a process of re-definition and re-evaluation of societal norms, belief systems, and power structures. While the communal sense of continuity and permanence is challenged, social change often represents a period of massive transformations in political, social, and economic structures (e.g., Goodwin, 1998 ; Kim and Ng, 2008 ; Chen, 2012 ). This conceptualization is similar to the definition inspired by sociologists and provided by Silbereisen and Tomasik ( 2010 , p. 243) where “social change is understood as a more or less rapid and comprehensive change of societal structures and institutions, including changes to the economic, technological, and cultural frameworks of a society (Calhoun, 1992 )” or to Kohn's definition of radical social change: “we refer not to the pace of change but to the nature of the change—the transformation of one political and economic system into a quite different system” (Kohn et al., 1997 , p. 615).

When research focuses on collective action, social structure is placed at the root of their definition. For example, “Breakdown Theories” in sociology argue that social movements result from the disruption or breakdown of previously integrative social structures. This theory regards collective action as a form of social imbalance that results from the improper functioning of social institutions (Tilly et al., 1975 ). Macionis et al. ( 2008 ) also suggest that, “revolutionary social movements attempt to target the whole collectivity by radically changing social institutions” (p. 452). Put differently, for social movements and collective action to occur, social institutions—consequently, the social structure of society—needs to be altered. In other words, social change “is the sudden shifting of power from group to group” (Schrickel, 1945 , p. 188). To many authors, DSC involves a rupture in the social structure (e.g., Prilleltensky, 1990 ) where people need to “negotiate their way through or around social structures” (May, 2011 , p. 367).

Rupture in the normative structure

The third characteristic of DSC that emerged from the literature is the rupture in the normative structure of society. While reading on the subject, I noticed an important distinction between social structure and normative structure. As mentioned in the previous section, that distinction pointed to a duality that is also observed by theorists in sociology who attempt to define social structure (e.g., Giddens, 1979 ; Mayhew, 1980 ; Porpora, 1989 ; López and Scott, 2000 ). Although both the social and normative structures refer to the functioning of a society, they each point to two different aspects of communities and groups. As discussed earlier, the social structure is associated with macro processes such as social institutions (e.g., Government), whereas the normative structure is related to micro processes as they principally refer to community members' habitual behaviors and norms.

Based on the work of Taylor and de la Sablonnière ( 2013 , 2014 ), the normative structure is defined here as the behaviors of most community members whose aim is achieving collective goals . In other terms, when the normative structure is clear, people know what to do and when to engage in specific behaviors in order to meet the overarching goals of the collectivity. The definition of normative structure also takes its inspiration from an array of different domains in the scientific literature. Mainly, it comes from the definitions of social change that most often involve a change in behaviors and habits that are disrupted with the event of a dramatic and rapid social change. For example, Bishop ( 1998 , p. 406) clearly states that social change in its transformational form refers to “the ability of a group to behave differently, even to creating brand-new elements, within the same social identity.” This definition concurs with definitions of many more authors, such as Delanty's ( 2012 ) concept of “normative culture” or May's (2011), where the mundane “ordinary” activities take a central place in social change.

Research and theories on social change have put normative structure as one of its central tenants. For example, Tomasik et al. ( 2010 ), argue that social change involves “changes of the macro-context that disturb habits, interrupt routines, or require novel behaviors relevant for a successful mastery” (p. 247). These authors also assert that when a gradual social change occurs, “old options of thinking and behaving are usually still available whereas abrupt social change is often associated with an immediate blocking of old options” (Pinquart and Silbereisen, 2004 , p. 295). Therefore, in the latter case, it will be necessary to develop new ways of doing things.

Jerneić and Šverko ( 2001 ) argue that “major political and socioeconomic changes may strongly influence people's life role priorities, which are otherwise relatively stable behavioral dispositions” (p. 46). In fact, the normative structure of a society is comprised not only of norms and behaviors, but also of roles that people have in their everyday lives. When a DSC occurs, these normative elements of people's lives are all greatly affected to the point where they need to be redefined. Similarly, McDade and Worthman ( 2004 ) refer to “socialization ambiguity,” a state present in the context of DSC where “inconsistent messages or conflicting expectations regarding appropriate beliefs and social behavior during the course of socialization may be a substantial source of stress for the developing individual” (p. 52; see also Arnett, 1995 ; Tonkens, 2012 ).

This rupture in the normative structure of society is present not only when radical changes such as natural disasters occur, but also when social change is the result of collective actions within a society. Subašić et al. ( 2012 ) acknowledge that “what we do is evidently shaped by social norms, by institutional possibilities, and institutional constraints. But equally, we can act—act together that is—to alter norms, institutions, and even whole social systems” (p. 66). Therefore, when members of a society come together and engage in collective actions, an important aspect of society they aim to change deals with the norms and normative structure.

The importance of the normative component involved in DSC is in accordance with the Normative Theory of Social Change, developed by Taylor et al. (Taylor and de la Sablonnière, 2013 , 2014 ; see also de la Sablonnière et al., 2009b ). According to their theory, any group—whether it be at the collective, community or country level—functions along the basic 80-20 principle in times of stability. According to this principle, most of the citizens in a functioning society (i.e., 80% of them) will exhibit normative behaviors that agree with the normative structure of the society in order to accomplish collective goals such as achieving a healthy society, and by extension, personal goals such as maintaining a healthy lifestyle. It is the 80% that provide social support, when necessary, to the 20% of citizens who do not function successfully in the society. In theory, as long as there is a decent majority of people who conform to the normative structure, a society should function relatively smoothly. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. Sometimes, when a society is confronted with DSC, its normative structure is ruptured which may lead to societal dysfunction or important disruptions in the “usual” behavior of group members. In such a situation, the amount of group members exhibiting behaviors that are in agreement with the collective goals of the group will be lower than usual. Therefore, it is possible that instead of having 80% of group members acting according to the normative rules of the society, only 30 or 40 % of individuals will follow these rules. In this case, it becomes very difficult for people to restore the functional equilibrium of the normative structure as only a few group members are in a position to provide the necessary social support for the entire society to function properly (Taylor and de la Sablonnière, 2014 ). What is suggested here is consistent with the work of Albert and Sabini ( 1974 ). These authors refer to the importance of a supportive environment, or social support, which has a sufficient presence in “slow change,” but not when the context is one of rapid change.

Threat to cultural identity

The fourth characteristic of social change is threats to the cultural identity of a group. This characteristic is a difficult one to label since different authors use different terms to describe a threat to cultural identity (i.e., lack of clarity, identity conflict, identity crisis, lowered identification, identity confusion). As opposed to terms such as identity conflict, identity crisis, lack of identity clarity and identity change, “threat to cultural identity” was chosen for its capacity to suggest a potential modification in identity. To be considered DSC, the cultural identity in its current form must somehow be jeopardized, challenged, or lowered. Values and beliefs are, per se , questioned and the individual may sense a general lack of clarity and feel threatened to the core of his group identity, value system, or beliefs.

Many scientists have defined and researched collective and/or cultural identity. Recently, Ashmore et al. ( 2004 ) have defined collective identity as “first and foremost a statement about categorical membership. A collective identity is one that is shared with a group of others who have (or are believed to have) some characteristic(s) in common” (p. 81). This definition is similar to the one from Taylor ( 1997 ), in which cultural identity is referred to as the beliefs about shared rules and behaviors (Taylor, 1997 , 2002 ; Usborne and de la Sablonnière, 2014 ).

When a social change occurs, it threatens the cultural identity of all community members. In the present paper, inspired from previous work on cultural identity, I define threat to cultural identity as a serious threat to identification and to the clarity of the shared beliefs, values, attitudes, and behavioral scripts associated with one's group . Throughout the literature I reviewed, cultural identity threat was manifested according to three main themes. The first theme that stood out is that threats to identity are associated with a loss of identity or an identity change (e.g., subtractive identification pattern; de la Sablonnière et al., 2016 ). Some authors directly mention the threat to cultural identity within the context of major social change (e.g., Vaughan, 1986 ; Smelser and Swedberg, 1994 ; Sztompka, 2000 ; Wyn and White, 2000 ; Van Binh, 2002 ; Terry and Jimmieson, 2003 ). For example, in his paper on how cultures change as a function of mass immigration Moghaddam ( 2012 ) argues that globalization results in sudden contact among different groups of people from different countries. This form of sudden contact has often resulted in the extinction of many cultures and languages such as Indigenous peoples around the world. Therefore, globalization makes people feel that their collective identity is threatened. Specifically, they experience a loss in many components of their cultural identity including their values and their language (see also Van Binh, 2002 ). The process described by Moghaddam is similar to the one proposed by Lapuz ( 1976 ) who argues that when social change occurs rapidly, people's beliefs and values are threatened since the old guidelines are no longer available. One consequence of this threat is that people become confused as values and beliefs contribute to the emotional security and psychological survival of individuals (Lapuz, 1976 ; Varnum, 2008 ). This is in agreement with Albert's ( 1977 ) proposition: “Rapid change constitutes a major threat to self-identity” (p. 499). Similarly, in their book entitled Changing European Identities , Breakwell and Lyons ( 1996 ) discuss the mechanisms associated with change in identities in the context of the development of the European Union and refer to a loss of national identity. This change in cultural identity is similar to what Wall and Louchakova ( 2002 ) describe as a “shift in the cultural collective consciousness” (p.253). This consists of a change in the American self and the emergence of new selves, more independent and alive in the context of change (see also Neves and Caetano, 2009 ; May, 2011 ).

The second theme is associated with the lack of identity clarity in the event of DSC. This lack of clarity is due to uncertainties or inconsistencies in the definition of one's identity. A clear cultural identity is defined as “the extent to which beliefs about one's group are clearly and confidently defined” (Usborne and Taylor, 2010 , p. 883; see also Taylor, 2002 ). It has been theorized and demonstrated that an unclear cultural identity can result in lower self-esteem (Usborne and Taylor, 2010 ). Thus, if the entire collective is experiencing an unclear cultural identity, it may affect people's ability to function effectively in their society. Similarly, Macionis et al. ( 2008 ) refer to inconsistencies in the context of socialization in times of important change. People try to seek out new roles, try new “selves” (Macionis et al., 2008 , p.461). They need to adapt to the inconsistent model their societies are projecting, which leads to “socialization ambiguity” (McDade and Worthman, 2004 , p. 49). Because social change brings uncertainty in society, it can affect many aspects of individuals' lives such as family relations (Noak et al., 2001 ), and aspects associated with the self such as “emotions, values, perceptions, identity” (Wall and Louchakova, 2002 , p. 266).

Finally, as a third theme, authors refer to conflicting identities within the context of dramatic contextual change. For example, Becker conducted a study to find out how rapid social change, such as introducing television in a community that had never owned televisions before, would impact body images of girls and women in that community (Becker, 2004 ). She found that television caused confusion and conflicts about ideal body images, and consequently “reshap[ed] [their] personal and cultural identities” (Becker, 2004 , p. 551). In some cases, it even led to eating disorders (Becker, 2004 ), which has a direct link with the way people evaluate and perceive themselves. In other words, this DSC altered their identity. In fact, severe contextual changes can challenge the meaning of identity and threaten its existence (Ethier and Deaux, 1994 ; Macek et al., 2013 ). Similarly, Hoffman and Medlock-Klyukovski ( 2004 ) argue that contemporary organizations are “typically marked by conflicting interests and contradictory demands on individuals” (p. 389). This is similar to Chen ( 2012 ) who refers to the need for a transformation and the need to create new cultural norms and values when confronted to the context of social change (Chen, 2012 ).

The typology of social change

In order to properly conceptualize DSC and other social contexts associated with the state of a collectivity, I suggest a typology of social change comprised of four different social contexts: “stability,” “inertia,” “incremental social change,” and “DSC” (see Table ​ Table1 1 for definitions). These social contexts are consistent with the theoretical stance of a large number of sociologists (e.g., Durkheim, 1893/1967 , 1897/1967 ; Watzlawick et al., 1974 ; Rocher, 1992 ; Fukuyama, 1999 ; Rogers, 2003 ; May, 2011 ; Nolan and Lenski, 2011 ), psychologists (e.g., Katz, 1974 ; Moghaddam, 2002 ; Pinquart and Silbereisen, 2004 ; Goodwin, 2006 ; de la Sablonnière et al., 2009a ) and scientists in the field of organizational behavior (e.g., Golembiewski et al., 1976 ; Tushman and Romanelli, 1985 ; Armenakis et al., 1986 ; Nadler and Tushman, 1995 ; Thompson and Hunt, 1996 ).

As many different concepts surround each of the four social contexts, it was necessary to choose a meaningful label for each. For “stability” and “inertia,” the choice was relatively easy because these two labels are commonly used and applied consistently. The term “status quo” was also considered rather than “stability” (e.g., Prilleltensky, 1990 ; Diekman and Goodfriend, 2007 ; Mucchi-Faina et al., 2010 ). However, because there could also be “status quo” in the context of inertia (e.g., Subašić et al., 2008 ), the term “stability” was preferred.

When it came to “incremental” and “dramatic” social change, the decision was more arduous as authors from different research fields use different labels. For example, instead of referring to “DSC,” Golembiewski et al. ( 1976 ) refers to “gamma changes”; Nadler and Tushman ( 1995 ), to “discontinuous change.” Others refer to “second-order change” (Watzlawick et al., 1974 ; Bartunek and Moch, 1987 ; Bate, 1994 ; Newman, 2000 ), to “abrupt” (e.g., Back, 1971 ; Pinquart and Silbereisen, 2004 ) or even to “rapid” change (e.g., Becker, 2004 ; McDade and Worthman, 2004 ). The term “dramatic” social change was chosen for its ability to clearly and distinctively define the situation confronting ordinary people. In a similar fashion, the term “incremental” social change was preferred over the labels: “first-order change,” “beta change,” and “continuous change.”

When there is stability , the actual state of a society is maintained and the majority of group members are actively attempting to attain society's goals. As Weinstein ( 2010 ) describes it, it is a state in which “the established order appears to be operating effectively, and disturbing influences from within or from other societies are insignificant” (p. 9; see also Bess ( 2015 ) where no change is equated with stability). Indeed, none of the four characteristic of social change are present. For example, the social and normative structures fluctuate little, and changes do not affect what is defined as normal behavior in a community (Harmon et al., 2015 ). Indeed, personal change, such as bereavement or divorce, still occurs for some members of society. However, in the event of a personal change, the social or normative structures are not disrupted, mainly because the collective social support system remains functional and people can rely on that support in case they experience changes in their individual lives. This is also consistent with the findings of Albert and Sabini ( 1974 ) who argue that changes occurring in a supportive environment or in a peripheral element of society are perceived as less disruptive than those occurring in a non-supportive environment because the strain upon society is attenuated.

Consistent with previous research, stability can be defined as a situation where an event, regardless of its pace, does not affect the equilibrium of a society's social and normative structures nor the cultural identity of group members. The event, may, however, impact an isolated number of individuals . An example that might clarify this definition of stability is the event of an election. Although many people can get excited and seem to be affected by this event, an election does not necessarily bring about a rupture in a society, even if it involves a change of political party. The core elements of society remain stable and citizens resume their activities without feeling their lives have been overly disrupted by the election and its outcome. If, for instance, supporters of the defeated party feel sad and hopeless about the defeat, plenty of other citizens will be available to help them cope since most of them will not be affected by the change of government. However, in a different context, the event of an election may trigger DSC; for example, when it leads to a social revolution.

In contrast with stability, a context where there is inertia involves a situation that does affect a large number of people, if not most of the people composing a society. Inertia is defined as a situation where an event, regardless of its pace, does not either reinstate the equilibrium of a society's social and normative structures or clarify the cultural identity of group members .

In times of inertia, if a “positive” event occurs, there is no sustainability to maintain its positive impact. Here, the example of Belarus is used, a country where the population has been in a state of inertia since the fall of the Soviet Union. Lukashenko has been the president of the country since 1994. Under his autocratic rule, Belarus is known as the last dictatorship in Europe. Many Belarusians are longing for a more democratic and open society, yet the country remains in inertia. Buchanan et al. ( 2005 ) describe a situation of inertia as an “absence of appropriate activity, a lack of capability, a failure to pay attention to signals, and thus as an impediment rather than a desired condition” (p. 190). Inertia is seen as an undesirable situation where constructive change is not possible because the organization (or the group) does not have the capacity (e.g., lack of resources or will) to carry out the needed change. These authors also argue that when a change is implemented, its sustainability requires managers and staff (or community members) to share the same objectives. Uncertainty about the future must be minimal.

Accordingly, one can assume that the criteria underpinning sustainability in the event of a change are already absent in a society that has stagnated due to inertia. Therefore, inertia in a society such as Belarus constitutes a context where the population is uncertain about the future and does not share the same long-term goals as its government. There is a desire for positive social change, but the actual structure of the society makes it difficult for any change to be implemented and be sustained. Indeed, for a positive change to be maintained, it must have the support of individuals in power since they have the appropriate resources to address society's problems. Unsurprisingly, sustainability of such a change is threatened by an autocratic style of governing (Buchanan et al., 2005 ).

In sum, inertia differs from stability. In the case of inertia, most members of society desire a change from the actual state of their group, but are unable to properly sustain change due to a lack of collective social support and an unclear cultural identity. In contrast, in the case of “stability,” the society functions in an efficient manner when meeting the collective goals.

Incremental social change

Incremental social change is defined as a situation where a slow event leads to a gradual but profound societal transformation and slowly changes the social and/or the normative structure or changes/threatens the cultural identity of group members . The slow pace is necessary for incremental social change to occur. Moreover, at least one of the other three characteristics needs to occur. In their recent paper, Abrams and Vasiljevic ( 2014 ) speak of “growth,” which could represent one form of incremental social change that involves “wider acceptance of shared values and tolerance of different values” and of “recession” where “disidentification” with current groups can occur (p. 328).

One of the most cited examples of incremental social change is technological innovation (e.g., Rieger, 2003 ; Weinstein, 2010 ; May, 2011 ; Hansen et al., 2012 ). Often, there is no social structural rupture associated with the wide use of technology and normative structure as well as social support remain intact. Given its incremental nature, this type of social change does not instantly produce conflict between old and new behaviors. For instance, when television was introduced, people bought it without knowing the consequences of the implementation of this new technology in their life (Becker, 2004 ; Macionis et al., 2008 ; Weinstein, 2010 ). Today, in retrospect, we know that buying a television set entailed a plethora of new behaviors that altered our society and our way of living. Indeed, some changes in society seem to be a “by-product of our pursuit of other goals and interests” (Subašić et al., 2012 , p. 62). The long time span that is typical for incremental social change makes its outcomes unpredictable and unintentional. For instance, as Weinstein states (Weinstein, 2010 ), “It would be impossible to assess exactly what role electronic telecommunication has played in our global revolution, in part because its effects continue to reverberate and magnify as you read this” (p. 4).

The cell phone is a particularly good example of incremental social change. When it came onto the buyer's market, only a few exclusive people possessed one. However, over the years, it became increasingly normative to have a cell phone and, today, it is almost inconceivable not to have one. Furthermore, when cell phones were first marketed, they were used mainly for business rather than for social purposes, which is the current primary use (Aoki and Downes, 2003 ). In the same vein, other technological changes, such as the emergence of personal computers (Kiesler et al., 1984 ; Robinson et al., 1997 ), Internet (DiMaggio et al., 2001 ; Brignall III and Van Valey, 2005 ), and social media (Robinson et al., 1997 ; O'Keeffe and Clarke-Pearson, 2011 ; Oh et al., 2015 ) will, in the future, be recognized as key events in the historical transformation of social structures and social norms. Such technology does not represent a DSC, but a social change nonetheless as it has modified the way people interact with one another in an incremental manner. As the change occurs for a relatively long period of time, there is consistency in the pattern of change, which allows social structures to adapt and, thus, to remain intact (Nadler and Tushman, 1995 ). Individuals experiencing incremental social change are therefore able to adapt, given that the collective social support is not altered. For example, there is support for people that have yet to possess a cell phone; if they want to buy one, but do not understand how it functions, there are plenty of people that can help them adapt to this new technology. Even if technological change is conceptualized here as an incremental change, it is possible that technology is used to provoke a DSC, for example by instigating an important social revolution (Rodriguez, 2013 ).

Despite technology being the most adequate example, other incremental changes can be observed in other aspects of society such as in medicine. Indeed, advancement in medicine such as effective birth control (Goldin and Katz, 2002 ) was also the cause of a profound incremental social change. The example of contraception is crucial as the pill deeply affected gender roles in society by empowering women by giving them the capacity to control their sexuality. The pill had not only direct positive effects on women's career investments, but also on the opportunity of attending school longer. The pill forever changed women's involvement in our societies and the repercussions of this incremental social change still echo to us through struggles for gender equality, but also in the form of women actively involved in every level of the modern workplace, including higher managements and governmental position. In other words, the gradual nature of incremental social change makes it a profound change in society that neither disturbs the social structure nor the collective social support system.

Dramatic social change

DSC has been defined as “profound societal transformations that produce a complete rupture in the equilibrium of social structures because their adaptive capacities are surpassed” (de la Sablonnière et al., 2009a , p. 325). Although this definition is based on previous sociological work (Parsons, 1964 ; Rocher, 1992 ), it is adapted here according to the four characteristic of DSC. Specifically, I suggest that DSC be defined as a situation where a rapid event leads to a profound societal transformation and produces a rupture in the equilibrium of the social and normative structures and changes/threatens the cultural identity of group members .

As with incremental change, DSC induces fundamental transformations in society. However, the shift occurs at a much more rapid pace, provoking a break with the past. Some authors have highlighted this sense of discontinuity by referring to DSC as the disintegration of a previous social order or as the break in a frame of reference (Golembiewski et al., 1976 ; Nadler and Tushman, 1995 ; Breakwell and Lyons, 1996 ). They also use terms such as the “construction of something new,” a “reconceptualization,” or a “re-definition.” Indeed, the breakdown of a social structure conveys the need for the reconstruction of core elements in a society. Accordingly, DSC can be conceptualized as a complete rupture in the social structure that marks the end of one period and the beginning of another one, or where a type of society is transformed into another (Tushman and Romanelli, 1985 ; Kohn et al., 2000 ; Weinstein, 2010 ). Other researchers, such as Rogers ( 2003 ), also see rapid social change as intertwined with the social structure. More specifically, Rogers ( 2003 ) states that rapid social change can threaten social structure by surpassing the adaptive capacities of individuals. Unsurprisingly, DSC is the most disruptive type of change not only for the social structure but also for the majority of society members experiencing it, i.e., the normative structure as well as cultural identities are challenged. As DSC entails a re-definition of values, norms and relations, individuals can no longer rely on their habits and routine; they need to learn new skills and new definitions and more challengingly, unlearn the old ways of doing things (Nadler and Tushman, 1995 ; Tomasik et al., 2010 ). Consequently, DSC is described as a painful and confusing experience for individuals (Hinkle, 1952 ; Lapuz, 1976 ; Nadler and Tushman, 1995 ; Kohn et al., 2000 ; Wall and Louchakova, 2002 ; Rioufol, 2004 ; Hegmon et al., 2008 ).

A good example of DSC is the breakdown of the Soviet Union. If I return to Zoia's example, it is clear that all the people in Kyrgyzstan and in the Former Soviet Union were affected by the breakdown of the Soviet Union. Zoia is not the only one who lost all her savings: the vast majority of people lost their savings within a matter of days. In terms of social support, whom could she have relied on if all of her friends were also in the same situation? Regarding to the fall of the former Soviet Union, Goodwin ( 2006 ) argues that older people were inclined to receive less social support in part because the majority of the population, including family members, were struggling with several jobs just to provide themselves with basic needs. Furthermore, elderly citizens could not even rely on formal social services because the collapse of the former Soviet Union caused a decline in formal state support, which left them no time to rebuild their retirement income. This illustrates the rupture in the structure of society that can be found when a DSC occurs as well as the effect on the majority of ordinary group members who cannot rely on collective social support.

Coming full circle: theoretical implications

Heraclitus, an ancient Greek philosopher, is credited for saying that “the only thing constant is change.” Gradually or within an instant, civilizations, societies, communities or organizations that often seem immutable face multiple DSCs. Social scientists agree that social changes are not only intensifying but also defining today's world. In fact, Weinstein ( 2010 ) has underscored that “rapid change, both peaceful and violent, is a fact of life that virtually everyone on Earth today has come to expect, if not unconditionally accept” (p. 3).

For the present paper, my aim was to initiate a conversation about the psychology of social change. Thus, I briefly reviewed the major perspectives of social change in both sociology and psychology. Research conducted in both fields and their subfields have remained in distinct silos with no effort made toward aggregating their findings. This has unfortunately resulted in the absence of an encompassing approach in the current literature of social change: social change has never been integrated into a single perspective that would define or contextualize DSC within the spectrum of different social contexts. More importantly, social change has not been conceptualized so that micro processes, macro processes, and the important relations between them are addressed. As a result, the typology of social change introduces different social contexts (e.g., stability) that can serve as a basis of comparison for DSC. Based on my review of the literature, I suggest four necessary characteristics of DSC (Table ​ (Table6 6 ).

The present paper then offers a first step toward unifying the variety of theories of social change which are currently isolated from each other. Indeed, our approach aims at addressing the challenge raised by Sun and Ryder ( 2016 ) concerning our need for “a more nuanced understanding of rapid sociocultural change combined with sophisticated research methods designed to address change in a multilevel way” (p. 9). The typology of social change I am suggesting is an emerging concept; thus, I invite debate with the hope that the views presented here will stimulate others to contribute to a needed understanding of DSC within an individual perspective. More importantly, based on such a typology of social change, theoretical models could be suggested as they might offer a guide to understanding the consequences of social change. For instance, such theoretical models could answer these three questions: Are the different social contexts associated with one-another? What makes a society move from one social context to another (e.g., from stability to DSC)? What is the role of the different characteristics of DSC? So far, answers to the three questions raised above were left lingering and the different characteristics of DSC were not arranged in a sequential way nor were they identified as key movers of one state of society to another. In Figure ​ Figure1, 1 , I offer a theoretical model that integrates the social contexts and the characteristics of DSC as a first step toward a psychology of social change.

As seen in Figure ​ Figure1, 1 , neither a slow nor a fast pace event will influence the status quo in both stability and inertia. There will therefore be no break with the past and so no rupture in the social and normative structures. Thus, in these two social contexts, if an event were to occur rapidly, the current situation of a group or society would remain unaffected by it; that is why pace is not the only characteristic important to define DSC. For example, if a plane crashes, which is a rapidly occurring dramatic event, it does not necessarily affect an entire community. Also, in a state of stability, when a fast—or slow—event takes place, because the normative and the social structures are unaffected, there is no direct threat to the group's cultural identity. Similarly, when an event occurs in a state of inertia, there is no additional threat to the society's cultural identity, because the normative and social structure are unaffected.

In contrast, in a state of incremental social change, slow-occurring events, if profound enough, will gradually change the social and normative structures, as well as threaten or change cultural identity. For a DSC to occur, a fast event needs to take place. If that event has enough impact—therefore not in a state of stability or inertia—, it will rupture the social structure and the normative structures. As shown by many different DSC contexts, there are three possible scenarios when it comes to the rupture of these two structures: (1) the social structure ruptures first, which later leads to the rupture of the normative structure (e.g., Zhang and Hwang, 2007 ), (2) the normative structure ruptures first, which later leads to the rupture of the social structure (e.g., Centola and Baronchelli, 2015 ), or (3) both the social and normative structures rupture simultaneously and influence each other.

An example of the first scenario would be the latest presidential elections in the United States. The recent proclamation of Donald Trump as president carries the potential for political transformations as well as changes in the United States' economic structure (rupture to social structure). The leadership of Trump's administration can carry major structural change that would then lead to a rupture of the normative structure. At this point, there are indications that this new governance (social structure) may very well affect the normative structure. Some members of the population have become more “open” to expressing their reluctance to have more immigrants come to the USA, which could eventually lead to a rupture in normative structure where different ethnic groups overtly fight each other within America. A second example was the loss of the French Canadians to the English Canadians at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759. This battle was a pivotal moment in the 7 Years' War and gave power to the British troops (Veyssière, 2013 ). The result of the battle culminated in the French losing most of their economical structural powers to the English and the start of a decline of education. Consequently, the French mentality and behaviors were modified. The norms had to be adapted to new rules and to the loss of economic power (Veyssière, 2013 ).

The normative structure can rupture before the social structure in situations such as the African-American Civil Rights Movement in the United-States, the Fall of Apartheid in South Africa, or the Quiet Revolution in Québec. If in the past African-Americans were afflicted by a sense of resignation, leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks gave them the will they needed to fight for a better future for themselves. This rupture in the normative structure led to the African-American Civil Rights Movement which, in turn, brought about changes to the social structure (e.g., School desegregation). This movement against racial inequality, segregation and discrimination instigated the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned any type of segregation based on race, color, religion or sex, as well as other changes in federal legislation.

The breakdown of the Soviet Union is an example that can be used to illustrate a simultaneous rupture of the social and normative structures. This event caused major transformations in the economic, political, and social structures (rupture to social structure). Simultaneously, a large proportion of the population found themselves in a great economic crisis, which led to disruptions in their usual behaviors and habits, such as working multiple jobs instead of just one (rupture of normative structures).

When the normative and the social structures are ruptured (regardless of the order in which this occurs), cultural identity will be threatened. There will be a global sense of confusion, ambiguity, and lack of clarity that might motivate individual group members to change their identification with their group.

Depending on society's and the individual's abilities to cope, there are two possible outcomes: stability or inertia. If the society in which DSC has taken place is able to develop coping and adaptation mechanisms—both at the individual and societal levels—stability might be restored. Stability would then be achieved when the social and normative structures however different are brought back to functionality and when cultural identity is clear and no longer under threat. In contrast, if the society and individuals are not able to develop coping mechanisms, society might enter a state of inertia. In inertia, even though a society in a state of inertia is no longer going through major social changes, the need or desire for change still lingers (Sloutsky and Searle-White, 1993 ). This can be due to a DSC that did not, in the end, really change the way a collectivity is ruled or how its citizens are treated (Moghaddam and Crystal, 1997 ; Moghaddam and Lvina, 2002 ).

Consequences of DSC

Knowing about the range of different social contexts such as stability, inertia, incremental change, and DSC as well as the specific characteristics of DSC, has the potential to guide researchers in terms of assessing DSC and its impact on the psychological well-being of ordinary group members. Specifically, after establishing a clear typology of social change, including potential theoretical models, it is now possible to move on to the second step of the psychology of social change. In this second step, we need to address whether and how different coping mechanisms determine (mediate, moderate) the influence of DSC on psychological well-being. This question goes hand in hand with the work of Norris et al. ( 2002 ) who reviewed 160 studies involving natural disasters, mass violence, and technological disasters. They concluded from more than 60,000 participants that such events have negative repercussions on participants' lives. In most of the research they report, social support, economic status, and age were the identified factors that may be associated with a better adaptation to social change. Although diverse factors were suggested, the research they reported was “atheoretical and little of it is programmatic” (Norris et al., 2002 , p. 249). In accordance with Norris et al. ( 2002 ), I argue that the mediators or moderators involved in adaptation mechanisms should become the focus of future studies. The four characteristics I have identified have the potential to become pivotal in meeting this objective. In sum, the link between social change and well-being is still unclear (e.g., Liu et al., 2014 ; Sun and Ryder, 2016 ). Such an investigation could eventually guide us in designing concrete interventions to help people adapt to the challenges of DSC (Rogers, 2003 ; Vago, 2004 ).

The concept of resilience emerges from the literature as potentially useful for understanding people's coping mechanisms. Resilience is defined as the act of bouncing back in the face of adversity (Bonanno, 2004 ). For the specific example of DSC, resilient individuals would be those who have been able to maintain their normal functioning and adapt themselves to adverse situations (Masten, 2001 ; Curtis and Cicchetti, 2003 ; Luthar, 2003 ; Masten and Powell, 2003 ). Research has shown that a significant number of people are able to adapt to challenging personal situations (e.g., Bonanno, 2004 ). However, resilience has mostly been studied within the context of personal changes such as the death of a loved one or a personal trauma (Bonanno, 2004 ). Similar to a personal change, this variation in reactions may be due to individual differences in resilience. This highlights the need to consider this variable within the psychology of social change. More concretely, the literature on resilience may prove to be important when linking people's perceptions of the characteristic of DSC to the various paths of recovery (e.g., resilience, recovery, chronic distress, and delayed reactions; Bonanno, 2004 ).

While most research on resilience focuses on “personal events,” there is, however, another type of resilience known as “collective resilience” or “community resilience” (e.g., Landau and Saul, 2004 ; Kirmayer et al., 2011 ) which may be more relevant in the context of DSC as the concept hints that the majority of society is affected by the change. To illustrate collective resilience, let us consider the case where the normative structure of a society is dissolved and its cultural identity is threatened. Individuals in this situation would no longer have guidelines and values to individually cope with DSC. Moreover, every individual affected by the change would be in the same negative situation. Consequently, individuals might need to find ways to collectively adapt to the transformations. The processes associated with resilience may thus differ in situations of personal vs. social change. I therefore believe it is important to explore whether the adaptation mechanisms are the same in a context of DSC where social support is not readily available.

Conducting research on social change

In order to speak of a real psychology of social change, we must be able to actually study social change and its consequences. The use of a mix of methodologies that would include large correlational or longitudinal surveys conducted in the field as well as laboratory experiments (de la Sablonnière et al., 2013 ; see also Liu and Bernardo, 2014 ; Sun and Ryder, 2016 ) might prove to be the only way to truly study social change and its consequences. On the one hand, correlational designs conducted in the field are necessary to capture people's firsthand experience with DSC. They are however limited by their design that prevents claims of causality. They are also known to be demanding in terms of both human and financial resources, and may well be dangerous at times for researchers. Moreover, they require an intimate knowledge of the culture such as the language as well as contacts within the community to facilitate the research and collaboration process.

On the other hand, laboratory experiments are necessary to establish the controlled conditions needed to understand associations between the characteristics of social change and the consequences. Laboratory experiments, however, are difficult to design, because it is a challenge to reproduce the actual characteristics of social change in the laboratory which limits their ecological validity (de la Sablonnière et al., 2013 ). Indeed, social change typically entails various elements such as historical processes, a collective perspective, and associated cultural elements (Moghaddam and Crystal, 1997 ) which must be taken into consideration in order to replicate their impact in an artificial setting. For example, the impact of the Tohoku tsunami in Japan or the Syrian conflict cannot be recreated in their entirety in a laboratory; nor can all the characteristic of social change be taken into consideration in a laboratory study designed to assess the impact(s) of social change. However, if an array of studies using different characteristic of DSC were to be conducted (or a combination of multiple characteristic), the convergence of the results would make us able to better understand and thereby predict the impact of DSC on individuals and communities. At the very least in a laboratory, researchers can expose participants to imagined changes through a scenario or a video that would include, in the experimental condition, one or more of the four characteristics of DSC (Pelletier-Dumas et al., submitted). If the scientific community accepts that experimental studies will not exactly mirror DSC, but instead test some of the characteristics in a large number of experiments, there is potential for laboratory experiments to bring an important contribution that would eventually allow a generalization to the real world (for examples see Betsch et al., 2015 ; Caldwell et al., 2016 ; Pelletier-Dumas et al., submitted).

The difficulties of conducting research on social change are, however, amplified by the challenge of obtaining ethical consent in a manner that allows for timely research. In terms of experimental manipulations of DSC, obtaining the ethical board's consent can be tedious. Indeed, according to some authors (Kelman, 1967 ; Bok, 1999 ; Clarke, 1999 ; Herrera, 1999 ; Pittenger, 2002 ) deceiving participants is difficult to justify ethically. This objection on the use of deception can undermine any attempt to seriously study DSC, as deception can be a valuable methodological asset (Bortolotti and Mameli, 2006 ), especially with such an elusive subject. Furthermore, research on new grounds require new techniques and methods on which ethicists can put limits, to ensure that they do not cause harm to participants (Root Wolpe, 2006 ). As with any new technology, methods focused on inducing dramatic-like changes can be perceived as having unsuspected risks.

In order to truly understand the interplay between individuals and their context, social psychological theories must take into account that we live in a constantly changing world. Unfortunately, although social psychology was rooted in understanding social change, most modern psychological theories refrain from addressing a “true” psychology of social change and prefer relegating social change to the field of sociology.

Through increasing the focus on social change, we could combine, on the one hand, sociology's emphasis on the importance of social change with, on the other hand, psychology's emphasis on the importance of complex individual processes. As a result, my theoretical proposal aims at bringing together sociology, where social change is central, and psychology, where rigorous scientific methods allow us to study the psychological processes of individuals living in changing social contexts.

In general, more research on the concept of social change is needed so that we can help predict, prevent, and minimize the negative impact of social change. If psychologists and sociologists work together to move toward developing a psychology of social change, perhaps we could come to better understand and help people, like Zoia, who lost almost everything they had, consequently improving the quality of millions of lives experiencing DSC.

Author contributions

RdlS thought and developed the ideas, as well as wrote the article as sole author. Research assistants were paid to find and read the abstracts of all articles reviewed in this manuscript.

This research was founded by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities research Council of Canada (SSHRC) and by a grant from the Fonds de recherche du Québec – Société et culture (FRQSC).

Conflict of interest statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

RdlS Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal. I wish to thank all my colleagues and the members of the Social Change and Identity Lab for their comments and help. They have heard me talk about social change for the last 10 years and have never stopped encouraging me to pursue these ideas. I am also grateful to all the “Baboushkas” and the people I have met in contexts of DSC. These people continue to inspire me every day. I am grateful to the editor and the three evaluators for their insightful comments. I would also like to thank Matthew Davidson, Saltanat Sadykova, Lily Trudeau-Guévin, Alexie Gendron, Jérémie Dupuis, Raphaël Froment, and Donald M. Taylor for their help during different steps of the preparation of this manuscript. Finally, I want to thank Nada Kadhim who was patient enough to coordinate the material and the team—including me—at all stages.

1 Key sociology readings, such as Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology (Nolan and Lenski, 2011 ), The Sociology of Social Change (Sztompka, 1993 ), and Social Change (Weinstein, 2010 ), offer an in-depth description of these theories that were beyond the scope of the present review.

2 For space limitation, all methodological details and steps I encountered are not discussed here, but are available upon request to the author.

3 The term “social change” must be distinguished from the term “event.” An event may or may not be considered as social change. An event has the potential to bring social change (Sewell, 1996 ), be it incremental or dramatic. However, an event is not always tied to social change as it may represent a form of “happening” that does not influence the course of history (Nisbet, 1972 ). In sum, an event is an intrusion or “disturbances, however mild, of the normal” (p. 26). In contrast to social change, with the event, the disruption of the normal might only be temporary and not significant in time.

4 Defining social structure represents a challenge that goes beyond the scope of the present paper. From my understanding of the literature, there are as many conceptions of social structure as there are scientists working on that concept. The most important issue that demonstrates how hard it is to define social structure is the fact that one of the most prominent sociologists, Giddens ( 1979 ), refers to a “duality of structure” when defining social structure (structure vs. agency). On the one hand, social structure represents institutions or more specifically “collective rules and resources that structure behavior” (Porpora, 1989 , p. 195). Here, scientists refer to “groups, institutions, laws, population characteristics, and set of social relations that form the environment of the organization” (Stinchcombe, 2000 , p. 142), or to “Lawlike regularities that govern the behavior of social facts” (Porpora, 1989 , p. 195). On the other hand, social structure represents “the underlying regularities or patterns in how people behave and in their relationships with one another” (i.e., agency; Giddens et al., 2011 , p. 3). Here, the definitions often described normative behaviors or the roles of individuals rather than the role played by social institutions (e.g., Cortina et al., 2012 ; Homans, 1951 ; Mayhew, 1980 ; Tanner and Jackson, 2012 ; Wilson, 2012 ).

This duality lunched a debate in sociology that was reflected not only in Gidden's work but also in others sociologists that have devoted their writings to defining social structure (e.g., Parsons, 1964 ; Mayhew, 1980 ). For example, Porpora ( 1989 ) reports four principal ways of conceptualizing social structure that reflect either of these conceptions. More recently, expending on the work of Bourdieu ( 1975 ) and of Goffman ( 1983 ), López and Scott ( 2000 ) proposed that there is another aspect of social structure that must also be considered in addition to the institutional and relational structures: the embodied structure described as the “habits and skills that are inscribed in human bodies and minds” (p. 4).

To add to that complexity, some researchers (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979 , 1994 ; for other “system views” see for example Marx, 1859/1970 ; Habermas, 1987 ) describe the possible “systems” that are, like Russian dolls, embedded in each other. These systems include the ecological environments “conceived as a set of nested structures” (Bronfenbrenner, 1994 , p. 39): the microsystems, the mesosystems, the exosystems, the macrosystems, and the chronosystems. This “ecological model” illustrates the complexity of social structure as a sociological term.

Because of the lack of clarity, or maybe because the definition of social structure points to different aspects of the social structure, scientists often avoid defining social structure in their papers, and thereby contribute to the general confusion. Not that the other aspects or levels of social structure are not important (e.g., meso, micro), but the social structure being discussed in the present paper refers exclusively to macro-level elements of society such as institutions and other environmental factors that help facilitate and structure collective interactions, norms, roles, and behaviors.

• Abrams D., Vasiljevic M. (2014). How does macroeconomic change affect social identity (and vice versa?): insights from the European context . Anal. Soc. Issues Public Policy 14 , 311–338. 10.1111/asap.12052 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Albert S. (1977). Temporal comparison theory . Psychol. Rev. 84 , 485–503. 10.1037/0033-295X.84.6.485 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Albert S., Sabini J. (1974). Attributions about systems in slow vs. rapid change . Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 1 , 91–93. 10.1177/014616727400100131 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Amiot C., de la Sablonnière R., Terry D., Smith J. (2007). Integration of social identities in the self: toward a cognitive-developmental model . Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 11 , 364–388. 10.1177/1088868307304091 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Andersson C., Törnberg A., Törnberg P. (2014). An evolutionary developmental approach to cultural evolution . Curr. Anthropol. 55 , 154–174. 10.1086/675692 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Aoki K., Downes E. J. (2003). An analysis of young people's use of and attitudes toward cell phones . Telematics Inform. 20 , 349–364. 10.1016/S0736-5853(03)00018-2 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Armenakis A. A., Buckley M. R., Bedeian A. G. (1986). Survey research measurement issues in evaluating change: a laboratory investigation . Appl. Psychol. Meas. 10 , 147–157. 10.1177/014662168601000204 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Arnett J. J. (1995). Adolescents' uses of media for self-socialization . J. Youth Adolesc. 24 , 519–533. 10.1007/BF01537054 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ashmore R. D., Deaux K., McLaughlin-Volpe T. (2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: articulation and significance of multidimensionality . Psychol. Bull. 130 , 80–114. 10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.80 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Back K. W. (1971). Biological models of social change . Am. Sociol. Rev. 36 , 660–667. 10.2307/2093596 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bartunek J. M., Moch M. K. (1987). First-order, second-order, and third-order change and organization development interventions: a cognitive approach . J. Appl. Behav. Sci. 23 , 483–500. 10.1177/002188638702300404 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bate S. P. (1994). Strategies for Cultural Change . Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. [ Google Scholar ]
• Batel S., Castro P. (2015). Collective action and social change: examining the role of representation in the communication between protesters and third-party members . J. Community Appl. Soc. Psychol. 25 , 249–263. 10.1002/casp.2214 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bauman Z. (2003). Liquid Love: On the Frailty of Human Bonds . Cambridge: Polity Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Becker A. E. (2004). Television, disordered eating, and young women in Fiji: negotiating body image and identity during rapid social change . Cult. Med. Psychiatry 28 , 533–559. 10.1007/s11013-004-1067-5 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Benet-Martínez V., Haritatos J. (2005). Bicultural identity integration (BII): components and psychosocial antecedents . J. Pers. 73 , 1015–1050. 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00337.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bernstrøm V. H., Kjekshus L. E. (2015). Effect of organisational change type and frequency on long-term sickness absence in hospitals . J. Nurs. Manag. 23 , 813–822. 10.1111/jonm.12218 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Berry J. W. (2005). Acculturation: living successfully in two cultures . Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 29 , 697–712. 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.013 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bess K. D. (2015). The impact of everyday experiences on planned organizational change: applying schematic change theory to the study of narratives in community-based organizations . J. Community Psychol. 43 , 739–759. 10.1002/jcop.21757 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Betsch T., Lindow S., Engel C., Ulshöfer C., Kleber J. (2015). Has the world changed? My neighbor might know: effects of social context on routine deviation . J. Behav. Decis. Making 28 , 50–66. 10.1002/bdm.1828 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bishop P. (1998). Social change and future practice . Am. Behav. Sci. 42 , 406–412. 10.1177/0002764298042003011 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Blackwood L., Livingstone A. G., Leach C. W. (2013). Regarding societal change . J. Soc. Polit. Psychol. 1 , 105–111. 10.5964/jspp.v1i1.282 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bok S. (1999). Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life . New York, NY: Vintage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bonanno G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? Am. Psychol. 59 , 20–28. 10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bortolotti L., Mameli M. (2006). Deception in psychology: mora; costs and benefits of unsought self-knowledge . Account. Res. 13 , 259–275. 10.1080/08989620600848561 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bourdieu P. (1975). Structures sociales et structures de perception du monde social [Social structures and structures of perception of the social world] . Actes Rech. Sci. Soc. 1 , 18–20. 10.3406/arss.1975.3507 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Breakwell G. M. (1986). Coping with Threatened Identities . London: Methuen. [ Google Scholar ]
• Breakwell G. M., Lyons E. (1996). Changing European Identities: Social Psychological Analyses of Social Change . Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. [ Google Scholar ]
• Brignall III T. W., Van Valey T. V. (2005). The impact of Internet communications on social interaction . Sociol. Spectr. 25 , 335–348. 10.1080/02732170590925882 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bronfenbrenner U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bronfenbrenner U. (1994). Ecological models of human development , in International Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd Edn ., Vol. 3 , eds Husén T., Postlethwaite T. N. (Oxford: Elsevier; ), 1643–1647. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bruscella J. (2015). Holiday greeting rituals as expressions of ambivalence and indifference toward social change . West. J. Commun. 79 , 116–132. 10.1080/10570314.2014.943427 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Buchanan D., Fitzgerald L., Ketley D., Gollop R., Jones J. L., Lamont S. S., et al. (2005). No going back: a review of the literature on sustaining organizational change . Int. J. Manag. Rev. 7 , 189–205. 10.1111/j.1468-2370.2005.00111.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Burke W. W., Litwin G. H. (1992). A causal model of organizational performance and change . J. Manag. 18 , 523–545. 10.1177/014920639201800306 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Caldwell C. A., Atkinson M., Renner E. (2016). Experimental approaches to studying cumulative cultural evolution . Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 25 , 191–195. 10.1177/0963721416641049 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Calhoun C. (1992). Social change , in Encyclopedia of Sociology , Vol. 4 , eds Borgatta E. F., Montgomery R. J. V. (New York, NY: MacMillan; ), 1807–1812. [ Google Scholar ]
• Calhoun C. (2000). Social change , in Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2nd Edn ., Vol. 4 , eds Borgatta E. F., Montgomery R. J. V. (New York, NY: MacMillan; ), 2641–2649. [ Google Scholar ]
• Centola D., Baronchelli A. (2015). The spontaneous emergence of conventions: an experimental study of structural evolution . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112 , 1989–1994. 10.1073/pnas.1418838112 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chen X. (2012). Human development in the context of social change: introduction . Child Dev. Perspect. 6 , 321–325. 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00259.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chen X. (2015). Exploring the implications of social change for human development: perspectives, issues and future directions . Int. J. Psychol. 50 , 56–59. 10.1002/ijop.12128 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chirot D., Merton R. M. (1986). Social Change in the Modern Era . San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. [ Google Scholar ]
• Clarke S. (1999). Justifying deception in social science research . J. Appl. Philos. 16 , 151–166. 10.1111/1468-5930.00117 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Comte A. I. (1853/1929). Système de Politique Positive [System of Positive Polity], Vol. 3 . Paris: Carilian-Goeury et Dalmont. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cortina L. M., Curtin N., Stewart A. J. (2012). Where is social structure in personality research? A feminist analysis of publication trends . Psychol. Women Q. 36 , 259–273. 10.1177/0361684312448056 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Coughlin B. J., Khinduka S. K. (1976). Social change and social action . J. Sociol. Soc. Welf. 3 , 322–331. [ Google Scholar ]
• Crockett L. J., Silbereisen R. K. (Eds.). (2000). Negotiating Adolescence in Times of Social Change . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Curtis W. J., Cicchetti D. (2003). Moving research on resilience into the 21st century: theoretical and methodological considerations in examining the biological contributors to resilience . Dev. Psychopathol. 15 , 773–810. 10.1017/S0954579403000373 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dadrian V. N. (1989). Genocide as a problem of national and international law: the World War I Armenian case and its contemporary legal ramifications . Yale J. Int. Law 12 , 223–326. [ Google Scholar ]
• Dadrian V. N. (1998). The historical and legal interconnections between the Armenian genocide and the Jewish Holocaust: from impunity to retributive justice . Yale J. Int. Law 23 , 503–560. [ Google Scholar ]
• de la Sablonnière R., Amiot C. E., Cárdenas D., Sadykova N., Gorborukova G. L., Huberdeau M.-E. (2016). Testing the subtractive pattern of cultural identification . Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 46 , 441–454. 10.1002/ejsp.2178 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• de la Sablonnière R., Tougas F. (2008). Relative deprivation and social identity in times of dramatic social change: the case of nurses . J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 38 , 2293–2314. 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00392.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• de la Sablonnière R., Usborne E. (2014). Toward a social psychology of social change: insights from Identity Process Theory , in Identity Process Theory: Identity, Social Action and Social Change , eds Jaspal R., Breakwell G. M. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; ), 203–221. [ Google Scholar ]
• de la Sablonnière R., Auger É., Sadykova N., Taylor D. M. (2010). When the “we” impacts how “I” feel about myself: effect of temporal collective relative deprivation on personal well-being in the context of dramatic social change in Kyrgyzstan . Eur. Psychol. 15 , 271–282. 10.1027/1016-9040/a000062 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• de la Sablonnière R., French Bourgeois L., Najih M. (2013). Dramatic social change: a social psychological perspective . J. Soc. Polit. Psychol. 1 , 253–272. 10.5964/jspp.v1i1.14 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• de la Sablonnière R., Taylor D. M., Sadykova N. (2009b). Challenges of applying a student-centered approach to learning in the context of education in Kyrgyzstan . Int. J. Educ. Dev. 29 , 628–634. 10.1016/j.ijedudev.2009.01.001 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• de la Sablonnière R., Taylor D. M., Perozzo C., Sadykova N. (2009a). Reconceptualizing relative deprivation in the context of dramatic social change: the challenge confronting the people of Kyrgyzstan . Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 39 , 325–345. 10.1002/ejsp.519 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• de la Sablonnière R., Tougas F., Lortie-Lussier M. (2009c). Dramatic social change in Russia and Mongolia: connecting relative deprivation to social identity . J. Cross Cult. Psychol. 40 , 327–348. 10.1177/0022022108330986 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• de Lemus S., Stroebe K. (2015). Achieving social change: a matter of all for one? J. Soc. Issues 71 , 441–452. 10.1111/josi.12122 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Delanty G. (2012). A cosmopolitan approach to the explanation of social change: social mechanisms, processes, modernity . Sociol. Rev. 60 , 333–354. 10.1111/j.1467-954X.2012.02076.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Des Forges A. (1999). Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda . New York, NY: Human Rights Watch; Available online at: https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/r/rwanda/rwanda993.pdf [ Google Scholar ]
• Diamond J. (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed . New York, NY: Penguin Books. [ Google Scholar ]
• Diekman A. B., Goodfriend W. (2007). The good and bad of social change: ambivalence toward activist groups . Soc. Justice Res. 20 , 401–417. 10.1007/s11211-007-0050-z [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• DiMaggio P., Hargittai E., Neuman W. R., Robinson J. P. (2001). Social implications of the Internet . Annu. Rev. Sociol. 27 , 307–336. 10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.307 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Durkheim É. (1893/1967). De la Division du Travail Social [The Division of Labor in Society] . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. [ Google Scholar ]
• Durkheim É. (1897/1967). Le Suicide: Étude de Sociologie [Suicide: A Study in Sociology]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ethier K. A., Deaux K. (1994). Negotiating social identity when contexts change: maintaining identification and responding to threat . J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 67 , 243–251. 10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.243 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Feldman M. W., Laland K. N. (1996). Gene-culture coevolutionary theory . Trends Ecol. Evol. 11 , 453–457. 10.1016/0169-5347(96)10052-5 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fried M. (1964). Effects of social change on mental health . Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 34 , 3–28. 10.1111/j.1939-0025.1964.tb02187.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fukuyama F. (1999). The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order . New York, NY: Free Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Giddens A. (1979). Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure, and Contradiction in Social Analysis . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Giddens A., Duneier M., Appelbaum R. P., Carr D. (2011). Introduction to Sociology, 8th Edn . New York, NY: Norton Publishing. [ Google Scholar ]
• Goffman E. (1983). The interaction order . Am. Sociol. Rev. 48 , 1–17. 10.2307/2095141 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Goldin C., Katz L. F. (2002). The power of the pill: oral contraceptives and women's career and marriage decisions . J. Polit. Econ. 110 , 730–770. 10.1086/340778 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Golembiewski R. T., Billingsley K., Yeager S. (1976). Measuring change and persistence in human affairs: types of change generated by OD designs . J. Appl. Behav. Sci. 12 , 133–157. 10.1177/002188637601200201 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Goodwin R. (2006). Age and social support perception in Eastern Europe: social change and support in four rapidly changing countries . Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 45 , 799–815. 10.1348/014466605X72144 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Goodwin R. B. (1998). Personal relationships and social change: the ‘Realpolitik’ of cross-cultural research in transient cultures . J. Soc. Pers. Relat. 15 , 227–247. 10.1177/0265407598152006 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Greenfield P. M. (2009). Linking social change and developmental change: shifting pathways of human development . Dev. Psychol. 45 , 401–418. 10.1037/a0014726 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Greenfield P. M. (2016). Social change, cultural evolution, and human development . Curr. Opin. Psychol. 8 , 84–92. 10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.012 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Habermas H. (1987). The Theory of Communicative Action, 3rd Edn., Vol. 2 . Transl. by McCarthy T. A. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hannum H. (1989). International law and Cambodian genocide: the sounds of silence . Hum. Rights Q. 11 , 82–138. 10.2307/761936 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hansen N., Postmes T., van der Vinne N., van Thiel W. (2012). Information and communication technology and cultural change . Soc. Psychol. 43 , 222–231. 10.1027/1864-9335/a000123 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Harmon D. J., Green S. E., Goodnight G. T. (2015). A model of rhetorical legitimation: the structure of communication and cognition underlying institutional maintenance and change . Acad. Manag. Rev. 40 , 76–95. 10.5465/amr.2013.0310 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hegmon M., Peeples M. A., Kinzig A. P., Kulow S., Meegan C. M., Nelson M. C. (2008). Social transformation and its human costs in the prehispanic U.S . Southwest. Am. Anthropol. 110 , 313–324. 10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00041.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Herrera C. (1999). Two arguments for covert methods in social research . Br. J. Sociol. 50 , 331–343. 10.1080/000713199358770 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hewitt W. E., White J., Teevan J. J. (2008). Introduction to Sociology: A Canadian Focus, 8th Edn . Toronto, ON: Pearson Prentice Hall. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hinkle G. J. (1952). The “four wishes” in Thomas' theory of social change . Soc. Res. 19 , 464–484. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hoffman M. F., Medlock-Klyukovski A. (2004). “Our creator who art in heaven”: paradox, ritual, and cultural transformation . West. J. Commun. 68 , 389–410. 10.1080/10570310409374810 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Homans C. G. (1951). The Human Group . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jerneić Ž., Šverko B. (2001). Life-role changes in times of socioeconomic transition . Rev. Psychol. 8 , 41–48. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jost J. T., Banaji M. R., Nosek B. A. (2004). A decade of system justification theory: accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo . Polit. Psychol. 25 , 881–919. 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00402.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kanter R. M. (1991). Transcending business boundaries: 12,000 world managers view change . Harv. Bus. Rev. 69 , 151–164. [ Google Scholar ]
• Katz D. (1974). Factors affecting social change: a social-psychological interpretation . J. Soc. Issues 30 , 159–180. 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1974.tb00732.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kelman H. (1967). Humans use of human subjects: the problem of deception in social psychological experiments . Psychol. Bull. 67 , 1–11. 10.1037/h0024072 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kiesler S., Siegel J., McGuire T. W. (1984). Social psychological aspects of computer-mediated communication . Am. Psychol. 39 , 1123–1134. 10.1037/0003-066X.39.10.1123 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kim J. (2008). Perception of social change and psychological well-being: a study focusing on social change in Korea between 1997 and 2000 . J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 38 , 2821–2858. 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00415.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kim J., Ng S. H. (2008). Perceptions of social changes and social identity: study focusing on Hong Kong society after reunification . Asian J. Soc. Psychol. 11 , 232–240. 10.1111/j.1467-839X.2008.00262.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kirmayer L. J., Dandeneau S., Marshall E., Phillips M. K., Williamson K. J. (2011). Rethinking resilience from indigenous perspectives . Can. J. Psychiatry 56 , 84–91. 10.1177/070674371105600203 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kohn M. L., Slomczynski K. M., Janicka K., Khmelko V., Mach B. W., Paniotto V., et al. (1997). Social structure and personality under conditions of radical social change: a comparative analysis of Poland and Ukraine . Am. Sociol. Rev. 62 , 614–638. 10.2307/2657430 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kohn M. L., Zaborowski W., Janicka K., Mach B. W., Khmelko V., Slomczynski K. M., et al. (2000). Complexity of activities and personality under conditions of radical social change: a comparative analysis of Poland and Ukraine . Soc. Psychol. Q. 63 , 187–207. 10.2307/2695868 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kollontai V. (1999). Social transformations in Russia . Int. Soc. Sci. J. 51 , 103–121. 10.1111/1468-2451.00180 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Krznaric R. (2007). How Change Happens: Interdisciplinary Perspectives for Human Development . Oxford: Oxfam. [ Google Scholar ]
• Laland K. N., Odling-Smee J., Feldman M. W. (2000). Niche construction, biological evolution, and cultural change . Behav. Brain Sci. 23 , 131–175. 10.1017/S0140525X00002417 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Landau J., Saul J. (2004). Facilitating family and community resilience in response to major disaster , in Living Beyond Loss, 2nd Edn. , eds Walsh F., McGoldrick M. (New York, NY: Norton; ), 285–309. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lapuz L. V. (1976). Culture change and psychological stress . Am. J. Psychoanal. 36 , 171–176. 10.1007/BF01248367 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Latour B. (2005). Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory . New York, NY: Oxford University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lenski G. E., Lenski J. (1974). Human Societies . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu H., Li S., Xiao Q., Feldman M. W. (2014). Social support and psychological well-being under social change in urban and rural China . Soc. Indic. Res. 119 , 979–996. 10.1007/s11205-013-0534-1 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu J. H., Bernardo A. B. I. (2014). Social psychology for social change: foundations for and introduction to a program of action-oriented research . J. Pacific Rim Psychol. 8 , 29–34. 10.1017/prp.2014.4 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• López J., Scott J. (2000). Social Structure . Maidenhead: Open University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Luthar S. S. (2003). Resilience and Vulnerability: Adaptation in the Context of Childhood Adversities . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Macek P., Ježek S., Vazsonyi A. T. (2013). Adolescents during and after times of social change: the case of the Czech Republic . J. Early Adolesc. 33 , 1029–1047. 10.1177/0272431613507758 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Macionis J. J., Jansson M., Benoit C. M. (2008). Society: The Basics, 4th Edn. Toronto, ON: Pearson Education. [ Google Scholar ]
• Marquis D. G. (1947). Psychology of social change . Ann. Am. Acad. Pol. Soc. Sci. 249 , 75–80. 10.1177/000271624724900110 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Marx K. (1859/1970). A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy . New York, NY: International Publishers. [ Google Scholar ]
• Marx K., Engels F. (1848). Manifesto of the Communist Party, Vol. 1 . Moscow: Progress Publishers. [ Google Scholar ]
• Masten A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: resilience processes in development . Am. Psychol. 56 , 227–238. 10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Masten A. S., Powell J. L. (2003). A resilience framework for research, policy, and practice , in Resilience and Vulnerability: Adaptation in the Context of Childhood Adversities , ed Luthar S. S. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; ), 1–25. [ Google Scholar ]
• May V. (2011). Self, belonging and social change . Sociology 45 , 363–378. 10.1177/0038038511399624 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mayhew B. H. (1980). Structuralism versus individualism: part 1, shadowboxing in the dark . Soc. Forces 59 , 335–375. 10.2307/2578025 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McDade T. W., Worthman C. M. (2004). Socialization ambiguity in Samoan adolescents: a model for human development and stress in the context of culture change . J. Res. Adolesc. 14 , 49–72. 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2004.01401003.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McGrath J. E. (1983). Looking ahead by looking backwards: some recurrent themes about social change . J. Soc. Issues 39 , 225–239. 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1983.tb00186.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Meyer J., Allen N. (1997). Commitment in the Workplace: Theory, Research and Application . New York, NY: Sage publications. [ Google Scholar ]
• Moghaddam F. M. (2002). The Individual and Society: A Cultural Integration . New York, NY: Worth. [ Google Scholar ]
• Moghaddam F. M. (2012). The omnicultural imperative . Cult. Psychol. 18 , 304–330. 10.1177/1354067X12446230 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moghaddam F. M., Crystal D. S. (1997). Revolutions, samurai, and reductions: the paradoxes of change and continuity in Iran and Japan . Polit. Psychol. 18 , 355–384. 10.1111/0162-895X.00061 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moghaddam F. M., Lvina E. (2002). Toward a psychology of societal change and stability: the case of human rights and duties . Int. J. Group Tens. 31 , 31–51. 10.1023/A:1014212700468 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mucchi-Faina A., Pacilli M. G., Pagliaro S. (2010). Minority influence, social change, and social stability . Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 4 , 1111–1123. 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00314.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nadler D. A., Tushman M. L. (1995). Types of organizational change: from incremental improvement to discontinuous transformation , in Discontinuous Change: Leading Organizational Transformation , eds Nadler D. A., Shaw R. B., Walton A. E. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; ), 14–33. [ Google Scholar ]
• Neves P., Caetano A. (2009). Commitment to change: contributions to trust in the supervisor and work outcomes . Group Organ. Manag. 34 , 623–644. 10.1177/1059601109350980 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Newman K. L. (2000). Organizational transformation during institutional upheaval . Acad. Manag. Rev. 25 , 602–619. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nisbet R. A. (1972). Social Change . New York, NY: Harper and Row. [ Google Scholar ]
• Noak P., Kracke B., Wild E., Hofer M. (2001). Subjective experiences of social change in East and West Germany: analyses of the perceptions of adolescents and their parents . Am. Behav. Sci. 44 , 1798–1817. 10.1177/00027640121958168 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nolan P., Lenski G. E. (2011). Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology, 11th Edn . Boulder, CO: Paradigm. [ Google Scholar ]
• Norris F. H., Friedman M. J., Watson P. J., Byrne C. M., Diaz E., Kaniasty K. (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak: part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001 . Psychiatry 65 , 207–239. 10.1521/psyc.65.3.207.20173 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Keeffe G. S., Clarke-Pearson K. (2011). The impact of social media on children, adult, and families . Am. Acad. Pediatr. 127 , 800–806. 10.1542/peds.2011-0054 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Oh O., Eom C., Rao H. R. (2015). Role of social media in social change: an analysis of collective sense making during the 2011 Egypt revolution . Inform. Syst. Res. 26 , 210–223. 10.1287/isre.2015.0565 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pareto V. (1901/1968). The Rise and Fall of Elites: An Application of Theoretical Sociology . Towota, NJ: Bedminster Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Parson T. (1951). The Social Structure of Social Action . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. [ Google Scholar ]
• Parsons T. (1964). Essays in Sociological Theory . New York, NY: Free Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pham P. N., Weinstein H. M., Longman T. (2004). Trauma and PTSD symptoms in Rwanda . J. Am. Med. Assoc. 292 , 602–612. 10.1001/jama.292.5.602 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pinquart M., Silbereisen R. K. (2004). Human development in times of social change: theoretical considerations and research needs . Int. J. Behav. Dev. 28 , 289–298. 10.1080/01650250344000406 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pinquart M., Silbereisen R. K., Juang L. P. (2004). Moderating effects of adolescents' self-efficacy beliefs on psychological responses to social change . J. Adolesc. Res. 19 , 340–359. 10.1177/0743558403258851 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pinquart M., Silbereisen R. K., Körner A. (2009). Perceived work-related demands associated with social change, control strategies, and psychological well-being: do associations vary by regional economic conditions? Evidence from Germany . Eur. Psychol. 14 , 207–219. 10.1027/1016-9040.14.3.207 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pittenger D. J. (2002). Deception in research: distinctions and solutions from the perspective of utilitarianism . Ethics Behav. 12 , 117–142. 10.1207/S15327019EB1202_1 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pizer S. A., Travers J. R. (1975). Psychology and Social Change . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ponsioen J. A. (1962). The Analysis of Social Change Reconsidered: A Sociological Study . The Hague: Mouton. [ Google Scholar ]
• Porpora D. V. (1989). Four concepts of social structure . J. Theory Soc. Behav. 19 , 195–211. 10.1111/j.1468-5914.1989.tb00144.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Prilleltensky I. (1990). Enhancing the social ethics of psychology: toward a psychology at the service of social change . Can. Psychol. 31 , 310–319. 10.1037/h0078954 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Prislin R., Christensen P. N. (2005). Social change in the aftermath of successful minority influence . Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 16 , 43–73. 10.1080/10463280440000071 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Prunier G. (2010). Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe . Oxford: Oxford University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Reichers A. E., John P. W., James T. A. (1997). Understanding and managing cynicism about organizational change . Acad. Manag. Exec. 11 , 48–59. 10.5465/ame.1997.9707100659 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rieger J. (2003). A retrospective visual study of social change: the pulp-logging industry in an Upper Peninsula Michigan county . Vis. Stud. 18 , 157–178. 10.1080/14725860310001632010 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rioufol V. (2004). Approaches to social change in social forums: snapshots of recompositions in progress . Int. Soc. Sci. J. 56 , 551–563. 10.1111/j.0020-8701.2004.00516.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Robinson J. P., Barth K., Kohut A. (1997). Social impact research: personal computers, mass media, and use of time . Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 15 , 65–82. 10.1177/089443939701500107 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rocher G. (1992). Introduction à la Sociologie Générale [General Introduction to Sociology] . Montréal, QC: Éditions Hurtubise. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rodriguez S. (2013). Making sense of social change: observing collective action in networked cultures . Sociol. Compass 7 , 1053–1064. 10.1111/soc4.12088 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rogers E. M. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations, 5th Edn . New York, NY: Free Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Root Wolpe P. (2006). Reasons scientists avoid thinking about ethics . Cell 125 , 1023–1025. 10.1016/j.cell.2006.06.001 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Round J., Williams C. (2010). Coping with the social costs of “transition”: everyday life in post-Soviet Russia and Ukraine . Eur. Urban Reg. Stud. 17 , 183–196. 10.1177/0969776409356158 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rudel T. K., Hooper L. (2005). Is the pace of social change accelerating? Latecomers, common languages, and rapid historical declines in fertility . Int. J. Comp. Sociol. 46 , 275–296. 10.1177/0020715205059204 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Runciman W. G. (1966). Relative Deprivation and Social Justice: A Study of Attitudes to Social Inequality in Twentieth-Century England . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sampson E. E. (1989). The challenge of social change for psychology: globalization and psychology's theory of the person . Am. Psychol. 44 , 914–921. 10.1037/0003-066X.44.6.914 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sanzgiri J., Gottlieb J. Z. (1992). Philosophic and pragmatic influences on the practice of organization development, 1950-2000 . Organiz. Dyn. 21 , 57–69. 10.1016/0090-2616(92)90064-T [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Saran A. K. (1963). The Marxian theory of social change . Inquiry 6 , 70–128. 10.1080/00201746308601368 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schaal S., Elbert T. (2006). Ten years after the genocide: trauma confrontation and posttraumatic stress in Rwandan adolescents . J. Trauma Stress 19 , 95–105. 10.1002/jts.20104 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schneiderman L. (1988). The Psychology of Social Change . Ann Arbor, MI: Human Sciences Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Schrickel H. G. (1945). Group conflict and social reform . J. Soc. Psychol. 21 , 187–196. 10.1080/00224545.1945.9714165 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sewell W. H. (1996). Three temporalities: toward an eventful sociology , in The Historic Turn in the Human Sciences , ed McDonald T. J. (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press; ), 245–280. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sidanius J., Pratto F. (1999). Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Silbereisen R. K., Tomasik M. J. (2010). Human behavior in response to social change: a guide to the special section . Eur. Psychol. 15 , 243–245. 10.1027/1016-9040/a000059 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Slone M., Kaminer D., Durrheim K. (2002). Appraisal of sociopolitical change among South African youth: the relation to psychological maladjustment . J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 32 , 318–341. 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00218.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sloutsky V. M., Searle-White J. (1993). Psychological responses of Russians to rapid social change in the former USSR . Polit. Psychol. 14 , 511–526. 10.2307/3791710 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Smelser N. J., Swedberg R. (1994). The sociological perspective on the economy , in The Handbook of Economic Sociology , eds Smelser N. J., Swedberg R. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; ), 3–26. [ Google Scholar ]
• Smith A. D. (1973). The Concept of Social Change: A Critique of the Functionalist Theory of Social Change . London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. [ Google Scholar ]
• Spencer H. (1898). The Principles of Sociology , Vol. 1 New York, NY: Appleton and Company. [ Google Scholar ]
• Staub E., Pearlman L. A., Gubin A., Hagengimana A. (2005). Healing, reconciliation, forgiving and the prevention of violence after genocide or mass killing: an intervention and its experimental evaluation in Rwanda . J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 24 , 297–334. 10.1521/jscp.24.3.297.65617 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Steele C. M., Spencer S. J., Aronson J. (2002). Contending with group image: the psychology of stereotype and social identity threat . Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 34 , 379–440. 10.1016/S0065-2601(02)80009-0 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stinchcombe A. L. (2000). Social structure and organizations , in Economics Meets Sociology in Strategic Management (Advances in Strategic Management) , Vol. 17 , eds Baum J., Dobbin F. (Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited; ), 229–259. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stroebe K., Wang K., Wright S. C. (2015). Broadening perspectives on achieving social change . J. Soc. Issues 71 , 633–645. 10.1111/josi.12132 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Subašić E., Reynolds K. J., Turner J. C. (2008). The political solidarity model of social change: dynamics of self-categorization in intergroup power relations . Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 12 , 330–352. 10.1177/1088868308323223 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Subašić E., Reynolds K. J., Reicher S. D., Klandermans B. (2012). Where to from here for the psychology of social change? Future directions for theory and practice . Polit. Psychol. 33 , 61–74. 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2011.00864.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sun J., Ryder A. G. (2016). The Chinese experience of rapid modernization: sociocultural changes, psychological consequences? Front. Psychol. 7 :477. 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00477 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sztompka P. (1993). The Sociology of Social Change . Oxford: Blackwell. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sztompka P. (1998). Devenir social, néo-modernisation et importance de la culture: quelques implications de la révolution anticommuniste pour la théorie du changement social [To become social, neo-modernization and importance of culture: a few implications of the anticommunist revolution for social change theory] . Sociol. Soc. 30 , 85–94. 10.7202/001781ar [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sztompka P. (2000). Cultural trauma: the other face of social change . Eur. J. Soc. Theory 3 , 449–466. 10.1177/136843100003004004 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sztompka P. (2004). The trauma of social change: a case of postcommunist societies , in Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity , eds Alexander J. C., Eyerman R., Giesen B., Smelser N. J., Sztompka P. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; ), 155–195. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tajfel H., Turner J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour , in Psychology of Intergroup Relations , eds Worchel S., Austin W. G. (Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall; ), 7–24. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tanner C. J., Jackson A. L. (2012). Social structure emerges via the interaction between local ecology and individual behaviour . J. Anim. Ecol. 81 , 260–267. 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01879.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Taylor D. M. (1997). The quest for collective identity: the plight of disadvantaged ethnic minorities . Can. Psychol. 38 , 174–190. 10.1037/0708-5591.38.3.174 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Taylor D. M. (2002). The Quest for Identity: From Minority Groups to Generation Xers . Westport, CT: Greenwood. [ Google Scholar ]
• Taylor D. M., de la Sablonnière R. (2013). Why interventions in dysfunctional communities fail: the need for a truly collective approach . Can. Psychol. 54 , 22–29. 10.1037/a0031124 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Taylor D. M., de la Sablonnière R. (2014). Towards Constructive Change in Aboriginal Communities: A Social Psychology Perspective . Montréal, QC: McGill-Queen's Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Taylor D. M., McKirnan D. J. (1984). Theoretical contributions: a five-stage model of intergroup relations . Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 23 , 291–300. 10.1111/j.2044-8309.1984.tb00644.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Terry D. J., Jimmieson N. L. (2003). A stress and coping approach to organisational change: evidence from three field studies . Aust. Psychol. 38 , 92–101. 10.1080/00050060310001707097 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Thomas D. R., Veno A. (1992). Psychology and Social Change: Creating an International Agenda . Palmerston North: Dunmore Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Thompson R. C., Hunt J. G. (1996). Inside the black box of alpha, beta, and gamma change: using a cognitive-processing model to assess attitude structure . Acad. Manag. Rev. 21 , 655–690. 10.2307/258998 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tilly C., Tilly L. A., Tilly R. H. (1975). The Rebellious Century: 1830-1930 . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tomasik M. J., Silbereisen R. K., Pinquart M. (2010). Individuals negotiating demands of social and economic change: a control-theoretical approach . Eur. Psychol. 15 , 246–259. 10.1027/1016-9040/a000064 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tonkens E. (2012). Working with Arlie Hochschild: connecting feelings to social change . Soc. Polit. 19 , 194–218. 10.1093/sp/jxs003 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tushman M. L., Romanelli E. (1985). Organizational evolution: a metamorphosis model of convergence and reorientation . Res. Organ. Behav. 7 , 171–222. [ Google Scholar ]
• Usborne E., de la Sablonnière R. (2014). Understanding my culture means understanding myself: the function of cultural identity clarity for personal identity clarity and personal psychological well-being . J. Theory Soc. Behav. 44 , 436–458. 10.1111/jtsb.12061 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Usborne E., Taylor D. M. (2010). The role of cultural identity clarity for self-concept clarity, self-esteem, and subjective well-being . Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 36 , 883–897. 10.1177/0146167210372215 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vago S. (2004). Social Change, 5th Edn . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. [ Google Scholar ]
• Van Binh T. (2002). Social and cultural changes in Vietnam with the new market economy . Nat. Soc. Thought 15 , 335–346. [ Google Scholar ]
• Varnum M. E. W. (2008). Rapid adaptation to social change in Central Europe: changes in locus of control, attribution, subjective well-being, self-direction, and trust . Sociológia 40 , 215–235. [ Google Scholar ]
• Vaughan G. M. (1986). Social change and racial identity: issues in the use of picture and doll measures . Aust. J. Psychol. 38 , 359–370. 10.1080/00049538608259022 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Veyssière L. (2013). La Nouvelle-France en Héritage [New France in Heritage] . Paris: Armand Colin. [ Google Scholar ]
• Walker C., Stephenson S. (2010). Youth and social change in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union . J. Youth Stud. 13 , 521–532. 10.1080/13676261.2010.487522 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wall K., Louchakova O. (2002). Evolution of consciousness in response to terrorist attacks: towards a transpersonal theory of cultural transformation . Humanist. Psychol. 30 , 252–273. 10.1080/08873267.2002.9977040 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Watzlawick P., Weakland J. H., Fisch R. (1974). Change: Principles of Problem Formation and Problem Resolution . New York, NY: Norton. [ Google Scholar ]
• Weinstein J. (2010). Social Change, 3rd Edn . Lanham, MD: Roman and Littlefield. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wilson W. J. (2012). The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wyn J., White R. (2000). Negotiating social change: the paradox of youth . Youth Soc. 32 , 165–183. 10.1177/0044118X00032002002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yakushko O. (2008). The impact of social and political changes on survivors of political persecutions in rural Russia and Ukraine . Polit. Psychol. 29 , 119–130. 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2007.00615.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yanagizawa-Drott D. (2014). Propaganda and conflict: evidence from the Rwandan genocide . Q. J. Econ. 129 , 1947–1994. 10.1093/qje/qju020 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhang X., Hwang S.-S. (2007). The micro consequences of macro-level social transition: how did Russians survive in the 1990s? Soc. Indic. Res. 82 , 337–360. 10.1007/s11205-006-9037-7 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zorbas E. (2004). Reconciliation in post-genocide Rwanda . Afr. J. Legal Stud. 1 , 29–52. 10.1163/221097312X13397499735904 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zuck A. M. (1997). Introduction . Am. Behav. Sci. 40 , 257–258. 10.1177/0002764297040003002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Institute for the Study of Societal Issues

Center for research on social change.

The Center for Research on Social Change (CRSC), formerly named the Institute for the Study of Social Change (ISSC), was founded in 1976. CRSC researchers use a combination of qualitative and quantitative social science research methods to undertake empirical investigations into critical social issues in the United States and abroad, with a particular focus on how immigration, globalization, economic restructuring, and development of new technologies are shaping and changing the structure and culture of various spheres within societies throughout the world. Center research seeks to illuminate the lived experiences of people whose social locations are profoundly affected by broad processes of social change. Over the years, research projects at CRSC have helped to establish new research agendas and fields of study in the social sciences, and key findings have influenced academic research, public debate and social policy.

Center for Research on Social Change continues to examine pressing social issues concerning national and global processes of social change.

Center for Research on Social Change News

Understanding k-12 education experts and elites.

Eos Trinidad , faculty affiliate of the Center for Research on Social Change, has published a new article, “Interviewing K-12 education experts and elites,” in the journal ... Read more about Understanding K-12 Education Experts and Elites

Elon Musk vs. NLRB

Catherine Fisk , faculty affiliate of Center for Research on Social Change, is featured in this article published in the ... Read more about Elon Musk vs. NLRB

Black Life in the Face of Environmental Racism

Tianna Bruno , faculty affiliate of the Center for Research on Social Change, has published a new article questioning the exclusive focus of Environmental Justice studies on Black death and activism. ... Read more about Black Life in the Face of Environmental Racism

• 1 of 22 Center for Research on Social Change News (Current page)
• 2 of 22 Center for Research on Social Change News
• 3 of 22 Center for Research on Social Change News
• 4 of 22 Center for Research on Social Change News
• 5 of 22 Center for Research on Social Change News
• 6 of 22 Center for Research on Social Change News
• 7 of 22 Center for Research on Social Change News
• 8 of 22 Center for Research on Social Change News
• 9 of 22 Center for Research on Social Change News
• next › Center for Research on Social Change News
• last » Center for Research on Social Change News

Subscribe to our email list

Stay up-to-date on our events and news

Events (stay tuned for info coming soon!)

• Write my thesis
• Thesis writers
• Buy thesis papers
• Bachelor thesis
• Master's thesis
• Thesis editing services
• Thesis proofreading services
• Buy a thesis online
• Write my dissertation
• Dissertation proposal help
• Pay for dissertation
• Custom dissertation
• Dissertation help online
• Buy dissertation online
• Cheap dissertation
• Dissertation editing services
• Write my research paper
• Buy research paper online
• Pay for research paper
• Research paper help
• Order research paper
• Custom research paper
• Cheap research paper
• Research papers for sale
• Thesis subjects
• How It Works

100+ Social Issues Research Paper Topics

There are many issues in society to write about, making social issue essay topics some of the most fun. However, choosing a social topic for an essay isn’t as easy as it sounds, especially when there are several social essay topics. The secret to choosing the best among the many social topics is knowing what makes the best social topics for an essay, the best.

This article will give you workable tips for choosing a great topic on specific social issues, argumentative essay topics , and social topics. We will also throw in 100 topics on social issues; they can serve as your social topic or inspiration for choosing.

What Are Top Tips for Choosing Social Topics to Write About?

What characterizes the best social issue topics, social issue topics list, fascinating research topics on social issues, interesting social commentary topics, interesting social issues on social media, ideas of social issues essay topics on health, socially significant topics to write on, social issues research topics for a professional paper on the environment, top-rated socially relevant topics, cool social issues to research on criminal justice, social problem topics for college students, issues in america to write about, argumentative essay topics on social issues, unique social issues to write a research paper on.

When it comes to social problems essay topics, the list is endless; there are so many social issues to talk about. However, not all social problem topics will make a great paper, and the wrong social issue topic can reduce your grade. Below are the top practical tips for choosing social issues topics for presentation.

• Choose easy social issues to write about – avoid trying to impress your professor by choosing complex social problems topics you can’t do justice to.
• Choose social problem topics or social media research topics that your audience can relate to and find interesting.
• When choosing from the myriads of social problems to write about, choose those with sufficient information. Also, you don’t want social problem essay topics you’ll have to walk miles to gather information on.
• Pick as many good social issues to write about as possible; chances are you will change issues essay topics midway. You don’t have to return to searching for current issues to write about.
• Source for articles that address problems in society to write about for an idea on how to write yours.

The “best” social topics, like social commentary essay topics, are those you’re passionate about. It would help if you cared about the social issue ideas you’ve decided to write on to do real justice to the paper. Writing an essay on them will be torture if you don’t care or know anything about social commentary ideas. Also, if your audience is clueless about a particular topic, consider omitting technical and social significance topics.

Interesting social topics are not hard to find if you know where to look. We will give you a social issues topics list here, but you can still find social issues ideas all over the internet. Find our social topics list below containing interesting and uncommon social issues for a distinction-worthy paper.

• Political polarization
• Racism in modern society’s healthcare
• Ageism: the new racism?
• The fairness of labor laws
• Fat-shaming in the corporate world
• Recovering addicts and social injustice
• Child pornography
• Prisoner rights violations: the types
• Making vaccinations mandatory
• Online education impact on obesity
• Increasing employment: the solution to poverty?
• Accessibility of healthcare in mobile clinics
• Women empowerment
• Social development in developing countries
• Overpopulation: a threat?
• How social networks impact friendship
• Age restriction on Instagram
• Social media effect on dependency
• Business Facebook accounts and digital ethics
• Cancel culture and mental health
• Restricting children from social media
• How to stay safe on the internet
• Freedom of speech on Twitter
• High cost of medical procedures
• Obesity in developed countries
• Abortion: legal or illegal?
• Drug addiction
• Hospices: should they be free?
• Why HIV in seniors remains unrecognized
• Dying with dignity
• Pro-life movement origins
• The social acceptance of autism
• Effect of malnourishment on children’s psyche
• Impact of fad diets
• Discrimination against older adults
• Acceptability of homeopathic treatment for children
• The scarcity of and state of available healthcare facilities in rural areas
• Poverty and health problems
• Ensuring global access to drinking water
• Implementing sustainable technology in agriculture
• Benefits of studying the environment
• Urban gardening and food security
• Deteriorating environment effect on labor conditions
• Religion and nature
• Global warming impact on South America
• Effect of racial profiling
• Prevalence of hate speech
• Discrimination against the LGBT community
• Modern feminism: the negative impact on society
• Pregnancy termination: morality vs. legality
• Food culture
• Emotional intelligence: impact on family life
• Harmful effects of financial illiteracy
• The perception of “Defund the police.”
• Evidence of structural racism
• The internet’s influence on human trafficking
• Legalizing prostitution
• Civil disobedience goals
• The consequences of restoring prisoners to society
• Influence of prejudices on criminal justice mechanics
• Prominent civil rights violations in developing countries
• Gender blindness
• Gender dysphoria
• The Khmer Rouge
• Social media and racist bias
• Justification of human rights limitations during a crisis
• How governments can secure freedom of speech
• Can satire be harmful?
• Protection of stateless persons
• Can illegal immigrants be pardoned?
• War on drugs: the negative side effects
• The importance of bipartisan cooperation
• College loans: are they worth it?
• Fake news: a severe problem?
• Charter schools vs. public schools
• The Great New Deal: pros and cons
• Gentrification in America
• Ableism effects in the US
• Death penalty: a just punishment?
• Healthcare: a fundamental human right?
• The right to own a gun
• Does history repeat itself?
• Commercials in kids’ programs
• Fiction vs. nonfiction: which is the better read?
• Video games should be a sport
• Hot dogs: have they caused more harm than good?
• Eating dessert before dinner
• Homework: is it too much?
• Should gym classes be required?
• The essentiality of feminism
• Free healthcare for everyone
• Exploring space: is it worth it?
• Parents’ role in childhood obesity
• Woman vs. man: who is more emotional?
• The effects of campaign finance reform
• Should illegal immigrants be granted residency?

With this list of social topics and others you’ll find on the internet, you can’t be short of social issues to talk about. Choosing the best social issues topics is essential for writing a great research paper,or write dissertation for me ranging from social change topics to social awareness topics. Considering the vast amount of community issues to write about, our tips on choosing from the best social relevance topics will come in handy. If you need professional writing services, you can contact our experts.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Suggestions or feedback?

MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology

• Machine learning
• Social justice
• Black holes
• Classes and programs

Departments

• Aeronautics and Astronautics
• Brain and Cognitive Sciences
• Architecture
• Political Science
• Mechanical Engineering

Centers, Labs, & Programs

• Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL)
• Picower Institute for Learning and Memory
• Lincoln Laboratory
• School of Architecture + Planning
• School of Engineering
• School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences
• Sloan School of Management
• School of Science
• MIT Schwarzman College of Computing

Inclusive research for social change

Press contact :.

Previous image Next image

Pair a decades-old program dedicated to creating research opportunities for underrepresented minorities and populations with a growing initiative committed to tackling the very issues at the heart of such disparities, and you’ll get a transformative partnership that only MIT can deliver. 

Since 1986, the MIT Summer Research Program (MSRP) has led an institutional effort to prepare underrepresented students (minorities, women in STEM, or students with low socioeconomic status) for doctoral education by pairing them with MIT labs and research groups. For the past three years, the Initiative on Combatting Systemic Racism (ICSR), a cross-disciplinary research collaboration led by MIT’s Institute for Data, Systems, and Society (IDSS), has joined them in their mission, helping bring the issue full circle by providing MSRP students with the opportunity to use big data and computational tools to create impactful changes toward racial equity.

“ICSR has further enabled our direct engagement with undergrads, both within and outside of MIT,” says Fotini Christia , the Ford International Professor of the Social Sciences, associate director of IDSS, and co-organizer for the initiative. “We've found that this line of research has attracted students interested in examining these topics with the most rigorous methods.”

The initiative fits well under the IDSS banner, as IDSS research seeks solutions to complex societal issues through a multidisciplinary approach that includes statistics, computation, modeling, social science methodologies, human behavior, and an understanding of complex systems. With the support of faculty and researchers from all five schools and the MIT Schwarzman College of Computing , the objective of ICSR is to work on an array of different societal aspects of systemic racism through a set of verticals including policing, housing, health care, and social media.

Where passion meets impact

Grinnell senior Mia Hines has always dreamed of using her love for computer science to support social justice. She has experience working with unhoused people and labor unions, and advocating for Indigenous peoples’ rights. When applying to college, she focused her essay on using technology to help Syrian refugees.

“As a Black woman, it's very important to me that we focus on these areas, especially on how we can use technology to help marginalized communities,” Hines says. “And also, how do we stop technology or improve technology that is already hurting marginalized communities?”   

Through MSRP, Hines was paired with research advisor Ufuoma Ovienmhada, a fourth-year doctoral student in the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics at MIT. A member of Professor Danielle Wood’s Space Enabled research group at MIT’s Media Lab, Ovienmhada received funding from an ICSR Seed Grant and NASA's Applied Sciences Program to support her ongoing research measuring environmental injustice and socioeconomic disparities in prison landscapes. 

“I had been doing satellite remote sensing for environmental challenges and sustainability, starting out looking at coastal ecosystems, when I learned about an issue called ‘prison ecology,’” Ovienmhada explains. “This refers to the intersection of mass incarceration and environmental justice.”

Ovienmhada’s research uses satellite remote sensing and environmental data to characterize exposures to different environmental hazards such as air pollution, extreme heat, and flooding. “This allows others to use these datasets for real-time advocacy, in addition to creating public awareness,” she says.

Focused especially on extreme heat, Hines used satellite remote sensing to monitor the fluctuation of temperature to assess the risk being imposed on prisoners, including death, especially in states like Texas, where 75 percent of prisons either don't have full air conditioning or have none at all.

“Before this project I had done little to no work with geospatial data, and as a budding data scientist, getting to work with and understanding different types of data and resources is really helpful,” Hines says. “I was also funded and afforded the flexibility to take advantage of IDSS’s Data Science and Machine Learning online course . It was really great to be able to do that and learn even more.”

Filling the gap

Much like Hines, Harvey Mudd senior Megan Li was specifically interested in the IDSS-supported MSRP projects. She was drawn to the interdisciplinary approach, and she seeks in her own work to apply computational methods to societal issues and to make computer science more inclusive, considerate, and ethical. 

Working with Aurora Zhang, a grad student in IDSS’s Social and Engineering Systems PhD program, Li used county-level data on income and housing prices to quantify and visualize how affordability based on income alone varies across the United States. She then expanded the analysis to include assets and debt to determine the most common barriers to home ownership.

“I spent my day-to-day looking at census data and writing Python scripts that could work with it,” reports Li. “I also reached out to the Census Bureau directly to learn a little bit more about how they did their data collection, and discussed questions related to some of their previous studies and working papers that I had reviewed.” 

Outside of actual day-to-day research, Li says she learned a lot in conversations with fellow researchers, particularly changing her “skeptical view” of whether or not mortgage lending algorithms would help or hurt home buyers in the approval process. “I think I have a little bit more faith now, which is a good thing.”

“Harvey Mudd is undergraduate-only, and while professors do run labs here, my specific research areas are not well represented,” Li says. “This opportunity was enormous in that I got the experience I need to see if this research area is actually something that I want to do long term, and I got more mirrors into what I would be doing in grad school from talking to students and getting to know faculty.”

Closing the loop

While participating in MSRP offered crucial research experience to Hines, the ICSR projects enabled her to engage in topics she's passionate about and work that could drive tangible societal change.

“The experience felt much more concrete because we were working on these very sophisticated projects, in a supportive environment where people were very excited to work with us,” she says.

A significant benefit for Li was the chance to steer her research in alignment with her own interests. “I was actually given the opportunity to propose my own research idea, versus supporting a graduate student's work in progress,” she explains. 

For Ovienmhada, the pairing of the two initiatives solidifies the efforts of MSRP and closes a crucial loop in diversity, equity, and inclusion advocacy. 

“I've participated in a lot of different DEI-related efforts and advocacy and one thing that always comes up is the fact that it’s not just about bringing people in, it's also about creating an environment and opportunities that align with people’s values,” Ovienmhada says. “Programs like MSRP and ICSR create opportunities for people who want to do work that’s aligned with certain values by providing the needed mentoring and financial support.”

Share this news article on:

Related links.

• Initiative on Combatting Systemic Racism
• MIT Summer Research Program
• Institute for Data, Systems, and Society

Related Topics

• Undergraduate
• Diversity and inclusion
• Technology and society
• Women in STEM
• Race and gender
• Aeronautical and astronautical engineering
• School of Architecture and Planning

Related Articles

Summer research offers a springboard to advanced studies

A career in biochemistry unfolds

How artificial intelligence can help combat systemic racism

3 Questions: Fotini Christia on racial equity and data science

Previous item Next item

More MIT News

For Julie Greenberg, a career of research, mentoring, and advocacy

Read full story →

Reevaluating an approach to functional brain imaging

Propelling atomically layered magnets toward green computers

MIT Haystack scientists prepare a constellation of instruments to observe the solar eclipse’s effects

Q&A: Tips for viewing the 2024 solar eclipse

Researchers 3D print key components for a point-of-care mass spectrometer

• More news on MIT News homepage →

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, USA

• Map (opens in new window)
• Events (opens in new window)
• People (opens in new window)
• Careers (opens in new window)
• Accessibility
• Social Media Hub
• MIT on Facebook
• MIT on YouTube
• MIT on Instagram

Join thousands of product people at Insight Out Conf on April 11. Register free.

Insights hub solutions

Analyze data

Uncover deep customer insights with fast, powerful features, store insights, curate and manage insights in one searchable platform, scale research, unlock the potential of customer insights at enterprise scale.

Featured reads

Inspiration

Three things to look forward to at Insight Out

Tips and tricks

Make magic with your customer data in Dovetail

Four ways Dovetail helps Product Managers master continuous product discovery

Events and videos

© Dovetail Research Pty. Ltd.

11 social psychology research topics to explore in 2024

Last updated

6 March 2024

Reviewed by

Miroslav Damyanov

Social psychology is a constantly evolving field of study. It explores how our environment and other people influence our thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and goals. Social psychology uncovers how social interaction, perception, and influence impact individuals and groups. 

Taking a specific path to follow your interests and learn more about available areas can narrow your focus to find the ideal research project. 

Let’s take a look at current topics in social psychology to inspire your research. 

• Understanding social psychology research

Psychologists conduct experiments to better understand how different environmental factors and the influence of other people shape feelings and behaviors. 

Research projects explore various topics, from how a position of power can change behavior to the impact of positive social interactions. 

Various research designs allow researchers to develop projects that range from observational to experimental. 

What is an example of social psychology research?

Zimbardo randomly assigned college students the roles of prison guards or prisoners in a simulated prison environment. Despite knowing their roles were random, the guards exhibited increasing cruelty towards the prisoners. 

Researchers halted the study after six days due to extreme psychological distress. It revealed the profound impact of social roles and situations on human behavior, highlighting how people can adopt negative behaviors when given authority, even in a controlled setting.

• How to choose social psychology research topics

Social psychology is a diverse, highly studied area of science, so developing a unique project on a relevant topic can be challenging. 

When choosing a subject, begin by exploring your interests. After considering questions you'd like answers to and topics that intrigue you, narrow your scope. Explore specific areas of research, research designs, and subtopics. 

Once you've narrowed down your choices, seek literature and past studies on the subject. Consider how past research can raise additional questions about the topic. 

Develop your ideas by determining how to measure and test your research questions. 

Once you have a firm plan for your project, talk to your instructor for advice and approval before launching your studies. 

• Social psychology research topics

Social psychology has many nuances that influence human beliefs and behavior. Various elements of situations and relationships affect short- and long-term emotions and actions. 

The major research areas in social psychology are an ideal starting point to investigate as part of a psychology research project. 

These key focus areas within social psychology can be compelling psychology research topics:

1. Attitudes and attitude change

Research projects surrounding attitudes generally examine the components of attitudes and how they develop and can be changed. 

The three components of attitude are affective, behavioral, and cognitive. They’re also known as the ABCs. 

We form attitudes through a combination of upbringing, experience, and genetics. People can self-measure them in surveys or through researchers’ observations. 

Attitudes can change due to influence and environmental factors. They hugely affect human behavior, making them an important research topic in social psychology.

2. Attachment and relationships

Social connections shape our lives from the earliest moments, taking various forms that significantly impact our well-being. These connections have numerous advantages, such as heightened happiness and satisfaction. 

Social psychology explores these connections, examining diverse attachment styles to explain love, friendship, and attraction. 

Research in this domain investigates the repercussions of poorly formed social bonds and seeks to answer questions about how relationships influence group behavior. 

Additionally, studies in social psychology dissect the elements contributing to attraction, shedding light on the intricate dynamics that shape our social bonds and interactions. 

3. Authority and leadership

As revealed in the Stanford Experiment, authority can directly affect behavior. 

However, social psychology can further delve into the dynamics of people interacting with those in leadership roles. 

Milgram's Obedience to Authority study exemplifies this exploration. Stanley Milgram wanted to investigate how easily authority figures could influence people to commit atrocities.

In this study, participants assumed the role of teachers administering electric shocks to learners for incorrect answers. 65% delivered 450 volts of electricity under the directive of an authority figure. 

Research can consider the positive or negative elements of authority based on specific applications, settings, and environments. 

For example, we might consider obedience to authority positive in the workplace or classroom.

Social psychology research about groups delves into how behavior changes in group settings. 

Groups form for various reasons, and everything from leadership to group dynamics can impact how people behave. These behavioral changes can be beneficial or harmful. 

Research into group behavior can focus on decision-making, internal conflicts, conflicts with other groups, how groups affect individual identities, and much more. 

Studies can also investigate how positive group behaviors can influence someone. 

5. Prejudice

Prejudice and discrimination take different forms, which people may not be aware of. The origin and consequences of prejudice present many topics of study for researchers. 

Topics related to how prejudices form and why people maintain inaccurate stereotypes can uncover why people depend on stereotypes to make decisions. 

Many studies focus on the effects of discrimination and how to reduce prejudice. 

Research in this category can overlap with many other categories. For instance, group behavior and social influences can contribute to the formation of stereotypes and social categorization. 

6. Self and social identity

Many elements form the human perception of self. How we perceive ourselves may be substantially different from the viewpoint of others. 

Social psychologists are interested in learning how a person’s self-perception can influence factors like behavior and internal feelings like confidence. 

Our concept of self derives from various sources, such as abilities, social comparisons, interactions with others, and status. 

Researching how the perception of the inner self impacts social behaviors can unveil how social factors influence critical feelings like self-esteem. 

7. Pro- and anti-social behavior

How people’s social surroundings impact the way they respond to certain situations is defined as pro- or anti-social behavior. 

Positive and negative behaviors are based on accepted social norms. How someone responds during a specific event can reinforce or undermine those norms. 

For example, helping a stranger is prosocial, while vandalism is antisocial behavior. 

Studies have shown that prosocial behavior is contagious: Those who experience or observe it are more likely to help others. 

Antisocial behavior can have a similar effect but in a negative direction. Observing seemingly harmless acts, like littering and graffiti, can weaken social norms. This potentially invites more dangerous antisocial behavior.

Researchers can elaborate on this knowledge to consider why people help others without considering personal costs. They can also dig into what deters someone from taking an action they know is "the right thing to do." 

Exploring how society impacts positive and negative behaviors can shed light on ways to reduce negative behavior.

8. Social influence

Persuasion, peer pressure, obedience, and conformity are all forms of social influence. Like other areas of social psychology, these influences can be positive or negative. 

One of the earliest studies on social influence was Soloman Asch’s Conformity Line Experiment . 

Researchers put a participant in a test with seven conformists without knowing the conformists weren't true participants. Researchers asked them to compare the image of a target line with lines A, B, and C on another image. 

Early in the experiment, all conformists answered correctly, followed by the participant, who was always last. 

After a few rounds, the conformists began to provide wrong answers unanimously. On average, about a third of participants followed along with conformists to confirm clearly incorrect answers. 75% of participants confirmed at least one wrong answer. 

The control group had no conformists. Less than 1% of participants gave the wrong answer. 

Doctor and author Robert Cialdini takes the concept of influence further. He identified six universal principles of influence and persuasion to help people defend against dishonest influences. 

His studies conclude that these influences can sway people:

Reciprocation: The feeling we should repay what someone has provided

Social proof: When unsure about a decision, we follow the actions of others 

Liking: We generally agree with people we like and want them to agree with us

Authority: We are more likely to say yes to authority figures

Scarcity: We want more of what is less available

Commitment and consistency: Once we make a choice, we follow it with corresponding actions to justify the decision (even if we no longer believe in the choice)

Researchers can study how social influence guides the decision-making process and explore the positive and negative effects of conformity. Other experiments can explore the consequences of peer pressure and whether it can be beneficial. 

9. Social cognition

In the most basic sense, cognition is the brain gathering and understanding knowledge through sensations, thoughts, and experiences. It allows us to make sense of new information. 

Social cognition is how the brain processes information about individuals and groups of people. It includes the role of heuristics . These mental shortcuts enable us to function without constantly stopping to interpret everything in the environment. 

Research under the umbrella of social cognition can explore first impressions, how appearance affects our judgment, and how social interactions affect behavior. 

These studies can help psychologists understand how someone’s perception of social norms affects their self-image and behavior.

10. Violence and aggression

Exploration into violence and aggression attempts to better understand the factors and situations that cause aggression and how it impacts behaviors. 

Several types of aggressive behavior exist, ranging from gossiping to physical violence. Studies in this area examine the different types of aggression and the variables contributing to aggressive behavior. 

For instance, a pattern of aggression may relate to witnessing the behavior of a family member or traumatic experiences. Conversely, situational variables may trigger a single incidence of aggression.

A greater understanding of the role of social learning in aggressive behavior can lead to research about how social norms and public policy can decrease violent behavior. 

Learning more about the variables contributing to aggression and violence means researchers can use new knowledge to work toward solutions. 

11. Social representations

Social representations are a form of heuristics: a set of beliefs that make something unfamiliar easily understood. They allow people to apply specific bits of evidence-based data to individuals’ or groups’ actions to make ideas more familiar. 

Researchers may study the role of social representations in making new psychological or scientific information accessible to the average person. Studies may explore how we make sense of new information and how people organize and separate facts for rapid learning.

Get started today

Go from raw data to valuable insights with a flexible research platform

Editor’s picks

Last updated: 21 December 2023

Last updated: 16 December 2023

Last updated: 6 October 2023

Last updated: 17 February 2024

Last updated: 5 March 2024

Last updated: 19 November 2023

Last updated: 15 February 2024

Last updated: 11 March 2024

Last updated: 12 December 2023

Last updated: 6 March 2024

Last updated: 10 April 2023

Last updated: 20 December 2023

Latest articles

Related topics, log in or sign up.

Get started for free

• Frontiers in Sociology
• Sociology of Stratification
• Research Topics

Exploring Social Stratification Dynamics: Insights from Longitudinal Survey Data

Total Downloads

Total Views and Downloads

About this Research Topic

This Research Topic invites articles based on longitudinal survey data that are particularly appropriate to examine the dynamics of different facets of social stratification. Panel studies have unique analytical advantages both for academic research and for monitoring and evaluating. They are essential to understand processes of mobility and inertia. They make it possible to: (a) measure and analyse social change; (b) distinguish between permanent and transitory characteristics of a given phenomenon; and (c) study both intergenerational and intragenerational patterns of phenomena such as poverty, income dynamics, health conditions and practices or political positioning. In addition, they allow researchers to establish (robust) causal relationships between social phenomena. Moreover, household panels allow for intra-household studies, such as the study of mutual influence of household members' attitudes and behaviours over time and their impact on social stratification. The aim of this Research Topic is to make use of longitudinal data for stratification research. Theories can be tested as to their potential for causal explanation (as opposed to hypothesizing causal explanations through associations). Household panel data allow for disentangling individual causes from household contextual causes for mobility or inertia. Moreover, longitudinal data reveal to what extent factors of change or of inertia might change over time, due to changes in legislation or social policies. Questions of interest for the Research Topic are: What are stratifying factors over time? What dynamics exist? Have novel factors been identified (e.g., segregation, networks, social policies, political behaviour) that impact stratification? What impact do intra-household factors play? We welcome substantive contributions from different conceptual and theoretical approaches, addressing topics such as education, employment, material reward, health, social networks, integration, political behaviour, or attitudes and values. Comparative analyses based on the Cross-National Equivalent File (CNEF) are particularly welcome. Papers no longer than 12000 words are especially appreciated.

Keywords : stratification, inequalities, social class, social dynamics, longitudinal studies

Important Note : All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements. Frontiers reserves the right to guide an out-of-scope manuscript to a more suitable section or journal at any stage of peer review.

Topic Editors

Topic coordinators, submission deadlines, participating journals.

Manuscripts can be submitted to this Research Topic via the following journals:

total views

• Demographics

No records found

total views article views downloads topic views

Top countries

Top referring sites, about frontiers research topics.

With their unique mixes of varied contributions from Original Research to Review Articles, Research Topics unify the most influential researchers, the latest key findings and historical advances in a hot research area! Find out more on how to host your own Frontiers Research Topic or contribute to one as an author.

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2023 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

The 9 Major Research Areas in Social Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Mitchell Funk / Getty Images

Social Cognition

Violence and aggression, prosocial behavior, prejudice and discrimination.

• Social Identity

Group Behavior

Social influence, interpersonal relationships.

Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies a wide range of subjects related to social behavior. This includes studying how people interact, factors that affect social perceptions, the formation of attitudes, and how groups influence individuals.

Research in social psychology is often focused on subjects that fall within three broad areas:

• Social influence : Social influence refers to the ways in which our opinions and behavior are affected by the presence of others. This includes studies on topics such as conformity, obedience, and social pressure.
• Social perception : Social perception refers to the ways in which we form impressions of other people. This includes research on topics including first impressions, stereotyping, and prejudice.
• Social interaction : Social interaction refers to the ways in which we interact with other people. This includes research on topics such as communication, aggression, and altruism.

This article discusses some of the major areas of research in social psychology. It also explores some examples of the types of research that social psychologists might conduct within these subject areas.

Social cognition is concerned with the processing, storage, and application of social information. For example, research in this area of social psychology may focus on the development and use of social schemas. 

Schemas are our general ideas about the world, how things are, and how things work. In the case of social schemas, these ideas relate to how we expect people to behave in different situations.

These mental categories allow us to function without constantly stopping to interpret everything around us. We also develop associations between related schemas, which play an important role in the thought process and social behavior.

One area of social cognition research concerns person perception , which is how people form impressions of others. 

First impressions are the judgments we form about someone based on limited information. Studies have shown that first impressions happen within mere milliseconds and are based on several cues, such as facial expressions, body language, voice, and the beliefs held by the observer.  

Understanding how people acquire and process social information allows researchers to better explain how it can affect social interactions and individual behavior.

Attitudes and Attitude Change

Another major research area in social psychology involves the study of attitudes . Social psychologists are interested in the components of attitudes, how attitudes develop, and how attitudes change.

Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or issues. They can be positive (e.g., "I like chocolate") or negative (e.g., "I dislike taxes"). Various factors contribute to the development of attitudes, including upbringing and experiences, although genetics also appears to play a role in shaping them.

Researchers have identified three core components of attitude: an affective component, a behavioral component, and a cognitive component. Often referred to as the "ABCs of attitude," these elements describe how we feel, behave, and understand.

Some other characteristics of attitudes that researchers may be interested in include:

• How they are best measured : Some attitudes can be measured through self-report questionnaires, but others might be better measured using tools like facial expression or arousal levels.
• Factors that affect their strength : Attitudes can vary considerably in terms of their intensity. The strength of these attitudes directly impacts the degree to which they will guide their actions. Direct experiences and frequent exposure to the attitude can impact its strength.
• How attitudes affect behavior : Researchers are also interested in understanding how and when these attitudes influence people's actions. For example, social psychologists might explore how attitudes develop through exposure to social media sources and how those attitudes relate to real-world actions.

Attitudes are an important research topic in social psychology because they impact how people view and interact with others.

What causes violence and aggression ? While many different factors play a role, social psychologists are interested in understanding the social influences that shape violent behavior.

Research in this area looks at numerous social factors that may cause aggression, including:

• Situational variables that might contribute to aggression
• Non-physical types of aggression such as name-calling or gossiping
• How aggression is learned via modeling, such as witnessing adults or children engage in aggressive or violent behaviors
• How violence in the media affects behavior in the real world
• Strategies that can be effective in the reduction of aggression and violence
• The role social learning plays in producing aggressive behaviors and actions
• How public policy can be used to curb violent behavior

Research into the epidemic of gun violence is an example of how social psychologists are trying to understand the variables that contribute to a problem, and then utilize that knowledge to come up with actionable solutions.

Prosocial behavior is another major research area in social psychology. Prosocial behaviors are those that involve helping and cooperating.

Researchers often look at why people help others, as well as why they sometimes refuse to help or cooperate. The bystander effect is an example of a social phenomenon in the subject area of prosocial behavior.

Much of the research in the area of bystander effect was prompted by the murder of a young woman named Kitty Genovese. This case captured national attention when reports suggested that neighbors had witnessed her attack and murder but failed to call the police for help.

Later reviews of the case indicate that few (if any) of the neighbors had a clear view of the scene and were unaware of what was happening. Nevertheless, the case became mythologized in psychology textbooks and prompted a surge of interest in prosocial behaviors.

Research inspired by the Genovese case produced a great deal of information on prosocial behavior and how and why people choose—or sometimes refuse—to help others.

Prejudice, discrimination, and stereotypes exist in any social group. Social psychologists are interested in the origins, causes, and effects of these attitudes and social categorizations.

Some questions that social psychologists explore include:

• How does prejudice develop?
• Why are stereotypes maintained in the face of contrary evidence?
• How can prejudice be measured?
• What factors contribute to the formation of prejudice and discrimination?
• Are there effective ways to reduce prejudice and discrimination?

For example, researchers have found that several factors contribute to the development of prejudice, including stereotypes, social categorization, and social influences. Another factor that plays a part is the outgroup homogeneity bias, or the tendency to view people outside of our social group as being more homogenous than members of our own group.

By learning more about the psychology of prejudice and discrimination, researchers can look for solutions to help help prevent it from happening.

Self and Social Identity

Our perceptions of social identities and ourselves are another important research area in social psychology. Some of the questions that researchers explore include:

• How do people come to know and understand themselves?
• How do these self-perceptions affect our social interactions?
• How does belonging to different social groups shape individual identity?
• How do intersecting group members influence self-perception and self-identity?

Social psychologists are interested in learning more about how this inner life influences our outer lives and social world. Self-awareness, self-esteem, self-concept , and self-expression are only a few factors that influence our social experience.

For example, social comparison is a process that can impact how people view themselves. Upward social comparison involves comparing the self to others who are perceived as higher in status and ability, while downward social comparison focuses on making comparisons to those who are lower in status or ability.

Upward comparisons can leave people feeling like they don't measure up, damaging self-esteem. Downward comparisons, on the other hand, can help enhance self-esteem.

By learning more about how social identities and self-perceptions interact, social psychologists are better able to understand how social factors can influence how individuals feel about themselves and their identities.

Group behavior is defined as the actions, feelings, or thoughts of a collective of people. Such groups involve two or more people who share something in common such as identity, purpose, and belief.

The behavior of groups is one of the largest research areas in social psychology. Most people realize that groups tend to behave differently than individuals. These group behaviors are sometimes beneficial but can also be detrimental.

Social psychologists often look at topics such as:

• Group dynamics
• Group decision making
• Cooperation
• Group influence

Norms are an example of an aspect of group behavior that can guide how group members think, behave, or act. Norms are standards that emerge and guide how another member judge one another.

Social psychologists are also interested in the role of social influence on behavior and decision-making. Topics such as the psychology of persuasion , peer pressure, conformity , and obedience are only a few of those studied in this area of social psychology.

One example of research in this area of social psychology was Milgram's obedience studies conducted during the 1960s. The experiments found that when ordered by an authority figure, participants were willing to deliver what they believed were dangerous and painful electrical shocks to another person. While the shocks were staged, the research suggested that many people were willing to go to great lengths to obey authority.

Research has helped reveal the power of social influence and has uncovered ways to help people resist influence.

Social relationships play a major role in shaping behavior, attitudes, feelings, and thoughts. Social psychologists study how these interpersonal relationships affect people by looking at attachment , liking , love , and attraction.

Some research questions that social psychologists might explore include:

• How important are interpersonal relationships to individual well-being?
• What factors play a role in attraction?
• How do interpersonal relationships influence helping behaviors in groups?
• How do close relationships affect individuals?

Close relationships are relationships in which we feel a strong sense of connection and intimacy with another person. Studies on close relationships have shown that they are associated with many benefits, such as increased happiness and satisfaction with life.

A Word From Verywell

Social psychology is a rich subject that explores how social perception, social interaction, and social influence affect both groups and individuals. Researchers in this field are interested in various topics, including attitudes, attraction, close relationships, and helping behavior. By learning more about these subjects, social psychologists can add to our understanding of social behavior and its effect on individual well-being.

Venta A, Hatkevich C, Mellick W, Vanwoerden S, Sharp C. Social cognition mediates the relation between attachment schemas and posttraumatic stress disorder . Psychol Trauma. 2017;9(1):88-95. doi:10.1037/tra0000165

Stolier RM, Hehman E, Keller MD, Walker M, Freeman JB. The conceptual structure of face impressions . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 2018;115(37):9210-9215. doi:10.1073/pnas.1807222115

Markovitch N, Netzer L, Tamir M. Will you touch a dirty diaper? Attitudes towards disgust and behaviour [published correction appears in Cogn Emot . 2016;30(3):i].  Cogn Emot . 2016;30(3):592–602. doi:10.1080/02699931.2015.1020049

Olson JM, Vernon PA, Harris JA, Jang KL. The heritability of attitudes: A study of twins . J Pers Soc Psychol . 2001;80(6):845-60. PMID: 11414369.

Van Ryzin MJ, Dishion TJ. From antisocial behavior to violence: a model for the amplifying role of coercive joining in adolescent friendships .  J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 2013;54(6):661–669. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12017

Kassin SM. The killing of Kitty Genovese: What else does this case tell us?   Perspect Psychol Sci . 2017;12(3):374–381. doi:10.1177/1745691616679465

Rhodes M, Mandalaywala TM. The development and developmental consequences of social essentialism .  Wiley Interdiscip Rev Cogn Sci . 2017;8(4):10.1002/wcs.1437. doi:10.1002/wcs.1437

Hjerm M, Eger M, Danell R.  Peer attitudes and the development of prejudice in adolescence .  Socius Sociolog Res Dynamic World . 2018;4:1-11. doi:10.1177/2378023118763187

American Psychological Association.  Outgroup homogeneity bias .

Drury J, Carter H, Cocking C, Ntontis E, Tekin Guven S, Amlôt R. Facilitating collective psychosocial resilience in the public in emergencies: Twelve recommendations based on the social identity approach [published correction appears in Front Public Health . 2019 Jun 27;7:181].  Front Public Health . 2019;7:141. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2019.00141

Rahman T. Extreme Overvalued Beliefs: How Violent Extremist Beliefs Become "Normalized" .  Behav Sci (Basel) . 2018;8(1):10. doi:10.3390/bs8010010

Russell NJC.  Milgram's obedience to authority experiments: Origins and early evolution .  Br J Soc Psychol . 2011;50:140-162. doi:10.1348/014466610X492205

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Social Change

Explore Mind & Life’s work on social change, searchable by type, secondary topic, and year.

Social Change Offerings

The Mind & Life Institute Names Suzanne Bond as Its New President

Mind and Life Institute • March 18, 2024

Topics: Mindfulness | Social Change

Mind & Life Videos

Mindful Movement with kelley nicole palmer

Mind and Life Institute • March 5, 2024

Topics: Body-based Practices | Mindfulness | Social Change

Grant Jones Honored with 2023 Mind & Life Service Award

Nurturing Equity in Academia: It Involves Mindfulness, Mentorship, and Community

Felipe Mercado • January 26, 2024

Topics: Education | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

Rainn Wilson—Joy, Humor, Spirituality and Purpose

Mind and Life Institute • November 29, 2023

Topics: Mental Health | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

sujatha baliga—What We Are Capable of Becoming

Mind and Life Institute • November 8, 2023

Topics: Interconnection | Self & Other | Social Change

The Global Refugee Crisis: How Can Mindfulness & Compassion Training Help?

Sheila Kinkade • September 5, 2023

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Mental Health | Social Change

The Coming of a New Season at Mind & Life

Mind and Life Institute • July 12, 2023

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Contemplative Wisdom | Social Change

Inaugural Cohort of Contemplative Changemakers Pursues Diverse Approaches to Support Healing and Transformation

Mind and Life Institute • July 5, 2023

Topics: Body-based Practices | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

A Future We Can Love Livestream

Book Launch at the Rubin Museum

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Environment | Interconnection | Mindfulness | Social Change

Mind & Life Connect – Session 2

Our Emotional Lives: Exploring the Complex Relationship between Stress, Trauma, and the Body 

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Mental Health | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

Ed Taylor Honored with 2022 Mind & Life Service Award

Mind and Life Institute • April 5, 2023

Finding Meaning in Challenging Times: New Mind & Life Strategy Aims to Engage and Support Young Adults

Brynn Pedrick • March 22, 2023

Topics: Interconnection | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

New Global Majority Leadership and Mentorship Program Heralds an Era of Anti-Racist, Inclusive Contemplative Scholarship and Science

Kamilah Majied • January 10, 2023

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Education | Social Change

Could Cultivating Greater Joy Help Heal Our World? Lessons from the Dalai Lama, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, and 30 Renowned Speakers

Mind and Life Institute • December 5, 2022

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Interconnection | Social Change

Building on a Rich Legacy: International Society for Contemplative Research to Host Inaugural Conference February 2-5, 2023

Erin McCarthy • September 9, 2022

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Contemplative Wisdom | Social Change

Connection and Creativity Inspire Jessie and Richard Benjamin to Support Mind & Life

Brynn Pedrick • July 15, 2022

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Environment | Social Change

A Tribute to 2021 Service Award Recipients Bobbi Patterson and Elissa Epel

Mind and Life Institute • July 10, 2022

Topics: Social Change

2022 Summer Research Institute

Othering, Belonging, and Becoming

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Self & Other | Social Change

The Central Question of Our 2022 Summer Research Institute: What Can We Become?

Mind and Life Institute • March 22, 2022

Wisdom from Women in Contemplative Research

Brynn Pedrick • March 10, 2022

Inspiring Minds – January 2022

From Climate Distress to Climate Action

Topics: Environment | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

Varela Grant

Mindfulness and the reduction of racial disparities and disproportionality in school discipline

Lindsay Romano

Topics: Education | Mindfulness | Social Change

PEACE Grant

An intensive longitudinal study on a Centering Meditation: Exploring the temporal dynamics of nondual awareness and prosociality

Daniel Gutierrez, Stephanie Dorais

Leveraging contemplative science to build mindful digital engagement: Supporting adolescents in a hyperconnected era

Carrie James

Widening the circles of compassionate action: A social justice, school-based mindfulness intervention for youth

Sharon Lambert

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Education | Social Change

Embracing Humility and Complexity: Our Journey to Engage in Anti-Racist Practices

Susan Bauer-Wu • October 20, 2021

Transformative Social and Emotional Learning as a Catalyst for Climate Action

Meena Srinivasan • September 28, 2021

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Education | Environment | Social Change

Inspiring Minds – September 2021

Sustaining Social Change Movements through Kinship and Contemplative Practice

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Contemplative Wisdom | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

Think Tanks

Master Plants and Mindful Medicine: Towards Reciprocation and Recontextualization of Indigenous Practices and Western Psychedelic Research

Yuria Celidwen, Dacher Keltner, Juan Nelson Rojas, Yuniur Vazquez Rosalio, Nicole Redvers

Embodying DEI: Trauma-informed and Mindfulness-based Approaches to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Higher Education

Anita Chari, Michelle Chatman, Jennifer Cannon, Monika Son, Angelica Singh

Resistance through Resilience: A Compassionate Approach to Interrupting Privilege

Megan Kennedy, Ralina Joseph, Jas Moultrie, Bonnie Duran, LaNesha DeBardelaben

Topics: Mindfulness | Self & Other | Social Change

Grant Jones: Showing Up Fully Through Music and Mindfulness

Brynn Pedrick • August 16, 2021

Topics: Body-based Practices | Mental Health | Mindfulness | Social Change

A Conversation with Christiana Figueres: The Case for Stubborn Optimism

Mind and Life Institute • August 13, 2021

6 Days, 28 Speakers, 1 Powerful Message: The Climate Crisis, It’s a Relationship Problem

Mind and Life Institute • July 12, 2021

Topics: Environment | Mindfulness | Social Change

Documentary

Evolution of the Heart

Mind and Life Institute • June 6, 2021

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Contemplative Wisdom | Education | Interconnection | Self & Other | Social Change

2021 Online Speaker Series

The Mind, the Human-Earth Connection, and the Climate Crisis

Topics: Environment | Interconnection | Social Change

2021 Summer Research Institute Session

The Timing of Climate Change

Christiana Figueres, Susan Bauer-Wu

Audio Available Video Available

How to Give the Future a Chance: Mind, Earth, and Climate Change

Topics: Environment | Social Change

Panel Discussion: Science Forum: The Science of Social Change for Sustainability

Moderators: Elissa Epel Panel: Christine Wamsler, Ed Maibach, Karen O' Brien, Elissa Epel

Topics: Environment | Interconnection | Mindfulness | Social Change

Don’t Look Down: How to Build Bridges with Unlikely Allies

Dekila Chungyalpa

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Education | Environment | Social Change

From Awareness to Action: Mind & Life’s Response to Anti-Asian Violence

Mind and Life Institute • March 31, 2021

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Self & Other | Social Change

5 Reasons Not to Miss Mind & Life’s 2021 Summer Research Institute and Speaker Series

Mind and Life Institute • March 19, 2021

Creating the Future We Want: The Role of Contemplative Practice and Climate Action

Frances Steele • March 17, 2021

Inspiring Minds – March 2021

Transformative Change: Where Research and Action in the World Meet

Topics: Interconnection | Mindfulness | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

New Framework Shows Why Mindfulness is a Foundational Capacity for Meeting the Challenges of Our Time

Jamie Bristow, Rosie Bell • February 15, 2021

2021 Mind & Life Conversation on the Crisis of Climate Feedback Loops

The Dalai Lama with Greta Thunberg and Leading Scientists: A Conversation on the Crisis of Climate Feedback Loops

Tuned In! A Mindfulness-Based Affirmative Program to Virtually Address the Mental Health Needs of Sexual and Gender Minority Youth

Topics: Mental Health | Mindfulness | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

Music-Based Mindfulness Intervention for Black Americans

Grant Jones

Community engagement in contemplative training and research with law enforcement

Topics: Self & Other | Social Change

Inspiring Minds – November 2020

Yoga as a Tool for Social Change

Topics: Body-based Practices | Social Change

Balancing hope and fear: Resourcing climate activists for sustainable environmental justice work

Brooke D. Lavelle, Kristina Eichel

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Environment | Interconnection | Social Change

2020 Contemplative Research Conference Session

Meditation: “Taking a Stand by Taking Your Seat”

Jon Kabat-Zinn

Plenary Panel: “Pathways to Resilience in the Pandemic from a Contemplative, Moral and Public Health Perspective“

Moderators: David Vago Panel: Richard J. Davidson, Vivek Murthy, Molly Crockett, David Vago

Plenary Symposium: Clinical Panel “Effects of Contemplative Training in Vulnerable Populations”

Moderators: Doris F. Chang Panel: Linda Carlson, David J. Creswell, Cheryl Woods Giscombe, Doris F. Chang

International Society for Contemplative Research

Linda Carlson, Amishi Jha, Erin McCarthy, Harold Roth, Zindel Segal, David Vago, Fadel Zeidan

Topics: Body-based Practices | Brain & Cognitive Science | Compassion & Empathy | Contemplative Wisdom | Education | Environment | Interconnection | Mental Health | Mindfulness | Self & Other | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

Silent Illumination: Compassionate End-of-Life Care for Transgender Elders

Cathy Campbell

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Mindfulness | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

2020 Land and Peoples Acknowledgement

Mind and Life Institute • July 26, 2020

Our Commitment to Racial Equity and Inclusion

Can We Change Racial Bias?

Wendy Hasenkamp • July 17, 2020

Cultivating Pro-Sociality at a Time of Unprecedented Change

Mind and Life Institute • July 12, 2020

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Compassion & Empathy | Education | Social Change

2020 Summer Research Institute

Cultivating Prosocial Development Across the Lifespan: Context Relationships, and Contemplative Practices

2020 Summer Research Institute Session

Contemplating 400 Years of Inequality: A Mindfulness & Compassion Community Practice

Angel Acosta

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Interconnection | Self & Other | Social Change

The Role of Contemplative Practice in Cultivating Cultural Humility and Inclusivity in Research and Education

Kamilah Majied

No Place Like Home: Decolonizing our American Dreams & the Necropolitics they Bury

Jasmine Syedullah

Topics: Body-based Practices | Self & Other | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

Mind & Life Speaks Out Against Racism

Susan Bauer-Wu • June 2, 2020

Mind & Life 2020 President’s Call

Mind and Life Institute • May 20, 2020

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Contemplative Wisdom | Interconnection | Social Change

Helen Weng: Using Science to Spread a Message of Compassion, Equity, and Inclusion

Sheila Kinkade • January 29, 2020

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Contemplative Wisdom | Self & Other | Social Change

Fellow Spotlight: Brooke D. Lavelle

Joshua Whitwell • January 21, 2020

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Social Change

Measuring mental states during lovingkindness meditation using individualized brain patterns: A community-engaged investigation (updated*)

From violence and victims to voices and visions: Exploring the power of mindfulness to effect lasting positive change in post-conflict settings in Northern Uganda

Sarah Ssali, Evelyn Lutwama-Rukundo

Topics: Interconnection | Mindfulness | Self & Other | Social Change

Contemplative peacebuilding in Colombia: A contemplative practice-based psychosocial support program for Colombian ex-combatants

Emery Brown

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Mental Health | Mindfulness | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

Can lovingkindness meditation support tolerant political behavior? A study into the impact of meditation on political behavior

Femke Bakker

Cultivating mindful schools to promote an equitable climate of learning

Vitaliya Droutman

Topics: Education | Mindfulness | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

VOICES: Vocalizing Oppression and Interconnection in Contemplation and Embodiment Spaces

Richa Gawande

Topics: Body-based Practices | Contemplative Wisdom | Mindfulness | Social Change

2019 Mind & Life Conversation

Mind & Life Conversation: Conversations on Compassion, Interconnection, and Transformation

Topics: Body-based Practices | Contemplative Wisdom | Interconnection | Social Change

Wise Climate Actions & Sacred Activism

Vivian Valentin, Radhule Weininger, Michael Kearney, John Foran, Kevin M Gallagher

Critical Neuroscience and the Politics of Mindfulness Interventions for Youth: A Proposal for an Interdisciplinary Working Group

Suparna Choudhury, William Wannynn, Elena Hailwood, Steven Stanley, Jennifer Thomson

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Education | Mindfulness | Self & Other | Social Change

Seeding Peace in the Heart of Conflict: A Think Tank Project in Colombia

Juan Santoyo, Juliana M Santoyo • June 28, 2019

Topics: Interconnection | Mental Health | Self & Other | Social Change

2019 Summer Research Institute

Exploring Mental Habits: Contemplative Practices and Interventions for Individual and Social Flourishing

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Contemplative Wisdom | Mental Health | Self & Other | Social Change

2019 Summer Research Institute Session

The Quest for Serenity Among the Disenfranchised

Zenju Earthlyn Manuel

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Mental Health | Social Change

Dismantling Oppression from the Inside Out

Doris F. Chang

Othering and Belonging

john a. powell

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Interconnection | Self & Other | Social Change

Mindfulness for the masses: Understanding the approachability of mindfulness-based interventions and measurement of mindfulness among understudied diverse communities

Amanda Shallcross

Can emotional acceptance promote political action? Leveraging contemplative science to promote positive social action

Brett Ford, Allison Troy

Topics: Social Change | Stress & Resilience

Using a contemplative conflict resolution intervention to promote teachers’ and youth’s beneficial engagement in controversial discussions and intergroup encounters

Nava Levit-Binnun, Michal Reifen Tagar

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Education | Mindfulness | Self & Other | Social Change

Exploring the uptake and potential efficacy of brief mindfulness meditation for underserved female tobacco smokers

Samantha Davis

Topics: Mindfulness | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

Sona Dimidjian – To Be of Benefit: The Promise of Contemplative Research and Practice

Mind and Life Institute • November 10, 2018

Topics: Interconnection | Social Change

Laura Rendon – Contemplative Education Centering Social Justice

Mind and Life Institute • November 9, 2018

Topics: Education | Social Change

2018 International Symposium for Contemplative Research Session

Keynote Panel “Contemplative Practice Enters the Digital Age”

Moderators: Zindel Segal Panel: Acacia Parks, Jack Kornfield, Darnell Lamont Walker, Zindel Segal

Topics: Body-based Practices | Compassion & Empathy | Contemplative Wisdom | Education | Interconnection | Mindfulness | Social Change

Keynote “Toward A Transformed Vision of Contemplative Education Centering Social Justice”

Laura Rendón

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Education | Social Change

Social Justice Breakout Session

angel Kyodo williams

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Self & Other | Social Change

Keynote: To Be of Benefit: The Promise of Contemplative Research and Practice

Sona Dimidjian

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Education | Interconnection | Mental Health | Self & Other | Social Change

Master Lectures: Social Justice Panel: “From Awareness to Embodied Change: A Conversation Toward Contemplative Justice”

Moderators: Dominique A. Malebranche Panel: Helen Weng, Oliver Hill, Rhonda Magee, Dominique A. Malebranche

Mindfulness Practices as Anti-Oppression Pedagogy: Strategies for Preparation, Implementation, and Assessment

Greta Gaard

African Contemplative Practices for Healing the Past, for Transforming the Present and for Future Flourishing

Lucy Draper-Clarke

Topics: Body-based Practices | Contemplative Wisdom | Social Change

With Justice and Contemplation for All

Christine Phelan Kueter • October 15, 2018

The Geopolitics of the Other

Mind and Life Institute • September 19, 2018

Engaging in a Socially Unjust World with Love, Compassion, and Resolve

Genesis Barrera • August 22, 2018

2018 SRI Reflections: “I judge less. I understand more.”

Sheila Kinkade • August 7, 2018

2018 Summer Research Institute Session

Neurological Identities: Challenging the Brain as the Locus of Difference

Suparna Choudhury

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Social Change

2018 Summer Research Institute

Engaging Cultural Difference and Human Diversity

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Contemplative Wisdom | Interconnection | Self & Other | Social Change

Contemplative Neuroscience through the Lens of Diversity and Social Justice

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Interconnection | Social Change

Taking Care of Social Justice: Outside and In

Marisela Gomez

How Difference is Constructed and What We Can Do About It: Perspectives across Evolution, Culture, and Mindfulness Training

Bruce Knauft

Mindfulness Is Always a Multicultural Experience, Even When It Is Not

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Mindfulness | Social Change

Why It’s Time: “Engaging Cultural Difference and Human Diversity”

Christine Phelan Kueter • May 30, 2018

To Change the World, Start with How We Educate Children

Mind and Life Institute • April 2, 2018

Topics: Education | Self & Other | Social Change

Preventing Racial Bias in the Classroom: What One Researcher Hopes to Learn

Sheila Kinkade • March 23, 2018

Topics: Education | Mindfulness | Self & Other | Social Change

How Do We Know What’s True?

Janna R. White, Wendy Hasenkamp • February 12, 2018

A Golden String: Mind & Life 2018

Susan Bauer-Wu • January 17, 2018

Tania Singer’s Exploration into How Meditation Training Transforms the Brain, the Individual, and Society at Large

Mind and Life Institute • December 18, 2017

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Mindfulness | Social Change

Mindfulness-based Critical Consciousness Training for Teachers (MBCC-T): Development, pilot test, and comparison to two control groups

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Education | Mindfulness | Social Change

Motivating engagement with social justice issues through compassion training: A multi-method randomized control trial

The role of Contemplative Art Education in social, emotional, and cognitive development of children with low SES

Darya Zabelina

From barriers to bridges: Investigating contemplative approaches to social justice

Annemarie Gockel, Peggy O’Neill

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

A Conversation with Jim Austin and Susan Bauer-Wu

Mind and Life Institute • November 20, 2017

Cat McCue • November 20, 2017

Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives at Mind & Life

Mind and Life Institute • October 25, 2017

Ubuntu/Botho Leadership: An Ocean that Rejects No River

Peter Bonanno • October 25, 2017

The ever-evolving connection between culture and human biology

Michael K. Juberg • September 29, 2017

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Mental Health | Social Change

Promoting Openness and Transparency in the Contemplative Sciences

Wendy Hasenkamp • August 25, 2017

MLI XXXII Session 5

Mind and Life Institute • August 19, 2017

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Education | Interconnection | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

MLI XXXII Session 4

Mind and Life Institute • August 18, 2017

MLI XXXII Session 2

Mind and Life Institute • August 17, 2017

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Interconnection | Self & Other | Social Change | Stress & Resilience

MLI XXXII Session 1

2017 Mind & Life Dialogue XXXII Session

Session IV – The Role of Botho/Ubuntu in Modern Responses to Children’s and Women’s Rights Issues in Africa

Graça Machel, Theo Sowa

Session V – Reparative Humanism: Exploring the Meaning of Ubuntu

Pumla Gobodo-Madikizela, Lily Mafela, Theo Sowa

2017 Mind & Life Dialogue XXXII

Botho/Ubuntu, A Dialogue on Spirituality, Science, and Humanity

Moderators: Lily Mafela Panel: Rupert Hambira, Raphael Sikwane, Canon Mpho Tutu Van Furth, Susan Bauer-Wu, Seretse Khama Ian Khama, His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama, Lily Mafela

Session I – The History and Contemporary Frame of Botho/Ubuntu: Philosophical and Sociocultural Complexities

Michael Onyebuchi Eze, Lily Mafela

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Contemplative Wisdom | Interconnection | Self & Other | Social Change

Session II – Traditional Healer as Medium for Addressing Afflictions and Restoration of Wholistic Order within Botho/Ubuntu Cosmology

Mandaza Kandemwa, Lily Mafela

Session I – The Concept of Botho/Ubuntu: its Expression and Resilience in the Lived Experiences of Batswana and Other Indigenous Africans

Moderators: Lily Mafela Panel: Ponatshego H.K. Kedikilwe, Lily Mafela

Session IV – The Biology of Care and Conflict in Groups

Carsten K.W. De Dreu, Theo Sowa

Message by His Holiness the Dalai Lama to the Mind & Life Botswana Dialogues

Mind and Life Institute • August 16, 2017

2017 Summer Research Institute Session

Advancing Prosocial Interactions on Facebook Through Interdisciplinary Research

Pete Fleming

2017 Summer Research Institute

Intersubjectivity and Social Connectivity

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Contemplative Wisdom | Interconnection | Mental Health | Self & Other | Social Change

Intersubjectivity and Social Connectivity: Deepening the Work of Putting Contemplative Studies and Science In Context

Rhonda Magee

STEMing the Tide: How Female Experts and Peers Foster Social Connections and Serve as “Social Vaccines” to Protect Young Women’s Self-Concept in STEM

Nilanjana (Buju) Dasgupta

Plenary Workshop What Roles Do Inclusivity and Social Justice Play in Contemplative Science?

Peter Grossenbacher, Rhonda Magee

How personal experience as a racial minority led to a career studying compassion meditation in diverse populations

Michael K. Juberg • March 27, 2017

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Compassion & Empathy | Social Change

Designing and implementing a contemplative practice-based program for ex-combatants in Colombia’s peacebuilding process

Juan Santoyo, Juliana M Santoyo, Alejandro Chaoul, Brooke D. Lavelle

ISCS 2016 marks coming of age for Mind & Life

Mind and Life Institute • December 16, 2016

“Prayer is action”: Contemplative practice and social justice in Standing Rock, ND

Sarah Laborde • December 14, 2016

Is mindfulness only for the fortunate? The development and dissemination of a brief home-based mindfulness intervention to low-income couples

Katherine Lenger

Embodiment, Contemplative Practice, and Equality: Developing a Programmatic and Research Agenda for Reducing Ingroup Bias through Embodied Inquiry and Contemplative Practice

Bo Forbes, Norman Farb, David Vago, Christine Wilson-Mendenhall

Topics: Body-based Practices | Self & Other | Social Change

Socially-Engaged Mindfulness Interventions (SEMI) and the Promise of Making Refuge

Ronald Purser, Edwin Ng, Zack Walsh

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Interconnection | Mindfulness | Social Change

ISCS 2016 – Keynote – Rhonda Magee

Mind and Life Institute • November 12, 2016

ISCS 2016 – Master Lecture – Robert Roeser

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Education | Mindfulness | Social Change

ISCS 2016 – Master Lecture – Erin McCarthy

2016 International Symposium for Contemplative Studies Session

Master Lectures: School Systems, Educational Reform and Mindfulness Training

Robert Roeser

Letter from the Future

Sheila Peltz Weinberg

Moving Together From Colorblindness to ColorInsight: Contemplative Inquiry, Research and Practice in the Work of Transformative Justice

Master Lectures: Embodying Change: Buddhism, Feminism, and Contemplative Education

Erin McCarthy

Liberation Through Memory and Storytelling

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Mindfulness | Self & Other | Social Change

2016 International Symposium for Contemplative Studies

International Symposium for Contemplative Studies 2016

Topics: Body-based Practices | Brain & Cognitive Science | Mindfulness | Social Change

A Call for More Compassionate, Equitable Education

Brooke D. Lavelle • November 2, 2016

2016 Mind & Life Dialogue XXXI

Power & Care

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Interconnection | Social Change

2016 Summer Research Institute Session

Community Engagement and Contemplative Neuroscience within a Diverse Contemplative Community

What is the role of contemplative practice when social-identity-based suffering and structural violence has happened.

Mind & Life 1440 Grant

Engaged mindfulness in Vietnam

Topics: Interconnection | Mindfulness | Social Change

President’s Message: New Vision and Priorities

Susan Bauer-Wu • March 19, 2016

Mindfulness and Racial Bias: Resources For Deeper Understanding

Lauren Parent • January 13, 2016

Mindfulness and Racial Bias: Straight Talk with Rhonda Magee JD

Mind and Life Institute • December 8, 2015

A community-engaged approach to contemplative neuroscience in a diverse contemplative community

The Mind & Life Institute

Mind and Life Institute • November 25, 2015

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Contemplative Wisdom | Mindfulness | Social Change

Angel Acosta, ACEL Participant: Contemplative Inquiry in Education

Mind and Life Institute • October 15, 2015

Diana Chapman Walsh, ACEL Core Faculty

Mind and Life Institute • March 12, 2015

Topics: Education | Interconnection | Social Change

Otto Scharmer, ACEL Core Faculty

Mind and Life Institute • March 10, 2015

Call to Care: Vietnam

Call to Care: Israel

Call to Care: Bhutan

Sharon Daloz Parks, ACEL Core Faculty

The effects of mindfulness on gender stereotype threat

Jeff Yanli Lin

Bridging the empathy gap: Effects of brief mindfulness training on helping outgroup members in need

Daniel Berry

Topics: Brain & Cognitive Science | Compassion & Empathy | Mindfulness | Self & Other | Social Change

Is mindful meditation effective and culturally relevant for Native people?

Jeffrey Proulx

ISCS 2014 – Opening Keynote – Diana Chapman Walsh

Mind and Life Institute • October 30, 2014

Topics: Compassion & Empathy | Environment | Social Change

ISCS 2014 Pre-Conference – Opening Keynote – john a. powell

2014 International Symposium for Contemplative Studies Session

Pre-Conference Workshop – From Grassroots Community Building to Generating a Movement

Leslie Booker, Kristen Zimmerman

Concurrent Session 4 – Leaning into Difference Through Contemplative Education: A Mindful Exploration of Power, Privilege, and Oppression

Deb Bopsie, Ugur Kocataskin, Regina Smith

Pre-conference Introduction and Opening Keynote

Pre-conference workshop – the awakened educator: on contemplative practice, applied research, and social transformation in education.

Yvette Jackson, Robert Roeser

Pre-Conference Workshop – Getting from Here to There: Perspectives on System Change in Education

Janice Jackson, Jerome Murphy

Pre-Conference Workshop – Teaching for Radical Transformation

Rhonda Magee, Maria Pacheco

ISCS Opening Keynote

Diana Chapman Walsh

Concurrent Session 1 – The Role of Contemplative Practice in Developing Authentic Leaders

Susan Skjei

Concurrent Session 2 – Contemplative Education: From Neoliberal to Transformational?

David Forbes

Concurrent Session 2 – A Profile Is Not a Self: A Buddhist Critique of Privilege and Power in the Construction of Social Media Platforms

Kevin Healey, Rich Potter

Concurrent Session 3 – Ideals of Human Being in Contemplative Philosophy and in U.S. Law

Kris Weller

Concurrent Session 5 – Contemplative Initiatives for Business Education

Kevin Jackson

Church, State, and the Mindfulness Movement

Mind and Life Institute • September 18, 2014

Mind & Life XXIII – Session 10

Mind and Life Institute • October 21, 2011

Topics: Contemplative Wisdom | Environment | Interconnection | Social Change

Mind & Life XXIII – Session 9

Mind & life xxiii – session 8, mind & life xxiii – session 7, mind & life xxiii – session 6, mind & life xxiii – session 5, mind & life xxiii – session 4, mind & life xxiii – session 3, mind & life xxiii – session 2, mind & life xxiii – session 1.

2011 Mind & Life Dialogue XXIII

Ecology, Ethics and Interdependence

Nonattachment, group identity, and memory of historical injustices

Baljinder Sahdra

• Mission and Values
• Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion
• Dialogues and Conversations
• Summer Research Institute
• Mind & Life Connect
• Inspiring Minds
• Varela Grants
• PEACE Grants
• Contemplative Changemaking Grants
• Mentorship Program
• Insights Essays
• The Mind & Life Digital Library
• Mind & Life Podcast
• Online Courses
• Documentaries
• Open Access Academic Papers
• Ways to Give
• Annual Reports

100 Captivating Social Science Research Topics

Table of Contents

Are you searching for the best social science research topics? If yes, then you are at the right place. Typically, social science is the study of people, cultures, and societies.  It is categorized into different branches such as anthropology, history, civics, economics, etc., each offering a unique perspective of the world. So, for preparing a social science research paper, you can choose any relevant topic from a variety of sub-disciplines including history, economics, psychology, sociology, and more.

Since many students find it more challenging to identify a topic for their social science paper, in this blog, we have published a list of 100 outstanding social science research questions, ideas, and titles. Additionally, we have explained how to choose a good topic for a social science research paper.

Continue reading this blog and get awesome ideas for social science research paper writing.

Know How to Select a Social Science Research Topic

To make your social science research paper stand unique in the crowd, you must pick a great topic. Most importantly, the topic you select should be authentic, relevant to your field of study, and should fall within your interest.

In case, you are confused about how to choose the right topic for your social science thesis, then follow these steps.

• First, determine your area of interest in social studies or its branches
• In your field of interest, search for themes or topics that impress you. It can be anything from historical events, psychological phenomena, or social trends.
• Conduct preliminary research on the shortlisted themes and collect background information to narrow your focus. To gather significant details, you can use relevant sources such as scholarly articles, books, or magazines.
• Analyze the sources and identify any data gaps, contradictions, or inconsistencies in existing research. These gaps will give a new perspective for your research.
• Based on your analysis, refine your topic and come up with a concise research question.
• Check whether the chosen topic is researchable and has enough authentic information to stay focused.
• Before finalizing the topic, discuss it with your instructor and gain insights.

Also Read : 195 Informative Social Studies Topics for Academic Writing

List of Social Science Research Topics and Ideas

If you experience any difficulty with generating social science research questions, take a look below. For your convenience, here, we have presented a list of excellent social science research paper topics and ideas from different themes related to social studies.

Simple Social Science Research Topics

• Explain the role of newspapers in our daily life.
• Discuss how recycling helps the planet.
• Explain how cartoons influence kids.
• Discuss the effect of volunteering on personal development.
• Analyze the effect of climate change on global economies.
• Examine the causes and consequences of global migration trends.
• Analyze the influence of graphic novels on youth culture.
• Examine the trend of urban gardening.
• Discuss the ethical implications of artificial intelligence in society.
• Examine the influence of gender roles on career choices.

Interesting Social Studies Research Topics

• Discuss the role of technology in reshaping education.
• Explain how mass media shapes public opinion.
• Discuss the causes and effects of overpopulation.
• Explain how cyberbullying affects teenage mental health.
• Discuss the cultural impact of street art in cities.
• Analyze the influence of technology on interpersonal communication.
• Discuss the effects of urbanization on biodiversity.
• Explain the role of urban planning in community well-being.
• Discuss the impact of biotechnology on agriculture sustainability.
• Analyze the influence of cultural heritage on fashion trends.
• Study the societal implications of aging populations.
• Discuss the economic implications of cryptocurrency adoption.
• Examine the influence of music on societal norms.
• Discuss the role of censorship in freedom of speech.
• Analyze the implications of drone technology.

Top Social Science Research Questions

• Discuss the role of data analytics in shaping marketing strategies.
• Examine the ethical boundaries of genetic engineering.
• Explain the role of NGOs in shaping public policy.
• Discuss the social implications of multilingualism.
• Analyze the cultural factors that influence dietary habits.
• Explore the culture of political satire.
• Discuss the role of intersectionality in social justice movements.
• Analyze the effects of migration patterns.
• Understand the sociology of leisure.
• Analyze the impact of universal basic income on society.
• Discuss the social dynamics of homelessness.
• Analyze the effect of ecotourism on local economies.
• Explain the role of museums in preserving cultural heritage.
• Discuss the political implications of meme culture.
• Examine the social consequences of binge-watching.

Unique Social Science Research Topics on History

• Discuss the role of fashion in America during the 1920s.
• Examine the influence of Roman architecture on modern cities.
• Analyze the impact of radio on World War II propaganda.
• Discuss the evolution of modern medicine during World War I.
• Examine the role of women in Victorian society.
• Discuss the iconic design trends of the 20 th
• Explain the influence of pirate communities on maritime laws.
• Discuss the history of the global perception of Tattoos.
• Analyze the impact of the printing press on the Renaissance.
• Discuss the influence of Jazz on the Civil Rights Movement.

Captivating Social Science Research Topics on Anthropology

• Analyze the social implications of food taboos.
• Discuss the role of folk tales in cultural preservation.
• Analyze the influence of pop culture on language evolution.
• Examine the correlation between fashion and culture.
• Discuss the impact of urbanization on tribal communities.
• Prepare a research paper on cultural adaptation in immigrant communities.
• Analyze body language and non-verbal communication in various cultures.
• Compare cultural appropriation and appreciation.
• Prepare a research paper on graffiti.
• Discuss the cultural beliefs that influence health practices.

Also Read: 85 Bullying Research Topics and Essay Ideas

Excellent Social Science Research Topics on Religion and Culture

• Discuss the role of religious charities in community development.
• Analyze the impact of cinema on cultural stereotypes.
• Explain the role of religion in conflict resolution.
• Take a closer look at fan culture and celebrity worship.
• Write about religious iconography in popular culture.
• Explain the evolution of atheism in the 21 st
• Discuss the rituals of birth and death across cultures.
• Examine the global influence of Hip-Hop culture.
• Explore meme culture.
• Discuss the role of cyberculture in shaping modern societies.

Amazing Social Science Research Questions on Philosophy

• Analyze postmodern philosophy.
• Discuss the virtue ethics in business practices.
• Analyze Stoicism in modern society.
• Discuss the evolution of feminist philosophy.
• Analyze the ethical dimensions and implications of space exploration.
• Examine the philosophy behind climate change denial.
• Write about existentialism in contemporary literature.
• Discuss the portrayal of Nihilism in pop culture.
• Prepare a research paper on determinism in a technological era.
• Compare rationality and emotion in decision-making.

Popular Social Studies Research Topics on Psychology

• Analyze the effects of adoption on child psychology.
• Examine the correlation between mindfulness and stress reduction.
• Analyze the psychological effects of dopamine fasting.
• Discuss the efficacy of art therapy in mental health treatment.
• Examine the psychology behind procrastination.
• Discuss the impact of sleep quality on cognitive function.
• Analyze the effects of stereotype threat on performance.
• Discuss the developmental advantages of bilingual education.
• Analyze the psychological perspectives of pain perception.
• Write about color psychology in marketing.

Engaging Social Science Research Ideas on Sociology

• Explain the role of social media in modern protests.
• Discuss the sociology of conspiracy theories.
• Analyze societal reaction to pandemics.
• Discuss the social media applications of the bystander effect.
• Analyze the effect of hyper-consumerism on modern society.
• Write about intersectionality and social inequality.
• Discuss the effects of intergenerational trauma on identity.
• Write about racial disparities in educational results.
• Prepare a research paper on veganism.
• Examine the impact of immigration on host communities.

Also Read : 115 Impactful Social Change Essay Topics

Wrapping Up

From the list recommended above, pick any topic that impresses you and compose a well-structured social science research paper. If you struggle to write your social science thesis or if you need any other original social science research paper topic, then reach out to us immediately.

At greatassignmenthelp.com, we have a team of talented and experienced social science assignment helpers . From academic paper topic selection to writing and editing, as per your needs, our subject experts will provide cheap and best social science research paper help online.

In specific, on a topic from any branch of social studies, our subject experts will guide you in composing a plagiarism-free research paper. Moreover, by getting our social studies assignment help , you can complete all the relevant tasks on time and achieve the highest grades.

Related Post

85 Bullying Research Topics and Essay Ideas

230 Excellent Social Media Essay Topics and Ideas

275+ Amazing Social Work Research Topics

About author.

Jacob Smith

Jacob Smith guides students with writing research paper topics and theses at greatassignmenthelp.com. Read about the author from this page

https://www.greatassignmenthelp.com/

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

• Featured Posts

200 Impressive Business Essay Topics

175 unique bioethics topics to consider for academic paper, apa vs. mla: know the major differences between the citation styles, top 155 java project ideas for beginners and experts, 116 best enlightenment essay topics, 130 awesome rock and roll essay topics, 130 engaging ancient history topics for academic writing, 130 fun research topics and ideas, 150+ unique psychology research topics and ideas, get help instantly.

Raise Your Grades with Great Assignment Help

Online Students

For All Online Programs

International Students

On Campus, need or have Visa

Campus Students

For All Campus Programs

What is Social Change and Why Should We Care?

Social change is a concept many of us take for granted or don't really even understand. No society has ever remained the same. Change is always happening. We accept change as inevitable, and it is, end of story, right? Well, not exactly.

Sociologists define social change as changes in human interactions and relationships that transform cultural and social institutions. These changes occur over time and often have profound and long-term consequences for society. Well-known examples of such change have resulted from social movements in workers’ rights, civil rights, women's rights and LGBTQIA+ rights, to name just a few. Relationships have changed, institutions have changed, and cultural norms have changed as a result of these social change movements. That's pretty heady stuff. Don't you think?

What interests me, and what I hope interests you, is our collective power to influence social change.

What is the Main Purpose of Social Change?

While we accept that change is constant, we do not have to accept that we are powerless in its wake. It is the extent to which we care about the direction of social change that we can try to shape it and help to create the kind of "change we wish to see in the world." Whether or not Gandhi actually uttered these words doesn't matter. What matters is that the phrase begs the question, what kind of change do we wish to see in the world?

One person’s opinion about what is good or positive social change might well be another person’s idea of bad or negative social change. For example, those who believe in a woman’s right to choose whether or not to carry a fetus to term fight fervently for that right and believe wholeheartedly that it is a decision to be made between a woman and her doctor, while those who oppose abortion believe firmly in the righteousness of their cause, too, and have built a movement that can claim victory in the overturning of the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Roe v. Wade.

Institutions have changed, cultural and political norms have changed, and personal relationships have changed as a result of the collective power of people determined to make what they believe to be positive social change. Not all agree, but there can be no denying that it has been an activist movement powered by citizens working together to make change.

As executive director of the 50-year-old nonprofit, Global Citizens Circle  (GCC), I think every day about the question of what kind of change I want to see in the world as I work to carry forward the mission of the organization to foster constructive change in our communities, our nation and our world.

I imagine that our partner and host institution, Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU), also thinks about this question on a daily basis as it seeks to "transform the lives of students." And surely, our Belfast-based partner, The Social Change Initiative (SCI), thinks about it as it strives "to improve the effectiveness of activism for progressive social change."

We, all three institutions, care and understand that we can influence social change for the better. We may exercise our power to influence change in different ways. GCC does it through discussion among people of diverse opinions and backgrounds. SNHU does it by offering affordable and innovative educational social science degree programs  online and similar campus majors, and now even in refugee camps in Kenya, Lebanon, Malawi, Rwanda and South Africa. SCI exercises its influence by bringing together social activists and philanthropists around the world.

These are lofty goals to be sure, and they demand our constant attention and unrestricted imagination to envision a better world. You may think that's great, but wonder why you should care, why you should take time out of your incredibly busy schedule to take action and more importantly, how you can even go about helping to create positive social change.

I'd like to suggest that it's not that hard if we begin at the most basic level, that of relationship building.

Find Your Program

Change begins with how and when we interact with others.

When we listen respectfully to others who have different opinions and life experiences than our own, we take the first step in listening; we accept that there are myriad perspectives and points of view on most issues of concern.

If we truly want to be a participant in real change, we cannot stop at acceptance. We must have conversations that push and pull, that ask us to give and take. And if we are willing to do that, we can find those points of agreement and come together on them. We needn't concede those points that define our values but find ways to work together towards positive change that reflects our shared values. It is the art of principled compromise that has the power to create a more lasting change.

We are living in turbulent times, though one could argue that has always been true. The increasing polarization of populations throughout the world that hear “the truth” from entirely different media sources is something new, making the art of principled compromise more difficult. The level of incivility in political dialogue has risen throughout the world, and it’s as if we’ve collectively forgotten our shared humanity.

We can surely claim that technology is to blame, and it is, but it has also fueled positive social change movements when used to bring people together for the betterment of a society. A non-political example of this is the Ice Bucket Challenge that brought millions together to learn about and support the research for a cure of the devastating disease of ALS.

Global Citizens Circle has for five decades brought together diverse groups of people for challenging discussions on issues ranging from conflict resolution and reconciliation to education reform and economic equality. We've seen Catholics and Protestants from Northern Ireland sit down together and discuss their shared hope for peace. We've hosted South African exiles who were once labeled "terrorists" in their own country and who later became leaders of that country. At our discussion circles, we've seated powerful businesspeople next to the homeless and disenfranchised, and activists next to academics, and we have borne witness to the change that has occurred.

Through the pandemic, we gathered people globally online and brought the same principles and values of respect and dignity to dialogue on difficult issues such as racial justice after the murder of George Floyd, the hard realities of police reform and youth vulnerability and resilience in times of conflict.

Have these programs spurred social change? They have in ways we don’t always see; but with intentional nurturing of connections made during these programs, we plant the seeds.

Building Relationships to Foster Constructive Social Change

The conversation topics were often difficult, but listening and learning from others was not. Change begins this way. We must nurture civil discourse and work with intentionality to bring together people with different perspectives.

Convening gatherings of people, educating students in classrooms and online, and supporting activists who put themselves in the forefront of advocating for social change are how Global Citizens Circle, Southern New Hampshire University and The Social Change Initiative use their influence and power to direct change toward a more equitable and inclusive society.

Ultimately, however, it is not the programs that each of our organizations offer that create lasting change, but it is the relationships of trust and respect that do. That takes time and a sustained willingness to be open to the possibility that we might learn something from those with whom we disagree.

Building those kinds of relationships, even when, no, especially when, it seems impossible, is the key to cultivating constructive social change. So, take the lead, start now and stay at it.

Explore more content like this article

How to Become a Social Worker

What is Political Science All About?

SNHU Spotlight: Mellissa Honings, BA in Psychology Grad

About southern new hampshire university.

SNHU is a nonprofit, accredited university with a mission to make high-quality education more accessible and affordable for everyone.

Founded in 1932, and online since 1995, we’ve helped countless students reach their goals with flexible, career-focused programs . Our 300-acre campus in Manchester, NH is home to over 3,000 students, and we serve over 135,000 students online. Visit our about SNHU  page to learn more about our mission, accreditations, leadership team, national recognitions and awards.

Read our research on: Gun Policy | International Conflict | Election 2024

Regions & Countries

Most americans favor legalizing marijuana for medical, recreational use, legalizing recreational marijuana viewed as good for local economies; mixed views of impact on drug use, community safety.

Pew Research Center conducted this study to understand the public’s views about the legalization of marijuana in the United States. For this analysis, we surveyed 5,140 adults from Jan. 16 to Jan. 21, 2024. Everyone who took part in this survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for the report and its methodology .

As more states pass laws legalizing marijuana for recreational use , Americans continue to favor legalization of both medical and recreational use of the drug.

An overwhelming share of U.S. adults (88%) say marijuana should be legal for medical or recreational use.

Nearly six-in-ten Americans (57%) say that marijuana should be legal for medical and recreational purposes, while roughly a third (32%) say that marijuana should be legal for medical use only.

Just 11% of Americans say that the drug should not be legal at all.

Opinions about marijuana legalization have changed little over the past five years, according to the Pew Research Center survey, conducted Jan. 16-21, 2024, among 5,14o adults.

The impact of legalizing marijuana for recreational use

While a majority of Americans continue to say marijuana should be legal , there are varying views about the impacts of recreational legalization.

About half of Americans (52%) say that legalizing the recreational use of marijuana is good for local economies; just 17% think it is bad and 29% say it has no impact.

More adults also say legalizing marijuana for recreational use makes the criminal justice system more fair (42%) than less fair (18%); 38% say it has no impact.

However, Americans have mixed views on the impact of legalizing marijuana for recreational use on:

• Use of other drugs: About as many say it increases (29%) as say it decreases (27%) the use of other drugs, like heroin, fentanyl and cocaine (42% say it has no impact).
• Community safety: More Americans say legalizing recreational marijuana makes communities less safe (34%) than say it makes them safer (21%); 44% say it has no impact.

Partisan differences on impact of recreational use of marijuana

There are deep partisan divisions regarding the impact of marijuana legalization for recreational use.

Majorities of Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents say legalizing recreational marijuana is good for local economies (64% say this) and makes the criminal justice system fairer (58%).

Fewer Republicans and Republican leaners say legalization for recreational use has a positive effect on local economies (41%) and the criminal justice system (27%).

Republicans are more likely than Democrats to cite downsides from legalizing recreational marijuana:

• 42% of Republicans say it increases the use of other drugs, like heroin, fentanyl and cocaine, compared with just 17% of Democrats.
• 48% of Republicans say it makes communities less safe, more than double the share of Democrats (21%) who say this.

Demographic, partisan differences in views of marijuana legalization

Sizable age and partisan differences persist on the issue of marijuana legalization though small shares of adults across demographic groups are completely opposed to it.

Older adults are far less likely than younger adults to favor marijuana legalization.

This is particularly the case among adults ages 75 and older: 31% say marijuana should be legal for both medical and recreational use.

By comparison, half of adults between the ages of 65 and 74 say marijuana should be legal for medical and recreational use, and larger shares in younger age groups say the same.

Republicans continue to be less supportive than Democrats of legalizing marijuana for both legal and recreational use: 42% of Republicans favor legalizing marijuana for both purposes, compared with 72% of Democrats.

There continue to be ideological differences within each party:

• 34% of conservative Republicans say marijuana should be legal for medical and recreational use, compared with a 57% majority of moderate and liberal Republicans.
• 62% of conservative and moderate Democrats say marijuana should be legal for medical and recreational use, while an overwhelming majority of liberal Democrats (84%) say this.

Views of marijuana legalization vary by age within both parties

Along with differences by party and age, there are also age differences within each party on the issue.

A 57% majority of Republicans ages 18 to 29 favor making marijuana legal for medical and recreational use, compared with 52% among those ages 30 to 49 and much smaller shares of older Republicans.

Still, wide majorities of Republicans in all age groups favor legalizing marijuana at least for medical use. Among those ages 65 and older, just 20% say marijuana should not be legal even for medical purposes.

While majorities of Democrats across all age groups support legalizing marijuana for medical and recreational use, older Democrats are less likely to say this.

About half of Democrats ages 75 and older (53%) say marijuana should be legal for both purposes, but much larger shares of younger Democrats say the same (including 81% of Democrats ages 18 to 29). Still, only 7% of Democrats ages 65 and older think marijuana should not be legalized even for medical use, similar to the share of all other Democrats who say this.

Views of the effects of legalizing recreational marijuana among racial and ethnic groups

Substantial shares of Americans across racial and ethnic groups say when marijuana is legal for recreational use, it has a more positive than negative impact on the economy and criminal justice system.

About half of White (52%), Black (53%) and Hispanic (51%) adults say legalizing recreational marijuana is good for local economies. A slightly smaller share of Asian adults (46%) say the same.

Criminal justice

Across racial and ethnic groups, about four-in-ten say that recreational marijuana being legal makes the criminal justice system fairer, with smaller shares saying it would make it less fair.

However, there are wider racial differences on questions regarding the impact of recreational marijuana on the use of other drugs and the safety of communities.

Use of other drugs

Nearly half of Black adults (48%) say recreational marijuana legalization doesn’t have an effect on the use of drugs like heroin, fentanyl and cocaine. Another 32% in this group say it decreases the use of these drugs and 18% say it increases their use.

In contrast, Hispanic adults are slightly more likely to say legal marijuana increases the use of these other drugs (39%) than to say it decreases this use (30%); 29% say it has no impact.

Among White adults, the balance of opinion is mixed: 28% say marijuana legalization increases the use of other drugs and 25% say it decreases their use (45% say it has no impact). Views among Asian adults are also mixed, though a smaller share (31%) say legalization has no impact on the use of other drugs.

Community safety

Hispanic and Asian adults also are more likely to say marijuana’s legalization makes communities less safe: 41% of Hispanic adults and 46% of Asian adults say this, compared with 34% of White adults and 24% of Black adults.

Wide age gap on views of impact of legalizing recreational marijuana

Young Americans view the legalization of marijuana for recreational use in more positive terms compared with their older counterparts.

Clear majorities of adults under 30 say it is good for local economies (71%) and that it makes the criminal justice system fairer (59%).

By comparison, a third of Americans ages 65 and older say legalizing the recreational use of marijuana is good for local economies; about as many (32%) say it makes the criminal justice system more fair.

There also are sizable differences in opinion by age about how legalizing recreational marijuana affects the use of other drugs and the safety of communities.

Facts are more important than ever

In times of uncertainty, good decisions demand good data. Please support our research with a financial contribution.

Report Materials

Table of contents, most americans now live in a legal marijuana state – and most have at least one dispensary in their county, 7 facts about americans and marijuana, americans overwhelmingly say marijuana should be legal for medical or recreational use, clear majorities of black americans favor marijuana legalization, easing of criminal penalties, religious americans are less likely to endorse legal marijuana for recreational use, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .