research paper about english as a universal language

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Mol Biol Cell
v.23(8); 2012 Apr 15

English as the universal language of science: opportunities and challenges

English is now used almost exclusively as the language of science. The adoption of a de facto universal language of science has had an extraordinary effect on scientific communication: by learning a single language, scientists around the world gain access to the vast scientific literature and can communicate with other scientists anywhere in the world. However, the use of English as the universal scientific language creates distinct challenges for those who are not native speakers of English. In this editorial, we discuss how researchers, manuscript reviewers, and journal editors can help minimize these challenges, thereby leveling the playing field and fostering international scientific communication.

It is estimated that less than 15% of the world's population speaks English, with just 5% being native speakers ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language ). This extraordinary imbalance emphasizes the importance of recognizing and alleviating the difficulties faced by nonnative speakers of English if we are to have a truly global community of scientists. For scientists whose first language is not English, writing manuscripts and grants, preparing oral presentations, and communicating directly with other scientists in English is much more challenging than it is for native speakers of English. Communicating subtle nuances, which can be done easily in one's native tongue, becomes difficult or impossible. A common complaint of nonnative speakers of English is that manuscript reviewers often focus on criticizing their English, rather than looking beyond the language to evaluate the scientific results and logic of a manuscript. This makes it difficult for their manuscripts to get a fair review and, ultimately, to be accepted for publication.

We believe that the communications advantage realized by native speakers of English obligates them to acknowledge and to help alleviate the extra challenges faced by their fellow scientists from non-English-speaking countries. Native speakers of English should offer understanding, patience, and assistance when reviewing or editing manuscripts of nonnative speakers of English. At the same time, nonnative speakers of English must endeavor to produce manuscripts that are clearly written. We offer the following guidelines for writing and evaluating manuscripts in the context of the international community of scientists:

Nonnative speakers of English can write effective manuscripts, despite errors of grammar, syntax, and usage, if the manuscripts are clear, simple, logical, and concise. (We note that native speakers of English sometimes write manuscripts exhibiting good grammar, yet filled with muddled and confusing logic.)
When possible, reviewers and editors of manuscripts should look beyond errors in grammar, syntax, and usage, and evaluate the science.
It is inappropriate to reject or harshly criticize manuscripts from nonnative speakers of English based on errors of grammar, syntax, or usage alone. If there are language errors, reviewers and editors should provide constructive criticism, pointing out examples of passages that are unclear and suggesting improvements. Reviewers and editors may also suggest that authors seek the assistance of expert English speakers or professional editing services in preparing revised versions of manuscripts. And finally, all involved should bear in mind that most journals employ copyeditors, whose job it is to correct any lingering errors in grammar, syntax, and usage before final publication of an article.
Nonnative speakers of English must be aware that reviewers, editors, and journal staff do not have the time or resources to extensively edit manuscripts for language and that reviewers and editors must be able to understand what is being reported. Thus, it is essential that nonnative speakers of English recognize that their ability to participate in the international scientific enterprise is directly related to their ability to produce manuscripts in English that are clear, simple, logical, and concise.

The fact that English is the de facto global language of science is not likely to change anytime soon. Optimizing communication among members of the international community of scientists, and thus advancing scientific progress, depends on elimination of obstacles faced by nonnative speakers of the English language. This ideal can best be achieved when all members of the scientific community work together.

Acknowledgments

This editorial was inspired by correspondence with Victor Norris of the Université de Rouen, France. We thank Yi Zuo, Karsten Weis, and Laurent Blanchoin for comments on the manuscript and Mark Leader for his excellent edits.

DOI: 10.1091/mbc.E12-02-0108

The Hidden Bias of Science’s Universal Language

The vast majority of scientific papers today are published in English. What gets lost when other languages get left out?

research paper about english as a universal language

Newton’s Principia Mathematica was written in Latin; Einstein’s first influential papers were written in German; Marie Curie’s work was published in French. Yet today, most scientific research around the world is published in a single language, English.

Since the middle of the last century, things have shifted in the global scientific community. English is now so prevalent that in some non-English speaking countries, like Germany, France, and Spain, English-language academic papers outnumber publications in the country’s own language several times over. In the Netherlands, one of the more extreme examples, this ratio is an astonishing 40 to 1.

A 2012 study from the scientific-research publication Research Trends examined articles collected by SCOPUS, the world’s largest database for peer-reviewed journals. To qualify for inclusion in SCOPUS, a journal published in a language other than English must at the very least include English abstracts; of the more than 21,000 articles from 239 countries currently in the database, the study found that 80 percent were written entirely in English. Zeroing in on eight countries that produce a high number of scientific journals, the study also found that the ratio of English to non-English articles in the past few years had increased or remained stable in all but one.

This gulf between English and the other languages means that non-English articles, when they get written at all, may reach a more limited audience. On SCImago Journal Rank —a system that ranks scientific journals by prestige, based on the citations their articles receive elsewhere—all of the top 50 journals are published in English and originate from either the U.S. or the U.K.

In short, scientists who want to produce influential, globally recognized work most likely need to publish in English—which means they’ll also likely have to attend English-language conferences, read English-language papers, and have English-language discussions. In a 2005 case study of Korean scientists living in the U.K., the researcher Kumju Hwang, then at the University of Leeds, wrote: “The reason that [non-native English-speaking scientists] have to use English, at a cost of extra time and effort, is closely related to their continued efforts to be recognized as having internationally compatible quality and to gain the highest possible reputation.”

It wasn’t always this way. As the science historian Michael Gorin explained in Aeon earlier this year, from the 15th through the 17th century, scientists typically conducted their work in two languages: their native tongue when discussing their work in conversation, and Latin in their written work or when corresponding with scientists outside their home country.

“Since Latin was no specific nation’s native tongue, and scholars all across European and Arabic societies could make equal use of it, no one ‘owned’ the language. For these reasons, Latin became a fitting vehicle for claims about universal nature,” Gordin wrote. “But everyone in this conversation was polyglot, choosing the language to suit the audience. When writing to international chemists, Swedes used Latin; when conversing with mining engineers, they opted for Swedish.”

As the scientific revolution progressed through 17th and 18th centuries, Gordin continued, Latin began to fall out of favor as the scientific language of choice:

Galileo Galilei published his discovery of the moons of Jupiter in the Latin Sidereus Nuncius of 1610, but his later major works were in Italian. As he aimed for a more local audience for patronage and support, he switched languages. Newton’s Principia (1687) appeared in Latin, but his Opticks of 1704 was English (Latin translation 1706).

But as this shift made it more difficult for scientists to understand work done outside of their home countries, the scientific community began to slowly consolidate its languages again. By the early 19th century, just three—French, English, and German—accounted for the bulk of scientists’ communication and published research; by the second half of the 20th century, only English remained dominant as the U.S. strengthened its place in the world, and its influence in the global scientific community has continued to increase ever since.

As a consequence, the scientific vocabularies of many languages have failed to keep pace with new developments and discoveries. In many languages, the words “quark” and “chromosome,” for example, are simply transliterated from English. In a 2007 paper, the University of Melbourne linguist Joe Lo Bianco described the phenomenon of “domain collapse,” or “the progressive deterioration of competence in [a language] in high-level discourses.” In other words, as a language stops adapting to changes in a given field, it can eventually cease to be an effective means of communication in certain contexts altogether.

In many countries, college-level science education is now conducted in English—partially because studying science in English is good preparation for a future scientific career, and partially because the necessary words often don’t exist in any other language. A 2014 report from the University of Oxford found that the use of English as the primary language of education in non-English speaking countries is on the rise, a phenomenon more prevalent in higher education but also increasingly present in primary and secondary schools.

But even with English-language science education around the world, non-native speakers are still often at a disadvantage.

“Processing the content of the lectures in a different language required a big energetic investment, and a whole lot more concentration than I am used to in my own language,” said Monseratt Lopez, a McGill University biophysicist originally from Mexico.

“I was also shy to communicate with researchers, from fear of not understanding quite well what they were saying,” she added. “Reading a research paper would take me a whole day or two as opposed to a couple of hours.”

Sean Perera, a researcher in science communication from the Australian National University, described the current situation this way: “The English language plays a dominant role, one could even call it a hegemony … As a consequence, minimal room or no room at all is allowed to communicators of other languages to participate in science in their own voice—they are compelled to translate their ideas into English.”

In practice, this attitude selects for only a very specific way of looking at the world, one that can make it easy to discount other types of information as nothing more than folklore. But knowledge that isn’t produced via traditional academic research methods can still have scientific value—indigenous tribes in Indonesia , for example, knew from their oral histories how to recognize the signs of an impeding earthquake, enabling them to flee to higher ground before the 2004 tsunami hit. Similarly, the Luritja people of central Australia have passed down an ancient legend of a deadly “fire devil” crashing from the sun to the Earth—which, geologists now believe, describes a meteorite that landed around 4,700 years ago.

“It is all part of a growing recognition that Indigenous knowledge has a lot to offer the scientific community,” the BBC wrote in an article describing the Luritja story. “But there is a problem—indigenous languages are dying off at an alarming rate, making it increasingly difficult for scientists and other experts to benefit from such knowledge.”

Science’s language bias, in other words, extends beyond what’s printed on the page of a research paper. As Perera explained it, so long as English remains the gatekeeper to scientific discourse, shoehorning scientists of other cultural backgrounds into a single language comes with “the great cost of losing their unique ways of communicating ideas.”

“They gradually lose their own voice,” he said—and over time, other ways of understanding the world can simply fade away.

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English as the universal language of science: opportunities and challenges

2012, Molecular Biology of the Cell

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Language and linguistics

This paper explores the ascent of English as a global lingua franca within the context of linguistic hegemony, following Phillipson’s 1992 framework. It scrutinizes English’s role in the rapidly globalizing world, emphasizing its dominance across economic, governance, and scientific sectors and its impact on non-native English-speaking countries. Utilizing a sociolinguistic approach, combined with historical and interdisciplinary analysis, the study evaluates the influence of English hegemony in cultural, educational, and technological domains, with a focus on post-colonial and expanding circle nations. Additionally, the paper provides critical insights for developing language policies in these areas, considering the intricate role of English in the global linguistic landscape. It concludes by considering the prospects of English language hegemony.

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Introduction

The dominance of English in the 21st century has exerted a profound influence on the global economic landscape, political configurations, and cultural systems of nations worldwide. The global promulgation of English, however, did not materialize abruptly; it is the culmination of a protracted process of development and evolution (Gordin, 2015 ). Tracing back to around the 5th century, invasions by the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes onto the British Isles initiated the linguistic amalgamation of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic tongues, giving rise to what is known as Old English. The advent of Standard English in the Elizabethan era of the 16th century owes much to the Norman Conquest’s introduction of Norman French influences. The 17th century witnessed the surge of the Industrial Revolution, which augmented Britain’s economic and military prowess, ushering in its era as a global hegemon and the “Empire on which the sun never sets” (Allen, 2017 ). Concurrent with its imperial expansion into Africa and Asia, Britain disseminated the English language across these continents. Subsequently, in the aftermath of World War II, the United States emerged with substantial economic growth and a concentration of capital and wealth. The U.S.‘s rapidly ascending political, military, economic, and technological clout facilitated the widespread adoption of English, further entrenched by its pervasiveness in media, film, television, and advertising. Presently, with over 1.2 billion English speakers globally (Rao, 2019 ), the reach and ubiquity of the English language are evident.

Phillipson’s theory of “Linguistic Imperialism” (1992) provides a critical examination of language rights, policies, the endangerment of languages, and linguistic hegemony, with a specific focus on English’s role as an international lingua franca . This theory enhances our understanding of modern English hegemony. In today’s globalized context, English is not only an essential tool for international discourse but also the premier foreign language in numerous countries, with its symbolic stature and status as the international lingua franca being incontrovertible. The hegemony of English has significantly shaped the language policies and political economies of many nations. Several countries in Asia and Africa, having experienced British and American colonial dominion, encountered the dual-edged sword of English hegemony—both facilitating and eroding indigenous languages, leaving an indelible imprint on their societies, economies, and cultures. Thus, acknowledging the considerable impact of English on the linguistic policies and political economies of post-colonial nations, we must also critically assess the positive dissemination of English culture alongside a reflection on the global ramifications of English linguistic hegemony.

In the current epoch of the fourth industrial revolution, which is distinguished by the convergence of digital, biological, and physical advancements, it seems likely that the dominance of the English language will not only endure but even extend its reach. English, being the primary element of worldwide communication and the predominant language used on the internet, is expected to continue being the favored means for international discussions, advancements in technology, and the sharing of information. The prominence of Silicon Valley and the prevailing influence of American and British institutions in the fields of science and technology serve to solidify the position of the English language as a leading force in the realm of innovation. Furthermore, it is anticipated that English, with its extensive datasets and linguistic resources, will become increasingly dominant as the primary language for programming and engaging with technology, as artificial intelligence and machine learning systems progress. Therefore, it is anticipated that the dominance of the English language in this emerging period would enable and maybe expedite international partnerships, therefore expanding the frontiers of invention and fostering unparalleled global interconnectedness.

The research methodology for this study on English Language Hegemony combines a sociolinguistic approach with historical and interdisciplinary analysis. Using Phillipson’s ( 1992 ) framework, we examine English’s historical development and current status as a global lingua franca . Our approach includes a thorough historical literature review and qualitative methods such as textual analysis and case studies, focusing on English’s influence in sectors like the economy, governance, science, and education, particularly in post-colonial and expanding circle nations. The integration of insights from linguistics, history, sociology, and education allows for a comprehensive exploration of English hegemony’s cultural, educational, and technological effects, while also addressing future language policies and the ongoing evolution of English dominance.

Related studies

The hegemony of the English language has developed into a core research topic in the field of sociolinguistics since the end of the 20th century. Scholars such as Phillipson (Phillipson, 1997 , 2004 , 2008 , 2009 , 2018 ), Tsuda ( 2008 ), Ives ( 2009 ), Macedo et al. ( 2015 ), Choi ( 2010 ), and Borden ( 2014 ) have made significant contributions to the construction and development of the theoretical framework of English hegemony/linguistic imperialism studies. This research field involves the historical evolution of English in the context of globalization, its political, economic, and cultural impacts, and its effects on language diversity. It particularly focuses on issues such as linguistic power, linguistic identity, and linguistic justice, all of which constitute key areas in the struggle for ideologies and power.

The burgeoning interest in post-colonialism and new imperialism within Western social sciences since the 1980s has cast the English language into the spotlight. It was Robert Phillipson and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas who, from an ideological stance, first articulated the notion of language hierarchies. In his pivotal 1992 work “ Linguistic Imperialism ”, Phillipson, a prominent linguist, addressed critical issues surrounding language rights, policies, endangerment, and hegemony, specifically in the context of English as a lingua franca . Scholars like Pennycook ( 2021 ), Canagarajah ( 1999 ), and Graddol ( 2006 ) have since contributed to the discourse, spotlighting the challenges of English dominance in third-world countries. Canagarajah, particularly, underscored the profound dilemma post-colonial societies face in reconciling Western culture and values with indigenous ones, a challenge compounded by the deep-rooted presence of English within their cultural and ideological frameworks (Canagarajah, 1999 ). The linguistic influence of colonial powers has not only bolstered the status of their languages but also inflicted detrimental effects across various spheres including economics, politics, society, culture, and education (Ricento, 2015 ).

Current research on English language hegemony is multi-dimensional, examining its ascent to the primary medium of global communication and the ensuing cultural and educational ramifications. Studies indicate that English’s privileged status bolsters the cultural exports of English-speaking nations and may engender linguistic disparities within non-native English-speaking countries, influencing individual socio-economic prospects and societal attitudes toward language and cultural preservation (Haidar, 2019 ).

Scholars have conducted in-depth investigations into English dominance from various perspectives. The critical inquiry has spotlighted the adverse effects of English dominance on educational policy, language planning, and the viability of minoritized language groups, advocating for initiatives that foster linguistic diversity and parity (Davis & Phyak, 2017 ). Conversely, pragmatic research investigates strategies to uphold linguistic diversity alongside the widespread use of English, such as through bilingual or multilingual educational models, or by emphasizing native languages in public domains and media (Flores & Rosa, 2015 ; Phillipson, 2004 ). These analyses suggest that, while English’s global influence is likely to persist, maintaining vibrant language practices and policies remains both viable and imperative at local and regional levels.

Ongoing investigations strive to strike a balance between leveraging the economic and communicative advantages of English as a lingua franca and safeguarding indigenous linguistic heritages (Dewey, 2007 ; Grant, 2012 ). This has prompted interdisciplinary research that intersects sociology, education, linguistics, and policy studies, aiming to decipher how languages transform under the pressures of globalization and to craft apt strategies for intercultural communication and language pedagogy (Jackson, 2019 ; Modiano, 2020 ). Concurrently, national and local governments, educational bodies, and international entities are engaged in finding means to cherish and nurture linguistic diversity, whilst also considering the role of English as a facilitative tool rather than an instrument of cultural or economic imposition.

Contemporary academic discussions around the dominance of the English language have adopted a comprehensive perspective, examining this problem from several angles such as globalization, educational policies, and cultural impact. One notable tendency seen in scholarly literature is the comprehensive analysis of the prevailing dominance of the English language and its consequential effects on the preservation and promotion of linguistic variety. The phenomenon of ‘linguistic imperialism’ in the new globalization era has been examined by various studies (e.g., Lai, 2021 ; Mackenzie, 2022 ; Smith & Kim, 2015 ) and the researchers have provided critical analysis on the marginalization of indigenous languages and cultures resulting from the widespread use of English in academic and professional domains. These scholarly works contend that the dominance of the English language reinforces a monolingual mindset in worldwide communication, often disregarding the importance of multilingualism and diversity.

Scholars have extensively investigated the techniques of resistance and adaptation used by non-English-speaking populations in reaction to hegemonic forces. In the contemporary period characterized by the fourth industrial revolution, there has been a notable emergence of scholarly investigations that explore the convergence of technology and language. Canagarajah ( 2020 ) conducted a study examining how digital platforms provide opportunities for individuals to engage in ‘translingual practises,’ which include the blending of English with other languages. This phenomenon serves as a means of contesting the dominant position of the English language. Furthermore, there has been a recent emphasis in empirical research on how educational policies worldwide are responding to this dominant influence. One common approach is the promotion of bilingual education and the cultivation of English language skills alongside native languages, intending to prepare students for the demands of a globalized labor market (Wang & Zheng, 2021 ).

The dominance of the English language and its cultural impacts have become a focal point of interest in academic circles. This phenomenon has elicited a scholarly response that oscillates between critical analysis and pragmatic acceptance of English hegemony. A growing body of research has focused on investigating the influence of English as a worldwide lingua franca on cultural identities and practices. Scholars such as Melchers et al. ( 2019 ), Kirkpatrick ( 2023 ), and Smith and Nelson ( 2019 ) have directed their attention towards the notion of ‘World Englishes’, examining how English has been modified in many sociocultural settings, leading to the emergence of novel English variations and subsequently, novel manifestations of cultural expression. This corpus of literature highlights an increasing acknowledgement of the dynamic and adaptable characteristics of language, suggesting that the dominance of the English language does not just exert a one-way influence on culture, but rather involves a mutual process of cultural interchange and alteration.

In brief, the existing body of literature about the English language hegemony is undergoing continuous development. Recent research encompasses a wide variety of viewpoints, spanning from a critical examination of English’s prevailing position to an investigation of the flexible and oppositional approaches used in multilingual communication within the context of the digital era. There is a growing inclination to acknowledge the intricate nature of language hegemony, as it intersects with cultural identity, education, and the relentless progression of technology.

The formation and development of English language hegemony

The ascendancy of English as a global lingua franca is a phenomenon intricately woven into the fabric of British colonial history. Its roots can be traced to the 16th century when British explorations and subsequent colonization laid the groundwork for the nation’s maritime dominance (Kennedy, 2017 ). These early expeditions, exemplified by the conquest of Newfoundland, marked the beginning of Britain’s imperial expansion. Over time, this expansion led to the establishment of a vast colonial empire where the sun famously never set, and with it, the dissemination of the English language.

The dissemination of the English language was not only coincidental but rather a purposeful tactic used to solidify British hegemony. The use of English language was employed as a strategy to centralize authority within colonial areas, resulting in the subordination of indigenous people and fostering a perception of inadequacy towards their languages and traditions. The enduring consequence was the establishment of English as the official language in several former colonies, a legacy that endures in contemporary times.

The post-World War II era saw a collapse in British colonial status, which in turn led to the rise of the United States as a prominent economic and political powerhouse (Kramer, 2016 ). As British power declined, the United States took on the responsibility of advancing the English language, establishing a strong connection between its spread and the dissemination of its own cultural, political, and economic principles. Employing educational endeavors and cultural diplomacy, the United States enhanced the prominence of the English language on a worldwide scale, assuring its association with contemporary progress and influence.

Thus, while the United Kingdom laid the early foundations of what would become linguistic imperialism, it was the United States that carried the torch into the latter half of the 20th century and beyond, ensuring that English maintained its hegemonic status. The evolution of English as a tool of imperialism is a testament to the geopolitical shifts of the past centuries, with the United States playing a crucial role in the language’s continued global prevalence (Crystal, 2009 ).

We conducted a literature review spanning from 1992 to the present, using Google Scholar and Web of Science with the keywords “English language hegemony” and “English linguistic imperialism” on January 9, 2024. This search yielded approximately 1325 records, from which we selected around 120 key papers specifically relevant to the formation and evolution of English Language Hegemony. Table 1 presents a comprehensive timeline of key events in the rise of English hegemony, tracing its journey from the early British colonial period to its current global prominence under the United States’ influence. This table also highlights various strategic efforts to promote English and the political shifts that have contributed to its widespread adoption.

The influence of English hegemony

The pervasive role of English as the “world language” in scientific, economic, academic, and political discourse is now widely acknowledged amidst intensifying globalization (Genç & Bada, 2010 ; Pennycook, 2017 ). The entrenchment of English hegemony has complex ramifications for the linguistic ecosystems of non-Anglophone nations, particularly those with a history of colonization. Language serves not only as a communicative tool but as a hallmark of identity, and the rise of English has deeply influenced the linguistic landscapes of countries around the globe. Phillipson ( 2018 ) introduces this dynamic, delineating a divide between core English-speaking countries—such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and Australia—and peripheral English-speaking nations, where English is official or widely spoken, such as India, the Philippines, and China.

The acquisition of English in these peripheral countries often transcends mere language learning; it becomes a conduit for social and cultural ideologies emanating from the Anglophone core (Canagarajah, 2007 ). This influence fosters a power imbalance where local languages may be sidelined or diminished, sometimes facing the threat of obsolescence. The post-colonial countries exemplify this trend, where English has remained a dominant force post-independence, impacting the local vernacular and cultural norms (Buschfeld & Kautzsch, 2017 ). Language not only expresses but also preserves culture. Hence, the erosion of linguistic diversity due to English imperialism risks the extinction of rich cultural heritages. Colonial policies that mandated English learning were not just pedagogical but also tools of ideological and cultural subjugation.

In the current era of globalization, the omnipresence of English continues to exert its influence on former colonial states and beyond. Phillipson ( 2017 ) highlighted the tendency of African university graduates to adopt Western cultural perspectives through their English proficiency, often becoming the most Westernized segment in their societies. This reflects a broader trend where cultural and ideological affiliations with English-speaking nations are reinforced through language.

While the drawbacks of English dominance are clear, its role in globalization cannot be entirely dismissed as negative. For many non-native speakers, English is a lingua franca facilitating communication across diverse linguistic backgrounds, catalyzing scientific advancement, and enabling access to global commerce. It’s a vehicle for cultural exchange and economic opportunity. The proliferation of English has allowed previously colonized and other non-Anglophone countries to partake in international discourse and trade.

The significance of English’s dominance in the fields of science and technology cannot be exaggerated. English is widely used as the predominant language in several academic and scientific institutes worldwide. Xu ( 2010 ) points out that the distribution and extension of information are profoundly influenced by the strategic relevance of the English language. The prominence of Anglophone nations in the realms of science and technology has contributed to the elevation of English’s position within these domains, facilitating the dissemination of cutting-edge information to less developed countries.

Furthermore, English serves as a crucial intermediary, enabling emerging economies to assimilate and innovate in science and technology. It is omnipresent in various media, facilitating a global understanding that transcends national borders. Consequently, proficiency in English equips non-Anglophone countries with the tools to engage with, and potentially transform, their own social and technological landscapes.

A prospect of English language hegemony

The current worldwide dominance of the English language in discourse is anticipated to encounter substantial upheavals and difficulties shortly. The international language hierarchy may be significantly impacted by the emergence of economies in light of the dynamic global political and economic environment (Warschauer, 2000 ). The increasing economic power of China, coupled with its growing worldwide impact, has the potential to enhance the prominence of Mandarin, especially in Asia and elsewhere where Chinese investment is substantial. Likewise, languages such as Spanish, Arabic, and French have the potential to attain importance as a result of enhanced economic partnerships, political connections, or cultural exchanges. The anticipated multipolar linguistic shift has the potential to transform the previously dominant English-centric paradigm, leading to a global movement towards genuine multilingualism and diversity.

The potential use of technological breakthroughs, namely in the domains of artificial intelligence and machine translation, can diminish the dependence on English as a universally accepted means of facilitating communication across other languages (Crossley, 2018 ). The increasing prevalence of real-time translation software has facilitated the ability of non-native English speakers to participate in worldwide discourse using their original languages while understanding others. If this technology attains a satisfactory level of precision and dependability, it has the potential to reduce the urgency for acquiring English language skills, hence reducing the perceived need for it.

On the other hand, these technical advancements might unintentionally contribute to linguistic hegemony, given that the tech sector is mostly led by English-speaking organizations. This could result in the promotion of goods and services that further strengthen the dominance of the English language on a worldwide scale. Notwithstanding these issues, globalization has the potential to solidify the position of English as the dominant language for communication, especially in domains such as academia, international business, and digital platforms (Zeng et al., 2023 ). The enduring need for English as a worldwide language is sustained by its prevalence in academic publications, business communication, and online content development.

Nevertheless, the increasing recognition and value placed on cultural variety may catalyze endeavors aimed at fostering and safeguarding indigenous languages and traditions. There is a growing trend in national language strategies to prioritize the preservation of linguistic variety and mitigate the excessive dominance of any one language (Lo Bianco, 2010 ). Educational institutions may endorse bilingual or multilingual instructional approaches, which aim to strengthen students’ ties to their local languages while simultaneously introducing them to English or other globally recognized languages (Lasagabaster, 2015 ). The implementation of such policies has the potential to both protect cultural assets and prepare individuals for active participation in global affairs.

In the foreseeable future, we may see a shift towards a more diverse and equitable global linguistic environment, where English will be integrated into a polycentric language system rather than maintaining its position as the only global vernacular. Furthermore, the future impact of the English language will probably fluctuate following the political and economic circumstances of the countries where English is mostly spoken. The potential decrease in the soft power or worldwide prestige of the United States or the United Kingdom may have an indirect impact on the global prominence of the English language. On the other hand, the worldwide increase in English education, particularly in areas where it is associated with socio-economic progress, has the potential to sustain its global importance.

The future course of English dominance will be influenced by a variety of complex global issues, including economic, technical, political, educational, and cultural elements. The resuscitation of minority and regional languages via localization and cultural movements has the potential to rejuvenate these languages (Pennycook, 2017 ). However, it is anticipated that English will continue to maintain its crucial function as a means of facilitating worldwide communication. However, with the increasing number of voices from across the world, the dominance of the English language may adopt a more accommodating and inclusive form, becoming part of a multilingual global conversation rather than maintaining its position as the only means of international communication. Table 2 provides a thorough description of the future trajectory of English linguistic hegemony.

Implications for language policy and planning in non-English speaking countries

The widespread diffusion of the English language has had a detrimental impact on linguistic variety at a worldwide level, resulting in the marginalisation and possible eradication of indigenous languages in regions where English is used as a secondary or non-native language. The impact of English influence is seen in the modified linguistic and cultural environments of several countries where English is not the primary language (Piekkari et al., 2015 ). Therefore, these nations need to take into account their distinct linguistic and cultural legacies while formulating and executing language-related strategies. These policies need to facilitate the acknowledgement and promotion of indigenous languages at an international level.

It is of utmost importance for states to uphold the ideal of linguistic equality and to resist any kind of linguistic hegemony, both domestically and on the global stage. It is imperative to undertake a collective effort aimed at fostering an atmosphere that values language parity and resolutely safeguards the linguistic and cultural diversity of every ethnic community.

National foreign language policies should prioritize the cultivation of competency in both widely spoken languages and less often taught languages. English, while acknowledged as a prominent international language in countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, and many European nations, is not the exclusive focal point within elementary and secondary school curricula (Ji et al., 2004 ). There exists a significant need for educational resources that may enhance the learning of less often spoken languages such as Arabic, Russian, French, and others. Consequently, there is a need to strengthen these educational resources (Piekkari et al., 2015 ).

When developing current language policy, it is crucial for nations where English is not the primary language to thoroughly assess the impact of foreign languages on their local tongues and the dynamics that exist between them. This evaluation is necessary to prevent a revival of English dominance. The widespread prevalence of the English language has undeniably impacted the teaching of other languages in these nations, with instructional materials and pronunciation mostly drawing from British and American origins. As a result, throughout the process of obtaining English language proficiency, students inevitably encounter Anglophone cultures, which might unintentionally foster a preference for Western civilization while neglecting their own indigenous cultures.

To tackle this issue, instructors of the English language in environments where English is not the primary language have the opportunity to include aspects of indigenous culture in their curriculum decisions. This approach allows students to effectively communicate their cultural history via the medium of English. Educators have the role of imparting well-rounded ideas and ideals.

The issue of conforming to either British or American pronunciation rules frequently gives rise to debate (Barrett et al., 2022 ). It is important to highlight that the primary goal of developing English language competence is to improve global communication effectiveness. When considering the historical progression of English dominance, several individuals argue that the rise of nations where English is not the primary language might provide valuable perspectives for these countries and their citizens, perhaps enhancing their ability to compete and their overall national strength.

The growing fascination among English-speaking nations that belong to the ‘inner circle’ with non-English-speaking cultures has increased the acquisition of languages such as Chinese and the exploration of professional opportunities in areas like China. To mitigate misinterpretations and effectively communicate non-English-speaking customs, instructors from other countries must possess a proficient command of the language spoken in the host country.

The acknowledgement of the intrinsic uniqueness of different languages and cultures requires careful interpretation to prevent misunderstandings. In the context of presenting non-English-speaking languages and cultures to a global audience, educators need to use suitable resources and exhibit a profound comprehension of the traditional civilizations they are portraying (Heininen, 2021 ). The strategic identification and targeting of receptive areas and nations play a pivotal role in the effective promotion of non-English-speaking cultures on a worldwide scale.

Promoting a common linguistic platform is a vital undertaking for countries where English is not the primary language. This program has the potential to meet the linguistic needs of many countries, while also safeguarding and promoting the cultural legacies of cultures where English is not the primary language. This methodology has the potential to augment cross-cultural understanding and improve efficient communication.

The increasing fascination with other cultures among those living in the core English-speaking countries has resulted in a growing demand for bilingual education and cultural exchange initiatives. The increasing desire of people from many nations to participate in markets such as China necessitates the presence of multilingual specialists who can effectively navigate the complexities of varied language and cultural contexts. These individuals who possess fluency in two languages not only assist in the facilitation of commercial exchanges but also contribute to a more profound degree of cultural absorption and comprehension. The individuals’ high level of expertise in both English and the target language allows them to accurately perceive subtle cultural nuances. This ensures that international interactions maintain both linguistic accuracy and cultural authenticity. The ability to navigate and comprehend several cultures is becoming more advantageous in professional settings that operate on a global scale since it is sometimes just as important to comprehend local customs and practices as it is to grasp financial statements.

Simultaneously, there exists a collective endeavor within nations where English is not the primary language to enhance the level of English language ability among their citizens. This strategic manoeuvre is not only focused on bolstering global competitiveness but also on assuring the proper dissemination of their cultural narratives and values on the international platform. Language learning programs are being enhanced by the inclusion of cultural competence training, which equips learners with the skills to effectively comprehend and convey complex concepts across diverse cultural contexts. Educational investments of this kind play a crucial role in cultivating a group of individuals with a global perspective, possessing both language proficiency and cultural sensitivity. These individuals are capable of not only preserving their cultural heritage but also successfully interacting with international society. The simultaneous emphasis on linguistic competence and cultural knowledge highlights the complex interplay between preserving cultural legacy and embracing global interconnectivity. This equilibrium will significantly influence the dynamics of cultural interchange throughout the period of the fourth industrial revolution.

The profound impact of English hegemony on non-English-speaking regions is twofold: while it has been a catalyst for growth and development, it has simultaneously posed threats to indigenous languages and cultures, potentially driving them to the periphery or extinction. This dominance also results in a biased international academic community where non-English-speaking researchers may face discrimination. However, the advent of multilingual policies has begun to erode the monolithic nature of English hegemony. The emergence of distinct English varieties—such as Japanese English, Indian English, and other localized iterations—epitomizes the language’s adaptability to diverse civilizational contexts.

In conclusion, the implementation of language policy in countries where English is not the primary language requires a deep understanding of the complex implications of English dominance. The prevailing worldwide influence of the English language, while facilitating global communication, poses a potential threat to the preservation and recognition of indigenous languages and cultures. Therefore, it is important to carefully navigate the strategic formulation of these policies, ensuring that they effectively promote the progress and global integration of national languages while preserving their distinct cultural identities, which are integral to their inherent worth.

To achieve this objective, it is essential to implement the promotion of national languages at the global level while considering and incorporating the prevailing linguistic and cultural frameworks in the targeted areas. The use of customized approaches that are tailored to the particular sociolinguistic contexts of the intended recipients is necessary, as opposed to relying on generic procedures. Hence, language policy needs to be firmly rooted in culturally sensitive methodologies that prioritize the safeguarding of linguistic variety, while simultaneously recognizing the pervasive existence and practicality of English as a global means of communication.

Furthermore, these policies must include the development and distribution of information in several languages, the promotion of translation and interpretation services, and the nurturing of intercultural communication skills. It is essential to promote educational systems that prioritize the significance of acquiring proficiency in several languages. This approach will effectively equip forthcoming generations with the necessary skills to effectively navigate and actively participate in an ever more linked global society. To effectively expand the influence of national languages and enhance the diversity of global linguistics, language policymakers must engage in collaborative efforts with educators, linguists, and cultural specialists, prioritizing the development of language policies that promote linguistic plurality and intercultural comprehension.

It is imperative that these policies effectively acknowledge and promote the vast array of global languages, fostering an environment that encourages active participation and genuine appreciation within the worldwide community. This recognition of linguistic variety serves as a gateway to accessing a multitude of information and views, enriching the collective understanding. Employing these collective efforts, it is conceivable to envisage a global scenario wherein English dominance coexists harmoniously with, and indeed fosters, a diverse and thriving tapestry of languages and cultures.

To effectively harness English while preserving linguistic diversity in the context of globalization, countries like China, France, Japan, and Brazil can adopt tailored strategies. China could integrate English into its education system to foster bilingualism, while France might boost its cultural exchange programs with English-speaking nations for improved language skills and cultural insights. Japan could benefit from language policy reforms enhancing English education, balancing it with Japanese cultural preservation. Brazil, with its linguistic richness, might develop media in both Portuguese and English to maintain language balance. These countries can also encourage research and publications in both English and native languages for global outreach and local relevance. Community language programs, particularly vital in linguistically diverse nations like Brazil, can aid in preserving indigenous languages. Additionally, advocating for multilingualism in international platforms can help these countries navigate the complexities of English’s global dominance.

In this paper, we examined Phillipson’s concept of English linguistic imperialism, as well as the dynamic development of the theory and practices of English language hegemony, through a sociolinguistic perspective. It emphasizes the interconnection between the growth of English dominance and the expansion of the British Empire and the United States. It examines the role of the British imperial outreach in embedding English across Asia and Africa, where it served as a tool for colonial rule. The paper then transitions to discussing how the United States, with its significant political and economic influence, further propelled English into the status of a global lingua franca . The focus shifts to the paradoxical effects of English dominance, especially its role in advancing science, technology, and economics in non-English-speaking regions. Additionally, the paper considers the unifying role of English in linguistically diverse countries, while acknowledging that this serves as a temporary solution in the face of complex linguistic dynamics.

This inquiry into English hegemony’s duality concludes that, although English serves as a vehicle for advancement, it also threatens the survival of local languages and cultures, thus embodying a dualistic nature. For non-English-speaking countries to leverage English beneficially, they must navigate this dichotomy with strategic cultural and linguistic preservation efforts. Examples include multilingual policies in the Philippines, Malaysia, and China, which aim to bolster indigenous languages while also mitigating English dependence in education and other sectors. A shift away from an overemphasis on British and American pronunciation norms—often misperceived as the gold standard—is advisable, reinforcing the primary objective of language acquisition: effective communication.

The fundamental shortcoming of the research is its inadequate analysis of the complexities behind the dominance of current English, highlighting the need for a more comprehensive academic investigation. The drawback of this research stems from its narrow emphasis on multilingual policies, which, while important, do not fully cover the many complexities imposed by globalization and cultural interactions. This approach fails to acknowledge the unique obstacles and circumstances faced by various nations and areas when it comes to adjusting to the prevalence of English. To bridge these knowledge gaps, it is recommended that future research endeavors explore the intricate relationship between globalization and linguistic dynamics. Additionally, it is imperative to investigate the multifaceted function of the English language in international arenas such as diplomacy and commerce. Furthermore, a comprehensive assessment of the repercussions of English on local cultures and languages is needed. The proposed extended inquiry would provide a more thorough comprehension of the intricacies surrounding English hegemony, considering many worldwide viewpoints and ramifications. Additionally, it would offer valuable insights to guide more knowledgeable language policy and educational approaches.

As globalization advances, the role of English is expected to evolve due to technological progress and geopolitical changes. The digital age and widespread internet access have made English central to global communication and information exchange. The impending Fourth Industrial Revolution, with developments in AI and machine learning, could further amplify English’s importance in global economic, scientific, and technological spheres (Skilton & Hovsepian, 2018 ). However, the rise of non-Western powers, especially China, may lead to a more diverse linguistic landscape. Additionally, the significance of regional economic groups like RCEP and CPTPP, alongside a focus on preserving indigenous cultures, could encourage the use of local languages along with English (Pomfret, 2021 ). While English is expected to maintain its global dominance, it faces increasing challenges from emerging powers and the push for linguistic diversity due to cultural and regional dynamics.

Recent scholarship has provided new insights into the complexities of English hegemony in the modern era, revealing its multifaceted impacts on global communication, cultural identity, and power structures. Scholars like Phillipson ( 2022 ) highlight the challenges to linguistic diversity posed by English’s pervasive influence as a global communication tool. Meanwhile, critiques of dual language bilingual education, such as those by Freire et al. ( 2022 ), expose how neoliberal ideologies and ‘white streaming’ reinforce English dominance, often to the detriment of other languages. Additionally, O’Regan’s ( 2021 ) work delves into how global English is intertwined with capitalist structures, shaping global power dynamics. These insights collectively underscore the cultural, economic, and educational consequences of English’s global dominance and the challenges it poses for maintaining linguistic diversity.

Furthermore, the nuances of English hegemony reflect a dynamic interplay between globalization, cultural identity, and power. English has evolved from merely a language to a symbol of global connectivity, essential for economic and educational opportunities. Its role in international business, technology, and academia marks it as a crucial gateway for global participation. However, this dominance also leads to the marginalization of local languages and cultures, raising concerns about linguistic imperialism and cultural homogenization. The emergence of “World Englishes” challenges the traditional native-speaker model, advocating for the legitimacy of diverse English varieties (Kirkpatrick, 2023 ; Melchers et al., 2019 ; Schneider, 2018 ). This shift represents a broader perspective on English as a tool for cross-cultural communication, rather than a symbol of cultural superiority. Consequently, the hegemony of English is not just about the language itself but also its intersection with identity, power, and access in an increasingly globalised world.

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to the Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China as this paper was supported by it under the project “A dialectical study of English linguistic imperialism in the Philippines from the perspective of the Belt and Road Initiative”, Grant Number: 18YJC740006.

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The accessibility of English as the universal language of science

May 17, 2021

Whether it is avidly writing a grant proposal to attract funding or presenting your latest research, mastery of the English language is crucial for success in science. But have you ever wondered, why English ?

If the average modern scientist were to take a time machine back to the Middles Ages and the Renaissance, they might be stumped by the natural philosophy and natural history works of that time, which were almost all written in Latin. Because Latin did not belong to any one nation, it was accessible to scholars across Europe and to Arabic societies.

Make no mistake, these scholars were polyglot and chose the language based on the audience – Latin for international communications, and one’s native tongue for local relay. This system began to break down around the time of Galileo. He reported his discovery of Jupiter’s moons in Latin in 1610 but his later major contributions were published in Italian. The same holds true for Newton’s Principia, which was written in Latin in 1687, but Opticks was published in English in 1704. As a result, by the end of the 18th century there was a variety of languages used to communicate scientific findings.

This multiplicity of available languages proved inefficient in transmitting advances in scientific knowledge, which led to a compression of the scientific languages into English, French and German in the 19th century. German was the main contender in chemistry and perhaps I would be writing this article in German had it not been for the First World War. German intellects were shut out from new international institutions of Science set up in the early 1920s and German became outlawed in the U.S. around this time. The damage was done, leading to the collapse of German as a leading scientific language. By the 1980s, English dominated discourse in most international publications in the Natural Sciences, thus emerging as the scientific lingua franca we use today.

Dr. Alfredo Ferreira

A universal language for universal truth? I corresponded with Dr. Alfredo Ferreira, a Lecturer in the Science stream of the UBC Vantage College Academic English Program, on the benefits and drawbacks of having English as the language of science. Interestingly, he said that, “Science aims for universally true claims about the Universe. With these aims, it helps considerably to use a common language. Science benefits from sharing not only the mode of communication but the values and perspectives that are encoded in the shared language.”

He suggested that, as with mathematics, language is used in communities of scientists to arrive at shared understandings, our best approximations to “truth.” Dr. Ferreira recounted Killam Award-winning Math lecturer, Dr. Fok Shuen Leung’s postulation that “mathematical claims, more than any other claims made at a university, hold (or don’t hold) regardless of whether people think so.” Dr. Ferreira agrees, recognizing the respective functions of mathematics, language, and other modes within the larger remit of science to identify, model, analyze, and interpret the universe using shared tools.

“Science is a collaborative activity,” he added, “and a common language facilitates the linking of established and new knowledge among scientists.” This is, of course, curiously true, as practice and history prove.

Dr. Ferreira believes the same qualities of language that benefit science also constrain it. “English reflects a relatively stable view of the world and organization of human social interaction,” he explained, and because English is intertwined with a history of dominance of some cultures over others, it implies that, “English-only science discourse is constrained in its world view.”

Although our view of “science” has Eurocentric roots, Indigenous Peoples and cultures have made their own discoveries that lack the same visibility and stature. Valuable oral histories and traditional knowledge are at risk of being lost in the scientific wilderness. This is problematic. Additionally, publishing scientific discoveries in non-English papers largely leads to work being ignored. One dire example is that of the deadly H5N1 strain of the avian flu which, though first published in a Chinese journal at the beginning of 2004, only received wider acknowledgement in August of that year.

“This is going to be your whole life” If the Covid-19 pandemic has taught us anything, it’s that we ought to be paying close attention to scientific developments around the world, no matter the language, cultures, or nations. Apart from the constraint English imposes, it also presents a significant barrier to non-native English speakers who realize that they ought to publish in English journals to have their research globally recognized. Dr. Ferreira agrees that, “At a very practical level, much of university-level science is difficult to access for much of the world’s population.” So how do we break down this language accessibility barrier?

To gain a better understanding of the difficulties non-native English speakers face in their scientific studies, I encouraged two Life Sciences Institute trainees to share their experiences. The first interviewee was a native Spanish speaker who only learned English at school. She recalled her first days in college in her home country when one of her professors gave the class an English paper and said, “This is going to be your whole life. Better start soon.”

Despite this early language-training, upon moving to Vancouver, she found difficulty in the first couple of months adjusting to both spoken and written English. “In the beginning it’s so frustrating. You may know the answer to a question but by the time you translate it, someone else has answered,” she recounted. “People don’t understand what you’re saying — sometimes because of the accent and sometimes because of the grammar.” She shared that she felt incompetent due to the inability to express herself, since she was limited by the number of words she knew at the time. She could not reach the level of complexity needed in discussions, but she would have easily been able to do so in her first language.

This trainee motivated herself to practice oral presentations, putting in extra time and effort to become more comfortable with English. This inevitably led her to greater fluency, but there were times when she felt as though she was a burden when asking colleagues and peers for help with English writing and pronunciation. “It would be wrong to say I haven’t received help, but it isn’t something that’s easy to deal with,” she said.

Exposure to English as the language of science not enough By comparison, another LSI trainee, whose first languages are Telugu and Hindi, was fortunately more proficient in English, having grown up in a household where it was regularly spoken and despite its lack of use at the public school which she attended. She completed her Bachelor’s degree in India, which was taught in English. “Oral presentations are okay for me, but I really struggle with the writing part,” she confessed. In India, she followed the writing conventions of British English and found difficulty adjusting to the North American use of the language. “I was taught to use passive English but here active English is encouraged,” she said. “I find myself having to reframe the way I write constantly after peers have viewed my writing.”

This highlights that, even with much exposure to English as “the language of science”, its technical aspects continue to be challenging. Furthermore, as a person who holds conversations in multiple languages, for example, Hindi and English, which are often combined to form Hinglish , she found that this would interfere with her flow of language when required to stick to one. Because she grew up speaking different languages, she can relate to multilingual undergraduates who struggle with English in the classes that she teaches as a teaching assistant. “These undergrads are intimidated by the native English speakers and so they participate less in class and that affects their participation grade as well as their comfort level in asking clarifying questions.”

She shared her concerns about docking these students’ marks based on grammar and vocabulary and suggested just giving feedback without penalty. “In many multilingual countries, if you don’t speak English, you’re often looked down upon and as instructors, I don’t know if we’re perpetuating that.”

The undergrad experience – “for me this course was totally self-study” This interview led me to enquire about undergraduate experiences with English language in science. I spoke with an undergraduate transfer student from China who grew up with Chinese as her main language. She began to strengthen her English whilst at her previous university in order to pass the International English Language Test. Despite passing this test, she still experiences many difficulties.

She had a course with a flipped classroom structure, which emphasized group learning rather than the traditional instructor-to-student one-way flow of information. She found that she could not follow the fast-paced discussions within her group, which consisted of mainly native English speakers. “Because there were many tasks to be completed during the lecture time, I did not want to slow everyone down,” she recalled. “For me, this course was totally self-study.”

The student referenced another difficulty where she had to write up a scientific methodology for a course. When researching previously published methods, she found it not only challenging to understand such niche protocols, but also hard to find the right words to describe others’ work without losing the accuracy. It was saddening to hear her experiences since she had decided to study abroad for the enhanced academic resources. In a subsequent personal correspondence, she admitted that, “Sometimes, I feel it is not easy to continue my interests in science due to my poor English.”

Being able to pass the test doesn’t mean students can thrive Based on my interviews, I realized that once students have passed UBC’s English Language Admission Standard, there seems to be a general assumption that they can thrive in UBC’s academic English context. Dr. Ferreira expanded on this, saying, “I believe standardized exams such as TOEFL and IELTS are not the best tools for identifying a student’s preparation for university study in English. While these kinds of exams do test for functions of language relevant to university science, they tend to miss the mark in relation to the kinds of wording and thinking that is valued in the practice of university science.”

He highlighted that the need to identify more valid measures of student preparation for university studies has been addressed to an important extent at UBC Vantage College. Students in this program take their content courses just like all UBC students do, but also receive enhanced, credit-bearing instruction in English as it is realized in the disciplines (Arts, Applied Science and Science) and their respective 1 st year courses.

Dr. Sandra Zappa Hollman

I spoke with the Director of the Academic English Program at UBC Vantage College, Dr. Sandra Zappa-Hollman, to provide insight into the complexity of having English as the universal language of Science and what UBC can do to better support multilingual students. Dr. Zappa-Hollman reflected that, “UBC has grown over the years to include so many more students from around the world but we need to ask how we have prepared ourselves as an institution to be able to welcome and support those students throughout their degrees.”

She has launched a project on teaching multilingual undergraduate learners. The project will be based on a survey of people who teach courses for undergraduates that include multilingual learners. It will provide an institutional perspective on the beliefs and attitudes that instructors who work with multilingual students at UBC hold and how this predisposes them to work in certain ways. It will also bring to light how prepared, pedagogically-speaking, instructors perceive themselves to be for this. She revealed that there is a call in her field to embed a focus on language, literacy, and multimodality across the curriculum.

Aligning pedagogy with needs and abilities “At Vantage we align the pedagogy to meet the abilities and needs of all students,” she explained, continuing that, “We let them adopt a lens on language where they are focusing on what they want to communicate, how they want to do it and to whom. This allows them to accomplish the communication successfully.” One challenge to incorporating this mindset into pedagogies and curriculums is that language and literacy are left to people in the periphery and the attitude that, “I am not a language teacher, why should I even care?” is of concern.

Apart from adjusting the way we teach, I spoke with Dr. Ferreira and Dr. Zappa-Hollman about resources for non-native English speakers. Dr. Zappa-Hollman recalled that there was a time when UBC offered a coaching program via the English Language Institute. This program offered free tutoring and free classes on pronunciation and writing. They were very empowering for students since the coaching approach built on what students already knew and their specific context. The students I interviewed confirmed that they would have used this valuable program if it were available.

“Unfortunately, the funding for this program ended and one of the problems it faced, was that it wasn’t well advertised,” Dr. Zappa-Hollman relayed. This might be the case for the English language resources that UBC does have to offer, such as The Centre for Writing and Scholarly Communication’s resources, the UBC Chapman Learning Commons’ writing tools, the WriteAway program co-developed by UBC’s I.K Barber Learning Centre, the Science Peer Academic Coaches, Speaking and Writing Workshops offered through Graduate and Post-doctoral Studies, and maybe more I might have missed.

Our conversation ended with Dr. Ferreira’s self-described “far-out ideas.” He suggested having an adjunct English language course attached to certain science courses. This might look like a simple one-credit English language course that could be applied to either undergraduate or graduate science courses, or both. Dr. Ferreira also proposed that international multilingual graduate students could provide a crucial link between research done in their home countries and that being done here at UBC. They could, for example, re-contextualize research that has been done in their first languages into English. This is all to say, as Dr. Zappa-Hollman put it, “we need continued investment from the university but first, an acknowledgment of the issues.”

Story by: Sasha McDowell, PhD. Cand. (Zoology) – I extend sincere thanks to and acknowledge the precious time and effort on the part of all participants to the interviews, which made this piece possible.

Sources utilized for this story that may be useful for further reading: 1) Gordin, M. D. (2021, May 3). How did science come to speak only English? – Michael D Gordin: Aeon Essays. Aeon. 2) Huttner-Koros, A. (2015, September 14). Why Science’s Universal Language Is a Problem for Research . The Atlantic. 3) Panko, B. (2017, January 2). English Is the Language of Science. That Isn’t Always a Good Thing . Smithsonian.com.

Featured interviewees:

Dr. Sandra Zappa Hollman PhD and M.A. in Teaching English as a Second Language Director, Academic English Program, UBC Vantage College https://vantagecollege.ubc.ca/dr-sandra-zappa-hollman

Dr. Zappa-Hollman has worked extensively with English language learners (ELLs), teacher’s education programs and administratively to develop academic writing courses. Dr. Zappa-Hollman’s latest research focuses on the use of functional grammar approaches to support the academic English literacy development of ELLs across diverse disciplinary fields.

Dr. Alfredo Ferriera PhD in Language and Literacy Education and M.A. in Applied Linguistics Lecturer, Science stream of AEP UBC Vantage College https://vantagecollege.ubc.ca/alfredo-ferreira

Dr. Ferriera’s research in educational linguistics focuses on the development of apprentice scholars’ capacities for varying levels of abstraction when they re-contextualize disciplinary knowledge. This approach encourages explicit instruction of the links between rhetorical aims, wording, and knowledge construction in and across academic disciplines.

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In search of a universal language: past, present, and future.

Ever since the Tower of Babel, humans have pursued developing a universal language to use to communicate with more—ideally all— people. However, they have been only marginally successful, as indicated by both the history of a large number of failed efforts and the current situation.

Also, these efforts have their detractors. A language becomes larger when it weakens or replaces another language. This often involves “language genocide” and/or represents “language imperialism.” Attaining a universal language may be this on a grand scale.

In fact, many advocates of expanding the use of their language (and their culture, which is connected) believe it is superior to others. Many do not care if they render another language or languages extinct.

Currently, of the approximately 7,000 languages in the world, many are disappearing. According to National Geographic magazine, one becomes extinct every two weeks. 1 Most experts anticipate half will be gone by the end of the century. Some say 90 percent.

photo of a teacher and a young student writing on a blackboard

In any case, several centuries ago, Latin, originally the language of Italy, became the universal language of Europe and modern science. It spread and flourished based on the military, commercial, political, and cultural power of the Roman Empire. The Catholic Church preserved its role after the fall of the empire, though its universal status declined, and eventually Latin fell into disuse.

Before and during the seventeenth century, Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, and others began to write in their native languages, not only to give their works broader and more popular appeal, but also to express support for the Protestant Reformation. In addition, they reflected the nationalist sentiments of the time. However, some European scholars still worried that having no single universal language impeded scientific research and progress. With nothing promising in sight, they became multilingual, using English, French, and German. That worked to some degree.

On the other side of the world, in Asia, scientific research was done primarily in a single language: Classical Chinese. At least, it was the universal language in some of that part of the world in its written form; in its spoken form (written Chinese is not phonetic), it was not.

Chinese was also to some degree the language of business and commerce in East Asia, but it waxed in importance only when China prospered and engaged meaningfully in trade. Its usage waned beginning in the fifteenth century with China’s isolationism and eventual decline. That continued until modern times.

In the West, German lost its popularity with World War I and also after the war, when many of its top scientists moved to the US due to the rise of Nazism. Both German and French declined markedly after World War II.

Meanwhile, in the late 1800s, there was an effort to construct a truly universal language: Esperanto. Esperanto was a constructed language intended to be easy to learn and also politically neutral. For some, it would transcend nationality and politics, and contribute to world peace. However, due to the fact that it did not have a territorial, cultural, or economic base, it was not a great success. Today, its number of speakers worldwide is estimated to be only a hundred thousand to two million at most. Little is written in Esperanto.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the British Empire greatly expanded the use of English in commerce and its number of speakers. After World War II, English became the language of science, as well as business, politics, and culture. The dominance of the United States in these three areas ensured that this would remain so. Until the last decade, nearly 98 percent of published scientific articles were written in English, and English was the undisputed language of global trade, culture, travel, and more.

The rise of Asia, in particular China, in the last three-plus decades has enabled Mandarin Chinese to compete as a global language. It has one big advantage: there are three times more native speakers of Mandarin than English (and would-be competitors such as Spanish and Arabic)—noting, of course, that most Chinese also speak a dialect or another version of Chinese, and some don’t speak Mandarin well.

In the last few years, Chinese government officials have justified saying Chinese is a language of science due to China registering more patents and producing more scientific articles than the United States, though their quality is not yet as good. In addition, China is increasing its spending on research and development annually by nearly 20 percent, while the US and Europe barely add 3 percent.

Furthermore, Chinese leaders, including top foreign ministry officials, say emphatically that Chinese should be considered a contender as an important business language. China has been growing economically around four times as fast as the US, has become the world’s largest manufacturer and trading nation, is number one in the world in foreign exchange (while the US has become a huge debtor), and is the largest purveyor of foreign aid and foreign investments.

Adding to the argument for Chinese, China has worked with Japan (the world’s third-largest economy) and South Korea (a major contributor to research in information and communications technology) to standardize the use of Chinese characters in law, commerce, and to some extent science. Meanwhile, a number of countries in Asia and elsewhere have put studying Chinese on a fast track in their universities and business training institutions. English has been demoted in importance.

As a matter of record, the number of people studying Chinese worldwide is double those learning Spanish or German and tenfold those taking Japanese. The government of China announced two years ago that forty million foreigners are studying Chinese; the number has increased exponentially since then. In recent years, China has put a large amount of money and resources into encouraging Chinese-language study—financing Confucian institutes and providing funds for Mandarin Chinese-language teachers in other countries.

Spanish, and recently, Arabic are popular in the US and European colleges and universities. However, they are essentially regional languages and are not used much in the sciences or technology, and they do not compete with English or Chinese for global status.

Hindi is one of the world’s largest languages in number of speakers. Also, India is doing well economically and is making impressive strides in science and technology. But Hindi is not spoken in all of India and is neither spoken nor used very much in other countries.

Which language then, English or Chinese, will come out on top appears to depend on whether or not China’s economic boom falters and/or whether the US (and Europe) can get their economies back on track. For now, there are two contending global languages.

It may be some time before there is a prevailing or universal language. In the interim, knowing both English and Mandarin Chinese makes it possible to communicate with around half the people in the world, which one may say is quite a feat in terms of achieving that elusive international tongue—if one believes that having a universal language is a good idea. ■