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A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures

Kashif abbass.

1 School of Economics and Management, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim

2 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Xiaolingwei 200, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Huaming Song

Muntasir murshed.

3 School of Business and Economics, North South University, Dhaka, 1229 Bangladesh

4 Department of Journalism, Media and Communications, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Haider Mahmood

5 Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 173, Alkharj, 11942 Saudi Arabia

Ijaz Younis

Associated data.

Data sources and relevant links are provided in the paper to access data.

Climate change is a long-lasting change in the weather arrays across tropics to polls. It is a global threat that has embarked on to put stress on various sectors. This study is aimed to conceptually engineer how climate variability is deteriorating the sustainability of diverse sectors worldwide. Specifically, the agricultural sector’s vulnerability is a globally concerning scenario, as sufficient production and food supplies are threatened due to irreversible weather fluctuations. In turn, it is challenging the global feeding patterns, particularly in countries with agriculture as an integral part of their economy and total productivity. Climate change has also put the integrity and survival of many species at stake due to shifts in optimum temperature ranges, thereby accelerating biodiversity loss by progressively changing the ecosystem structures. Climate variations increase the likelihood of particular food and waterborne and vector-borne diseases, and a recent example is a coronavirus pandemic. Climate change also accelerates the enigma of antimicrobial resistance, another threat to human health due to the increasing incidence of resistant pathogenic infections. Besides, the global tourism industry is devastated as climate change impacts unfavorable tourism spots. The methodology investigates hypothetical scenarios of climate variability and attempts to describe the quality of evidence to facilitate readers’ careful, critical engagement. Secondary data is used to identify sustainability issues such as environmental, social, and economic viability. To better understand the problem, gathered the information in this report from various media outlets, research agencies, policy papers, newspapers, and other sources. This review is a sectorial assessment of climate change mitigation and adaptation approaches worldwide in the aforementioned sectors and the associated economic costs. According to the findings, government involvement is necessary for the country’s long-term development through strict accountability of resources and regulations implemented in the past to generate cutting-edge climate policy. Therefore, mitigating the impacts of climate change must be of the utmost importance, and hence, this global threat requires global commitment to address its dreadful implications to ensure global sustenance.

Introduction

Worldwide observed and anticipated climatic changes for the twenty-first century and global warming are significant global changes that have been encountered during the past 65 years. Climate change (CC) is an inter-governmental complex challenge globally with its influence over various components of the ecological, environmental, socio-political, and socio-economic disciplines (Adger et al.  2005 ; Leal Filho et al.  2021 ; Feliciano et al.  2022 ). Climate change involves heightened temperatures across numerous worlds (Battisti and Naylor  2009 ; Schuurmans  2021 ; Weisheimer and Palmer  2005 ; Yadav et al.  2015 ). With the onset of the industrial revolution, the problem of earth climate was amplified manifold (Leppänen et al.  2014 ). It is reported that the immediate attention and due steps might increase the probability of overcoming its devastating impacts. It is not plausible to interpret the exact consequences of climate change (CC) on a sectoral basis (Izaguirre et al.  2021 ; Jurgilevich et al.  2017 ), which is evident by the emerging level of recognition plus the inclusion of climatic uncertainties at both local and national level of policymaking (Ayers et al.  2014 ).

Climate change is characterized based on the comprehensive long-haul temperature and precipitation trends and other components such as pressure and humidity level in the surrounding environment. Besides, the irregular weather patterns, retreating of global ice sheets, and the corresponding elevated sea level rise are among the most renowned international and domestic effects of climate change (Lipczynska-Kochany  2018 ; Michel et al.  2021 ; Murshed and Dao 2020 ). Before the industrial revolution, natural sources, including volcanoes, forest fires, and seismic activities, were regarded as the distinct sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 O, and H 2 O into the atmosphere (Murshed et al. 2020 ; Hussain et al.  2020 ; Sovacool et al.  2021 ; Usman and Balsalobre-Lorente 2022 ; Murshed 2022 ). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) struck a major agreement to tackle climate change and accelerate and intensify the actions and investments required for a sustainable low-carbon future at Conference of the Parties (COP-21) in Paris on December 12, 2015. The Paris Agreement expands on the Convention by bringing all nations together for the first time in a single cause to undertake ambitious measures to prevent climate change and adapt to its impacts, with increased funding to assist developing countries in doing so. As so, it marks a turning point in the global climate fight. The core goal of the Paris Agreement is to improve the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C over pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5° C (Sharma et al. 2020 ; Sharif et al. 2020 ; Chien et al. 2021 .

Furthermore, the agreement aspires to strengthen nations’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and align financing flows with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient paths (Shahbaz et al. 2019 ; Anwar et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2022a ). To achieve these lofty goals, adequate financial resources must be mobilized and provided, as well as a new technology framework and expanded capacity building, allowing developing countries and the most vulnerable countries to act under their respective national objectives. The agreement also establishes a more transparent action and support mechanism. All Parties are required by the Paris Agreement to do their best through “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the coming years (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2020 ). It includes obligations that all Parties regularly report on their emissions and implementation activities. A global stock-take will be conducted every five years to review collective progress toward the agreement’s goal and inform the Parties’ future individual actions. The Paris Agreement became available for signature on April 22, 2016, Earth Day, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. On November 4, 2016, it went into effect 30 days after the so-called double threshold was met (ratification by 55 nations accounting for at least 55% of world emissions). More countries have ratified and continue to ratify the agreement since then, bringing 125 Parties in early 2017. To fully operationalize the Paris Agreement, a work program was initiated in Paris to define mechanisms, processes, and recommendations on a wide range of concerns (Murshed et al. 2021 ). Since 2016, Parties have collaborated in subsidiary bodies (APA, SBSTA, and SBI) and numerous formed entities. The Conference of the Parties functioning as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) convened for the first time in November 2016 in Marrakesh in conjunction with COP22 and made its first two resolutions. The work plan is scheduled to be finished by 2018. Some mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the emission in the prospective of Paris agreement are following firstly, a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, secondly, to aim to limit the rise to 1.5 °C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of climate change, thirdly, on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognizing that this will take longer for developing countries, lastly, to undertake rapid reductions after that under the best available science, to achieve a balance between emissions and removals in the second half of the century. On the other side, some adaptation strategies are; strengthening societies’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and to continue & expand international assistance for developing nations’ adaptation.

However, anthropogenic activities are currently regarded as most accountable for CC (Murshed et al. 2022 ). Apart from the industrial revolution, other anthropogenic activities include excessive agricultural operations, which further involve the high use of fuel-based mechanization, burning of agricultural residues, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, national and domestic transportation sectors, etc. (Huang et al.  2016 ). Consequently, these anthropogenic activities lead to climatic catastrophes, damaging local and global infrastructure, human health, and total productivity. Energy consumption has mounted GHGs levels concerning warming temperatures as most of the energy production in developing countries comes from fossil fuels (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2022 ; Usman et al. 2022b ; Abbass et al. 2021a ; Ishikawa-Ishiwata and Furuya  2022 ).

This review aims to highlight the effects of climate change in a socio-scientific aspect by analyzing the existing literature on various sectorial pieces of evidence globally that influence the environment. Although this review provides a thorough examination of climate change and its severe affected sectors that pose a grave danger for global agriculture, biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism, and to purpose some practical prophylactic measures and mitigation strategies to be adapted as sound substitutes to survive from climate change (CC) impacts. The societal implications of irregular weather patterns and other effects of climate changes are discussed in detail. Some numerous sustainable mitigation measures and adaptation practices and techniques at the global level are discussed in this review with an in-depth focus on its economic, social, and environmental aspects. Methods of data collection section are included in the supplementary information.

Review methodology

Related study and its objectives.

Today, we live an ordinary life in the beautiful digital, globalized world where climate change has a decisive role. What happens in one country has a massive influence on geographically far apart countries, which points to the current crisis known as COVID-19 (Sarkar et al.  2021 ). The most dangerous disease like COVID-19 has affected the world’s climate changes and economic conditions (Abbass et al. 2022 ; Pirasteh-Anosheh et al.  2021 ). The purpose of the present study is to review the status of research on the subject, which is based on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures” by systematically reviewing past published and unpublished research work. Furthermore, the current study seeks to comment on research on the same topic and suggest future research on the same topic. Specifically, the present study aims: The first one is, organize publications to make them easy and quick to find. Secondly, to explore issues in this area, propose an outline of research for future work. The third aim of the study is to synthesize the previous literature on climate change, various sectors, and their mitigation measurement. Lastly , classify the articles according to the different methods and procedures that have been adopted.

Review methodology for reviewers

This review-based article followed systematic literature review techniques that have proved the literature review as a rigorous framework (Benita  2021 ; Tranfield et al.  2003 ). Moreover, we illustrate in Fig.  1 the search method that we have started for this research. First, finalized the research theme to search literature (Cooper et al.  2018 ). Second, used numerous research databases to search related articles and download from the database (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus Index Journals, Emerald, Elsevier Science Direct, Springer, and Sciverse). We focused on various articles, with research articles, feedback pieces, short notes, debates, and review articles published in scholarly journals. Reports used to search for multiple keywords such as “Climate Change,” “Mitigation and Adaptation,” “Department of Agriculture and Human Health,” “Department of Biodiversity and Forestry,” etc.; in summary, keyword list and full text have been made. Initially, the search for keywords yielded a large amount of literature.

Methodology search for finalized articles for investigations.

Source : constructed by authors

Since 2020, it has been impossible to review all the articles found; some restrictions have been set for the literature exhibition. The study searched 95 articles on a different database mentioned above based on the nature of the study. It excluded 40 irrelevant papers due to copied from a previous search after readings tiles, abstract and full pieces. The criteria for inclusion were: (i) articles focused on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures,” and (ii) the search key terms related to study requirements. The complete procedure yielded 55 articles for our study. We repeat our search on the “Web of Science and Google Scholars” database to enhance the search results and check the referenced articles.

In this study, 55 articles are reviewed systematically and analyzed for research topics and other aspects, such as the methods, contexts, and theories used in these studies. Furthermore, this study analyzes closely related areas to provide unique research opportunities in the future. The study also discussed future direction opportunities and research questions by understanding the research findings climate changes and other affected sectors. The reviewed paper framework analysis process is outlined in Fig.  2 .

Framework of the analysis Process.

Natural disasters and climate change’s socio-economic consequences

Natural and environmental disasters can be highly variable from year to year; some years pass with very few deaths before a significant disaster event claims many lives (Symanski et al.  2021 ). Approximately 60,000 people globally died from natural disasters each year on average over the past decade (Ritchie and Roser  2014 ; Wiranata and Simbolon  2021 ). So, according to the report, around 0.1% of global deaths. Annual variability in the number and share of deaths from natural disasters in recent decades are shown in Fig.  3 . The number of fatalities can be meager—sometimes less than 10,000, and as few as 0.01% of all deaths. But shock events have a devastating impact: the 1983–1985 famine and drought in Ethiopia; the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; Cyclone Nargis, which struck Myanmar in 2008; and the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake in Haiti and now recent example is COVID-19 pandemic (Erman et al.  2021 ). These events pushed global disaster deaths to over 200,000—more than 0.4% of deaths in these years. Low-frequency, high-impact events such as earthquakes and tsunamis are not preventable, but such high losses of human life are. Historical evidence shows that earlier disaster detection, more robust infrastructure, emergency preparedness, and response programmers have substantially reduced disaster deaths worldwide. Low-income is also the most vulnerable to disasters; improving living conditions, facilities, and response services in these areas would be critical in reducing natural disaster deaths in the coming decades.

Global deaths from natural disasters, 1978 to 2020.

Source EMDAT ( 2020 )

The interior regions of the continent are likely to be impacted by rising temperatures (Dimri et al.  2018 ; Goes et al.  2020 ; Mannig et al.  2018 ; Schuurmans  2021 ). Weather patterns change due to the shortage of natural resources (water), increase in glacier melting, and rising mercury are likely to cause extinction to many planted species (Gampe et al.  2016 ; Mihiretu et al.  2021 ; Shaffril et al.  2018 ).On the other hand, the coastal ecosystem is on the verge of devastation (Perera et al.  2018 ; Phillips  2018 ). The temperature rises, insect disease outbreaks, health-related problems, and seasonal and lifestyle changes are persistent, with a strong probability of these patterns continuing in the future (Abbass et al. 2021c ; Hussain et al.  2018 ). At the global level, a shortage of good infrastructure and insufficient adaptive capacity are hammering the most (IPCC  2013 ). In addition to the above concerns, a lack of environmental education and knowledge, outdated consumer behavior, a scarcity of incentives, a lack of legislation, and the government’s lack of commitment to climate change contribute to the general public’s concerns. By 2050, a 2 to 3% rise in mercury and a drastic shift in rainfall patterns may have serious consequences (Huang et al. 2022 ; Gorst et al.  2018 ). Natural and environmental calamities caused huge losses globally, such as decreased agriculture outputs, rehabilitation of the system, and rebuilding necessary technologies (Ali and Erenstein  2017 ; Ramankutty et al.  2018 ; Yu et al.  2021 ) (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). Furthermore, in the last 3 or 4 years, the world has been plagued by smog-related eye and skin diseases, as well as a rise in road accidents due to poor visibility.

Main natural danger statistics for 1985–2020 at the global level

Source: EM-DAT ( 2020 )

Climate change and agriculture

Global agriculture is the ultimate sector responsible for 30–40% of all greenhouse emissions, which makes it a leading industry predominantly contributing to climate warming and significantly impacted by it (Grieg; Mishra et al.  2021 ; Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Thornton and Lipper  2014 ). Numerous agro-environmental and climatic factors that have a dominant influence on agriculture productivity (Pautasso et al.  2012 ) are significantly impacted in response to precipitation extremes including floods, forest fires, and droughts (Huang  2004 ). Besides, the immense dependency on exhaustible resources also fuels the fire and leads global agriculture to become prone to devastation. Godfray et al. ( 2010 ) mentioned that decline in agriculture challenges the farmer’s quality of life and thus a significant factor to poverty as the food and water supplies are critically impacted by CC (Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Rosenzweig et al.  2014 ). As an essential part of the economic systems, especially in developing countries, agricultural systems affect the overall economy and potentially the well-being of households (Schlenker and Roberts  2009 ). According to the report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, i.e., CH 4, CO 2 , and N 2 O, are increased in the air to extraordinary levels over the last few centuries (Usman and Makhdum 2021 ; Stocker et al.  2013 ). Climate change is the composite outcome of two different factors. The first is the natural causes, and the second is the anthropogenic actions (Karami 2012 ). It is also forecasted that the world may experience a typical rise in temperature stretching from 1 to 3.7 °C at the end of this century (Pachauri et al. 2014 ). The world’s crop production is also highly vulnerable to these global temperature-changing trends as raised temperatures will pose severe negative impacts on crop growth (Reidsma et al. 2009 ). Some of the recent modeling about the fate of global agriculture is briefly described below.

Decline in cereal productivity

Crop productivity will also be affected dramatically in the next few decades due to variations in integral abiotic factors such as temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, and CO 2 . These all factors are included in various regulatory instruments like progress and growth, weather-tempted changes, pest invasions (Cammell and Knight 1992 ), accompanying disease snags (Fand et al. 2012 ), water supplies (Panda et al. 2003 ), high prices of agro-products in world’s agriculture industry, and preeminent quantity of fertilizer consumption. Lobell and field ( 2007 ) claimed that from 1962 to 2002, wheat crop output had condensed significantly due to rising temperatures. Therefore, during 1980–2011, the common wheat productivity trends endorsed extreme temperature events confirmed by Gourdji et al. ( 2013 ) around South Asia, South America, and Central Asia. Various other studies (Asseng, Cao, Zhang, and Ludwig 2009 ; Asseng et al. 2013 ; García et al. 2015 ; Ortiz et al. 2021 ) also proved that wheat output is negatively affected by the rising temperatures and also caused adverse effects on biomass productivity (Calderini et al. 1999 ; Sadras and Slafer 2012 ). Hereafter, the rice crop is also influenced by the high temperatures at night. These difficulties will worsen because the temperature will be rising further in the future owing to CC (Tebaldi et al. 2006 ). Another research conducted in China revealed that a 4.6% of rice production per 1 °C has happened connected with the advancement in night temperatures (Tao et al. 2006 ). Moreover, the average night temperature growth also affected rice indicia cultivar’s output pragmatically during 25 years in the Philippines (Peng et al. 2004 ). It is anticipated that the increase in world average temperature will also cause a substantial reduction in yield (Hatfield et al. 2011 ; Lobell and Gourdji 2012 ). In the southern hemisphere, Parry et al. ( 2007 ) noted a rise of 1–4 °C in average daily temperatures at the end of spring season unti the middle of summers, and this raised temperature reduced crop output by cutting down the time length for phenophases eventually reduce the yield (Hatfield and Prueger 2015 ; R. Ortiz 2008 ). Also, world climate models have recommended that humid and subtropical regions expect to be plentiful prey to the upcoming heat strokes (Battisti and Naylor 2009 ). Grain production is the amalgamation of two constituents: the average weight and the grain output/m 2 , however, in crop production. Crop output is mainly accredited to the grain quantity (Araus et al. 2008 ; Gambín and Borrás 2010 ). In the times of grain set, yield resources are mainly strewn between hitherto defined components, i.e., grain usual weight and grain output, which presents a trade-off between them (Gambín and Borrás 2010 ) beside disparities in per grain integration (B. L. Gambín et al. 2006 ). In addition to this, the maize crop is also susceptible to raised temperatures, principally in the flowering stage (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). In reality, the lower grain number is associated with insufficient acclimatization due to intense photosynthesis and higher respiration and the high-temperature effect on the reproduction phenomena (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). During the flowering phase, maize visible to heat (30–36 °C) seemed less anthesis-silking intermissions (Edreira et al. 2011 ). Another research by Dupuis and Dumas ( 1990 ) proved that a drop in spikelet when directly visible to high temperatures above 35 °C in vitro pollination. Abnormalities in kernel number claimed by Vega et al. ( 2001 ) is related to conceded plant development during a flowering phase that is linked with the active ear growth phase and categorized as a critical phase for approximation of kernel number during silking (Otegui and Bonhomme 1998 ).

The retort of rice output to high temperature presents disparities in flowering patterns, and seed set lessens and lessens grain weight (Qasim et al. 2020 ; Qasim, Hammad, Maqsood, Tariq, & Chawla). During the daytime, heat directly impacts flowers which lessens the thesis period and quickens the earlier peak flowering (Tao et al. 2006 ). Antagonistic effect of higher daytime temperature d on pollen sprouting proposed seed set decay, whereas, seed set was lengthily reduced than could be explicated by pollen growing at high temperatures 40◦C (Matsui et al. 2001 ).

The decline in wheat output is linked with higher temperatures, confirmed in numerous studies (Semenov 2009 ; Stone and Nicolas 1994 ). High temperatures fast-track the arrangements of plant expansion (Blum et al. 2001 ), diminution photosynthetic process (Salvucci and Crafts‐Brandner 2004 ), and also considerably affect the reproductive operations (Farooq et al. 2011 ).

The destructive impacts of CC induced weather extremes to deteriorate the integrity of crops (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ), e.g., Spartan cold and extreme fog cause falling and discoloration of betel leaves (Rosenzweig et al. 2001 ), giving them a somehow reddish appearance, squeezing of lemon leaves (Pautasso et al. 2012 ), as well as root rot of pineapple, have reported (Vedwan and Rhoades 2001 ). Henceforth, in tackling the disruptive effects of CC, several short-term and long-term management approaches are the crucial need of time (Fig.  4 ). Moreover, various studies (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ; Patz et al. 2005 ; Pautasso et al. 2012 ) have demonstrated adapting trends such as ameliorating crop diversity can yield better adaptability towards CC.

Schematic description of potential impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector and the appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures to overcome its impact.

Climate change impacts on biodiversity

Global biodiversity is among the severe victims of CC because it is the fastest emerging cause of species loss. Studies demonstrated that the massive scale species dynamics are considerably associated with diverse climatic events (Abraham and Chain 1988 ; Manes et al. 2021 ; A. M. D. Ortiz et al. 2021 ). Both the pace and magnitude of CC are altering the compatible habitat ranges for living entities of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial regions. Alterations in general climate regimes influence the integrity of ecosystems in numerous ways, such as variation in the relative abundance of species, range shifts, changes in activity timing, and microhabitat use (Bates et al. 2014 ). The geographic distribution of any species often depends upon its ability to tolerate environmental stresses, biological interactions, and dispersal constraints. Hence, instead of the CC, the local species must only accept, adapt, move, or face extinction (Berg et al. 2010 ). So, the best performer species have a better survival capacity for adjusting to new ecosystems or a decreased perseverance to survive where they are already situated (Bates et al. 2014 ). An important aspect here is the inadequate habitat connectivity and access to microclimates, also crucial in raising the exposure to climate warming and extreme heatwave episodes. For example, the carbon sequestration rates are undergoing fluctuations due to climate-driven expansion in the range of global mangroves (Cavanaugh et al. 2014 ).

Similarly, the loss of kelp-forest ecosystems in various regions and its occupancy by the seaweed turfs has set the track for elevated herbivory by the high influx of tropical fish populations. Not only this, the increased water temperatures have exacerbated the conditions far away from the physiological tolerance level of the kelp communities (Vergés et al. 2016 ; Wernberg et al. 2016 ). Another pertinent danger is the devastation of keystone species, which even has more pervasive effects on the entire communities in that habitat (Zarnetske et al. 2012 ). It is particularly important as CC does not specify specific populations or communities. Eventually, this CC-induced redistribution of species may deteriorate carbon storage and the net ecosystem productivity (Weed et al. 2013 ). Among the typical disruptions, the prominent ones include impacts on marine and terrestrial productivity, marine community assembly, and the extended invasion of toxic cyanobacteria bloom (Fossheim et al. 2015 ).

The CC-impacted species extinction is widely reported in the literature (Beesley et al. 2019 ; Urban 2015 ), and the predictions of demise until the twenty-first century are dreadful (Abbass et al. 2019 ; Pereira et al. 2013 ). In a few cases, northward shifting of species may not be formidable as it allows mountain-dwelling species to find optimum climates. However, the migrant species may be trapped in isolated and incompatible habitats due to losing topography and range (Dullinger et al. 2012 ). For example, a study indicated that the American pika has been extirpated or intensely diminished in some regions, primarily attributed to the CC-impacted extinction or at least local extirpation (Stewart et al. 2015 ). Besides, the anticipation of persistent responses to the impacts of CC often requires data records of several decades to rigorously analyze the critical pre and post CC patterns at species and ecosystem levels (Manes et al. 2021 ; Testa et al. 2018 ).

Nonetheless, the availability of such long-term data records is rare; hence, attempts are needed to focus on these profound aspects. Biodiversity is also vulnerable to the other associated impacts of CC, such as rising temperatures, droughts, and certain invasive pest species. For instance, a study revealed the changes in the composition of plankton communities attributed to rising temperatures. Henceforth, alterations in such aquatic producer communities, i.e., diatoms and calcareous plants, can ultimately lead to variation in the recycling of biological carbon. Moreover, such changes are characterized as a potential contributor to CO 2 differences between the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods (Kohfeld et al. 2005 ).

Climate change implications on human health

It is an understood corporality that human health is a significant victim of CC (Costello et al. 2009 ). According to the WHO, CC might be responsible for 250,000 additional deaths per year during 2030–2050 (Watts et al. 2015 ). These deaths are attributed to extreme weather-induced mortality and morbidity and the global expansion of vector-borne diseases (Lemery et al. 2021; Yang and Usman 2021 ; Meierrieks 2021 ; UNEP 2017 ). Here, some of the emerging health issues pertinent to this global problem are briefly described.

Climate change and antimicrobial resistance with corresponding economic costs

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an up-surging complex global health challenge (Garner et al. 2019 ; Lemery et al. 2021 ). Health professionals across the globe are extremely worried due to this phenomenon that has critical potential to reverse almost all the progress that has been achieved so far in the health discipline (Gosling and Arnell 2016 ). A massive amount of antibiotics is produced by many pharmaceutical industries worldwide, and the pathogenic microorganisms are gradually developing resistance to them, which can be comprehended how strongly this aspect can shake the foundations of national and global economies (UNEP 2017 ). This statement is supported by the fact that AMR is not developing in a particular region or country. Instead, it is flourishing in every continent of the world (WHO 2018 ). This plague is heavily pushing humanity to the post-antibiotic era, in which currently antibiotic-susceptible pathogens will once again lead to certain endemics and pandemics after being resistant(WHO 2018 ). Undesirably, if this statement would become a factuality, there might emerge certain risks in undertaking sophisticated interventions such as chemotherapy, joint replacement cases, and organ transplantation (Su et al. 2018 ). Presently, the amplification of drug resistance cases has made common illnesses like pneumonia, post-surgical infections, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, etc., too difficult and costly to be treated or cure well (WHO 2018 ). From a simple example, it can be assumed how easily antibiotic-resistant strains can be transmitted from one person to another and ultimately travel across the boundaries (Berendonk et al. 2015 ). Talking about the second- and third-generation classes of antibiotics, e.g., most renowned generations of cephalosporin antibiotics that are more expensive, broad-spectrum, more toxic, and usually require more extended periods whenever prescribed to patients (Lemery et al. 2021 ; Pärnänen et al. 2019 ). This scenario has also revealed that the abundance of resistant strains of pathogens was also higher in the Southern part (WHO 2018 ). As southern parts are generally warmer than their counterparts, it is evident from this example how CC-induced global warming can augment the spread of antibiotic-resistant strains within the biosphere, eventually putting additional economic burden in the face of developing new and costlier antibiotics. The ARG exchange to susceptible bacteria through one of the potential mechanisms, transformation, transduction, and conjugation; Selection pressure can be caused by certain antibiotics, metals or pesticides, etc., as shown in Fig.  5 .

A typical interaction between the susceptible and resistant strains.

Source: Elsayed et al. ( 2021 ); Karkman et al. ( 2018 )

Certain studies highlighted that conventional urban wastewater treatment plants are typical hotspots where most bacterial strains exchange genetic material through horizontal gene transfer (Fig.  5 ). Although at present, the extent of risks associated with the antibiotic resistance found in wastewater is complicated; environmental scientists and engineers have particular concerns about the potential impacts of these antibiotic resistance genes on human health (Ashbolt 2015 ). At most undesirable and worst case, these antibiotic-resistant genes containing bacteria can make their way to enter into the environment (Pruden et al. 2013 ), irrigation water used for crops and public water supplies and ultimately become a part of food chains and food webs (Ma et al. 2019 ; D. Wu et al. 2019 ). This problem has been reported manifold in several countries (Hendriksen et al. 2019 ), where wastewater as a means of irrigated water is quite common.

Climate change and vector borne-diseases

Temperature is a fundamental factor for the sustenance of living entities regardless of an ecosystem. So, a specific living being, especially a pathogen, requires a sophisticated temperature range to exist on earth. The second essential component of CC is precipitation, which also impacts numerous infectious agents’ transport and dissemination patterns. Global rising temperature is a significant cause of many species extinction. On the one hand, this changing environmental temperature may be causing species extinction, and on the other, this warming temperature might favor the thriving of some new organisms. Here, it was evident that some pathogens may also upraise once non-evident or reported (Patz et al. 2000 ). This concept can be exemplified through certain pathogenic strains of microorganisms that how the likelihood of various diseases increases in response to climate warming-induced environmental changes (Table ​ (Table2 2 ).

Examples of how various environmental changes affect various infectious diseases in humans

Source: Aron and Patz ( 2001 )

A recent example is an outburst of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the Republic of China, causing pneumonia and severe acute respiratory complications (Cui et al. 2021 ; Song et al. 2021 ). The large family of viruses is harbored in numerous animals, bats, and snakes in particular (livescience.com) with the subsequent transfer into human beings. Hence, it is worth noting that the thriving of numerous vectors involved in spreading various diseases is influenced by Climate change (Ogden 2018 ; Santos et al. 2021 ).

Psychological impacts of climate change

Climate change (CC) is responsible for the rapid dissemination and exaggeration of certain epidemics and pandemics. In addition to the vast apparent impacts of climate change on health, forestry, agriculture, etc., it may also have psychological implications on vulnerable societies. It can be exemplified through the recent outburst of (COVID-19) in various countries around the world (Pal 2021 ). Besides, the victims of this viral infection have made healthy beings scarier and terrified. In the wake of such epidemics, people with common colds or fever are also frightened and must pass specific regulatory protocols. Living in such situations continuously terrifies the public and makes the stress familiar, which eventually makes them psychologically weak (npr.org).

CC boosts the extent of anxiety, distress, and other issues in public, pushing them to develop various mental-related problems. Besides, frequent exposure to extreme climatic catastrophes such as geological disasters also imprints post-traumatic disorder, and their ubiquitous occurrence paves the way to developing chronic psychological dysfunction. Moreover, repetitive listening from media also causes an increase in the person’s stress level (Association 2020 ). Similarly, communities living in flood-prone areas constantly live in extreme fear of drowning and die by floods. In addition to human lives, the flood-induced destruction of physical infrastructure is a specific reason for putting pressure on these communities (Ogden 2018 ). For instance, Ogden ( 2018 ) comprehensively denoted that Katrina’s Hurricane augmented the mental health issues in the victim communities.

Climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Forests are the global regulators of the world’s climate (FAO 2018 ) and have an indispensable role in regulating global carbon and nitrogen cycles (Rehman et al. 2021 ; Reichstein and Carvalhais 2019 ). Hence, disturbances in forest ecology affect the micro and macro-climates (Ellison et al. 2017 ). Climate warming, in return, has profound impacts on the growth and productivity of transboundary forests by influencing the temperature and precipitation patterns, etc. As CC induces specific changes in the typical structure and functions of ecosystems (Zhang et al. 2017 ) as well impacts forest health, climate change also has several devastating consequences such as forest fires, droughts, pest outbreaks (EPA 2018 ), and last but not the least is the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. The rising frequency and intensity of another CC product, i.e., droughts, pose plenty of challenges to the well-being of global forests (Diffenbaugh et al. 2017 ), which is further projected to increase soon (Hartmann et al. 2018 ; Lehner et al. 2017 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ). Hence, CC induces storms, with more significant impacts also put extra pressure on the survival of the global forests (Martínez-Alvarado et al. 2018 ), significantly since their influences are augmented during higher winter precipitations with corresponding wetter soils causing weak root anchorage of trees (Brázdil et al. 2018 ). Surging temperature regimes causes alterations in usual precipitation patterns, which is a significant hurdle for the survival of temperate forests (Allen et al. 2010 ; Flannigan et al. 2013 ), letting them encounter severe stress and disturbances which adversely affects the local tree species (Hubbart et al. 2016 ; Millar and Stephenson 2015 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ).

Climate change impacts on forest-dependent communities

Forests are the fundamental livelihood resource for about 1.6 billion people worldwide; out of them, 350 million are distinguished with relatively higher reliance (Bank 2008 ). Agro-forestry-dependent communities comprise 1.2 billion, and 60 million indigenous people solely rely on forests and their products to sustain their lives (Sunderlin et al. 2005 ). For example, in the entire African continent, more than 2/3rd of inhabitants depend on forest resources and woodlands for their alimonies, e.g., food, fuelwood and grazing (Wasiq and Ahmad 2004 ). The livings of these people are more intensely affected by the climatic disruptions making their lives harder (Brown et al. 2014 ). On the one hand, forest communities are incredibly vulnerable to CC due to their livelihoods, cultural and spiritual ties as well as socio-ecological connections, and on the other, they are not familiar with the term “climate change.” (Rahman and Alam 2016 ). Among the destructive impacts of temperature and rainfall, disruption of the agroforestry crops with resultant downscale growth and yield (Macchi et al. 2008 ). Cruz ( 2015 ) ascribed that forest-dependent smallholder farmers in the Philippines face the enigma of delayed fruiting, more severe damages by insect and pest incidences due to unfavorable temperature regimes, and changed rainfall patterns.

Among these series of challenges to forest communities, their well-being is also distinctly vulnerable to CC. Though the detailed climate change impacts on human health have been comprehensively mentioned in the previous section, some studies have listed a few more devastating effects on the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For instance, the Himalayan people have been experiencing frequent skin-borne diseases such as malaria and other skin diseases due to increasing mosquitoes, wild boar as well, and new wasps species, particularly in higher altitudes that were almost non-existent before last 5–10 years (Xu et al. 2008 ). Similarly, people living at high altitudes in Bangladesh have experienced frequent mosquito-borne calamities (Fardous; Sharma 2012 ). In addition, the pace of other waterborne diseases such as infectious diarrhea, cholera, pathogenic induced abdominal complications and dengue has also been boosted in other distinguished regions of Bangladesh (Cell 2009 ; Gunter et al. 2008 ).

Pest outbreak

Upscaling hotter climate may positively affect the mobile organisms with shorter generation times because they can scurry from harsh conditions than the immobile species (Fettig et al. 2013 ; Schoene and Bernier 2012 ) and are also relatively more capable of adapting to new environments (Jactel et al. 2019 ). It reveals that insects adapt quickly to global warming due to their mobility advantages. Due to past outbreaks, the trees (forests) are relatively more susceptible victims (Kurz et al. 2008 ). Before CC, the influence of factors mentioned earlier, i.e., droughts and storms, was existent and made the forests susceptible to insect pest interventions; however, the global forests remain steadfast, assiduous, and green (Jactel et al. 2019 ). The typical reasons could be the insect herbivores were regulated by several tree defenses and pressures of predation (Wilkinson and Sherratt 2016 ). As climate greatly influences these phenomena, the global forests cannot be so sedulous against such challenges (Jactel et al. 2019 ). Table ​ Table3 3 demonstrates some of the particular considerations with practical examples that are essential while mitigating the impacts of CC in the forestry sector.

Essential considerations while mitigating the climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Source : Fischer ( 2019 )

Climate change impacts on tourism

Tourism is a commercial activity that has roots in multi-dimensions and an efficient tool with adequate job generation potential, revenue creation, earning of spectacular foreign exchange, enhancement in cross-cultural promulgation and cooperation, a business tool for entrepreneurs and eventually for the country’s national development (Arshad et al. 2018 ; Scott 2021 ). Among a plethora of other disciplines, the tourism industry is also a distinct victim of climate warming (Gössling et al. 2012 ; Hall et al. 2015 ) as the climate is among the essential resources that enable tourism in particular regions as most preferred locations. Different places at different times of the year attract tourists both within and across the countries depending upon the feasibility and compatibility of particular weather patterns. Hence, the massive variations in these weather patterns resulting from CC will eventually lead to monumental challenges to the local economy in that specific area’s particular and national economy (Bujosa et al. 2015 ). For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report demonstrated that the global tourism industry had faced a considerable decline in the duration of ski season, including the loss of some ski areas and the dramatic shifts in tourist destinations’ climate warming.

Furthermore, different studies (Neuvonen et al. 2015 ; Scott et al. 2004 ) indicated that various currently perfect tourist spots, e.g., coastal areas, splendid islands, and ski resorts, will suffer consequences of CC. It is also worth noting that the quality and potential of administrative management potential to cope with the influence of CC on the tourism industry is of crucial significance, which renders specific strengths of resiliency to numerous destinations to withstand against it (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). Similarly, in the partial or complete absence of adequate socio-economic and socio-political capital, the high-demanding tourist sites scurry towards the verge of vulnerability. The susceptibility of tourism is based on different components such as the extent of exposure, sensitivity, life-supporting sectors, and capacity assessment factors (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). It is obvious corporality that sectors such as health, food, ecosystems, human habitat, infrastructure, water availability, and the accessibility of a particular region are prone to CC. Henceforth, the sensitivity of these critical sectors to CC and, in return, the adaptive measures are a hallmark in determining the composite vulnerability of climate warming (Ionescu et al. 2009 ).

Moreover, the dependence on imported food items, poor hygienic conditions, and inadequate health professionals are dominant aspects affecting the local terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Meanwhile, the greater dependency on ecosystem services and its products also makes a destination more fragile to become a prey of CC (Rizvi et al. 2015 ). Some significant non-climatic factors are important indicators of a particular ecosystem’s typical health and functioning, e.g., resource richness and abundance portray the picture of ecosystem stability. Similarly, the species abundance is also a productive tool that ensures that the ecosystem has a higher buffering capacity, which is terrific in terms of resiliency (Roscher et al. 2013 ).

Climate change impacts on the economic sector

Climate plays a significant role in overall productivity and economic growth. Due to its increasingly global existence and its effect on economic growth, CC has become one of the major concerns of both local and international environmental policymakers (Ferreira et al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Abbass et al. 2021b ; Lamperti et al. 2021 ). The adverse effects of CC on the overall productivity factor of the agricultural sector are therefore significant for understanding the creation of local adaptation policies and the composition of productive climate policy contracts. Previous studies on CC in the world have already forecasted its effects on the agricultural sector. Researchers have found that global CC will impact the agricultural sector in different world regions. The study of the impacts of CC on various agrarian activities in other demographic areas and the development of relative strategies to respond to effects has become a focal point for researchers (Chandioet al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Mosavi et al. 2020 ).

With the rapid growth of global warming since the 1980s, the temperature has started increasing globally, which resulted in the incredible transformation of rain and evaporation in the countries. The agricultural development of many countries has been reliant, delicate, and susceptible to CC for a long time, and it is on the development of agriculture total factor productivity (ATFP) influence different crops and yields of farmers (Alhassan 2021 ; Wu  2020 ).

Food security and natural disasters are increasing rapidly in the world. Several major climatic/natural disasters have impacted local crop production in the countries concerned. The effects of these natural disasters have been poorly controlled by the development of the economies and populations and may affect human life as well. One example is China, which is among the world’s most affected countries, vulnerable to natural disasters due to its large population, harsh environmental conditions, rapid CC, low environmental stability, and disaster power. According to the January 2016 statistical survey, China experienced an economic loss of 298.3 billion Yuan, and about 137 million Chinese people were severely affected by various natural disasters (Xie et al. 2018 ).

Mitigation and adaptation strategies of climate changes

Adaptation and mitigation are the crucial factors to address the response to CC (Jahanzad et al. 2020 ). Researchers define mitigation on climate changes, and on the other hand, adaptation directly impacts climate changes like floods. To some extent, mitigation reduces or moderates greenhouse gas emission, and it becomes a critical issue both economically and environmentally (Botzen et al. 2021 ; Jahanzad et al. 2020 ; Kongsager 2018 ; Smit et al. 2000 ; Vale et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2021 ; Verheyen 2005 ).

Researchers have deep concern about the adaptation and mitigation methodologies in sectoral and geographical contexts. Agriculture, industry, forestry, transport, and land use are the main sectors to adapt and mitigate policies(Kärkkäinen et al. 2020 ; Waheed et al. 2021 ). Adaptation and mitigation require particular concern both at the national and international levels. The world has faced a significant problem of climate change in the last decades, and adaptation to these effects is compulsory for economic and social development. To adapt and mitigate against CC, one should develop policies and strategies at the international level (Hussain et al. 2020 ). Figure  6 depicts the list of current studies on sectoral impacts of CC with adaptation and mitigation measures globally.

Sectoral impacts of climate change with adaptation and mitigation measures.

Conclusion and future perspectives

Specific socio-agricultural, socio-economic, and physical systems are the cornerstone of psychological well-being, and the alteration in these systems by CC will have disastrous impacts. Climate variability, alongside other anthropogenic and natural stressors, influences human and environmental health sustainability. Food security is another concerning scenario that may lead to compromised food quality, higher food prices, and inadequate food distribution systems. Global forests are challenged by different climatic factors such as storms, droughts, flash floods, and intense precipitation. On the other hand, their anthropogenic wiping is aggrandizing their existence. Undoubtedly, the vulnerability scale of the world’s regions differs; however, appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures can aid the decision-making bodies in developing effective policies to tackle its impacts. Presently, modern life on earth has tailored to consistent climatic patterns, and accordingly, adapting to such considerable variations is of paramount importance. Because the faster changes in climate will make it harder to survive and adjust, this globally-raising enigma calls for immediate attention at every scale ranging from elementary community level to international level. Still, much effort, research, and dedication are required, which is the most critical time. Some policy implications can help us to mitigate the consequences of climate change, especially the most affected sectors like the agriculture sector;

Warming might lengthen the season in frost-prone growing regions (temperate and arctic zones), allowing for longer-maturing seasonal cultivars with better yields (Pfadenhauer 2020 ; Bonacci 2019 ). Extending the planting season may allow additional crops each year; when warming leads to frequent warmer months highs over critical thresholds, a split season with a brief summer fallow may be conceivable for short-period crops such as wheat barley, cereals, and many other vegetable crops. The capacity to prolong the planting season in tropical and subtropical places where the harvest season is constrained by precipitation or agriculture farming occurs after the year may be more limited and dependent on how precipitation patterns vary (Wu et al. 2017 ).

The genetic component is comprehensive for many yields, but it is restricted like kiwi fruit for a few. Ali et al. ( 2017 ) investigated how new crops will react to climatic changes (also stated in Mall et al. 2017 ). Hot temperature, drought, insect resistance; salt tolerance; and overall crop production and product quality increases would all be advantageous (Akkari 2016 ). Genetic mapping and engineering can introduce a greater spectrum of features. The adoption of genetically altered cultivars has been slowed, particularly in the early forecasts owing to the complexity in ensuring features are expediently expressed throughout the entire plant, customer concerns, economic profitability, and regulatory impediments (Wirehn 2018 ; Davidson et al. 2016 ).

To get the full benefit of the CO 2 would certainly require additional nitrogen and other fertilizers. Nitrogen not consumed by the plants may be excreted into groundwater, discharged into water surface, or emitted from the land, soil nitrous oxide when large doses of fertilizer are sprayed. Increased nitrogen levels in groundwater sources have been related to human chronic illnesses and impact marine ecosystems. Cultivation, grain drying, and other field activities have all been examined in depth in the studies (Barua et al. 2018 ).

• The technological and socio-economic adaptation

The policy consequence of the causative conclusion is that as a source of alternative energy, biofuel production is one of the routes that explain oil price volatility separate from international macroeconomic factors. Even though biofuel production has just begun in a few sample nations, there is still a tremendous worldwide need for feedstock to satisfy industrial expansion in China and the USA, which explains the food price relationship to the global oil price. Essentially, oil-exporting countries may create incentives in their economies to increase food production. It may accomplish by giving farmers financing, seedlings, fertilizers, and farming equipment. Because of the declining global oil price and, as a result, their earnings from oil export, oil-producing nations may be unable to subsidize food imports even in the near term. As a result, these countries can boost the agricultural value chain for export. It may be accomplished through R&D and adding value to their food products to increase income by correcting exchange rate misalignment and adverse trade terms. These nations may also diversify their economies away from oil, as dependence on oil exports alone is no longer economically viable given the extreme volatility of global oil prices. Finally, resource-rich and oil-exporting countries can convert to non-food renewable energy sources such as solar, hydro, coal, wind, wave, and tidal energy. By doing so, both world food and oil supplies would be maintained rather than harmed.

IRENA’s modeling work shows that, if a comprehensive policy framework is in place, efforts toward decarbonizing the energy future will benefit economic activity, jobs (outweighing losses in the fossil fuel industry), and welfare. Countries with weak domestic supply chains and a large reliance on fossil fuel income, in particular, must undertake structural reforms to capitalize on the opportunities inherent in the energy transition. Governments continue to give major policy assistance to extract fossil fuels, including tax incentives, financing, direct infrastructure expenditures, exemptions from environmental regulations, and other measures. The majority of major oil and gas producing countries intend to increase output. Some countries intend to cut coal output, while others plan to maintain or expand it. While some nations are beginning to explore and execute policies aimed at a just and equitable transition away from fossil fuel production, these efforts have yet to impact major producing countries’ plans and goals. Verifiable and comparable data on fossil fuel output and assistance from governments and industries are critical to closing the production gap. Governments could increase openness by declaring their production intentions in their climate obligations under the Paris Agreement.

It is firmly believed that achieving the Paris Agreement commitments is doubtlful without undergoing renewable energy transition across the globe (Murshed 2020 ; Zhao et al. 2022 ). Policy instruments play the most important role in determining the degree of investment in renewable energy technology. This study examines the efficacy of various policy strategies in the renewable energy industry of multiple nations. Although its impact is more visible in established renewable energy markets, a renewable portfolio standard is also a useful policy instrument. The cost of producing renewable energy is still greater than other traditional energy sources. Furthermore, government incentives in the R&D sector can foster innovation in this field, resulting in cost reductions in the renewable energy industry. These nations may export their technologies and share their policy experiences by forming networks among their renewable energy-focused organizations. All policy measures aim to reduce production costs while increasing the proportion of renewables to a country’s energy system. Meanwhile, long-term contracts with renewable energy providers, government commitment and control, and the establishment of long-term goals can assist developing nations in deploying renewable energy technology in their energy sector.

Author contribution

KA: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Study design, Formal analysis, Visualization, Revised draft, Writing-review, and editing. MZQ: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Writing-review, and editing. HS: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, literature review, Revised drapt, and writing review and editing. MM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. HM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. IY: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, literature review, and writing review and editing.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Contributor Information

Kashif Abbass, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@ssabbafihsak .

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim, Email: moc.kooltuo@888misaqnahseez .

Huaming Song, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@gnimauh .

Muntasir Murshed, Email: [email protected] .

Haider Mahmood, Email: moc.liamtoh@doomhamrediah .

Ijaz Younis, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@sinuoyzaji .

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• Published: 02 April 2024

Discrepancies in academic perceptions of climate change and implications for climate change education

• Marcellus Forh Mbah   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4199-0819 1  

npj Climate Action volume  3 , Article number:  24 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Climate change is arguably the most severe threat faced by humanity today. In an attempt to understand how humanity can manage this phenomenon for planetary health, it is fundamental to have an understanding of what it is. This aligns with a critical gap in the extant literature, that is, how different perceptions of climate change among facilitators of learning (in this case, academics) can enable the establishment of a framework of critical consciousness that could boost climate change education and contribute to climate change management. To this end, the study that underpins this paper set out to capture the perceptions of climate change among a selection of academics at a local university in Cameroon. Following a comprehensive analysis of the data, different views on the subject emerged, aligning with scientific, observational, and cultural definitions. Drawing on theoretical insights into critical consciousness, the findings of this study have wider implications for climate change education at universities. A framework is suggested to support educators as they foster critical thinking among learners, as this can facilitate their ability and the wider community to make informed decisions on mitigation and adaptation strategies in light of climate change and the threats it carries.

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Introduction

Climate change is a global issue posing unprecedented threats to populations around the world. Its impacts are felt severely on vulnerable regions and populations, as well as in contexts such as agriculture and the wider environment. Despite this, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reveals that governments are ill prepared for climate change, and that they lack immediate plans to limit global temperatures below 1.5 °C 1 . To tackle this threat, governments must introduce effective and efficient mitigation and adaptation strategies that help communities move forward responsibly. One of the key measures for adaptation and mitigation is through the fostering of climate change education (CCE) which endows people with relevant knowledge and helps them make informed decisions as they understand climate variability, natural and anthropogenic causes, and the impacts of climate change 2 , 3 , 4 . Previous studies are a testament to this claim as various scholars have demonstrated the importance of integrating CCE into different levels of education to ensure that communities become climate resilient 2 , 5 , 6 , 7 .

To implement successful programs on CCE, it is necessary for educators to have a well-founded explanation and a logical insight into what climate change is about 2 , 3 . There are existing definitions of climate change, such as it being conceived as a distribution over time for constant external conditions (such as solar radiation), and distribution over time where external conditions vary, and other definitions that look at the atmosphere or change in weather statistics over many decades 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 . Such changes that characterize climate change are often due to anthropogenic activities, such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuels, leading to CO2, greenhouse gas emissions and a rise in ocean, land, and atmospheric temperatures 12 , 13 .

Although there are recent extant studies on climate change in the educational context 3 , 14 , 15 , 16 , little is known about how climate change is defined among academics from different disciplinary backgrounds working in higher educational institutions and associated with teaching environmentally related subjects. It is significant to address this for two main reasons: 1) many university academics are at the forefront of empowering young people with a relevant knowledge base to confront climate change, and 2) it is essential to ascertain whether CCE can benefit from varied insights from academics on what climate change represents, or if it would be a cause of confusion among learners. This paper sets out to highlight discrepancies in climate change perception among a group of academics and discusses the implications of these diverse opinions for CCE.

Currently, there is not enough data or evidence to support a uniform definition of climate change among academics. There are studies that discuss perceptions of climate change in different contexts. For example, a study conducted in public and private schools and colleges in Bangladesh indicates that teachers are generally aware of the term climate change 17 , but there is a difference in opinion on temperatures as they relate to the phenomenon. It elaborates that most private school teachers believe temperatures are rising, whereas most public school teachers believe that they are merely fluctuating. On the other hand, findings in the study suggest that respondents overall agree that extreme weather events such as floods, cyclones, and droughts are occurring more frequently due to climate change. Another study finds that many informal educators are well informed about climate change, but there are some who find it difficult to keep up with the scientific information relating to the subject 18 . In the United States, for instance, a study on high school teachers’ perceptions demonstrates they believe that pesticides, aerosols, and nuclear energy contribute significantly towards climate change 19 . Elsewhere, in Norway, pre-service science teachers who have entered the education sector from their prior engagements with the oil industry have a high prevalence of climate change scepticism 20 . This study reveals that owing to their associations with the oil industry, these teachers are less likely to acknowledge the human factors influencing climate change. Eilam 21 posits that “the limited conceptualization of climate change by educators is one of the main problems leading to its poor representation in school education”. Furthermore, a misdefinition of climate change may not only have consequences for policy decisions 22 and human actions 23 but also education on the subject.

Although the examples above showcase teachers’ perceptions on climate change across different levels of education, there is an identifiable gap in how climate change is understood by academics in universities. Higher education has an immediate role to play in providing key skills for climate change mitigation and adaptation 3 , 16 . Therefore, this paper presents a study on how this concept is understood in academic contexts, and in doing so, fills an important gap in the extant literature. It achieves this aim by examining the perceptions of the term “climate change” among a selection of academics from a local university in Cameroon, before considering the wider implications for CCE.

Theoretical framework: theory of critical consciousness

This paper sets its foundation in Freire’s theory of critical consciousness to discuss the ways in which academics can gain an in-depth understanding of a subject, as well as encourage their students to think and interpret information critically within the framework of knowledge co-creation. Freire defined critical consciousness as a “requirement of our human condition” (24, p. 55). He elaborated that to have a true consciousness, individuals must portray a deep curiosity to reexamine experiences and information that exist as facts in our society. He further explained that individuals will break free from oppressive roles when they confront such biases and the unconscious acceptance of the status quo 24 , 25 . Consequently, critical consciousness is a learning process by which people can “take action against the oppressive elements of reality” (Ref. 26 , p. 4). Therefore, critical education is a key means of elevating not just educators, but also young people, from receivers of standardized knowledge to active participants in change and transformation. In this context, the lecture hall can be seen as a space for co-created learning and teaching, whereby there is no hegemony of knowledge and a plurality of insights are encouraged 27 , 28 , 29 . Through this, educators can also avoid the “banking model” of education 30 where they are seen as the custodian of authentic knowledge and students are only regarded as empty vessels for the imparting of information. This is consistent with the notion of engaged pedagogy, whereby, according to hooks (Ref. 31 , p. 202), “students and teachers celebrate their abilities to think critically.” So, then, it is not just the story or ideas of the learner that needs interrogating but also that of the educator 31 , as both learn, unlearn, and relearn.

For the purposes of CCE, critical consciousness can entail a framework of analytically examining and evaluating climate change issues, adaptation, and mitigation measures. Both educators and learners can achieve a deeper understanding of their realities as they relate to climate change and participate in solutions that are context-specific and holistic in nature. This will not only be seen as empowering with a context of freedom 32 but can also help create climate-resilient communities as knowledge diffuses, leading to behavioral changes and relevant practices. Moreover, for groups that are already dominant in our society – such as professional educators – critical consciousness calls for a necessary insight into one’s position in society and role in reinforcing power dynamics and social hierarchy 33 . Therefore, this theory underscores the key potential among both educators and students for their active involvement in implementing a successful CCE program.

Contextual background

This study was conducted at a local university in Cameroon, located in one of the two English-speaking regions of the country and made up of Faculties which include Arts; Health Sciences, Education; Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Science; Engineering and Technology, and Social and Management Sciences. The student population is over 12,000, with a diversified staff of about 600 (that is, permanent and part-time).

As climate change is expected to hit hardest on the more vulnerable countries around the world, it is important that Cameroon’s practices on climate mitigation and adaptation reflect a comprehensive approach to managing disasters and challenges. The country is home to a vast area of Congo Basin’s tropical rainforests. With more than 40% of Cameroon’s land being covered by dense rainforests, it can play a crucial role in adapting to climate change across Africa 34 , 35 . However, this immense natural land is threatened by deforestation and unsustainable agricultural practices 36 . A recent report by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 35 further suggests that degradation of the African tropics could have major consequences on rainfall patterns, impacting agriculture and temperatures in the region.

Agriculture is the backbone of the economy of Cameroon, employing up to 70% of the economically active population 37 . This figure suggests that agriculture is crucial for poverty reduction and the development of Cameroon. However, the dependence on rain-fed agriculture disproportionately affects farmers in Cameroon who are experiencing climate variability. Therefore, it is important that the country is prepared to tackle the challenges and risks that are brought on. CCE has the potential to equip communities with the knowledge and tools needed to mitigate or adapt to climate change. In Cameroon, where the vast population is involved in the agriculture sector, it becomes increasingly important that relevant information is communicated to students during learning sessions, for the management of related vulnerabilities to climate change.

This study employed a qualitative case study approach and data was collected by interviewing academics from a variety of disciplines, including Environmental Science, Education, Agricultural Economics, Social and Management Science, Forestry, Water Resource Management, Gender and Development, Petroleum Geology, Plant Protection, and Geography, and they all had a teaching and research responsibility. In particular, semi-structured interviews were employed as it provided participants with the latitude to articulate their thoughts more freely when compared to structured interviews. An interview guide was used to ask questions to 38 academics at the university who were recruited via a combination of purposive, snowball and opportunistic sampling techniques. These questions focused on: 1) vulnerability to climate change, 2) education for climate change adaptation, and 3) policies and practices that support climate change education in the country. While a set of questions was asked as part of a broader study, this paper is concerned with the following fundamental line of inquiry: What is your understanding or definition of climate change? The in depth semi-structured interviews were audio recorded and later transcribed. Participants consented to take part in the study, which is consistent with the ethical protocol that guided the process. The data captured and analyzed reveal a plethora of views on climate change.

Data analysis

Thematic analysis was used to examine and interpret the data collected in the study. Widely used in qualitative research, this method of analysis provides flexible approaches to identifying patterns and themes 38 . According to Braun and Clarke 39 , thematic analysis helps to systematically interpret and organize patterns across a dataset so that collective and shared experiences can be reported. It is important for the purposes of this paper that interviews collected are analysed to address meaningful insights into education for climate change adaptation. While there are various ways to conduct a thematic analysis, the six-step approach described by Braun and Clarke 40 was chosen as appropriate for this study, given its systematic approach, straightforward application, and relevance. These steps are getting familiar with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining, and naming themes, and producing the report 40 .

First, the transcripts of the interviews were read and reread, and initial notes were taken to highlight participants’ views and experiences. This stage involved reading the transcripts critically and using techniques such as annotations and comments to deepen the understanding of the dataset. After this, coding was carried out manually, and data was broken down into specific labels if it was consistent with the research questions outlined in the interview guide. Using what Braun and Clarke 40 described as a latent level of analysis, this phase of coding also extracted underlying ideas in the transcripts. Next, the coded data were examined to identify broader patterns and similarities, and themes were constructed by grouping codes that shared specific characteristics. During this process, participants’ quotations and experiences that were relevant to the codes were collated below their respective themes. By isolating such examples and stories, this phase ensured a comprehensive understanding of the content of the data and guaranteed that the results reflected a coherent analysis 40 . In line with the fourth and fifth step, the themes were reviewed to confirm that they were logical and consistent with the subject of the research and were carefully assigned names 41 . Once this was completed, the data was re-read once again to make certain that the themes finalized were meaningfully capturing the aims of the research overall. The following section discusses the findings as they relate to the questions asked on the definition of climate change. Where participants have been quoted, pseudonyms were used.

A deep insight into the interviews reveals that many academics conceptualize climate change differently from one another. While there are a few commonalities in the way some academics define climate change, it has generally not been defined using a set of similar characteristics or concepts relating to the subject. Therefore, there is a variety of views on what climate change constitutes. As this paper cannot share each participant’s responses on the definition or their understanding of climate change, the findings have been grouped into three main themes. These include climate change being defined as 1 : long-term changes in climatic conditions, measured or felt over several years, which have been presented under “climate variation over a long period of time” 2 ; climate change defined as a shift in weather conditions and/or the irregularity of climate parameters, which is discussed under “changes in weather patterns”; and 3 a shift from the natural course of the environment to rapid changes and the occurrence of global warming, which have been termed “changes in the natural environment.”

Climate variation over a long period of time

Many participants in the study viewed climate change as long-term changes in weather conditions and climate parameters such as rainfall and temperature. Respondents agreed that such changes occurred over a long period of time. One participant stated such a time to be between two to three decades:

“Climate change refers to changes in climate or one of the weather variables that goes on for a long period of time. Principally, what we refer to as climate change is usually associated to a significant change in temperature and rainfall parameters. The changes in such parameters that go on for a long time, spanning two or three decades, is what we call climate change.” – MOW (Lecturer in Environmental Science).

Similarly, another participant responded by suggesting the changes felt in the levels of intensity of hot and cold weather over decades is what constitutes climate change:

“When you have the weather of a place and you measure that for more than 30 years, you have its climate. Hence the change in climate will be the average change of what you have been observing. For example, if you put the elements of weather together and you measure that consistently for more than a decade, you have the climate. And, when you start seeing average changes in the degree of hotness or coldness within those decades then you can think of it as climate change.” – FOB (Lecturer in Education)

While some respondents resolutely understood climate change to mean variations measured over several decades, others gave no specific duration of time but still agreed it was a “long-term” change felt or measured in the environment. This is represented by one such participant who claims: “Climate change, I will say, is the variation in climatic parameters such as rainfall, humidity and sunshine over time and must not be confused with the weather which simply is the state of the climatic parameter. Climate change is usually recorded in the long-term such that we can evaluate the changes and variation of such parameters over time.” – JOA (Assistant Lecturer in Agricultural Economics).

An interesting theme that emerges is that many participants insist we must separate climate change from climate variability. In doing so, many academics compared the two terms considering the duration of years specific to each phenomenon. Some academics defined climate variation as a change in climate measured over a shorter period, while climate change was referred to as a shift measured over 30 years. The participant below looks at climate variation as changes occurring within 5 years:

“I think climate change refers to general change in the climatic conditions of the environment and it might be associated to general changes in temperature, weather, rain falls and changes in seasons. And I think when it is less than 5 years, we talk of climate variation and not climate change.” – NOV (Lecturer in Social and Management Science)

Another participant also shared the difference between the two phenomena: “Well, climate change is a change in temperatures and rainfall over a period which is not less than 30 or 25 years. However, below this we have climate variability, and this could be associated to cyclic movements, such as variations in weather patterns within a period of 5 to 10 years. But then this does not mean that the climate is changing.” – NOK (Lecturer, Forest and Environment).

Climate change as a concept occurring over 30 years of time, and climate vulnerability as a seasonal shift in weather conditions, was suggested by a different academic: “Climate change could be defined as a change in the weather conditions of a particular place for a long period of time. On average, this could be about 30 years. However, we also have what is known as climate vulnerability which is the change in the weather conditions seasonally or maybe within a year or two years.” – ROM (Lecturer, Water Resource Management).

The interviews presented a thoughtful understanding as some academics had strong beliefs about the specific time and duration needed to refer to climate change. The variety of knowledge on climate change’s definition does not end here, as many academics perceived it simply as changes in weather patterns. These findings are discussed in the following section.

Changes in weather patterns

Climate change has also been described as shifts in weather conditions and the unpredictability surrounding parameters such as humidity, rainfall, and temperatures. As one respondent simply puts it: “I think we can just associate it [climate change] with changes in temperature, changes in rainfall and humidity.” – NOA (Lecturer, Applied Economics).

However, there are other participants who go beyond this definition and talk about the consequences of these shifts manifesting into larger problems for communities such as droughts and famines. One participant explains:

“I can say that from my own understanding based on my personal experiences, climate change refers to fluctuations in climate. This has resulted in impacts like drought, floods, famine, and harsh weather conditions.” – AOJ (Lecturer, Gender and Development)

Another participant elaborates on their experiences living in a locality and witnessing how life has been altered due to climate change:

“Climate change is the change of the weather conditions like temperature, pressure, precipitation, and moisture over time. In 2011, when I came to this locality, places were very cold, but later, my first indicator for climate change was when I saw people buying fans. With time places in this locality have become very hot.” – OOT (Lecturer, Geography)

Indeed, the impact of extreme weather events is drastically felt in Cameroon. For a country that is so heavily reliant on its agricultural produce, this irregularity in weather patterns causes increased stress upon farmers and local communities. One academic notes:

“Most of our streams have dried off and our crops do not grow the same way as they did in the past. In essence we can consider a combination of one or more of these experiences to denote climate change. The two main aspects of climate change that I have worked on include rainfall and temperature changes. Rainfall pattern is becoming very irregular. The periods rain used to fall have changed, and we also have concerning temperatures. The records of the CDC, Delmonte farms and other weather stations at the University show that there have been on a rise in temperature in the past decade.” – AOT (Lecturer, Agricultural Economics)

Still, there are other respondents who viewed climate change as a shift from the normal way of life in the past and mentioned contextual changes in their environment in Cameroon. These impacts of climate change, as discussed by academics below, became a crucial factor in how they understood this global threat.

Changes in the natural environment due to anthropogenic activities

Often associated with human activities, for example the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, climate change is understood as a shift in the way the environment naturally reacts to rapid or extreme activities, and which sometimes has repercussions due to the way of life of community dwellers. One participant explains it comprehensively:

“It is the alteration in the aspect of the conventional aspect of how the world evolved to have some standard that is compatible for human life and hence, it is the change from that normal standard of the environment. This is because of human activities and even some natural processes which is not conducive to human habitation. In other words, we can say that the environment has been corrupted, regardless if that corruption is by natural activities or man-made.” – HOE (Senior Lecturer, Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology)

Despite extreme weather events brought on due to climate change, some participants expressed some positive impacts of increased temperatures on a segment of the agricultural sector. One academic discusses this in light of climate change’s contribution to the increase in crop yield:

“The climate as we know it, is changing at a rate that it is not supposed to. Now you may have some phenomenon like it becomes hotter in some regions, for example, in some of our villages, there are some crops that used to do well only in forest areas, but we discovered that they are now growing even in the grass field because the temperature has changed.” – COA (Lecturer, Petroleum Geology)

However, many respondents stand firmly on their understanding of climate change as a system exacerbated due to anthropogenic activities. Many participants agree that climatic conditions have accelerated because of human activities and that they are further worsening the habitats of plants and animal species:

“There has been a consistent increase in global temperatures, and this is due to a lot of anthropogenic activities for example burning of fossil fuels, destruction of forests and environmental pollutions that have speed up temperature rise. The ripple effect is that sea levels are rising, the ice is melting, and we are seeing some [animal and plant] species going extinct. We are also experiencing more wildfires and drought. A brief understanding of climate change is that things are no longer how they used to be; human activities have caused temperature increases, and globally this has resulted in the rise of sea levels and so on.” – TOA (Lecturer, Plant Protection)

One academic also related climate change to global warming, referring to increased levels of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere:

“What we understand today by climate change is global warming and this global warming is more because of anthropogenic factors rather than natural forces. We have a lot of greenhouse gases from industrial activities and from agricultural activities, and deforestation which is reducing nature capacity to absorb carbon dioxides. All of these are contributing to increase the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that are trapping outgoing radiation in the atmosphere and then sending them back to the earth surface leading to climate change.” – TOE (Lecturer, Geography and Governance)

It is evident that academics in this study have a deep understanding of climate change; however, their perceptions of the phrase climate change bring forth varying concepts and explanations. Some of these are rooted in science, and others are rooted in cultural contexts and insightful observations. Moreover, their definitions offer a unique analysis of the local experiences, as many respondents discussed the impacts and consequences of extreme weather events on agriculture and the environment. In the next section, we delve into a deeper discussion of the perceptions of climate change from a wider perspective, bringing together views and opinions on the subject as explored in the extant literature.

The findings present key insights into academic perceptions of climate change. While academics in the study have a comprehensive understanding of the causes, drivers and impacts of climate change, the questioning asked for their own definition of the subject. This resulted in many academics relating climate change to its scientific explanations, those related to the rise in temperatures and the influence of human activities on the environment 11 , 12 , 42 . Meanwhile, others provided a more contextual focus, discussing the impacts of climate change on local groups and communities around them. The latter explanations were elaborated in more detail by the academics who related to climate change as a change in weather patterns and a change due to anthropogenic activities as captured above 11 , 13 . These participants looked at the consequences of extreme weather events on sectors such as agriculture and natural habitats. In sum, the following three themes are drawn from the findings and discussed below:

Climate Change Perceptions Aligning with Climate Science.

Climate Change Perceptions as a Reflection of Cultural Contexts and Observations.

Implications for Climate Change Education.

Firstly, the perception of climate change that hinge on science can be contextualized in the extant literature and relevant policy documents. For instance, the IPCC defines climate change as “a change in the state of the climate that can be identified… by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period” 43 . This understanding is reinforced in the findings of the data, where many academics refer to the long-term factor of climate change and the variations in different weather patterns. As the findings reveal, many academics mentioned measuring or observing changes in the natural state of the environment for periods ranging between 20 to 30 years as an indication of the onset of climate change. Moreover, this specific reference to the time period was elaborated upon by various other academics who differentiated between climate change and climate variability or seasonal disparities. Such responses were rooted in climate science, restating the definitions provided by the IPCC. While there is no consensus on the exact time duration of changes in certain parameters such as the emission of greenhouse gases, global average temperatures or rising of global sea levels to define climate change, the extant literature generally highlights a protracted time range, which can span many decades 11 , 12 , 44 . It was not the intention of the study to unpack the veracity of the claims advanced by different authors on the science that underpins climate change but to examine different understandings in an attempt to promote a space for critical engagement. However, the responses given by participants emphasizing human activities and their consequences for global temperatures reflect scientific advances in the field of climate change 12 , 42 , 45 . The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report explains how human influence has been a main driver of climate change since the 1800s due to activities like the burning of fossil fuels 46 . Participants discussed deep concern for these activities and viewed climate change with regards to the disruptions caused in the environment due to human advancements.

Other participants provided accounts of how climate change has impacted human lives and the natural environment of Cameroon. Observing effects on streams, rivers and agricultural activities, these participants viewed climate change as a cause of vulnerability. Indeed, the relationship between climate change and vulnerability has been discussed in the past. Schipper and Pelling 47 discuss how climate change slows down the development process in countries as disasters result in the loss of infrastructure and livelihoods. Similarly, climate change has hampered progress towards the realization of the SDGs 4 , 48 , 49 . In light of this, the perception of climate change as a factor that increases global vulnerability is undeniable. Embedding this subject in CCE could enhance the role of educators in raising awareness and stimulating an engaged citizenry into mitigating the risks associated with climate change or adapting to its adverse consequences.

Secondly, climate change perceptions as a reflection of cultural contexts and observations can be examined closely. While climate change and its impacts are of the utmost relevance and importance around the world, some perceptions are rooted in personal experiences that include observations of local communities and the impact of certain varying conditions on our livelihood and the natural environment. From the data gathered, we can see that many participants understand the term from the changes they experience or observe around them – for example, risks to local plants and animal species, the impact of prolonged hot temperatures on certain crop production, and the infrastructural damage due to flooding and heatwaves.

Climate itself is often viewed as a statistical phenomenon, one that averages the weather conditions of a particular region 50 . Perhaps because of this, there are expectations for climate change to be understood using a similar approach, such as those including references to meteorology, or reliable trends in weather patterns. Therefore, perceptions of climate change that are derived from observations and personal experiences may be neglected in the development of climate change education. Indeed, it has been argued in the past that observations are connected to time and the memory associated with past events can be faulty, including anomalies associated with the measurement or observation of the planet’s temperature 11 , 23 , 51 . However, various behavioral researchers have concluded that perceptions shaped by personal experiences involve associative and affective processes that capture the learner’s attention 52 , 53 . Such an approach to understanding climate change is more reflective and these local contexts bring more meaning to adaptation strategies.

As academics are leading climate knowledge in higher education, and disseminating information on this subject, it is important to discuss how their understanding of the subject can translate into CCE. The data in this study gives us an opportunity to discuss whether the diversity of opinions on climate change among academics can foster learning and understanding on the subject or whether it will cause or exacerbate ambiguity on the part of students.

Thirdly, implications of different perceptions of climate change for climate change education abound. Freire’s theory of critical consciousness helps us move towards a deeper analysis of our education systems. Keeping the different perceptions of climate change among academics in focus, a holistic CCE framework will allow students and educators to critically analyze and observe the causes, impacts and solutions for this global crisis. Certainly, the inclusion of local challenges in Cameroon is beneficial for students in universities as they learn to engage in dialogues with their educators, and reform mitigation and adaptation strategies. This exchange of knowledge reflects a critical approach to education as identified by Freire 26 . It also opens space for both educators and learners to gain contextual knowledge on the processes and impacts of climate change. This brings opportunities for efficient responses to climate change education because the disruption of hierarchal systems in teaching and learning generates an opportunity for critical pedagogies and valuable knowledge 26 , 32 , 54 .

In addition to this, the emphasis placed on the scientific knowledge and reasoning behind the advent of climate change by academics is a useful guide for all educators on implementing CCE in their classes. Climate change has been understood using different approaches in the past. However, areas of natural sciences, meteorology, atmospheric sciences, and oceanography have been working consistently to study and disseminate information on the subject 55 . By bringing multi-disciplinary approaches into CCE, we can look forward to a “collective human action” that aims to bring normalcy around the earth, and to minimize damages 56 . Without a doubt, the teachings of climate change rooted in scientific information act as a valuable approach to encourage the social action needed to combat this threat. Educational institutions may find it useful to implement the different perspectives of climate change into their CCE programs and examine how their students benefit from an integrated and interactive framework, illustrated by Fig. 1 .

The three thematic dimensions of climate change education touch on observations, depicted with the symbol of a magnifying lens; cultural knowledge, depicted with the symbol of a leaf, and climate science, depicted with the symbol of intersectionality.

The framework suggested in Figure One brings to the fore the three thematic dimensions associated with how the research participants perceived climate change, notably as a scientific, cultural, or observable phenomenon. These different dimensions of understanding climate change, as discussed by academics in this paper, constitute practical elements that can be captured within a successful CCE program. Collectively, they also represent multidisciplinary perspectives whose integration can help in the development and advancement of solutions to climate change 55 , 57 . It can be argued that advancing insights on climate change should not solely be focused on scientific knowledge but also on the associated local challenges and impacts upon communities, as well as the broader socio-economic issues faced at a global scale due to the crisis. Therefore, a successful CCE program must incorporate scientific knowledge, cultural insights and local contexts that are observable, which can include field visits or placement activities (see Fig. 1 ). This will shape a holistic understanding of the subject as educators promote critical consciousness by engaging students in processes that engender critical reflection, as they probe timely adaptation and mitigation strategies for communities. This framework is supported by a previous study that concludes perceptions of climate change are shaped by different elements, including personal experiences and statistical models 50 . Knowledge of climate change may not only be constructed in the classroom via the guidance of educators who possess scientific insights but can also include cultural and place-based elements contextualized in field visits. Promoting an engaged or experiential pedagogy, whereby students undertake placement opportunities or field trips, can provide contexts where certain assumptions are challenged by the realities on the ground or lived experiences of people in the local community, which can then help to guide solutions for adaptations or mitigation that are context-specific and pragmatic in their approach.

CCE, which involves diverse perceptions and opinions on climate change, supported by scientific insights, cultural knowledge, and observation (as illustrated by Fig. 1 ), can also use critical and analytical means to derive useful knowledge on a climate-related phenomenon. For educators, this can mean teaching students to transgress the boundaries that confine them to narrow insights and embrace multiple ontologies on climate change, as this can offer pathways to contribute to new approaches or hypotheses for mitigation and adaptation 58 . Such a pedagogical approach can benefit from wider and more comprehensive information for critical engagement as opposed to a uniform perspective on climate change, which may be heavily Eurocentric or Westernized and devoid of cultural and indigenous insights which are relatable.

In conclusion, climate change is arguably the most severe threat faced by humanity today. To highlight how humanity can manage this phenomenon for adequate planetary health, it is fundamental to understand what it is. To this end, the study that underpins this paper set out to capture the perceptions of climate change among a selection of academics at a local university in Cameroon. As CCE is becoming a vital tool to build the capacity of present and future generations towards sustainable climate actions 2 , 3 , 59 , the perception of academics who may be considered facilitators of learning on the subject can present a starting point for critical reflection, deeper understanding or even knowledge management 60 .

The thematic analysis of the data captured depicted different views about climate change expressed by the participants. While some participants perceived climate change as climate variation over a long period of time, some suggested it was changes in weather patterns and others pointed to changes in the natural environment because of anthropogenic activities. It can be argued that these findings aligned to elements of climate science, cultural contexts, and observations. Drawing on Freire’s insight into critical consciousness, the findings of this study have implications for climate change education at universities. A framework has been proposed to aid educators in their attempt to foster an engaged pedagogy with the effect of engendering critical thinking as they collectively (with learners) attempt to define the subject. Any definition of climate change arising from critical consciousness in a learning community must be inclusive and relatable. The attendant consequence of this is that it can facilitate the ability of both educators and learners to make informed decisions on mitigation and adaptation in light of climate change and the threat multiplying effects it carries.

A key shortcoming of this study is the fact that it drew from a single case study, which limits generalization. However, the paper fills a critical gap in the extant literature on how different perceptions of climate change among educators can enable the establishment of an impactful framework that could boost climate change education, contribute to critical consciousness, and appropriate actions. The study’s original contribution lies in the proposed framework for climate education that draws on the interaction between the dimensions of science, culture, and human observation.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to extend his heartfelt appreciation to colleagues in Cameroon for their invaluable contributions to the data collection process, as well as Ayesha Shingruf for her vital inputs on the initial draft.

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Mbah, M.F. Discrepancies in academic perceptions of climate change and implications for climate change education. npj Clim. Action 3 , 24 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44168-024-00105-5

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Received : 25 June 2023

Accepted : 08 March 2024

Published : 02 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s44168-024-00105-5

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